Journal of Hazardous Materials Advances 16 (2024) 100460

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Journal of Hazardous Materials Advances

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/hazadv

Recent advancement in microplastic removal process from wastewater - A

critical review
Lovely Dayal a , Krishna Yadav b , Uttiya Dey a, Kousik Das a, Preeti Kumari c , Deep Raj a,* ,
Rashmi Ranjan Mandal a
a
Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, School of Engineering and Sciences, SRM University-AP, Andhra Pradesh 522 240 India
b
Bioeconomy Institute, Iowa State University, Ames, IA 50011, USA
c
Amity Institute of Applied Sciences, Amity University Jharkhand, Ranchi 834001, India

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Microplastics, small sized plastic particles having size <5 mm are formed through primary process including
Microplastics production of beauty products, microbeads and microfibres as well as secondary process including mechanical
Treatment methods weathering, friction, aberration and fragmentation of large plastics. The major sources of microplastics are land-
Control strategies
based and ocean-based sources. Microplastic pollution is a serious concern due to the persistent, low biode­
Plastic pollution
gradability and bio-accumulative behaviour. Microplastics can bioaccumulate in the food chain and can cause
Reuse and Recycle
Biochar ecological and human health risk. Hence, it is important to remove from the aquatic ecosystems. Microplastics
are removed from aquatic systems and wastewater through a series of processes such as physical, chemical and
biological treatments. In the present articles, >250 articles are reviewed to collect the information regarding the
various physical, chemical and biological methods for the removal of microplastics. Also, the probable control
strategies to combat with plastic pollution were assessed. It was concluded that recent water treatment methods
are efficient in removing microplastic pollution. The efficiencies to remove microplastic from the water ranged
between 74 %-99.2 %, 65 %-99.20 % and 77 %-100 % for physical, chemical and biological treatment methods,
respectively. Among the three treatment methods, physical methods especially the filtration of water from
biochar is the most efficient way (efficiency up to 100 %) to remove microplastics. It was also concluded that
creating public awareness, promoting reusing, recycling and reducing, and application of bioplastics can control
the production of microplastics from plastic wastes. This review will be useful to add current knowledge
regarding the abatement of microplastic pollution, and finding novel solution to control microplastics. This re­
view will also help the policymakers to implement most effective and cost-efficient method to remove micro­
plastics, and to find out new methods to reduce, reuse and recycle plastic wastes.

1. Introduction waste disposal in unlicensed dumps without segregation and inadequate

infrastructure have made it more difficult to manage them. Plastic
Modern technology has made plastics one of the most extensively pollution is one of the major global concerns because it is directly con­
used materials in recent times, and thus plastics are thought to be an nected with many of United Nation Sustainable Development Goals such
indicator of the Anthropocene. The most severe fear of the worldwide as SDG 3 - Good health and well-being, SDG 6 - Clean water and sani­
environment is plastic pollution (Aragaw, 2020). The worldwide plastic tation, SDG 11- Sustainable cities and communities, SDG 12 - Respon­
output surged to >360 million tonnes in 2018 and is projected to get sible consumption and production, SDG 13 - Climate action, SDG 14 -
tripled by 2050. According to a report, Asia produces and consumes the Life below water and SDG 15 - Life on land. Plastic particles that are <5
most goods made up of plastic, while China accounting for this majority mm in dimension are called as microplastics (Dayal et al. 2024). These
which is 32 % of the "white pollution" (Plastics Europe, 2020). Even microplastics are formed through primary processes i.e. cosmetics and
though the World Health Organisation (WHO) has established strict beauty care products, microbeads, microfibres, etc. and secondary pro­
guidelines for the environmental disposal of solid wastes, improper cesses i.e. weathering, friction, aberration, and fragmentation of larger

* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: deepraj2587@gmail.com, deepraj.p@srmap.edu.in (D. Raj).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hazadv.2024.100460
Received 22 May 2024; Received in revised form 21 August 2024; Accepted 30 August 2024
Available online 31 August 2024
2772-4166/© 2024 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-
nc/4.0/).
L. Dayal et al. Journal of Hazardous Materials Advances 16 (2024) 100460

plastic wastes (Raj and Maiti, 2023) (Fig. 1). Almost 80 to 90 % of the water sources. Effluents from treatment plants are also the primary
microplastics found in waterbodies come from land-based sources source of plastic. Water bodies receive either processed or untreated
(Karapanagioti, 2017; Kosore et al., 2018). These sources include plastic wastewater through various point and non-point sources, has the po­
bottles, bags, toiletries, building supplies, and apparel. Plastic inciner­ tential to be a source of microplastics. The larger size plastic particle
ator creates bottom ash, which is a terrestrial source of microplastics (macro-plastic) can be removed via screening systems (pre-treatment)
(Osman et al., 2023). but the removal of small sized microplastic particles is quite challenging
Oceanic-based sources, such as seashore tourism, industrial fishing, and requires a series of treatment processes. Some literature suggests
and sea boats, are responsible for 10–20 % of the microplastics released various conventional, non-conventional and hybrid microplastic
into the marine environment (Li, 2018). Microplastics are buoyant at removal methods. Some research shows the probable effects of micro­
various ocean layers and are commonly produced by lost or abandoned plastics in living organisms and human beings.
fishing equipment, such as nylon nets and plastic monofilament lines Based on the available literature, developing an efficient removal
(Naji et al., 2017; Osman et al., 2023). Every year, around 600,000 method is necessary to keep an eye on microplastics concentration.
tonnes of fishing gear are dumped into the ocean, and a major portion Therefore, the primary goal of this review is to provide an overview of
are contributed by commercial and military vessels and trash from ships the possible microplastic removal process from the wastewater and
(Good et al., 2010; Peng et al., 2018; Vaid et al., 2021). However, address the issues related to microplastic removal methods. Even though
ocean-based sources make up a smaller portion of the microplastics attention on microplastic pollution and its remediation has been
pollution compared to land-based sources, they nonetheless have a increasing, however a comprehensive study on physical, chemical, and
sizable impact. biological methods for the removal of microplastics has not been stud­
Microplastics are ubiquitously present in a broad range of shapes, ied. Most of the articles available on open literature focus on any one or
polymers, sizes and concentration in marine and freshwater ecosystems, two of the removal methods. The present review not only considered
atmosphere, drinking water and food and affects every component of the different methods of microplastic remediation/removal, but also
ecosystem (Blackburn and Green 2022). Microplastic accumulation in included the methods of reduction of plastic generation. This review
plants are known to cause inhibition of shoot and root development, includes the methods to reduce and recycle plastic production by various
reduction in growth of plants and alteration in the nutrient uptake in methods and innovative technology. To the best of our knowledge, there
plants (Kumari and Raj 2024). In aquatic animals, intake of micro­ are hardly any article considering microplastic removal strategies
plastics causes kidney damage, gill inflammation, oxidative stress, including all possible methods and plastic control strategies using
glycogen depletion, cell necrosis, liver damage, inflammation in modern technology in a single literature. The subsections of the paper
gastrointestinal tract and abnormalities in reproductive organs, etc. provide a more detailed overview of the existing wastewater treatment
(Dayal et al. 2024). Human beings, the top consumer of any food chains techniques along with their corresponding functionality principles. Also,
are more vulnerable to microplastics due to ingestion of aquatic food. In considering the importance of achieving many of the sustainable
human, microplastics are known to affect immune and stress responses development goals, there is a dire need of revising and reconsidering
and induce reproductive and developmental toxicity (Blackburn and recent advancement in microplastic pollution for further research.
Green 2022). Considering the above facts, the present study aims to (a) study the
Numerous studies have illustrated the occurrence of the micro­ physical, chemical, and biological methods of removal of microplastics
plastics in water (Yuan et al., 2019), soil (Scheurer and Bigalke, 2018; from aquatic environments, (b) study recent remediation strategies, and
Chia et al., 2022), and sediment (Vaid et al., 2021; Chauhan et al., (c) assess the control strategies for plastic production.
2021). Every year, tonnes of plastic trash is discarded into many surface

Fig. 1. Primary and secondary processes involved in the formation of microplastics.

