CHAPTER 17:

SATELLITES AND COMMUNICATION

A satellite is an object in orbit around a planet. The path through which the satellites move is
called an orbit.
These satellites are primarily grouped;
 Natural satellites
 Artificial satellites
The Moon is the Earth’s only natural satellite, but humans have launched many artificial
satellites into orbit.

No Natural Satellites Artificial Satellites

1. These satellites are naturally occurring objects. They are man-made.
2. They can not be controlled by humans and so They can be controlled by humans and so have
have no use. wide applications.
3. The natural satellites can not communicate on The artificial planet can communicate with
earth or with other planets. instruments on earth.
4. The natural satellite is made up of natural The artificial satellite is made up of metal and
materials like gases, rock, minerals, water, dust other electronics materials.
etc.
5. The natural satellites like Planets are opaque The artificial satellites are objects humans
bodies with no light of their own. They also propel from earth in order to orbit around the
receive heat and light from sun like moon. earth, the electrical power required by satellite
is provided by panels of solar cells and small
nuclear reactors.

What is satellite communication?

The technique of transferring data or information from one place to another through a
communication satellite is called the satellite communication. The communication satellite is
an artificial satellite that is responsible for transmission of signals.

The satellites follow different paths (orbit) at varying altitudes. These are determined by the
purpose of a satellite. The satellite orbits are largely categorized into three basic groups as
follows.

1. Low Earth Orbit (LEO)

This is an orbit positioned relative to the centre of the earth within an altitude range of
2000Km (1200miles) or less. Most of the artificial space objects are found in the low earth orbit,
they are fast moving which enable them to overcome the gravitation pull.

2. Medium Earth Orbit (MEO)

This is referred to as an intermediate circular orbit positioned at an altitude of about 20000
Km. It is above the low earth orbit but below geosynchronous orbit. This is where most
artificial satellites are stationed.

3. High Earth Orbit (HEO)

This is at an altitude of 36000Km and this gives the satellite benefit of taking exactly one day
to orbit the earth and return to the same position above it at the same time of the day.
Examples of satellites found in this orbit are communications and weather satellites.

Each of these orbits has unique advantages depending on the satellite’s application. For instance,
satellites in LEO can capture high-resolution images of the Earth, whereas those in GEO can
provide consistent telecommunications services.
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A satellite maintains its orbit by balancing two factors: its velocity (the speed it takes to travel
in a straight line) and the gravitational pull that Earth has on it.

Artificial satellites and orbital motion

An artificial satellite is a man-made body placed in orbit round the earth or another planet in
order to collect information about it or for communication purposes.
The International Space Station is an example of an artificial satellite.

Key Point
Artificial satellites can be used for:
o communications – satellite television and phone calls;
o Earth observation - including weather forecasting, tracking storms and pollution,
spying and satellite photography;
o navigation - including the Global Positioning System (GPS);
o astronomy – looking into outer space from our solar system.

Examples of artificial satellites orbits include:

 polar orbits;
 geostationary orbits.

Polar orbits take the satellites over the Earth’s poles.

The satellites travel very close to the Earth - as low as 200 km above sea level, so they must
travel at very high speeds - nearly 8000 m/s.
Polar orbits are often used for earth-mapping, as well as for some weather satellites.
Geostationary satellites take 24 hours to orbit the Earth, so the satellite appears to remain in
the same part of the sky when viewed from the ground.
These orbits are much higher than polar orbits (typically 36,000 km) so the satellites travel
more slowly (around 3 km/s).

Geostationary orbits are used for communication and broadcast satellites.

Categorization of artificial satellites

o Fixed satellites system. These are satellites used in handling of billions of voice, data
and video transmission tasks across countries and continents between the points on the
earth’s surface.
o Mobile satellites system. These are used in remote regions, tracking of vehicles, ships,
people and air crafts in reference to the rest of the world and other mobile or stationary
communication units. They serve as navigation systems.
o Scientific research satellites (commercial and non- commercial). These provide
meteorological information land survey data(e.g remote sensing) and other different
scientific research applications such as earth science, marine science and atmospheric
research.

