Emerging Contaminants and Associated Treatment Technologies

Johnbosco C. Egbueri
Joshua O. Ighalo
Chaitanya B. Pande Editors

Microplastics in
African and Asian
Environments
The Influencers, Challenges, and Solutions
Emerging Contaminants and Associated
Treatment Technologies

Series Editors
Muhammad Zaffar Hashmi, Institute of Biology and Biotechnology,
The University of Lahore, Lahore, Pakistan
Vladimir Strezov, Department of Environmental Sciences, Macquarie University,
Sydney, NSW, Australia
Emerging Contaminants and Associated Treatment Technologies focuses on contam-
inant matrices (air, land, water, soil, sediment), the nature of pollutants (emerging,
well-known, persistent, e-waste, nanomaterials, etc.), health effects (e.g., toxicology,
occupational health, infectious diseases, cancer), treatment technologies (bioreme-
diation, sustainable waste management, low cost technologies), and issues related to
economic development and policy. The book series includes current, comprehensive
texts on critical national and regional environmental issues of emerging contaminants
useful to scientists in academia, industry, planners, policy makers and governments
from diverse disciplines. The knowledge captured in this series will assist in under-
standing, maintaining and improving the biosphere in which we live. The scope of
the series includes monographs, professional books and graduate textbooks, edited
volumes and books devoted to supporting education on environmental pollution at
the graduate and post-graduate levels.
Johnbosco C. Egbueri · Joshua O. Ighalo ·
Chaitanya B. Pande
Editors

Microplastics in African
and Asian Environments
The Influencers, Challenges, and Solutions
Editors
Johnbosco C. Egbueri Joshua O. Ighalo
Department of Geology Department of Chemical Engineering
Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu Nnamdi Azikiwe University
University Awka, Nigeria
Uli, Nigeria

Chaitanya B. Pande
Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology
Pune, Maharashtra, India

ISSN 2524-6402 ISSN 2524-6410 (electronic)

Emerging Contaminants and Associated Treatment Technologies
ISBN 978-3-031-64252-4 ISBN 978-3-031-64253-1 (eBook)
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Justification for the Chapter Ordering

This order would allow readers to gradually build their understanding of microplas-
tics, starting from basic concepts and expanding into more complex issues and
potential solutions:
1. Introduction and Overview: Chapters “Overview of Microplastics and Their
Environmental Occurrences”–“Invisible Threats in Himalayan Region:
Unmasking the Impact of Microplastic Pollution on Human Health Today
and Tomorrow” provide an introduction to microplastics, their distribution, and
initial impacts across different regions, including Africa and Asia.
2. Regional Perspectives: Chapters “Plastic Litter Pollution on the Beaches
of Lakshadweep Island: An Assessment of their Abundance and Transport”–
“Microplastic Pollution in the Changing Climate” go deeper into specific regional
issues and challenges related to microplastic pollution, covering areas like
airborne microplastics, pollution in India, and the impact of climate change on
microplastic distribution.
3. Transport and Environmental Impact: Chapters “Considerations and Perspec-
tives on Microplastics in Air as an Emerging Challenge”–“Food Security Chal-
lenges and Microplastics: A Comprehensive Review” focus on the mechanisms
of microplastic transport, their presence in different environments such as air
soils, sediments, and wetlands, and their ecological impacts on food security and
human health.
4. Human Health Implications: Chapters “Environmental Risks and Human Health
Impact of Microplastic Pollution”–“Microplastics in Animals – A Global
Concern to Food Safety and Human Health” explore the direct and indirect effects
of microplastic pollution on human health, covering topics such as ingestion,
toxicological effects, and overall health impacts.
5. Analytical Techniques and Methodologies: Chapters “Modeling of Microplastic
Contamination Using Soft Computational Methods: Advances, Challenges,
and Opportunities”–“Raman Spectroscopy Based Approaches for Microplas-
tics Investigations” discuss various analytical techniques, modeling approaches,

v
vi Justification for the Chapter Ordering

and monitoring methods used in microplastic research, including GIS, remote

sensing, spectroscopy, and computational modeling.
6. Mitigation and Future Directions: Chapters “A Review on Microplastics
Migration from Sources Through Wastewater to the Environments: Classifica-
tions, Impacts and Removal Techniques”–“A Call to Action for Addressing
Microplastic Pollution: Mitigation and Solutions” conclude the book by
discussing strategies for mitigation, future research directions, and the broader
implications of microplastic pollution on global ecological and human health.
Contents

Introduction and Overview

Overview of Microplastics and Their Environmental Occurrences . . . . . . 3
Kayode Adesina Adegoke, Samuel Oluwatobi Agboola,
Temitope Chris Alagbada, Gladys Mercy Inetabor,
Oluwatosin Stephen Ajayi, and Olugbenga Solomon Bello
Microplastic Debris Poses a Serious Threat to the Health of Our
Ecosystems and Their Inhabitants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Barathan Balaji Prasath

Regional Perspectives
Microplastics Research in Africa: A Bibliometric Exploration
of Trends, Influencers, and Influential Themes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Toluwalase Ojeyemi, Kingsley O. Iwuozor, Ebuka Chizitere Emenike,
Abel U. Egbemhenghe, Joshua O. Ighalo, and Adewale George Adeniyi
Challenges of Microplastic Research in Asia and Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Setyo Budi Kurniawan
Unveiling Microplastic Pollution in India: Reviewing
Contamination Across Coastal Ecosystems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
V. Stephen Pitchaimani, S. Richard Abishek, and R. J. Jerin Joe
Sources and Environmental Distribution of Microplastics in Nigeria . . . . 107
Nchekwube D. Nweke, Johnson C. Agbasi, Daniel A. Ayejoto,
Leonard N. Onuba, and Johnbosco C. Egbueri
Invisible Threats in Himalayan Region: Unmasking the Impact
of Microplastic Pollution on Human Health Today and Tomorrow . . . . . 131
Kusum Pandey

vii
viii Contents

Plastic Litter Pollution on the Beaches of Lakshadweep Island:

An Assessment of their Abundance and Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Umakanta Pradhan, Subrat Naik, Uma Sankar Panda, Pravakar Mishra,
Shyamala Varthini, and M. V. Ramana Murthy
Airborne Microplastics in Asia: Dealing with the Unseen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
Annisa Utami Rauf, Ari Prayogo Pribadi,
Nurendah Ratri Azhar Rusprayunita, Maryami Yuliana Kosim,
and Ratna Dwi Puji Astuti
Navigating the Ongoing Threat of Microplastic Across Asia . . . . . . . . . . . 187
Annisa Utami Rauf, Vena Jaladara, Siti Mei Saroh, Rahmawati,
and Sulistiowati
Transport Mechanism of Microplastic in the Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
Temidayo O. Ogunjinmi and Joshua O. Ighalo
Microplastic Pollution in the Changing Climate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Victor E. Ojukwu, F. C. Akaeme, and Joshua O. Ighalo

Transport and Environmental Impact

Considerations and Perspectives on Microplastics in Air
as an Emerging Challenge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
Shobhna Shankar, Shivangi Sharma, and Ranu Gadi
The Nexus Between the Transport Mechanisms and Remediation
Techniques of Microplastics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
Johnson C. Agbasi, Leonard N. Onuba, Nchekwube D. Nweke,
Johnbosco C. Egbueri, and Daniel A. Ayejoto
Microplastics in Soils and Sediments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
Piyush Pandey and Avinash Pratap Gupta
Microplastics in Wetland Ecosystem: A Complex Nexus and Way
Forward . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
Avinash Pratap Gupta and Piyush Pandey
Microplastics in Plant Species: Impacts and Ecological Perspectives . . . . 331
U. Umasankar and P. C. Sabumon
Food Security Challenges and Microplastics: A Comprehensive
Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
Sweta Sinha

Human Health Implications

Environmental Risks and Human Health Impact of Microplastic
Pollution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
Ernest Mbamalu Ezeh and Peter Chinedu Agu
Contents ix

The Potential Human Impacts of Environmental Contamination

by Microplastics and Nanoplastics: A Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395
Naorem Nanda Singh, Chingakham Chinglenthoiba,
Jose Hernandez Santos, Suchith Chellappan, K. L. Priya,
and Koijam K. K. Mani Bhushan Singh
Toxicological Effects of Ingested Microplastics on Human Health . . . . . . 427
Daniel A. Ayejoto, Johnbosco C. Egbueri, Leonard N. Onuba,
Johnson C. Agbasi, and Nchekwube D. Nweke
An Overview of the Detrimental Effect of Microplastics on Humans . . . . 463
Subhankar Das and Manjula Ishwara Kalyani
Microplastics in Animals – A Global Concern to Food Safety
and Human Health . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 499
Md Abdul Karim, Md Leion Hassan, Uddin Md Saif, Minhaz Uddin,
Md Iqram Uddin Al Amran, Shahrear Hemal, Md Abu Kawsar,
Md. Akibul Hasan Bakky, Mahabuba Akther Charly,
Christopher J. Martyniuk, Som Niyogi, Douglas P. Chivers,
and A K M Munzurul Hasan

Analytical Techniques and Methodologies

Modeling of Microplastic Contamination Using Soft
Computational Methods: Advances, Challenges, and Opportunities . . . . 553
Johnbosco C. Egbueri, Daniel A. Ayejoto, Johnson C. Agbasi,
Nchekwube D. Nweke, and Leonard N. Onuba
Application of Geographic Information System (GIS) and Remote
Sensing (RS) in Microplastic Studies Around Asia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 581
Annisa Utami Rauf, Intan Rosenanda Sofiany, Yuliana Fashani,
Qotru Al Naday, and Sulistiowati
Monitoring and Assessment Techniques for Microplastics . . . . . . . . . . . . . 601
Chenhao Zhou, Zhonghao Chen, Mahmoud Nasr, Ahmed I. Osman,
Zhi Ying Lai, Chung Loong Yiin, Bridgid Lai Fui Chin,
and Pow-Seng Yap
Raman Spectroscopy Based Approaches for Microplastics
Investigations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 647
Megha Sunil, S. Unnimaya, N. Mithun, Santhosh Chidangil,
Satheesh Kumar, and Jijo Lukose
x Contents

Mitigation and Future Directions

A Review on Microplastics Migration from Sources Through
Wastewater to the Environments: Classifications, Impacts
and Removal Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 675
Leonard N. Onuba, Nchekwube D. Nweke, Johnbosco C. Egbueri,
Daniel A. Ayejoto, and Johnson C. Agbasi
Source Apportionment and Interaction Between Microplastics
and Environmental Pollutants: A Review on Current
Understanding and Prognosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 705
Augustine Crispin and Purushothaman Parthasarathy
A Call to Action for Addressing Microplastic Pollution: Mitigation
and Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 727
Eman H. Zaghloul, Asmaa Elsayis, Hala H. Abdel-Latif,
Moaz H. Mahran, and Sahar W. M. Hassan
Introduction and Overview
Overview of Microplastics and Their
Environmental Occurrences

Kayode Adesina Adegoke , Samuel Oluwatobi Agboola ,

Temitope Chris Alagbada , Gladys Mercy Inetabor ,
Oluwatosin Stephen Ajayi , and Olugbenga Solomon Bello

Abstract The global community has witnessed a significant and prominent issue
of microplastics (MPs) contamination in the environments as a result of the ever-
increasing and necessary plastic productions, which possess several beneficial
mechanical and chemical properties. In recent years, the increasing environmental
threat has been attributed to the inappropriate disposal of plastic garbage, namely
plastic pollution and the presence of microplastics (plastic particles having < 5 mm
diameter). This chapter present an overview of MPs and their environmental occur-
rences. Beside the sources, distributions and occurrences of MPs, plastic production
and intricate global dynamics of MPs were discussed. In addition, various potential
toxicities associated with MPs and the corresponding health effects were discussed. In
conclusion, this chapter identifies potential areas for future research. It is imperative
to implement strategies and initiatives that promote the widespread adoption of the
“reduce-reuse-recycle” circular economy among individuals and companies. Such
an approach offers a cost-efficient means of mitigating the influx and buildup of
plastic objects and microplastic particles in aquatic/marine ecosystems.