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L. Dayal et al. Journal of Hazardous Materials Advances 16 (2024) 100460

2. Research method articles were considered for the years of 2013 to 2024.

This review is based on the research articles retrieved from the 3. Microplastic removal techniques from wastewater
Scopus database using different keywords such as microplastics, reme­
diation strategies, aquatic system, wastewater, removal and water, etc. In general, three methods namely, physical, chemical, and biological
in the search menu of title, abstract, and keywords for years from 2013 can be employed to remove microplastics from aquatic systems (Fig. 2).
to 2024 (Source: Scopus, WOS, Google scholar, ResearchGate, Science­ Such methods are used in wastewater treatment plants to get potable
direct, etc. searched on 02 August 2024). At first, a combination of water, and to discharge effluents from industries after treatment. The
search keywords “Water treatment + Microplastics” was applied to sort comparison of various methods of microplastic removal has been
the relevant articles. Literatures published in English language were explained in Table 1.
selected from 2013 to 2024 (Till August), resulting in 17,300, 1235, 823,
and 782 related articles acquired via Google Scholar, Scopus, Web of
Science and PubMed, respectively. The keyword microplastics retrieved 3.1. Physical method
lots of research articles in different subject areas (Fig. S1). This indicates
that the highest number of publications was recorded for environmental Physical treatment methods include the process of removal of
science (12,582) followed by agricultural and biological science (3393), microplastics without changing the chemical and biological properties
chemistry (2607), Earth and planetary science (2256), and engineering of water or pollutants. Such treatments are done before chemical or
(1772) respectively. For environmental science, the number of publi­ biological processes (Ahmed et al., 2021a). Most of the studies include
cations is high indicating this is one discipline that is explored during physical approaches that usually follow adsorption, filtration, oil film
this decade. However, energy, computer science, immunology, and methods, magnetic separation, froth flotation, etc. (Badola et al., 2022).
microbiology have very low numbers of publications, explaining these These approaches are successful in removing microplastics from sewage
areas are not much explored. When it comes to document types for the water and other aquatic systems.
keyword microplastics, research articles got first place among all the
article types, indicating that lots of research activities are going on 3.1.1. Adsorption
globally (Fig. S2). During 2013–2023, the number of published review Adsorbents such as graphene oxide and chitins, have been used to
articles was higher (2160) than the number of book chapters (671). For demonstrate the superior efficacy of the adsorption approach in
the present review, >250 articles are considered for physical, chemical, removing microplastics from wastewater due to their specific charac­
biological methods and microplastics control strategies for the year of teristics; biocompatible, and biodegradable nature (Sharma et al.,
2013–2024. The maximum number of papers were selected for the year 2020). Further, graphene oxide and chitin-based sponges are also viable
of 2023, followed by 2024 (Fig S3). However, >300 articles were choices for the effective removal of microplastics from wastewater
considered for the present review, mostly from recent decades (>90 %). (Badola et al., 2022). Adsorption method suggested with the application
The keywords included were ‘microplastic’, ‘water’, ‘removal technol­ of coal gasification slag-based adsorbent known to remove microplastics
ogy’, ‘removal methods’, ‘treatment method’, ‘treatment technology’, up to 99.2 % (Lv et al. 2024). However, the effectiveness of this tech­
‘nanoplastics’, ‘plastics’, ‘wastewater’, and ‘MPs’. The review papers, nique is constrained by the non-selective features of the adsorption
short communications and book chapters are excluded for studying the process (Bruyninckx and Dusselier, 2019). Therefore, future research is
physical, chemical and biological treatment methods. The research needed to improve the adsorbent’s ability to target microplastics to
improve removal effectiveness.

Fig. 2. Methods employed for removal of microplastics from aquatic systems.

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L. Dayal et al. Journal of Hazardous Materials Advances 16 (2024) 100460

Table 1
Comparison of various removal methods of microplastics.
Techniques Microplastics Advantages Disadvantages References
removal efficacy
(%)

Disc filtration 43.13–72.50 low energy use, accelerates the removal of microplastics’ fragment shape is difficult to Kwon et al. (2022)
microplastics from WWTPs effectively eliminate
Sand filtration 74–97 simple operation and low cost efficacy to eliminate small particles is still Talvitie et al. (2017)
not clear
Membrane bioreactor 100 removing contaminants at varied concentrations limitations in aeration, membrane fouling, Javier et al. (2020);
technology while ensuring high-quality effluent and effective the requirement to supplement bacteria with Talvitie et al. (2017)
removal nutritive ingredients, and expensive cost
Photocatalytic nr* eco-friendly, long-lasting requires a lot of energy (ultraviolet light) Uheida et al. (2021)
degradation
Magnetic separation less waste sludge, high efficacy, high volume large number of magnetic seeds required, Zhang et al. (2021a)
separation of magnetic seeds and particles
Adsorption removal high reusability, affordable price, easy to use, and low selectivity, prepared using an adsorbent
no harmful chemicals
Electrochemical high efficiency, degrading a number of organic high cost of electrodes Chen et al. (2022)
oxidation contaminants, not requiring the addition of
chemical agents, and not producing sludge
Electrocoagulation 99 energy-efficient, economical, adaptable to replacement of the sacrificial anode and Perren et al. (2018)
automation, effective for removing small cathode passivation on a regular basis
microplastics, reduced sludge, no need for chemical
coagulants
Coagulation 17–99 suitable for removing tiny microplastics, and low Difficult to deal with multiple pollutants at Xu et al. (2021); Rajala
energy usage,l once et al. (2020)
Biochar filters 100 good adsorption capacity Remove microplastics particle of micrometre Siipola et al. (2020)
size
Ozonation 89.9 low cost and high efficiency Emission of hazardous substances from Bui et al. (2020);
incomplete combustion is risky for the Hidayaturrahman and Lee
environment and people’s health 2019
Bioinformatics nr environmentally friendly, Cost efficient lack of experimental data and its validation Ali et al. (2021); Anand
et al. (2022)
Oil film separation 96 simple to use, affordable, and independent of hydrophobic surface required, organic Zhang et al. (2021a)
density contaminants entrainment
Froth flotation nr quick operation, little space needs, adaptability of reagents for flotation, a hydrophobic surface,
use, and moderate price and entrainment of organic pollutants are all
necessary