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Examples of artificial satellites and their uses
On the basis of the applications of satellites in different fields, the satellites are categorized as:
1. Navigation satellites,
2. Communication satellites,
3. Weather satellites,
4. Military satellites,
5. Earth Observation satellites,
6. Astronomical satellites,
7. International Space Station,
8. Remote Sensing satellites,
9. Navigation satellites,
10. Global Positioning satellites etc.

GEOSTATIONARY SATELLITE
A geostationary satellite is an Earth-orbiting satellite placed at an altitude of approximately
22,300 miles or 35,800 kilometers directly above the equator. These satellites revolve in the
same direction the Earth rotates -- west to east.
The term geostationary comes from the fact that the satellite appears nearly stationary in the sky
to a ground-based observer. These satellites complete one orbit in about 24 hours, which is the
same amount of time it takes for the Earth to rotate once on its axis. The satellite appears to be
stationary from the perspective of someone on the ground, as it moves in sync with the Earth's
rotation.
Geostationary satellites are equipped with transponders that receive, amplify and retransmit
radio signals to and from Earth. These signals can be used for a wide range of applications,
including telecommunications, broadcasting, remote sensing and navigation.

How do geostationary satellites work?

A geostationary satellite maintains its position in space relative to the Earth's rotation using
thrusters and reaction wheels. These tools let the satellite make small adjustments to its
position as needed to keep its orbit at the same speed as the Earth's rotation and remain in the
same position above the Earth's equator.

A satellite can achieve a 24-hour orbit only at the 22,300-mile altitude. This orbit keeps the
geostationary satellite fixed -- or stationary -- over one longitude at the equator. It appears
fixed in the sky to ground observers.

Before a satellite can be launched into a geostationary orbit, it's first launched into a transfer
orbit. An orbit is the curved path that an object in space must take around another object, such
as the Earth, because of the gravitational force of the other object. A transfer orbit is an
elliptical orbit that enables a satellite to move to its final high-altitude orbit by using relatively
little energy from built-in motors. Transfer orbits are used so that the satellite's launch vehicle
doesn't need to go all the way to the its final altitude.

Coverage of geostationary satellites

A single geostationary satellite has a line of sight covering about one-third of the Earth's
surface. In other words, it can "see" a third of the Earth's surface wherever it's positioned along
the equator.

The satellite's orbit usually provides coverage from 20 degrees north latitude to 20 degrees
south latitude. Three such satellites, each separated by 120 degrees of longitude, can provide
coverage of the entire planet with the exception of small circular regions centered at the north
and south geographic poles.

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 Advantages of geostationary satellites
Among the advantages of using geostationary satellites are the following:
 Reliability. These satellites are known for their predictable performance. This is why many
U.S. telecom companies use them to provide backup capacity for their telephony services.
 Variety of services. They can support voice-, data- and video-based services for their
designated region.
 Ease of use. A geostationary satellite can be accessed using a directional antenna, which is
usually a small dish, aimed at the spot in the sky where the satellite appears to hover. These
earthbound directional antennae can be aimed and then left in position without further
adjustment.
 Minimal interference. The use of highly directional antennas minimizes interference from
surface-based sources and other satellites.
 Navigational capabilities. These satellite systems can track objects on the ground with
great accuracy using Global Positioning System (GPS) technology, making them ideal for
navigational purposes.
 Global imaging. These satellites provide real-time images from space, making them useful
for monitoring global climate patterns and other environmental changes.
 Long life. Geostationary satellite systems have long life spans compared with other types of
orbital structures. They remain operational up to 15 years before needing to be replaced,
whereas other orbiting equipment lasts five years or less.