Keywords Microplastics · Contaminations · Toxicities · Reduce-reuse-recycle

circular economy

K. A. Adegoke (B)
Department of Industrial Chemistry, First Technical University, Ibadan, Nigeria
e-mail: kwharyourday@gmail.com
S. O. Agboola · T. C. Alagbada · G. M. Inetabor · O. S. Ajayi · O. S. Bello (B)
Department of Pure and Applied Chemistry, Ladoke Akintola University of Technology,
Ogbomoso P.M.B. 4000, Nigeria
e-mail: osbello@lautech.edu.ng

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 3

J. C. Egbueri et al. (eds.), Microplastics in African and Asian Environments, Emerging
Contaminants and Associated Treatment Technologies,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-64253-1_1
4 K. A. Adegoke et al.

1 Introduction

The threat posed to freshwater ecosystems by human activities has shown an upward
trend in recent years (Adegoke et al., 2023; Kumar et al., 2010, 2020; Singh et al.,
2020a, 2020b; Verla et al., 2019). Microplastics (MPs) are organic contaminants
that have emerged as a key focus of study in the past decade. As the impact of
MPs continues to expand, it is necessary to create sustainable ways to lessen their
detrimental effects and reduce their presence in the environment. Although MPs can
be detected in many bodies of water, the primary causes of environmental contam-
ination (80–90%) are derived from activities on land (Adegoke et al., 2023; Chen
et al., 2021; Verla et al., 2019). Throughout the span of over a century, the majority of
manufactured goods were predominantly composed of natural resources, including
metallic components, lumber, and gravel. These materials were characterized by
restricted production capacities and resource availability, resulting in high costs
associated with their utilization. The creation of the world’s main synthetic polymer
occurred in 1869 (Gilbert, 2017). Plastics, which consist of extended and repeated
polymer chains, have revolutionized several industrial sectors owing to their cost-
effectiveness, as well as their exceptional flexibility and adaptability. The materials
possess a notable degree of adaptability, allowing them to be easily molded into
various shapes and sizes. Additionally, they exhibit desirable properties such as
exceptional structural stability, durability, and elasticity (AlMaadeed et al., 2020;
Bening et al., 2021; Worch & Dove, 2020). Subsequently, plastics have evolved as
an indispensable constituent in a diverse array of industrial procedures.
Plastic objects have been readily accessible for mass manufacture due to their
widespread availability, which may be attributed to the Industrial Revolution, popu-
lation growth, urbanization, and scientific breakthroughs such as present synthesis
processes. Consequently, the use of mass production techniques has led to a substan-
tial accumulation of plastic wastes over an extended period, giving rise to global
ecological and societal concerns due to the non-biodegradable nature and inherent
persistence of plastics (Degli Innocenti & Breton, 2020; Delangiz et al., 2022). Never-
theless, despite increasing accumulation of plastic garbage and the potential health
risks linked with it, modern necessities such as the development of computers and
mobile phones, as well as advancements in medical, have progressed as a result of
the heavy dependence on plastics.
In contemporary society, the issue of MPs pollution has become widespread,
with significant implications for the overall well-being and sustainable future of the
Earth. Due to their inherent tenacity, exceptional resilience, and remarkable stability,
these entities exhibit an extended time of residence and possess the capacity to be
transmitted across ecological successional chains (Padervand et al., 2020). There has
been a recent surge in the engagement of MPs in debris collection, and it is anticipated
that this trend will persist in the foreseeable future. According to Wardrop et al.
(Wardrop et al., 2016), a significant amount of plastic debris is attributed to MPs,
which are characterized by a maximum diameter of 5 mm. The dispersion of MPs
in the ocean is influenced by several factors, including the inherent characteristics
Overview of Microplastics and Their Environmental Occurrences 5

of MPs (e.g., aggregation, surface charge, density, color, and size), as well as abiotic
and biotic variables (e.g., oxidation and biofouling) (Lusher, 2015). In contrast to
primary MPs, which are defined as microscopic particles intentionally produced for
commercial objectives, subordinate MPs are classified as fragments derived from
larger plastic products that have undergone fragmentation (Lehtiniemi et al., 2018).
While initial MPs typically maintain their size within the range of 0.1–5000 µm,
it is possible for them to undergo fragmentation and transform into debris. In the
most severe circumstances, these debris particles can reach sizes between 1 and
100 nm, giving rise to the formation of nanoplastics (NPs). The quantification and
identification of NPs, particularly in foods, present significant challenges (European
Food Safety Authority, 2016).
Microplastic particles originate from several causes, including the degradation
of plastic materials caused by environmental degradation and the presence of
microbeads derived from cosmetic items in the effluents of wastewater treatment
facilities (Kalčíková et al., 2017). According to a study conducted by Kalčíková et al.
(2017), the majority of microbeads were observed to be retained in activated sludge
throughout the operation of a laboratory-based sequencing batch biological wastew-
ater treatment system, in contrast to their presence in effluents. Consequently, several
additives are utilized in the production of plastics with the aim of enhancing their
overall quality, notwithstanding the potential occurrence of unexpected ramifications
such as the presence of persistent organic pollutants (POPs), resistance to degrada-
tion, and chemical durability. According to the study conducted by Andrady and
Neal (2009), MPs has the capacity to accumulate pollutants in many environmental
mediums as a result of their lipophilic nature (Andrady & Neal, 2009). It is widely
recognized that the chemical reactivity of MPs is enhanced as they undergo degra-
dation into smaller plastic particles, mostly due to the increased surface area. Hence,
it may be postulated that the disintegration of MPs into smaller plastic constituents
could potentially enhance the adsorption of pollutants onto MPs. Antunes et al.
observed that environmental factors such as weathering, sunlight, pH, extended expo-
sure periods, and the lipophilicity of POPs may greatly alter the kinetics of pollutant
adsorption to MPs (Antunes et al., 2013).
Given the ever-increasing rise in health risks connected with MPs in the environ-
ment and the subsequent areas of active study in recent years, this chapter focuses
on the overview of microplastics and their environmental occurrences. Here, the
plastic production and its global complexity were discussed prior to the sources,
distributions and occurrences of MPs in the marine environment. In addition, health
and environmental effects of MPs and the risk assessment associated with MPs
in aquatic environments and policy initiatives to regulate their presence were high-
lighted. Lastly, Strategies and initiatives that would promote the broad adoption of the
“reduce-reuse-recycle” circular economy among individual and organizations were
discussed for future implementation. This method provides a cheaper and effective
way of reducing the flow and buildup of plastic items and microplastic particles in
aquatic and marine habitats.
6 K. A. Adegoke et al.