nr*- not reported

3.1.2. Filtration number of microplastics in effluent wastewater (Ali et al., 2021).

Komorowska-Kaufman and Marciniak (2024) reported the microplastic
3.1.2.1. Sand filter. Rapid sand filter effectively eliminates varieties of removal efficiency of 80–98 % through disc filter. However, other
pollutants (Wang et al., 2021). Microplastics cling to the sand grain’s research has shown that disc filters with similar mesh sizes can remove
surface and remove the suspended materials (Lusher et al., 2019). The microplastics at rates of 89 % (Ahmad et al. 2021). A study conducted by
wastewater from the treatment plant is filtered through a series of sand Talvitie et al. (2017) to remove microplastics by employing disc filters,
filters consisting of various layers made of different materials and grain consists of 24 filter panels in the pilot-size disc filter. A cationic polymer
sizes. A study employed rapid gravity sand filters examined for micro­ and a coagulant based on iron were also used to increase particle re­
plastics removal from wastewater and showed the removal efficiency covery. Depending on the pore size, filter design, and water quality the
ranging from 74 to 97 % (Hou et al., 2021). Rapid sand filter is also effectiveness of disc filters is defined. Further, additional treatment
known to remove approximately 84–98 % of the microplastics (<10 μm) techniques can be used to increase the effectiveness of disc filters for the
from tap water (Chabi et al. 2024). Application of granular limestone in removal of microplastics, including flocculation, coagulation, and
rapid sand filtration process can improve the microplastic removal ef­ advanced oxidation (Komorowska-Kaufman and Marciniak 2024).
ficiency (Li et al. 2023).
Due to the modest minimum required land area, low water quality 3.1.2.3. Biofilters or biochar filter. Biofilters are commonly used to
sensitivity indicators, and high flow rate, sand filtration has been remove contaminants from stormwater (Kuoppamäki et al., 2021) and
quickly highlighted as a feasible technology for removing microplastics wastewater effluent (Liu et al., 2020). Biofilter consists of different
(Talvitie et al., 2017). Nevertheless, this method is quite expensive due media such as granular activated carbon and anthracite sand and are
to the series of applications (WHO, 2019). Also, this method is effective effective in removing microplastics. Rullander et al. (2024) used bark
in removing microplastics particles having size greater than 200 μm and biochar for removing different types of microplastic polymers such
(Sembiring et al. 2021). Effective size of filter media and flow speed is as polyamide, polyethylene, polypropylene, and polystyrene from the
also a key factor for the removal of microplastics (Wulandari et al. stormwater. They observed that >97 % of the microplastics were
2024). retained in the biochar and bark filter. Biofilters made from different
plants (Armeria maritima, Hippophae rhamnoides, Juncus effusus, and
3.1.2.2. Disc filter. Disc filters are frequently used at wastewater Festuca rubra) are effective in removing microplastics having size greater
treatment plants as a last polishing procedure to remove particles and than 10 µm present in stormwater (Johansson et al. 2024).
associated pollutants in wastewater treatment. Microplastics removal is Biochar is a solid carbonaceous material derived from biomass as a
based on the physical retention of particles in filters and the creation of result of a thermochemical conversion process. Recently, biochar has
cakes of sludge inside the filter panels (Ahmed et al., 2021b). Disc had multiple applications in water and wastewater treatment, soil
filtration is a tertiary treatment process which significantly reduce the quality enhancement, carbon sequestration, and as an energy storage

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L. Dayal et al. Journal of Hazardous Materials Advances 16 (2024) 100460

device. In addition to sand filters, biochar was another filter medium materials, referred to as magnetic seeds, including magnetic carbon
that successfully removed microplastics through adsorption. Micro­ nanotubes and iron nanoparticles. Electrical friction, the formation of
plastics are retained in biochar filters because of the large size of pores. hydrogen bonds, and complexation are the controlling factors for mag­
Between the biochar porous structure, microplastics adsorb through the netic separation (Yang et al., 2022a). With an efficiency of 93 %, mag­
physisorption process. Experiments performed with activated carbons netic separation is very effective for removing small-sized microplastic
showed good efficacy toward microplastics removal. Nonactivated bio­ particles (Rani et al. 2023). Furthermore, the polystyrene removal effi­
char is also used for the removal of bigger microplastics. Removal of ciency from water using modified Maifanite by rotating magnetic field
microplastics through biochar is less expensive, easy to handle, less was observed up to 98.46 % (Shi et al. 2024). The shape and size of the
sophisticated, and cost-effective. However, a greater in-depth under­ microplastics also have an impact on the separation process, and the
standing of microplastic removal mechanisms is still necessary (Siipola presence of other contaminants has a negative impact based on efficacy
et al., 2020). Biochar can be derived from a variety of materials, such as and selectivity (Jiang, 2018). This method has several advantages: it has
bark from corn, pine trees, hardwood, and spruce. Several studies better adsorption capacity, reduced sludge waste, and improved sepa­
documented that biochar can be obtained either separately or together, ration due to long-range magnetic force. As a result, more in-depth
to remove microplastics. It has been noted that under various circum­ research is needed to increase the effectiveness of magnetic removal.
stances, the majority of using biochar filters demonstrated effectiveness
for the elimination of microplastics. The bark of spruce and pine 3.1.5. Froth flotation method
biochar-based adsorbents has proven successful, having a 100 % success The selective adherence of bubbles to the required minerals is the
rate in eliminating microplastics. This approach is shown to have a good mechanism underlying the efficient mineral processing technique
adsorption capacity while having a small surface area. However, these known as froth flotation (Tao, 2022). The primary element of froth
are simply examined for fleece fibres and plastic particles. Additionally, flotation is surface wettability; materials with a hydrophobic outer
this technique did not considerably reduce microplastics particles at the surface tend to float as froth aggregations, whilst their hydrophilic
micrometer scale, and was only beneficial for bigger particle sizes counterparts are transported as underflow (Zhang et al., 2021b). Plastics
(Siipola et al., 2020). Some other organic materials are often used for the are more likely to become embedded with a bubble cluster and usually
preparation by biochar. Olubusoye et al. (2024) examined the effec­ have a hydrophobic low-energy face (Wang et al., 2013).
tiveness of biochar made from pinewood and sugarcane and observed Froth floatation with ultrafine bubbles can efficiently remove small
the microplastics reduction efficiency ranged between 86.6–92.6 % from microplastics particles such as Polystyrene, Polyethylene terephthalate,
the water. In another study by Ahmad et al. (2023), jujube Polyvinyl chloride, Polylactic acid and Polybutylene succinate from
waste-derived biochar was prepared to examine the microplastic wastewater (Poolwong et al. 2023). Combining coagulation and floa­
removal efficiency, and it was observed that the prepared biochar can tation in removing microplastics are also good choice for getting better
remove >99 % of nylon and ethylene from the water. Biochar prepared microplastic removal efficiency. Esfandiari and Mowla (2021) observed
from rice husk also exhibited a higher microplastic removal efficiency of the removal efficiency of 96.10 % while using Al-based coagulant along
99.96 % from the aquatic environment (Wu et al., 2023). It has also been with floatation method. Advanced nanobubble flotation technique is
suggested in a study conducted by Li et al. (2023) that the adsorption by very useful in removing microplastics from seawater by promoting
magnetic corncob biochar along with magnetization process can effec­ bubble-particle collision and increasing attachment probability (Kharraz
tively remove 97 % of the microplastics. et al. 2024). Xu et al. (2024) used chitosan (CTS), a natural cationic
polymer, was selected to improve the separation of polystyrene using air
3.1.3. Oil film method flotation and observed the removal efficiency up to 96.7 %. Some factors
The hydrophobicity-based technique for oil film extraction is very affecting the froth floatation process are electrostatic attraction, types of
effective in removing microplastic particles. Using a canola oil extrac­ polymers, hydrophobicity, and bridging adsorption, aeration volume,
tion process, researchers isolated microplastics from water and achieved treatment time, pressure and pH, etc. (Jiang et al. 2022; Xu et al. 2024;
a high recovery of up to 96 % (Zhang et al., 2021a). The Poolwong et al. 2023; Kharraz et al. 2024). Microplastics can accumu­
density-independent strategy offered a low-risk, cost-effective replace­ late large concentrations of heavy metals, medications, plasticizers, and
ment for previous approaches based on the oleophilic characteristics. other persistent organic pollutants (Zhang et al., 2021b). According to
Similarly, microplastics were removed from the sea water samples using study by Pita and Castilho (2017), the introduction of foreign functional
castor oil, and microplastics average spike recovery was up to 99 %, groups such as hydrocarbons with aliphatic, aromatic, and chloro‑halide
while their average matrix reduction was 95 % (Mani et al., 2019). A rings on microplastics surfaces may affect their capacity to float and
method based on vegetable oil was developed by Saczek et al. (2024)) induce the hydrophilization of microplastics. Small microplastic parti­
for extracting microplastics from water samples containing micro­ cles exhibit enhanced flotation potential.
plastics. Here, separation was carried out by agitating the sample at high
speed to produce bubbles. These bubbles get attached with the oil films 3.2. Chemical method
which are further removed using reagent alcohol. The microplastics
removal efficiency using vegetable oil was >98 % (Saczek et al., 2024). Chemical treatment includes the application of different chemicals in
The major disadvantage of this process is that the samples with high a series of reactions to promote the water purification process. In
biogenic loads require one extra step (digestion) before mixing the oil chemical treatment, microplastics present in water are forcefully
and separating the microplastic particles. Furthermore, the remaining removed by adding specifically targeted chemicals (Ahmed et al.
oil traces require an extra cleaning approach that includes ethyl alcohol 2021b). Chemical treatments are often important where microplastics
and hydrocarbons which can hinder oil separation. Oil volume and cannot be removed from wastewater by physical and biological
water salinity are the major factors affecting the efficiency of oil film methods. Such methods convert the harmful microplastics into less
methods (Saczek et al., 2024). harmful chemicals. Some examples of chemical treatment process are
coagulation, flocculation, electrochemical oxidation, photolytic degra­
3.1.4. Magnetic removal dation, ozonation and sol-gel technology.
Magnetic separation has been shown to be effective in the removal of
microplastics from wastewater because of its great potential to bind with 3.2.1. Coagulation and flocculation
microplastics and its durable magnetic characteristics (Zhang et al., The primary objective of the flocculation/coagulation procedure is
2021a). This method can effectively eliminate microplastics from water to separate the pre-existing colloidal particles in the solution by
samples (Zhang et al., 2021a). This removal method employs a variety of neutralizing their charge, forming floccules, and subsequently removing