Limitations of geostationary satellites

While geostationary satellites offer many advantages, they also come with disadvantages, such
as the following:

 Limited numbers. The orbital zone for geostationary satellites in the plane of the equator
is a narrow ring. As a result, only a limited number of satellites can be maintained in these
orbits without the risk of conflicts or collisions.
 Latency. An electromagnetic signal travels a distance of at least 44,600 miles to and from a
geostationary satellite, adding latency of at least 240 milliseconds. Such delays are a
problem for services where low latency is required, such as long-distance voice and video
conferencing. For this reason, geostationary satellites are best for applications where time
delay is not an issue, such as direct TV services and internet data services.
 High cost. Geostationary satellites are more expensive to launch into orbit than other
satellites because their high altitudes require more fuel and energy during takeoff. The
distance can also make them more expensive to maintain over their life span.
 Limited coverage. Geosynchronous satellites can only cover a limited area of Earth's
surface because they must remain stationary relative to one point on the planet's rotation
axis. To extend coverage outside this area, other satellites must be added.
 Difficult to repair or replace. Because geosynchronous orbits are so far from Earth, the
satellites can be difficult to repair or replace and can require specialized equipment.

 Disturbances. Satellites must be placed at a predetermined position and altitude to

accomplish specific tasks. However, many disturbing forces and moments can make this
difficult and require extra controls. For example, when a satellite comes near the sun, there
can be a lot of background noise affecting its output. This "solar fade" effect is a problem
within a few days of the equinoxes -- around March 20 and September 23 of each year. The
disturbances last only for a few minutes and only once a day.

 Positioning. The exact position of geostationary satellites relative to the Earth's surface
varies slightly over each 24-hour period because of gravitational interactions among the
satellite, Earth, sun, moon and nonterrestrial planets. As observed from the surface, the
satellite wanders within a rectangular region in the sky, which, although small, limits the
sharpness of the directional pattern and the effectiveness of Earth-based antennas.

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 Applications of geostationary satellites
Geostationary satellites, with their 24-hour orbit and high elevation, have a range of
applications, such as the following:
 Telecommunications. High-altitude satellites are used for long-distance and mobile phone
communication and internet connectivity. For example, the Broadband Global Area
Network uses geostationary satellites for global mobile communications.
Communication satellites are very useful in facilitating communication to and from remote
areas where ordinary wired or wireless communication cannot reach. Therefore such remote
areas do not necessarily need telecommunication masts. e.g NASA communication satellite.
In Uganda today, satellite communication is heavily employed in digital television
Broadcasting. This is done under the regulation and supervision of Uganda Communication
Commission (UCC). Below are some of the satellite technologies used in television
communication in Uganda;
o Digital Terrestrial Television (DTT): Is the technology for broadcast television in
which land based television stations broadcast television content by radio waves to
television in consumer’s residences in a digital format.
The television signals are beamed by surface- based stations to land - based receivers
that decode signals to the television sets. Examples are GoTV, Star times, DSTV,
AZAM TV, ZUKU TV and Free to Air set-top boxes.
o Direct to Home (DTH) or satellite TV
Satellite TV transmission is a service that delivers television programming to viewers
by relaying it from a communications satellite orbiting the earth directly to the viewer’s
location. These signals are received by a satellite dish mounted on one’s premises which
are connected to a decoder. These signals are then decoded into a format that is
viewable on a television set. Example of such service providers include: DSTV,
StarTimes, Zuku TV e.t.c

 Broadcasting. Geostationary satellites are commonly used for broadcasting television and
radio programming. TV signals can be relayed to viewers from a satellite in a fixed position
above the Earth's equator directly to the viewer's location. Because of their high altitude,
retransmitted signals can be picked up by a large area of the Earth's surface.
 Weather forecasting. Geostationary weather satellites provide real-time information about
weather patterns and storm systems.
 Remote sensing. Geostationary satellites are outfitted with sensors to collect data and
monitor events on the Earth's surface. For instance, they are used to study short-term
oceanic and coastal phenomena, such as cross-shelf exchanges between seas and currents.
They're also used to detect wildfires.
 Navigation. GPS and other navigation systems use geostationary satellite data to enhance
their own accuracy. They use high-altitude satellites to provide a known calibration point
for GPS receivers.