2 Plastic Production and Its Global Complexity

2.1 Production

Microplastics are prevalent particulate matter that may be found in a natural envi-
ronment, exhibiting a wide range of characteristics including diverse shape, size,
densities, colors, and polymer compositions (Fig. 1). In addition, there are instances
when plastic particles are occasionally amalgamated with various other pollutants.
Suspected microplastic particles are often examined throughout several segments
and may be classified into three overarching categories: fibers, pellets, and pieces
(Fig. 1) (Blair et al., 2019; Dey et al., 2021). Within last few years, the global plastic
resin productions have maintained the average annual output of over 300 million
metric tons. With the recognition of the substantial societal benefits associated with
the plastics, it is anticipated that this number will likely increase in the coming years
(Andrady & Neal, 2009). Studies has shown that Asia is responsible for about half of
the current output, the North American Free Trade Agreement and European Union
States each contribute around 20%, while Africa and other continent contribute about
30% (Adegoke et al., 2023). Plastic debris tends to be more prevalent in regions char-
acterized by high manufacturing activity and highly populated urban centers. There
is a higher probability of observing elevated litter occurrences in areas that are situ-
ated along coastlines or in close proximity to rivers. Additionally, these areas are
more prone to serving as origins of marine litter.

Fig. 1 Microplastic particles that were examined using light microscopy. They are categorized
into three groups: a pellets, b fibers, and c pieces (Blair et al., 2019)
Overview of Microplastics and Their Environmental Occurrences 7

Recent study has observed that there has been a non-linear growth in global plas-
tics output in correlation with population expansion. This trend suggests a concurrent
increase in per-capita plastics consumption (Adegoke et al., 2023). The predominant
use of traditional plastics resin manufacturing is found in the production of pack-
aging materials characterized by a limited lifespan, often leading to their disposal
as litter or inclusion in municipal solid wastes. The proportion of plastics in these
municipal wastes vary depending on the specific geographical area, often ranging
from 10 to 15% in terms of weight. A small proportion of waste materials, around
4.8–12.7 million metric tons annually, is inevitably deposited into the oceans. This
estimation is based on the assumption that approximately 2% of plastic debris is
littered (Jambeck et al., 2015). The production of polypropylene and polyethylene,
which are the greatest often found classes of marine MPs received a consistent yearly
growth rate of 8.7% between 1950 and 2012 (Gourmelon, 2015). This upward trend
in production has therefore led to a higher likelihood of these materials ending up as
marine litter.

2.2 Complexity

The significant interest in microplastics ranging from 1 to 5000 µm was sparked by

investigations that uncovered extensive accumulations of debris in the major oceanic
gyres (Adegoke et al., 2023; Hale et al., 2020). There were concerns expressed
regarding the potential adverse influences on marine organisms. Although plastic
waste in an ecosystem is a widespread and cross-disciplinary issue, the attention
of both the general public and technical experts has predominantly been directed
towards the ocean (Cole et al., 2011; Cózar et al., 2014). Figure 2 presents diversi-
ties of plastic contamination and plastic cycles in the atmosphere. It also shows that
plastics were diverse in size, shapes and colour in an ecosystem (Figs. 1 and 2) (Li
et al., 2021). Plastic litter, similar to climate change and persistent organic pollu-
tants, serves as an indicator of human ability to exert a global-scale influence on the
ecosystem. Villarrubia-Gómez et al. asserted that marine plastic pollution possesses
characteristics that render it both irreversible and widespread. (Villarrubia-Gómez
et al., 2018), therefore satisfying two out of the three criteria necessary for it to be
classified as a planetary boundary concern associated with chemical pollution. The
ultimate need is the establishment of extensive ecological disturbance. The inquiry
into the potential ramifications of such a disturbance has only lately started, although
it will progressively assume greater significance in light of the escalating issue of
plastic pollution. Study by Koelmans et al. has revealed that it is necessary to shift
beyond speculation and put out a framework for tackling toxicological issues related
to MPs (Koelmans et al., 2017).
MPs exhibit a diverse range of physical forms, which encompass spherical,
fragmented, and filamentous geometries. With the exclusion of intentional man-
made microbeads, bulk of microbeads are generated because of degradation of large
8 K. A. Adegoke et al.

Fig. 2 Diversities of plastic contaminations and plastic cycles in an environment. Polyethylene:

PE, polyethylene terephthalate: PET, polypropylene: PP, polyvinylchloride: PVC, polyamide: PA,
polystyrene: PS, wastewater treatment plant: WWTP (Bond et al., 2018; Geyer et al., 2017;
Koelmans et al., 2019; Li et al., 2021; Teuten et al., 2009; Wang et al., 2019)

polymer materials (MPs). Over a period of time, MPs undergo a process of fragmen-
tation, resulting in the formation of nanoplastics, which are particles smaller than one
micrometer (Hartmann et al., 2019; Lambert & Wagner, 2016). Consequently, MPs
serve as a crucial link between macrodebris and nanotechnology throughout the tran-
sitional phase. Based on the findings of Besseling et al. (Besseling et al., 2019), the
fracturing of spherical MPs has the potential to yield nanoparticle quantities that are
greater than 1014 times the original amount. In order to have a comprehensive under-
standing of the origins, fate, and consequences of MPs, it is imperative to consider
the entirety of the spectrum, encompassing plastic goods, MPs, and nanoplastics.
Consequently, this assessment encompasses all three size classifications.
Despite the increasing consideration, the precise extent of plastic presence in
several environmental domains (including atmospheric, freshwater, terrestrial, and
marine) and its corresponding ecological consequences remain uncertain. This
phenomenon may be attributed, in part, to the absence of appropriate sampling and
analytical methods, as well as the expansive and diverse nature of the seas. The
quantity of buoyant plastic present in aquatic environments has been approximated
to reach up to 236,000 metric tons (Van Sebille et al., 2015). In the previous findings,
it was determined that the annual quantity of plastic waste inflowing to ocean exceeds
11 million tons (Jambeck et al., 2015). Furthermore, it is projected that the whole
quantity of plastic waste that enters the ocean will upsurge by a factor of 10 by the
year 2025.
Overview of Microplastics and Their Environmental Occurrences 9