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L. Dayal et al. Journal of Hazardous Materials Advances 16 (2024) 100460

Fig. 3. Coagulation method for the removal of microplastics.

them through sedimentation or filtration (Iwuozor, 2019) ( Fig. 3). The polyethylene microbeads at different concentrations (Perren et al.,
most used coagulants are aluminum sulfate (Al2(SO4)3), ferric sulfate 2018). Microplastic fibres are more effectively removed through elec­
(Fe2(SO4)3) and ferric chloride (FeCl3) (Akinnawo et al. 2023). (Zhou trocoagulation in comparison to fragments (Senathirajah et al. 2023).
et al., 2021) observed the removal efficiency of FeCl3 for removing The effects of initial pH, sodium chloride concentration, and current
microplastics (polystyrene) was 77.83 %. Combining two coagulants, density on removal efficiency were examined. It was found that elec­
alum and polyacrylamides can effectively remove low-density poly­ trocoagulation process effectively reduced microplastics by >90 % in
ethylene, high-density polyethylene and polypropylene from synthetic the pH range of 3–10. At a pH of 7.5, the highest removal efficiency of
stormwater up to 92 %, 84 % and 96 %, respectively (Monira et al. 99.2 % was observed.
2021). A combination of coagulation and flocculation methods are often Subair et al. (2024) showed that electrocoagulation process using
considered as effective for microplastic removal process. However, Al–Al electrode eliminating microplastics of varying size ranges (0–75
hybrid methods are often effective for removal of microplastics. Luo μm, 75–150 μm, and 150–300 μm), achieving removal efficiencies of
et al. (2023) worked on the mechanism of the electro-hybrid ozona­ 90.67 %, 93.6 %, and 94.6 %, respectively. Furthermore, electro­
tion–coagulation, and obtained a good microplastic removal efficiency coagulation can be applied successfully with various wastewater prop­
of >90 %. erties, resulting in less slush waste and water with fewer dissolved
Despite being one of the most popular techniques for treating particles. Researchers are intrigued by this cost-effective and environ­
wastewater, the coagulation process has several operational drawbacks, mentally friendly method as a possible substitute for conventional
such as a significant amount of sludge exacerbating environmental is­ coagulation procedures.
sues (Osman et al., 2023). Wang et al. (2022) has suggested the con­
version of the coagulated material into carbon/iron nanocomposites 3.2.2. Electrochemical oxidation
(CINC) for microplastics removal and their sustainable use. The size, Without the need for biological agents, this approach has effectively
form, and chemical composition of microplastics as well as environ­ broken down various organic pollutants, including microplastics, med­
mental conditions; the pH, dosage, and the kind of coagulant that aids in ications, and dyes, into non-harmful byproducts such as carbon dioxide
coagulation and flocculation are all important factors (Monira et al. and water vapor (Du et al., 2021). This technique is a cost-effective way
2021). There is currently little research on this method for microplastics, of treating wastewater via indirect cathode and anode oxidation, one of
especially wastewater treatment plant. According to Bui et al. (2020), the sustainable and affordable methods utilized in the electrochemical
future research should identify the proper coagulant and flocculant aids oxidation process. Several articles are available in open literature
and conditions for their application in microplastics removal. showing that electrochemical oxidation process using different types of
electrodes is effective in removal of microplastics. CeO2 doped PbO2
3.2.1.4. Electrocoagulation. In contrast to chemical coagulation, elec­ composite anode was fabricated for electrochemical oxidation of poly­
trocoagulation uses metal electrodes to create coagulants electromag­ vinyl chloride, and it was observed that the size of the polyvinyl chloride
netically. Removing colours, heavy metals, oil, and antibiotics with is significantly reduced, and many cracks appear on the surface of the
electrocoagulation is effective (Perren et al., 2018). Metal ions are microplastics (Ning et al. 2023). Rare earth element-doped Ti/Sb-SnO2
released into the water stream during electrolysis from sacrificial elec­ electrode provides crucial technological support for the electro oxida­
trodes. Later, these ions produce in-place coagulants, and electro­ tive removal of microplastics from water with an efficiency of 77 %
coagulant ions generated during electrolysis, react with OH- to form (Zheng et al. 2024). Falco et al. (2024) used boron-doped diamond
metal hydroxide coagulants, which are the most often utilized co­ (BDD) electrodes to remove polystyrene from the wastewater and
agulants (common metal coagulants; Fe2+ and Al3+). According to observed the removal efficiency of >65 %. Electrochemical oxidation
Garcia-Segura et al. (2017), electrocoagulation is preferred over con­ efficiency is affected by the surface area, material, current strength,
ventional coagulation due to its non-reliance on chemical coagulant type, and electrolyte concentration used, as well as by the length of the
components. Electrocoagulant treated artificial wastewater including degradation reaction (Du et al., 2021; Falco et al., 2024).