Global Positioning System (GPS)

This is a U.S.-owned utility that provides users with positioning, navigation, and timing (PNT)
services. The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a space-based radio-navigation system
consisting of a constellation of satellites broadcasting navigation signals and a network of
ground stations and satellite control stations used for monitoring and control. Currently 31
GPS satellites orbit the Earth at an altitude of approximately 11,000 miles providing users with
accurate information on position, velocity, and time anywhere in the world and in all weather
conditions. GPS is commonly used in cars, smart phones, smart watches e.t.c

HOW GPS WORKS. GPS satellites circle the Earth twice a day in a precise orbit. Each
satellite transmits a unique signal and orbital parameters that allow GPS devices to decode and
compute the precise location of the satellite. GPS receivers use this information and
trilateration to calculate a user's exact location.

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Uses of GPS Technology
GPS technology has many uses, but we mostly use it in any of the following ways:
 Navigation – One of the most important uses of GPS technology is navigation. When
you are traveling in unfamiliar territory, you can pull out your GPS device to guide you
to your destination.
 Mapping – Surveyors use GPS technology to produce accurate and detailed locations
on maps. Many GPS devices also come with built-in mapping features that let you mark
points of interest and record your travels.
 Recreation – From hiking to cycling, we use GPS for various recreational activities.
For example, geocaching is a fun activity for people of all ages and skill levels. GPS
devices help users navigate to coordinates that mark the location of a cache.
 Tracking – Businesses attach GPS tracking devices to assets such as vehicles,
containers, or personnel. They can help them monitor their speed, direction, and safety.
As a bonus, they can also use techniques like geofencing and set up virtual barriers.

Commercial Applications of GPS Technology

GPS technology has many commercial applications. Some of them are listed below.
 Agriculture – Agriculture businesses can use GPS technology to manage their
operations. GPS systems can collect information such as soil composition and weather
conditions. Plus, they can guide farmers and agricultural workers through their fields.
 Logistics and Transportation – Logistics companies rely on GPS to more accurately
manage the movement of goods. GPS technology can help drivers by giving them up-
to-date traffic information during travel.
 Mining – GPS technology can track the location of workers, equipment, and minerals.
It can also track the path and speed of haul trucks, which can help to improve
productivity.
 Utilities – Utility companies can use GPS tracking to manage and maintain their
networks. This helps them respond better to outages, find repair locations, and do
maintenance tasks.

GPS in the Military

GPS technology was originally developed as a military navigation system, and it has been used
in the military ever since. Today, it can guide both manned and unmanned vehicles. Plus, it can
provide precise location data for soldiers on the ground.
GPS can monitor vehicles and aircraft, detect nearby dangers, and find the best route for travel.
The receivers use this information to calculate the vehicle’s or aircraft’s position and direction.

GPS in Automobiles
GPS technology has changed the way we drive. They can help guide you to your
destination using voice commands and visual directions on your GPS device. It can also help
you track your vehicle if it is stolen.
Most car GPS systems connect to online maps, so you can see live traffic updates. This feature
can help you to plan more efficient routes, and it can help you to avoid traffic congestion.
They can also play a role in self-driving cars.

GPS in Smartphones
Smartphones are one of the most popular uses of GPS technology. Smartphones have GPS
receivers that get data about where they are and how they move.
With GPS enabled, users can access map and navigation apps such as Google Maps or Apple
Maps. Then, these apps can provide detailed maps and turn-by-turn navigation. In addition,
GPS technology can be used to track the location of family members, friends, or even pets.
GPS has many benefits. It helps with navigation, finding store locations, and planning outdoor
activities. You can also use it for traffic updates, monitoring fitness, and sharing locations with
others.