The majority of existing evaluations regarding plastic waste primarily focus on the
surface of the ocean (Cózar et al., 2014). However, ongoing endeavors are progres-
sively extending these assessments to encompass various other environments such
as the deeper layers of the ocean, freshwater bodies, atmospheric conditions, soil
compositions, sedimentary deposits, and biological systems. This phenomenon can
be attributed, in part, to the ease of sampling as well as a predilection for floating
plastics (Adegoke et al., 2023). As scientific progress continues, efforts are being
made to tackle this matter. Microplastic particles was detected in supposedly pris-
tine surroundings, including Arctic sea ice (Peeken et al., 2018), the Antarctic
(Waller et al., 2017), remote mountainous regions and deep-sea trenches (Allen
et al., 2019; Jamieson et al., 2019). A significant portion of the first research focused
on establishing the extent of microplastic contamination, a common approach when
addressing emerging environmental issues. However, it should be noted that the
current sampling and analytical technologies are still insufficient for accurately
assessing this phenomenon. There is a need to enhance research efforts pertaining to
the mechanisms involved in the formation, movement, fate, mode of exposure, and
subsequent impacts on the environment.
Globally, the issue of MP contamination in the oceans is a significant challenge,
although one that is part of a broader and intricate context. The disposal methods for
the bulk of residual plastics include landfilling, incineration, and recycling. However,
a notable portion of these plastics is inadequately managed due to deficiencies in
waste management systems, resulting in their inadvertent release into the environ-
ment (Adegoke et al., 2023). Plastics played significant roles in the development
and progress of nations during the past seven decades. According to Geyer et al.
(2017), there was an average growth rate of 8.4% in production from 1950 to 2015.
The utilization of plastics is becoming increasingly prevalent in emerging and devel-
oping nations, leading to a rise in worldwide plastic production and consumption
(Huerta Lwanga et al., 2017).
Paradoxically, affluent nations have been seen to export significant quantities of
plastic trash, particularly electronic waste (e-waste), to less developed countries for
the purpose of recycling. The mishandling of these materials has frequently occurred,
resulting in improper disposal or even incineration of the remaining components
following the extraction of valuable elements such as copper and circuit boards
(Asante et al., 2016). Due to these factors and inadequate waste management system,
it has been projected that the Asian Pacific area has surpassed Western nations in
terms of being the primary contributor to plastic pollution in coastal marine environ-
ments (Jambeck et al., 2015). In recent times, China, a significant consumer of waste
materials, has caused disruption in the plastics recycling sector through the imple-
mentation of import limitations (Tan et al., 2018). Other nations of significance are
also becoming involved in this endeavor. The potential consequences of this develop-
ment on the distribution of plastic garbage and its implications for wealthier nations’
investment in recycling are significant, since recycling is anticipated to emerge as a
viable solution.
Moreover, it is imperative to do research on the characteristics, applications, and
environmental impact of plastics in terrestrial, atmospheric, and aquatic environments
10 K. A. Adegoke et al.

in order to get a comprehensive understanding of MPs and develop effective strategies

to address this issue. To effectively prioritize initiatives aimed at preserving global
health especially in Africa and Asia continents, it is imperative to carefully evaluate
the negative and positive impacts of plastics. Presently, the predominant emphasis
of researchers investigating MPs in the environment lies within certain domains,
including waste management, polymer chemistry, atmospheric science, freshwater
science, marine science, and terrestrial science. The comprehensive understanding
and tenacity of the issues pertaining to plastics require an increased involvement
and cooperation, the adoption of integrated and inter-disciplinary methods, and the
acknowledgement that plastic pollutions are global ecological concern.

3 Sources, Distributions, and Occurrences of MPs

The introduction of MPs into aquatic ecosystems via home sewage discharge has been
shown in a study conducted (Fendall & Sewell, 2009; Murphy et al., 2016). Multiple
potential pathways of MPs into the environment are presented in Fig. 3a while Table 1
demonstrates a detailed source MPs into the aquatic environment by different activ-
ities. These MPs originate from primary sources (Fig. 3b) and consist of particles
made of polyethylene, polypropylene, and polystyrene, which are often found in
cleaning and cosmetic goods. Additional main MPs consist of those originating
from industrial sources, such as the accidental release of plastic resin powders or
pellets utilized in air-blasting processes (Gregory, 2009), as well as a raw material
employed in the production of plastic goods (Lechner et al., 2014). MPs derived from
secondary sources refer to fragments resulting from the degradation of large plastic
objects, primarily caused by exposure to ultraviolet light (Fig. 3b). These secondary
MPs are generally regarded as significant contributors to the considerable quantities
of MPs found in the environment (Eriksen et al., 2014). Secondary MPs originating
from the process of laundering garments mostly consist of polyester, acrylic, and
polyamide materials. These MPs have the potential to accumulate in effluent, with
quantities exceeding 100 fibers per liter (Habib et al., 1998; Jiang, 2018).
Table 2 presents a comprehensive overview of the distribution and quantity of
MPs representing some examples of Asia and African continent. MPs are found in
several marine habitats, including beaches, water surfaces, and sediments, and have
also detected in distant areas of the ocean. Various studies have documented the
presence of MPs in inland waters among different geographical areas as outlined in
Table 2. Comparing data from various locations can be difficult because of variations
in sample procedures, investigated size ranges, and reporting units utilized. Hence,
it is important to establish universal standards for sampling and reporting data on
the presence of MPs to enable easy comparison (Phuong et al., 2016). Moreover,
the quantity of MPs varies significantly across various locations by many orders of
magnitude. The amount of MPs varies significantly even within the same location.
The uneven distribution pattern is due to their lower density, allowing them to be
Overview of Microplastics and Their Environmental Occurrences 11

Fig. 3 a Potential pathway of MPs into freshwater (Mishra et al., 2023). b Process diagram of
generation of MPs from plastics (Mishra et al., 2023)

Table 1 Sources of MPs in aquatic environment (Mishra et al., 2021, 2023)