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L. Dayal et al. Journal of Hazardous Materials Advances 16 (2024) 100460

3.2.3. Ozonation Because of their remarkable variety and versatility, organ silanes
Ozonation is a tertiary treatment used in wastewater treatment represent a very promising class of compounds for future investigation.
plants to remove any leftover residue of the coagulation process and The efficacy can be increased by using higher concentrations of organ
purify the sewage. Furthermore, the microplastics polymer can be split silanes. Further investigation on the combination of different organ si­
into functional groups that contain oxygen through ozonation (Bui et al., lanes is necessary to effectively remove polar and non-polar polymer
2020). Ozonation was explored by Hidayaturrahman and Lee (2019) as blends (Sturm et al., 2021). A hybrid method including the preparation
a last unit operation in a wastewater treatment plants. Bui et al. (2020) of Ti/Sb-SnO2 electrodes doped (electrochemical oxidation) with
investigated that most (89.9 %) of the remaining microplastics was different rare earth elements (La, Ce, Sm or Nd) as active layer by sol-gel
eliminated by the ozonation process. Ozonation in wastewater treatment method was effective in removing 77 % of the microplastic from water
plant is known to change the physicochemical properties of water, (Zheng et al. 2024).
migration of plasticizer from polymer matrix into water, and structural
changes in microplastics present in water (Ziembowicz and Kida, 2024). 3.2.5. Photocatalytic degradation
For improving the efficiency of ozonation process, catalysts including Photodegradation has been considered a very successful and prom­
α-MnO2 and α-FeOOH were synthesized, and it was observed that ising technology for treating hazardous organic pollutants, such as
polyethylene could be efficiently mineralized under the attack of microplastics from wastewater (Liu et al., 2019). During this process,
O3/•OH and decomposition of the polymer is increased under the semiconductor materials absorb visible or ultraviolet light, which pro­
abovementioned setup (Hu and Hu 2024). The elimination of the duces free radicals such as superoxide and single oxygen radicals that
microplastics may include a high operational cost. The major drawback oxidize the microplastics are used (Zhu et al., 2019). The material ab­
of the ozonation process is that an insufficient ozonation process can sorbs light above the photocatalytic energy of a semiconductor’s
produce intermediary compounds that pose a risk to public health and bandgap. A transition from the valence band to the conduction band of
the environment due to the production of reactive oxygen species. an electron band results in positive holes in the valence band. Ulti­
mately, the microplastics are degraded by the radicals produced by this
3.2.4. Sol-gel technique process, specifically superoxide and hydrogen (Fig. 4). Iron-zinc oxide
A solid strongly cross-linked and an inorganic-organic macromole­ nanocomposite, produced sustainably, is a significant semiconductor
cule is produced by hydrolyzing and condensing the precursors one at a material used in the photocatalytic breakdown of polyethylene (Lam
time during the sol-gel process. This method has been shown to be et al., 2021; Surana et al. 2024). Ariza-Tarazona et al. (2023) showed the
effective for microplastics with sizes up to 1 mm. It also shows the photocatalytic degradation of polyethylene terephthalate can be ach­
highest potential to eliminate three to five carbon chain atoms. More ieved using C, N-TiO2/SiO2 photocatalysts and the mass losses in this
widespread use will require proof of its efficacy in natural settings. process ranged between 9.35 % and 16.22 %. In addition, the photo­
Herbort et al. (2018) developed a method to remove microplastics from degradation behaviour of polyamide microplastics is studied by using
water using organ silanes rather than conventional flocculants. Organ polyamide microplastics and FeCl3 as catalyst. The result showed that
silanes are made up of three reactive groups and one organic group. polyamide microplastics can be almost completely degraded after 10
Microplastics chemical characters and surface chemistry significantly days of irradiation in FeCl3 aqueous solution (Zhong et al. 2024). The
influence the removal procedure and physical interaction with the organ factors affecting the rate of photocatalytic degradation are the solution’s
silanes. It is generally observed that the polarity of the polymer reduces pH, the termination rate, size of microplastic particles. time and the ease
the removal efficacy of microplastics; hence it is important to increase of generating free radicals necessary for extracting hydrogen atoms from
the polarity of the organic group to remove highly polar polymers, like polymer chains (Xie et al. 2023).
polyvinyl chloride. The effectiveness of non-polar polymers is negatively
impacted by this, though. It was shown by this research that organ si­
lanes may be more successfully tailored to eliminate contaminants.

Fig. 4. Photocatalytic reduction process for the removal of microplastics.

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L. Dayal et al. Journal of Hazardous Materials Advances 16 (2024) 100460

3.3. Biological method biosurfactants like hydrophobins that can break down complex poly­
mers into simpler monomers. It also supplies electrons and carbons to
Biological approaches use various plants and animal species to solve the microorganisms responsible for the breakdown and mineralization
the issue of microplastic contamination present in aquatic systems and of complex pollutants (Olicón-Hernández et al., 2017). Fungi that break
wastewater. It has been investigated how organisms can contribute to down polyethylene mostly include Aspergillus and Cladosporium. Their
degrade microplastics that are present in water and wastewater. Studies main source of carbon is polyethylene, which they subsequently
are also ongoing on biological methods for microplastic removal. Sci­ decompose using an enzyme outside of cells. By decreasing the hydro­
entists are investigating possible treatment methods to eradicate phobicity of plastic particles, these fungi promote the formation of
microplastics via decomposition by employing different biological spe­ various chemical bonds. The development and degeneration of various
cies (Table 2). microplastics are significantly influenced by the maximum number of
these fungi, which have a wide distribution and efficient reproduction
3.3.1. Bioreactor and dynamic membrane techniques (Dey et al., 2023).
Using dynamic membranes is one way to eliminate low-density, non- According to a study by Das et al. (2018), low-density polyethylene
biodegradable microplastics sources because of their low cost, ease of can be biodegraded by Aspergillus and Fusarium species. Aspergillus fla­
maintenance, and minimal energy consumption (Li, 2018). Li et al. vus, a type of fungus strain that was discovered among piles of plastic
(2018) examined how influent flux and particle concentration affected debris near the coast, showed efficacious high-density polyethylene
the diatomite ledge’s ability to filter simulated wastewater using dy­ degrading properties, whereas Aspergillus tubingensis efficiently
namic membrane with 90 mm of secondary mesh. The formation of degraded polyethylene (Devi et al., 2015). Research on this area is now
dynamic membranes is encouraged by higher concentrations of micro­ underway where various fungal strains work in different environmental
plastics and pollutant fluxes. However, membrane bioreactors have a circumstances to break down microplastics. Research on fungal groups
higher capacity for removing micro-sized plastics than simple dynamic that can break down microplastics has benefited immensely from the
membranes (Lares et al., 2018). The membrane bioreactor’s capacity to introduction of omics and molecular tools such as polymerase chain
successfully remove a wide range of complicated industrial wastewaters reaction, in-vitro transcription, and high-throughput sequencing
confirms the technology’s ability to handle strong contaminants (Table 3).
microplastics and polymeric debris. Microplastics are successfully
removed with the help of membrane-based technology from aquatic 3.3.2.6. Bacterial degradation. Bacteria are ubiquitous and diverse class
systems. Egea-Corbacho et al. (2023) observed the microplastic removal of microorganisms that are present in soil, water, and the atmosphere,
efficiency of 99.69 % with the application of membrane among other settings (Yuan et al., 2020). They have a well-known ability
bioreactor-based technology. Anoxic/aerobic membrane bioreactor to degrade contaminants like microplastics, and are crucial to the
technology not only reduces microplastic content in the wastewater but cycling of nutrients. Several studies have focused on using pure bacterial
also causes change in physicochemical properties in microplastics cultures in carefully monitored lab settings to assess the microplastics
(Wang et al. 2024). Membrane bioreactor (MBR) technology has degradation. Most of these bacterial cultures can be found in collections
emerged as a leading solution for advanced wastewater treatment, of cultures or obtained via enrichment culture from sludge, sediment,
ensuring high removal efficiency for both conventional and emerging and wastewater. Researchers can study metabolic processes and use
contaminants while also enhancing resource recovery (Cairone et al. pure lines to assess their effects, unlike ecological factors that influence
2024). microplastic breakdown. Furthermore, this method allows for tracking
the entire microplastic process through active bacterial changes. The
3.3.2. Biodegradation ability of bacterial isolates to degrade microplastics was examined in
studies. Researchers examined a mangrove silt bacterial culture’s ability
3.3.2.5. Fungal degradation. Most organisms that comprise fungi are to degrade polypropylene after it had been purified. Research indicates
either obligatory parasites, opportunistic parasites, or saprotrophs. Due that two strains of Rhodococcus sp. Type 36 and Bacillus sp. Type 27 may
to their remarkable adaptability, they may flourish in a wide range of support polypropylene polymer of microplastic losses of 4.0 % and 6.4
terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems and many environmental settings. %, respectively (Yuan et al., 2020). Bacteria were evident on the surface
They can withstand various hazardous chemicals and metals and pro­ of the treated polypropylene due to the numerous pores and other
duce various enzymes from outside the cell, including organic irregularities.