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GPS in Surveying
GPS is widely used in surveying because it provides an accurate and reliable way to measure
distances between points in a given area. With this technology, surveyors are able to measure
distances, angles, and elevations from survey benchmarks.
The main use of surveying is to accurately plot the boundaries of a property or other area of
interest. This makes GPS particularly useful for larger-scale land surveys and any topographic
mapping. Remember that it is possible for surveyors to increase the accuracy with equipment
like differential GPS.

Benefits of GPS Technology

There are many benefits to using GPS technology. Some of them are listed below.
 Enhanced Safety – With GPS, you can accurately find your location. This can help you
avoid potential hazards and stay safe in unfamiliar environments. In addition, GPS
tracking devices can help monitor the location of costly assets.
 Improved Efficiency – GPS technology can help you to more efficiently manage your
time and resources. For example, it can help you to reduce travel times by allowing you
to accurately plan your routes.
 Improved Resource Management – GPS tracking can help you keep tabs on your
employees and company vehicles. This information can help you to effectively manage
the use and maintenance of these resources.
Another advantage is that GPS can work without the internet because it relies on satellites
orbiting Earth to pinpoint your location.

International Space Station(ISS)

This a large space station that was assembled and is maintained in low Earth orbit by a
collaboration of five space agencies and their contractors: NASA (United
States), Roscosmos (Russia), ESA (Europe), JAXA (Japan), and CSA (Canada). As the largest
space station ever constructed, it primarily serves as a platform for conducting scientific
experiments in microgravity and studying the space environment. ISS serves as a home for
crews of astronauts and cosmonauts when living in the space. The mission of the International
Space Station is to enable long-term exploration of space and provide benefits to people on
Earth.

Exercise
1. In German, a Television (TV) reporter was reporting live near the ocean about the high
tides during night time. Viewers in another country were watching the live broadcast of
the news bulletin during day time. The viewers wondered how it could be day and night
at the same time, and how the event in one country could be watched live on TV in
another country.
Task
Using your knowledge of physics to help the viewers to understand;
(a) the possibility of it being day in one place and night in another place.
(b) the occurrence of high ocean tides.
(c) how an event in one place can be broadcast live in another country
2. Many people in Uganda own vehicles and motor cycles which are brought after hard
work and several years of saving, These vehicles need to be monitored for guaranteed
security. Unfortunately, many Ugandans are not aware of how to do this.
As a student of physics, Prepare a write up of not more than one page sensitizing them
on how they can easily monitor the vehicles.
3. Information in Uganda is passed onto the citizen through radios, mobile phones and
televisions. Despite the advent of the internet and social media, radio and televisions
remains extremely popular in most parts of Uganda. Unfortunately, the network signals
in some areas cannot enable this to be done with ease. As a student of physics, write a
report to media houses in Uganda showing how the signals can easily be relayed
without loss so that each and every Ugandan gets access to information.

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 4. An article in the newspaper gave information that on 2nd December 2022, Ugandan
engineers with the help of Japanese engineers launched a satellite. The literature
teacher who picked interest in the article found new words like artificial and natural
satellites. He developed a number of unanswered questions which could be answered
by a Physics learner like you.
(a) Explain the difference between the two types of satellites in the article.
(b) With reasons, justify why Uganda should spend all that much money to launch its
own satellite.
(c) Incase Uganda is to develop a super rocket capable of reaching different planets. List
with reasons the planetsit can land on and planets it cannot land on.

5. At 1:30pm in the dining hall, students were surprised that a live coverage was
happening somewhere. Learners watched heavy fog-rains and floods being experienced
in a certain outside country on an international T.V live channel. To worsen matters,
the floods were happening at night and this risked many natives as many of them were
ambushed while asleep. Learners wondered how it would be night and heavily raining in
an area yet it was day and the Sun was highly shinning at that time in their school.
Task:
As a Physics learner help the learners clear their queries about;
a) Occurrence of the floods in one area yet it was shining in their school at the same
time.
b) Why it was night in that outside country yet it was day-time in their area?
c) How T.V signals broadcast from where the floods were happening reached them.

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