Class Note: Introduction to Quantum Mechanics -

Lecture 3
Course: Physics 301 (Undergraduate Level)
Instructor: Dr. [Instructor's Name]
Date: April 16, 2025
Topic: Operators in Quantum Mechanics and Observables
I. Introduction (0-5 minutes)
• Brief review of Lecture 2: The wave function and the time-independent
Schrödinger equation as the central tools for describing quantum systems and
their allowed energies.
• Introduction to the concept of operators in quantum mechanics and their role in
extracting physical information (observables) from the wave function.
• Outline of the topics to be covered: linear operators, Hermitian operators,
eigenvalues and eigenfunctions, expectation values, and the uncertainty
principle (brief introduction).
II. Linear Operators (5-15 minutes)
• Definition: An operator A^ is a rule that transforms one function into another
function: A^f(x)=g(x). The hat (^) is used to distinguish operators from
ordinary variables.
• Linear Operator: An operator A^ is linear if it satisfies the following two
conditions for any functions f(x) and g(x) and any complex numbers a and b:
• A^(f(x)+g(x))=A^f(x)+A^g(x) (Distributive property)
• A^(af(x))=aA^f(x) (Homogeneous property)
• Examples of Linear Operators:
• Multiplication by a function: x^=x⋅, V^(x)=V(x)⋅
• Differentiation: p^x=−iℏdxd (momentum operator in one dimension)
• Second derivative: T^=−2mℏ2dx2d2 (kinetic energy operator in one
dimension)
• Example of a Non-Linear Operator:
• Squaring: S^f(x)=[f(x)]2
III. Hermitian Operators (15-30 minutes)
• Definition: An operator A^ is Hermitian (or self-adjoint) if for any two
physically acceptable wave functions ψ(x) and ϕ(x) that vanish at infinity, the
following holds: ∫−∞∞ψ∗(x)(A^ϕ(x))dx=∫−∞∞(A^ψ(x))∗ϕ(x)dx This can be
written more compactly using Dirac notation: ⟨ψ∣A^ϕ⟩=⟨A^ψ∣ϕ⟩.
• Importance of Hermitian Operators:
• Real Eigenvalues: The eigenvalues of a Hermitian operator are always real.
Since physical observables (like energy, momentum, position) must be real, the
operators representing them in quantum mechanics are Hermitian.
• Orthogonal Eigenfunctions: The eigenfunctions of a Hermitian operator
corresponding to distinct eigenvalues are orthogonal: If A^ψn(x)=anψn(x) and
A^ψm(x)=amψm(x) with an=am, then ∫−∞∞ψn∗(x)ψm(x)dx=0 (or ⟨ψn∣ψm
⟩=0).
• Complete Set of Eigenfunctions: The eigenfunctions of a Hermitian
operator form a complete set, meaning any physically acceptable wave
function can be expressed as a linear combination of these eigenfunctions.
IV. Eigenvalues and Eigenfunctions (30-40 minutes)
• Eigenvalue Equation: When an operator A^ acts on a function ψ(x) and the
result is a constant (a) times the original function, then ψ(x) is called an
eigenfunction of A^, and a is the corresponding eigenvalue: A^ψ(x)=aψ(x)
• Physical Significance: The eigenvalues of an operator representing a
physical observable are the possible values that can be obtained when that
observable is measured. The system will be in the state described by the
corresponding eigenfunction immediately after the measurement.
• Example: Momentum Operator: The eigenfunctions of the momentum
operator p^x=−iℏdxd are plane waves ψ(x)=Aeikx, with eigenvalues px=ℏk.
This shows that a state with a definite momentum is described by a plane
wave.
• Example: Energy Operator (Hamiltonian): The time-independent
Schrödinger equation is itself an eigenvalue equation for the energy operator
(Hamiltonian) H^: H^ψ(x)=(−2mℏ2dx2d2+V(x))ψ(x)=Eψ(x) The eigenvalues E
represent the allowed energy levels of the system, and the eigenfunctions ψ(x)
are the corresponding energy eigenstates.
V. Expectation Values (40-48 minutes)
• Definition: The expectation value (or average value) of a physical observable
A for a system in a state described by a normalized wave function Ψ(x,t) is
given by: ⟨A⟩=∫−∞∞Ψ∗(x,t)(A^Ψ(x,t))dx=⟨Ψ∣A^∣Ψ⟩ where A^ is the operator
corresponding to the observable A.
• Physical Interpretation: The expectation value represents the average result
of making many measurements of the observable A on identically prepared
systems in the state Ψ(x,t).
• Example: Expectation Value of Position: ⟨x⟩=∫−∞∞Ψ∗(x,t)(xΨ(x,t))dx
• Example: Expectation Value of Momentum: ⟨px⟩=∫−∞∞Ψ∗(x,t)(−iℏ∂x∂
Ψ(x,t))dx
VI. Introduction to the Uncertainty Principle (48-50 minutes)
• Qualitative Statement: There are fundamental limits to the precision with
which certain pairs of physical observables can be simultaneously known.
• Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle (for position and momentum): ΔxΔpx
≥2ℏ where Δx is the standard deviation in position and Δpx is the standard
deviation in momentum. This implies that if the position of a particle is known
 with high accuracy (small Δx), then its momentum will be known with low
accuracy (large Δpx), and vice versa.
• Brief mention of other uncertainty relations (e.g., energy and time).
• The uncertainty principle is a fundamental consequence of the wave
nature of particles.
VII. Conclusion and Next Steps (50-55 minutes)
• Summary of the importance of operators in quantum mechanics for extracting
physical observables.
• Emphasis on the properties of Hermitian operators and the significance of
eigenvalues and eigenfunctions.
• Introduction to the concept of expectation values and the fundamental limit
imposed by the uncertainty principle.
• Preview of the next lecture: The Time-Dependent Schrödinger Equation and the
evolution of quantum systems.
• Brief Q&A.
Key Terms:
• Operator (A^)
• Linear operator
• Hermitian operator
• Eigenvalue equation
• Eigenfunction
• Eigenvalue
• Expectation value (⟨A⟩)
• Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle
• Momentum operator (p^x)
• Kinetic energy operator (T^)
• Hamiltonian operator (H^)
• Standard deviation (Δ)
Further Reading:
• Griffiths, D. J. (2017). Introduction to Quantum Mechanics (3rd ed.). Pearson.
(Chapter 3)
• Serway, R. A., & Jewett, J. W. (2019). Physics for Scientists and Engineers with
Modern Physics (10th ed.). Cengage Learning. (Chapter 40, 41)
Note: This lecture introduces a more formal mathematical framework for
quantum mechanics. Understanding the properties of operators is crucial for
further study. Practice with applying these operators to various wave functions
is highly recommended.