Table 2
Bacterial species used for the degradation of microplastics.
Bacterial isolates Sources Degraded polymers Degradation Incubation time References
(%) (days)

Bacillus sp; Paenibacillus sp. municipal landfill sediment PP 14.7 60 Park and kim (2019)
Sporosarcina Globispora mangrove sediments in PP 11 40 Auta et al. (2017)
Peninsular Malaysia
Bacillus cereus mangrove sediments in PP 12 40
Peninsular Malaysia
Actinomycetes sp; Pseudomonas sp polypropylene waste UV and HNO3 nr* 15 and 45 Sepperumal and
polypropylene (PP) Markandan (2014)
Bacillus mangrove sediment PP 4 40 Auta et al. (2017)
Comamonas acidovorans nr* PURs 100 8
Rhodococcus mangrove sediment PP 6.4 4
Lysinibacillus sp polluted soil samples PE, PP 4 and 9 26 Anaand et al. (2022)
Chelatococcus sp. compost LDPE 44.5 88 Jeon and Km (2013)
Microbial consortia; including Aneurinibacillus sewage treatment plants (STP) LDPE, HDPE, PP 47, 58 and 56 140 Skariyachan et al. (2018)
sp; and Brevibacillus sp
Bacillus thuringiensis compost PP and poly l-lactide 12 15 Anaand et al. (2023)
Bacillus sp sediment samples PP 4 nr* Auta et al. (2018)

nr*- not reported; PVC-polyvinyl chloride; PE-polyethylene; LDPE-low-density polyethylene; PP-polypropylene; PURs-polyurethane; HDPE-high-density polyethylene.

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L. Dayal et al. Journal of Hazardous Materials Advances 16 (2024) 100460

Table 3 infested by algae have been identified using scanning electron micro­
Fungi-mediated degradation of microplastics. scopy’s ability to detect surface degeneration or disintegration
Fungal isolates Sources Degraded Incubation References (Sanniyasi et al., 2021). It was also shown that Oscillatoria subbrevis and
polymers time (days) Phormidium lucidum may colonize and degrade low density polyethylene
Penicillium dumpsite UV-treated nr* Sowmya without pretreatment or prooxidative chemicals (Sarmah and Rout,
simplicissimum PE et al. (2015) 2018). Terephthalic acid and polyethylene terephthalate (PET) films can
Aspergillus niger waste dump LDPE 84 Nowak et al. be broken down by PET hydrolase, which was created by genetically
(2012) modifying the green microalga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii. A similar
Fusarium spp plastic waste LDPE 28 Joyti and
disposable site Gupta (2014)
modification to P. tricornutum produced PET hydrolase, which exhibits
Aspergillus favus marine coastal HDPE 30 Devi et al. catalytic activity for both PET and the PET glycol copolymer (Ma et al.,
VRKPT2 area (2015) 2018). A study on biodegradation processes of polyethylene particles
Aspergillus flavus guts of wax HDPE 28 Dey et al. was carried out using microalgae Chlorella vulgaris, which was able to
moth (2023)
remove about 84 % of the particles (Nasrabadi et al. 2023). An appli­
Aspergillus niger soil from PE 30 Deepika and
waste disposal Jaya (2015) cation of five marine microalgae strains viz., Chloroidium saccha­
site rophilum, Picochlorum maculatum, Amphora sp., Hymenomonas globosa
Aspergillus mangrove PE 60 Sangale et al. and Limnospira indica in testing the biodegradation ability of
terreus dumpsite (2019) Low-Density Polyethylene showed alteration in crystallinity, thermal
Aspergillus
sydowii
stability and structure suggesting that algal remediation technique can
Verticillium soils PE nr Ekanayaka reduce microplastic pollution (Gowthami et al. 2023).
lecanii et al. (2022) We currently know very little about how higher plants absorb and
Xepiculopsis plastic debris PU nr Brunner et al. store microplastics. Nonetheless, new research indicates that certain
gramineae on a shoreline (2018)
plants possess the ability to accumulate micrometric and sub­
of a lake
Phanerochaete soils LDPE nr Yang et al. micrometric sizes of microplastics generated from soil. Plants absorb
chyrsosporium (2013) microplastics through their roots, store them there, and then transfer
Aspergillus soils PU nr Khan et al. them to other parts of the plant. Cleaning up microplastic-contaminated
tubingensis (2017) water may be accomplished by using phytoextraction and phyto-
Zalerion marine PE pellets 28 Paço et al.
filtration, two phytoremediation techniques. To remove contaminants
maritimum sediments (2017)
from aqueous waste streams and groundwater, plants are employed in
nr*- not reported; PVC-polyvinyl chloride; PE-polyethylene; PET-polyethylene phyto-filtration, also known as rhizo-filtration. Either the plant roots
terephthalate; LDPE-low-density polyethylene; PP-polypropylene; PU-poly­ absorb the contaminants, or the chemicals are adsorbed on the root
urethane; HDPE-high-density polyethylene.
surface. According to research by Abbasi et al. (2021), polyethylene
terephthalate particles are exposed to naphthalene and phenanthrene
3.3.2.7. Bioremediation by marine organisms. A report titled "In­ for adsorption. Results conclusively showed that the average concen­
teractions Between Organisms and Marine microplastics - A Call for tration of naphthalene adsorbed to polyethylene terephthalate was
Research" was released by Harrison et al. (2011) to highlight the higher (96.89 %) than that of phenanthrene (27.27 %). However,
tremendous potential of microorganisms, including bacteria, archaea, polyethylene terephthalate particles desorb 21.65–29.17 % of the sor­
and picoeukaryotes. The interaction between synthetic microplastics bed adsorbates. The exudate from the simulated wheat roots contains
and marine organisms was investigated. Much research describes the phenanthrene and naphthene. Three types of wheat root exudates were
biological degradation of natural and manufactured microplastics identified, and the polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon contents were
(Ahmed et al., 2018). Environmentalists from Australia studied the size likewise desorbed at comparable amounts by the polyethylene tere­
and fragmentation of polyethylene polymers absorbed by Antarctic Krill, phthalate particles. Ultimately, the results show that polyethylene
a type of planktonic crustacean (Euphausia superba) has the tendency to terephthalate polymers cause the entry of polycyclic aromatic hydro­
remove the polymers (Dawson et al., 2018). The research findings carbons into a rhizosphere zone. Zhang et al. (2022) reported that there
indicate that tiny microplastics are easily broken apart in a biological is no evidence of plant injury or exposure to bisphenol S, a pollutant that
setting. Nonetheless, the fragmentation mechanism, the character of is becoming more and more concerning. This study aimed to determine
microplastic-zooplankton interactions, and the biota-facilitated bisphenol S translocation and phytotoxicity in plants exposed to poly­
biodegradation process remain incompletely understood. Using two styrene polymer. Plants may withstand co-contamination with bisphe­
distinct kinds of native marine communities - Souda and Agios consor­ nol S and polystyrene, as the results showed that bisphenol S and
tiums, Cocca et al. (2020) reported the ability of the communities in polystyrene did not influence plant growth.
removing secondary High-density polyethylene polymers of micro­ A study by Yang et al. (2022b) showed that heavy metal and
plastics from ocean water. Based on the results of the weight reduction microplastics contamination are common in freshwater ecosystems.
measurements, the Souda consortia were more efficient. The process Nevertheless, studies on how they interact to influence aquatic vegeta­
involves both enzymes and microbe genes. tion are scarce. This work investigated the effects of 50 mg/L of poly­
propylene and 0.01 mg/L of cadmium (Cd) concentration for around 15
3.3.2.8. Phytoremediation. The enzymes are often used to their full po­ days. Duckweed may be better adapted to contaminated water if re­
tential biologically to break down polymeric materials by employing searchers examine the interactions between Cd, polyethylene, and
algae (Chia et al., 2020). Numerous processes: including hydrolysis, polypropylene and how these interactions affect the microbial commu­
corrosion, fouling, and penetration, indicate how algae decompose the nity in the plant’s rhizosphere. This research may also provide new in­
microplastics (Chia et al., 2020). The key advantage of this system over sights into employing duckweed for environmental remediation. A few
the bacterial one is that the microplastics are found in environments that days later, scientists studied the rhizosphere of duckweed, looking at its
are rich in carbon supplies, but the bacteria require a rich carbon source physiology, ultrastructure, and microbiota. Two essential interactions
for development (Bergkessel et al., 2016). Enzymes called ligninolytic between microplastics and the floating aquatic macrophyte L. minor are
and exopolysaccharide are produced when algae cling to plastic surfaces shown by research by Rozman et al. (2022), and they are vital for
in wastewater streams, initiating plastic degradation. These polymers developing a phytoremediation method. These interactions are caused
accelerate growth, serve as a carbon source, and improve cellular pro­ by microplastic adhesion to plant tissues and their effects on L. minor.
teins and carbs. Lately, low density polyethylene sheets that have been Considering the long-term effects of microplastics on plant development