Industrial production Pellets, powder
Pharmaceutical products Microspheres
Littering Wastes discarded by pedestrians into the rivers/streets, dumping
of trash out of windows
Laundry Washing results in abrasion and wearing of textiles
Personal care products Liquid soap, hair care products, makeup products shower gel,
tooth paste,
Indoor dust Electronics, kitchen wares, electric wiring, indoor paint, fibres,
cleaning agents, textiles, carpets, toys
Agricultural activity Bags for fertilizer, pesticide, and seed, horticultural foils
Construction activity PVC used for pipes, floors, PE in pipes and in cable insulation,
window frames, and wall coverings, PS used as foam insulation
Road wear and tyres abrasion Polymer-modified bitumen, car tyre, road marking
12 K. A. Adegoke et al.

easily carried by currents to accumulate in regions with poorer hydrodynamic condi-

tions. Moreover, the pace at which plastic garbage is loaded might vary greatly across
various places. It should be noted that there was a direct relationship between the
amount of MPs and the population density and level of development of suburban or
urban in a watershed (Yonkos et al., 2014). Studies have shown that MPs were present
in significant amounts in inland waterways of distant regions with minimal human
impact (Free et al., 2014; Zhang et al., 2016). The cause is probably the absence of
adequate waste management practices in such regions. High population density and
inadequate waste management systems in several Asian and African nations result
in significant danger of inland water contamination from MPs and various other
contaminants. For instance, this might account for the significant prevalence of MPs
seen in Three Gorges Reservoirs and Taihu Lake in China.
The study conducted on the occurrence of MPs in the sediment of Vembanad Lake
in India (Sruthy & Ramasamy, 2017) where ten sampling locations were selected
and samples were collected for the purpose of extracting microplastics using density
separation techniques. The process of identifying the polymer constituents of MPs
was conducted through the utilization of micro-Raman spectroscopy. The presence
of MPs was detected in the studied samples, suggesting a wider-spread dispersion
of those particles throughout Vembanad Lake. The sediment samples exhibited a
range of 96–496 particles/m2 , and mean abundance of 252.80 ± 25.76 particles/m2 ,
indicating a significant presence of MPs. The predominant polymer constituent of
MPs has been identified as low-density polyethylene. In another study conducted by
Wang et al. demonstrated the presence of MPs in urban waterways located in Wuhan,
China (Wang et al., 2017). This research aimed to enhance our comprehension of MPs
concentrations in inland freshwater environments. The quantities of MPs observed in
the investigated waters varied between 1660.0 ± 639.1 and 8925 ± 1591 numbers/
m3 . The predominant category of MPs seen in the examined bodies of water was
colored plastic, with fiber being the prevailing morphology. A majority exceeding
80% of MPs were observed to possess dimensions less than 2 mm. The predominant
polymer kinds of MPs that were examined were polypropylene and polyethylene
terephthalate.
Summarily, MPs have been widely dispersed and are prevalent in seas globally,
manifesting on coastlines, within the water column and sediment, and even in the
Africa and Asian Oceans/rivers. MPs have a similar level of prevalence in water,
urban estuaries, and discharged community wastewater sewages. The introduction
of primary MPs into aquatic ecosystems occurs mostly via the discharge of domestic
sewage. These MPs predominantly consist of particles derived from cleaning and
cosmetic goods, specifically polyethylene, polypropylene, and polystyrene. Addi-
tional sources of primary MPs include industrial raw stuff like plastic resin gran-
ules or pellets. MPs derived via secondary sources refer to the fragments from the
breaking down of large plastic objects. These fragments are believed to be significant
contributors to the considerable quantities of MPs found in the ecosystem.
Table 2 Samples of previous studies on MP pollution in some Asia and Africa regions
Study areas Sample Abundance (item/km2 ) Sizes (mm) MP types Refs.
Asia
Lake Hovsgol, Surface Maximum: 44,435 > 0.333 Not identified (Free et al.,
Mongolia water Mean: 20,264 2014)
Three Gorges Surface Maximum: 13.6175 × 106 0.112–5.0 Polyethylene, Polypropylene, Polystyrene (Zhang et al.,
Reservoir, China water Mean: 6.395 × 106 2015a)
Siling Co basin, Beach Maximum: 563 × 106 < 5.0 Polyethylene, Polyethylene terephthalate, (Zhang et al.,
China sediment Mean: 113 × 106 Polypropylene, Polystyrene, Polyvinyl 2016)
Chloride
Taihu Lake, China Surface Range: 0.01 × 106 –6.8 × 106 0.333–5.0 Cellophane, Polyamide, Polyethylene (Su et al.,
water terephthalate, Polypropylene 2016)
Lake Range: 11.0–234.6 items/kg 0.005–5.0 Cellophane, Polyamide, Polyethylene, (Su et al.,
sediment Polyethylene terephthalate, Polypropylene 2016)
Urban waters of Surface Range: 1660 ± 639.1–8925 ± 0.05–5.0 Polyamide, Polyethylene, Polyethylene (Wang et al.,
Wuhan, China water 1591 items/m3 terephthalate, Polypropylene, Polystyrene 2017)
Yangtze River Surface Maximum: 10,200 items/m3 > 0.5 Not identified (Zhao et al.,
Estuary, China water Mean: 4,137 items/m3 2014)
Overview of Microplastics and Their Environmental Occurrences

Three urban Surface Range: 100–4,100 items/m3 > 0.5 Polyethylene, Polypropylene, Polyvinyl (Zhao et al.,
estuaries, China water Chloride, Polytetrafluoroethylene 2015)
Africa
(continued)
13
Table 2 (continued)
14

Study areas Sample Abundance (item/km2 ) Sizes (mm) MP types Refs.