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L. Dayal et al. Journal of Hazardous Materials Advances 16 (2024) 100460

and metabolic markers, L. minor might be resistant to high microplastics and effector nucleases are two examples of different types of gene
concentrations. removal tools. The damage and benefit of function studies that alter
Kim et al. (2024) demonstrated the use of two aquatic plants (Iris several gene expressions are also aided by altering an interesting gene by
pseudacorus and Lythrum anceps) to reduce the microplastic content in genome editing. This approach can be used to successfully add genes for
the aquatic environment. They observed a significant reduction in the enzymes involved in the degradation of microplastics, such as PET,
microplastic content in the aquatic system due to their possible hydrolase, esterase, laccase, and depolymerase.
adsorption in the plant’s root. Another study was performed using two
plant species Cyperus papyrus and Pontederia sagittata, to remove the 5. Microplastics- control strategies
microplastics from the urban ponds. These two plants were capable of
removing 61.6 - 82.2 % of microplastics from the ponds. The management of microplastics can be achieved through a variety
All the studied methods have the microplastic removal efficiencies of both immediate and long-term strategies. Every technique has dis­
ranged between 74 and 99.2 %, 65–99.2 % and 77–100 % for physical, advantages, including high expenses. Therefore, it’s crucial to consider a
chemical and biological methods, respectively (Fig. 5). Among the three variety of factors while selecting a strategy, including the structure of
physical, chemical and biological methods, biochar filter, oil film the nation, its economic status, the kind of microplastics that have been
methods, electrocoagulation, bioreactor and dynamic membrane tech­ released, the availability of substitutes, and the local desire to shift away
niques are more effective in removing microplastics. The efficiency of from a plastic-dependent economy. It is always recommended to reduce,
biochar filter is highest and ranged between 99 %− 100 %. recycle and reduce the use of plastics to reduce the microplastic pollu­
tion. However, following approaches may be adopted to reduce the use
4. Bioinformatics and genetic tools of plastics.

Bioinformatics has evolved into a potent method for quickening the

5.1. Creating public awareness
biodegradation of plastic debris, including microplastics particles.
Environmental Contaminant Biotransformation Pathway Resource and
Plastic consumers are not interested in recycling and single-use of
the University of Minnesota Biocatalysts/Biodegradation Database are
plastic because of easily availability, affordability and conveniency of
two examples of several types of databases. A database about biodeg­
virgin and unused plastics (Northen et al. 2023). Mostly people are not
radation pathways has been created to evaluate the biodegradation
concerned about the ill effects due to plastic wastes. For changing the
process by offering information on the metabolic pathway. These data­
attitude of the consumer, it is important to create public awareness. In
bases and computational methods offer a framework for developing a
many countries like Japan, Taiwan, UK and Hong Kong, four ap­
novel strategy for the degradation of plastic by helping to identify the
proaches, community-based education, government-based education,
enzymes involved in a desired metabolic pathway and help to predict
business-based education, and school-based education are implemented
the biodegradation pathways of hazardous substances (Ali et al., 2021).
to cope up with plastic pollution (Chow et al. 2017). Furthermore, in
Despite all these advantages, the primary disadvantage of bioinformat­
India, plastic containers are generally made from mixed plastic poly­
ics is the lack of experiments and the validation of that data—both of
mers; hence are often difficult to segregate. In Japan, the plastic con­
which are critical for further investigation. Furthermore, there is a big
tainers are made from a single type of polymers like PET bottles, PP
difference between the different kinds of bacteria that break down
bottles etc.; hence are easy to segregate after use (Chow et al. 2017).
synthetic polymers and the enzymes that break down microplastics.
Using gene editing methods, the expression of specific genes has been
edited into the genomes of bacteria, flora, and fauna (Tang et al., 2020; 5.2. Reducing, recycling and reusing plastic wastes
Mandal et al., 2022). Transcription activator-like zinc finger proteins
One of the best ways to stop traditional plastic and microplastics

Fig. 5. Microplastics removal efficiency through different physical and chemical treatment processes.

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L. Dayal et al. Journal of Hazardous Materials Advances 16 (2024) 100460

goods from being released into the environment is to reduce their use environmental contamination comes from land-based sources. The
and manufacturing (Yang et al., 2023). Because of this, therapy is usu­ research looked at several microplastics control strategies (chemical,
ally not preferred to prevention. One example of this approach is the biological, and physical). The removal methods including oil film sep­
decrease in microbeads utilized in manufacturing medications and aration, froth flotation, coagulation, filtration, magnetic separation,
personal hygiene products (Prata, 2018). Although some opponents filtration, biochar filter and bioremediations are effective in removing
argue that this technique only reports one form of microplastics pollu­ the microplastics. All the microplastics removal techniques have several
tion, it can nevertheless have a long-lasting effect on minimizing the advantages and disadvantages. Among all the methods, biochar filter is
contamination of water systems with microplastics waste (Fältström and most efficient (removal efficiency 99–100 %) in removing microplastics
Anderberg, 2020). from wastewater. For reducing the production of plastics, crating public
Using and recycling plastic products is a very effective way to awareness is very important. Several research are available suggesting
manage plastic waste. Recycled plastics are always more sustainable the recycling and reusing the plastic wastes in productive ways. Plastic
than the virgin and unrecycled plastics. Using the plastic wastes in wastes can be used in value added material, building and construction
landfills can create soil and underground water pollution and may cause materials, fabrics and fuel generation. Furthermore, it is recommended
several health hazards. Hence, the plastic wastes are reused in various to use bioplastics as best alternative. Furthermore, a coordination be­
sectors such as fabric, apparel, building materials, household goods, and tween policymakers, management, common people and industrialists
fuel conversion after four basic recycling techniques. The recycling are necessary for proper implementation of microplastic removal
techniques include primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary methods methods and control strategies.
(Oladele et al. 2023). Primary methods include mechanical methods
such as sorting, shredding, cleaning, processing, and milling. Secondary 7. Future perspective
recycling technique includes remelting and reprocessing of plastic
wastes for further application. Tertiary recycling techniques are basi­ To adapt removal strategies for industrialization, extensive experi­
cally chemical-based processes that convert plastic polymers into its ments are needed. The characteristics of microplastics will be one of the
monomeric form to produce new products. Such chemical-based pro­ new research areas in the coming years. Application of biochar filter can
cesses include pyrolysis, hydrolysis, methanolysis, aminolysis, etc. bring revolutionary development in microplastic removal methods.
Quaternary recycling technique includes the processes of recycling of There are numerous barriers and limitations to using microorganisms for
plastic products which generate energy. Debele et al. (2024) suggested microplastics biodegradation however, microplastics can be circum­
the use of low-density polyethylene plastic waste for flexible paver tile vented using different genetic modifications.
construction for outdoor application. Plastic wastes may also be used in However, research on the effectiveness of genetically modified bac­
construction of cement (Jaber et al. 2023), fired clay bricks (Idrees et al. teria in real-world environments is scarce, and most of these studies
2023), construction and value-added building materials (Ahmed 2023). have only been conducted in lab settings. Furthermore, very little is
Waste plastic may also be used as alternate fuels having promising ef­ understood about the many enzymes and metabolic processes. Subse­
ficiencies. Plastic-based oils (Li et al. 2023), naphtha and gas (Kabeyi quent research on microplastics must address several issues and close
and Olanrewaju 2023) may be produced by the thermal and catalytic several research gaps. Understanding microplastics immediate and long-
degradation of plastic wastes and used as alternative fuels. Moreover, term harmful effects on individuals and the environment is also neces­
Luo et al. (2023) suggested to use the plastics wastes for making sary to develop workable alternatives to disposable masks and the
value-added carbon materials such as carbon nanotubes, graphene, plastic waste generated by the healthcare industry. Microplastics can be
carbon nanosheets, carbon spheres and porous carbon by more effectively isolated from other pollutants to produce beneficial
oxygen-limited carbonization, catalytic carbonization, the byproducts, but deciding what will happen to them in the environment
template-based method, and pressure carbonization. is still necessary. Enhancing the quality and efficacy of plastic alterna­
tives should also be a priority. Combined materials such as bioplastics
5.3. Application of bioplastics with microplastics create a treatment technology to improve removal
efficiency and minimize side effects. In addition to considering financial
Innovative solutions and additional work are needed to overcome and infrastructure limitations, a strategy to reduce plastic consumption
plastic pollution and progress in plastic recycling. Simple volumetric should also aim to eliminate microplastics and enhance environmental
hydrothermal treatment was also found to be inefficient for recycling conditions in a sustainable manner.
plastic. According to Osman et al. (2023), bioplastics, also known as Moreover, the microplastic pollution can be controlled by reducing,
biodegradable plastics, offer a practical substitute for conventional reusing and recycling the plastic-based products. Several methods are
microplastics in a range of uses. Polyhydroxyalkanoates, other food and available for the same, but they are not implemented due to lack of
pharmaceutical packaging materials, and crops and soil have already collaboration between researcher and industries. Plastic wastes can be
been protected by mulching films formed of these polymers in horti­ effectively utilized with the help of coordination among researchers,
culture and agriculture (Song et al., 2009). Due to their strength and policymakers, industrialists and plastic consumers.
lightweight, bioplastics are employed in data storage, laptop and
smartphone screens, and other electronic equipment. It can also be used CRediT authorship contribution statement
in the locomotive industry to cover seats and airbags (Osman et al.,
2023). As a result, bioplastics have a wide range of effective Lovely Dayal: Writing – original draft. Krishna Yadav: Writing –
applications. review & editing. Uttiya Dey: Writing – review & editing. Kousik Das:
Writing – review & editing. Preeti Kumari: Writing – review & editing,
6. Conclusion Writing – original draft. Deep Raj: Writing – review & editing, Writing –
original draft, Visualization, Supervision, Conceptualization. Rashmi
An increasingly concerning class of organic pollutants known as Ranjan Mandal: Writing – review & editing.
microplastics has drawn the attention of academics since 2014. The
increasing impact of microplastics makes it imperative to discover sus­ Declaration of competing interest
tainable ways to reduce their presence in the environment and mitigate
their detrimental effects. This overview centres on the different kinds Authors declare that there is no conflict of interest. The authors
and sources of global microplastics. Microplastics can be discovered in a declare that they have no known competing interests that are relevant to
wide variety of aquatic bodies, however the majority (80 %–90 %) of the content of this article.

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L. Dayal et al. Journal of Hazardous Materials Advances 16 (2024) 100460

Data availability Brunner, I., Fischer, M., Rüthi, J., Stierli, B., Frey, B., 2018. Ability of fungi isolated from
plastic debris floating in the shoreline of a lake to degrade plastics. PLoS ONE 13 (8),
e0202047. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0202047.
No data was used for the research described in the article. Bruyninckx, K., Dusselier, M., 2019. Sustainable chemistry considerations for the
encapsulation of volatile compounds in laundry-type applications. ACS Sustain.
Chem. Eng. 7 (9), 8041–8054. https://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/acssuschemen
g.9b00677.
Funding Bui, X.T., Nguyen, P.T., Nguyen, V.T., Dao, T.S., Nguyen, P.D., 2020. Microplastics
pollution in wastewater: characteristics, occurrence and removal technologies.
Environ. Technol. Innov. 19, 101013 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eti.2020.101013.
No funding has been received for this work. Cairone, S., Mineo, A., Pollice, A., Belgiorno, V., Mannina, G., Naddeo, V., 2024.
Innovative membrane bioreactors for advanced and sustainable wastewater
treatment. In: IWA Regional Membrane Technology Conference. Springer Nature
Acknowledgement Switzerland, Cham, pp. 120–126. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-63357-7_20.
Chabi, K., Li, J., Ye, C., Kiki, C., Xiao, X., Li, X., Yu, X., 2024. Rapid sand filtration for<
The authors are grateful to the SRM University-AP, Andhra Pradesh 10 μm-sized microplastic removal in tap water treatment: efficiency and adsorption
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Sci. 139, 473–482. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jes.2023.06.018.
Zhou, G., Wang, Q., Li, J., Li, Q., Xu, H., Ye, Q., Zhang, J., 2021. Removal of polystyrene Li, J., Chen, X., Yu, S., Cui, M., 2023a. Removal of pristine and aged microplastics from
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scitotenv.2020.141837.

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