Lake Victoria, Fish 20% of fish > 0.25 Polyethylene, Polyester, Polyurethane, (Biginagwa
Mwanza Region in Polyethylene / Polypropylene Copolymer, et al., 2016)
Tanzania Silicone Rubber
Five urban estuaries Surface Range: 2–487 item/10,000 L > 0.25 Polystyrene (Naidoo et al.,
in KwaZulu-Natal, water 2015)
South Africa River Range: 13.7–745.4 item/500 mL > 0.02 Polystyrene (Naidoo et al.,
sediment 2015)
Five rivers in in River 440 to 1,556 particles/L marine Polyethylene terephthalate, Polyethylene, (Ebere et al.,
Nwangele local debris ( > Polyvinyl Chloride, 2019)
government area of 5 cm) and Polypropylene
Imo state, Nigeria small MPs
(11 µm)
Two tributaries of Freshwater L. varicus load per gram wet weight = - Styrene ethylene, Butylene styrene, (Akindele
the Gulf of Guinea 1.71 ± 0.46 g−1 , and T. fluviatilis Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS), et al., 2020)
(Ogun and Osun load per gram wet weight = 6.1 ± Chlorinated polyethylene, Polypropylene
Rivers) in Nigeria 1.05 g−1 (PP), and Polyester
Eastern Harbor of Surface 62,000 to 400,000 items km−2 and 187 25 to Polyethylene vinyl acetate, low low-density (Shabaka
Alexandria, Egypt water to 2020 g km−2 1000 µm polyethylene, high-density polyethylene, et al., 2020)
polyethylene terephthalate, and syndiotactic
polypropylene
Bloukrans River Sediment Large; ~ 1000 µm and small; < 400 µm 2–5 mm (Nel et al.,
system, in the 2018)
Eastern Cape South
Africa
Gulf of Annaba in Sediment 0.81 to Polyethylene, Polypropylene, Polyethylene (Tata et al.,
coasts of the 2.16 mm terephthalate, Polystyrene, Butyl branham, 2020)
Mediterranean Sea Ethylene propylene and Cellulose tri acetate
K. A. Adegoke et al.
Overview of Microplastics and Their Environmental Occurrences 15

4 Health and Environmental Impacts of MPs

The presence of MPs has been detected in many species inhabiting watery envi-
ronments. The greater presence of MPs in a marine environment has a significant
impact on their bioavailability, since it increases the likelihood of organisms coming
into contact with these particles. As seen in Fig. 4a, in addition to primary MPs,
the gradual breakdown of larger plastic objects leads to the generation of signifi-
cant quantities of secondary MPs. This process improves the accessibility of plastic
consumption by a broader array of species. This has led to the identification of a new
environmental risk (Jiang, 2018; Simantiris, 2024; Sivan, 2011; Wang et al., 2024).
The consumption of polystyrene beads with a size of 100 nm by suspension-feeding
bivalve molluscs showed a considerable increase when these beads were included in
manually-produced aggregates (Ward & Kach, 2009).
Additionally, it has been observed that MPs have the potential to release plasti-
cizers and adsorbed contaminants upon consumption. This subsequent introduction
of biological venoms and chemicals into the food chain can lead to erratic ecological
consequences, particularly in terms of the biomagnification and bioaccumulation of
toxic contaminant within organisms (Teuten et al., 2009). The incorporation of MPs
into marine aggregates has the potential to serve as an additional pathway for their
introduction into the food chain. MPs may undergo a sequential process of eges-
tion from fecal matter, followed by ingestion by detritivores including bacteria and
sediment-dwelling animals like the lugworm Arenicola marina, which possess the
ability to engage in bioturbation, a process involving the cycling of top sediment
layers (Fig. 4a). Figure 4b illustrates the comprehensive impact of MPs contami-
nation on living organisms and the environment. Furthermore, research has shown
that the color and structure of plastic particles affect how they are ingested, since
MPs may mimic food items for feeding organisms. They accidentally ingested those
particles instead of actual food (Mishra et al., 2023; Su et al., 2016).
Ingesting MPs can be hazardous to several freshwater organisms including zoo
benthos, zooplankton, mollusks, fish, and marine organisms (Mishra et al., 2023).
MPs have two main kinds of unfavorable impacts, including physical effects, such as
particle-induced ulcers and diminished lipid storage, and chemical effects, such as
toxicity from the release of adsorbed pollutants and additives (Wang et al., 2021).
Additionally, it was noted that apart from the toxicity of MPs ingested, there could
be indirect chemical toxicity caused by releasing various chemical compounds often
found inside plastic particles during production. The hydrophobic properties of
MP surfaces are important for adsorbing hydrophobic organic pollutants including
Polyaromatic Hydrocarbons and Organochlorine Pesticides (Zhang et al., 2015b). In
addition, MPs may absorb various heavy metals such as Cd, Zn, Ni, Pb (Brennecke
et al., 2016).
Previous research has demonstrated that MPs possess the ability to absorb chem-
ical contaminants, such as metals, and persistent organics from their surrounding
(Adegoke et al., 2023). Lee et al. shown that several plastic polymers, including
16 K. A. Adegoke et al.

Fig. 4 a Potential
mechanisms involved in the
transportation of
microplastics throughout
aquatic environments (Jiang,
2018). b Negative impacts of
MPs on human, animal and
environmental health
(Mishra et al., 2023)

PVC, PE, PP, and PS, exhibit significant sorption capabilities for DDTs, PAHs, chlo-
rinated benzenes and hexachlorocyclohexanes (Lee et al., 2014). Furthermore, it
has been shown that plastic pellets found on various beaches contain POPs, e.g.,
polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and organo-halogenated pesticides (Heskett et al.,
2012). The quantities of PAHs found on plastic pieces that had washed up on beaches
were measured to be as high as 45.0 ng/g (Hirai et al., 2011).
Additionally, PCBs and organochloride pesticides has been identified at maximum
levels of 450 ng/g and 200 ng/g, respectively (Mizukawa et al., 2013). Moreover,
studies conducted by other authors (Fries & Zarfl, 2012; Fries et al., 2013; Hirai et al.,
2011) have identified the presence of endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) such
as nonylphenol and bisphenol-A, as well as different plastic additives like phthalates,
Overview of Microplastics and Their Environmental Occurrences 17

inside MPs. One of the most significant concerns is the potential for MPs to release
EDCs, namely xenoestrogens, into water sources (Adegoke et al., 2023; Jiang, 2018;
Li et al., 2018; Wagner & Oehlmann, 2009, 2011). Research has demonstrated that
MP substances, including PE, silicone, PS, and polycarbonate, have been reported
to release bisphenol-A and nonylphenol (Fasano et al., 2012). Subsequently, the
concentrations of these chemical compounds detected in the aquatic ecosystem may
indicate the release of substances from the plastic materials as well as the prior
adsorption of substances from the surrounding environment.

5 Risk Assessment Associated with MPs in Aquatic

Environments and Policy Initiatives to Regulate Their
Presence

Regarding the risk assessment, polymers are commonly regarded as having a low
level of concern. The registration and evaluation of polymer materials under the
European Union’s Registration, Evaluation, Authorization & Restriction of Chemi-
cals (REACH) framework often does not need compliance, unless certain additives
are present that prompt such requirements (Jiang, 2018). Nevertheless, a recent study
has proposed that polymer should no longer be exempted from REACH regulation.
Instead, they would be subjected to the same rigorous monitoring, and reporting
obligations as harmful wastes. This would entail more stringent requirements for
labeling, recordkeeping, monitoring, and controlling throughout the entire life-cycle
of polymers (Steensgaard et al., 2017). Furthermore, the existing ecological (envi-
ronmental) risk assessment techniques, which have mostly been designed for chem-
ical contaminants, fail to encompass some potential effects of MPs on the envi-
ronment. The suitability of evaluation parameters originally developed for environ-
mental risk assessments of chemicals, might not be applicable to MPs. Assessing
the potential environmental hazards associated with MPs has inherent complexi-
ties, hence rendering the process nontrivial. The development of a comprehensive
strategy for assessing potential environmental concerns associated with MPs has yet
to be achieved. Prior to undertaking such task, it is imperative to address several data
deficiencies, such as the lack of sufficient information on the destiny and impacts
of the substance in water and soil, as well as the absence of size distribution data
throughout all environmental compartments. Additionally, it is necessary to modify
existing environmental risk assessment techniques to ensure their applicability.
Various groups have put forth proposals for the establishment of management
rules pertaining to MPs, mostly driven by concerns about environmental impact and
potential risks to human health. The urgent need to address the issue of MPs has
been emphasized by the United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP). It has
been observed by UNEP that a significant number of marine creatures ingest MPs,
resulting in detrimental physical and chemical effects on their well-being. Conse-
quently, the UNEP has implemented a comprehensive initiative that involves the
18 K. A. Adegoke et al.

active participation of more than 40 million individuals across 120 countries. This
program includes the implementation of educational strategies aiming at fostering
awareness and advocating for the reduction of plastic use, promoting recycling prac-
tices, and assessing the effectiveness of waste disposal facilities (Caruso, 2015). The
proposed strategy entails the implementation of many workshops aimed at fostering
the capacity development and dissemination of exemplary methodologies among
participants. In 2011, the plastic industry presented a collaborative declaration known
as the Joint Declaration of the Global Plastics Associations aimed at addressing the
issue of marine litter. This declaration encompassed many initiatives designed to miti-
gate littering and included a promise to endorse several litter assessment programs.
Non-Governmental Organizations have developed initiatives with the objective of
enhancing public consciousness and assessing the magnitude of MPs contamination,
as well as its implications on a national, regional, and global level (Jiang, 2018).
Several jurisdictions in Africa and Asia need to establish the process of executing
legislation aimed at forbidding the manufacturing, sale, and utilization of primary
MPs, including microbeads in personal care items and cosmetics. These measures
are anticipated to contribute to a certain degree of reduction in the presence of MPs
within aquatic ecosystems.
Nevertheless, it is worth noting that MPs, which are mostly derived from the
fragmentation of larger plastic objects, have a significant role in contributing to envi-
ronmental pollution. Furthermore, the existing legislative measures under discus-
sion appear to have little efficacy in addressing the issue of MPs accumulation in
the environment. In light of the aforementioned, it is essential to adopt strategies
and implement measures focusing on the mitigation of the environmental repercus-
sions associated with plastic waste. These efforts should focus on promoting the
judicious and resourceful utilization of plastics among both companies and indi-
viduals, while concurrently raising awareness about effective methods for incorpo-
rating plastic materials into daily routines. Ultimately, the overarching objective is
to establish a secure ecological habitat for marine and aquatic organisms, as well
as for human populations. The Joint Group of Experts on the Scientific Aspects of
Marine Environmental Protection (GESAMP) advocates for the global adoption of
the Reduce-Reuse-Recycle circular economy as an urgent measure to mitigate the
influx of plastics into the ocean (GESAMP, 2015; Jiang, 2018). This approach is
deemed cost-effective and efficient in reducing the overall volume of plastic objects
and MP particles that accumulate in marine ecosystems.

6 Conclusions

This study examines the efficient strategies to alleviate the detrimental impacts of
MPs, encompassing both traditional and novel approaches. Furthermore, we inves-
tigated the detrimental impacts of micro plastic exposure on human well-being,
considering variables such as size, concentration, and length of exposure. In order
Overview of Microplastics and Their Environmental Occurrences 19

to enhance public consciousness regarding the issues associated with MPs and facil-
itate the advancement of viable remedies, it is vital to undertake various measures.
These measures encompass educational campaigns aimed at augmenting individuals’
understanding of MPs, as well as utilizing media outlets such as television programs,
journals, and social media platforms. MPs have been detected in a range of human
biological samples, including feces, sputum, saliva, blood, bronchoalveolar lavage
fluid, placenta, and other organs. This discovery implies that these particles might
have harmful impacts on human health. These impacts can include possible health
hazards such as cancer, immunotoxicity, intestinal disorders, lung diseases, cardio-
vascular disease, inflammatory diseases, and detrimental effects on pregnancy and
mother exposure to offspring.
Several research gaps and difficulties deserve more analysis and development in
future studies regarding MPs. These include the necessity for more investigation
into the consequences of microplastics on human well-being, pinpointing partic-
ular processes that underlie their detrimental effects, examining possible factors that
influence human exposure to them, and devising efficient measures to reduce their
impact and safeguard public health. Additional investigation is required to compre-
hend the immediate and long-term harmful impacts of microplastics on both people
and animals. Furthermore, it is necessary to devise viable substitutes for plastic waste
generated by industries and public. The conversion of MPs into useful by-products,
the enhancement of their separation from other contaminants, and the determina-
tion of their environmental fate are imperative. It is crucial to identify appropriate
substitutes for disposable plastic and establish recycling and reusing techniques.
Additionally, it is necessary to strengthen the quality and effectiveness of substi-
tutes for plastic, such as bioplastics, and incorporate technology for treating MPs in
order to improve their ability to be removed and reduce any adverse effects. When
choosing a method to decrease plastic use, it is important to take into account several
elements like infrastructure, economic circumstances, types of MPs emitted, alter-
native choices, and the willingness of the people to shift towards an economy that is
not reliant on plastic.
The research on wastewater treatment facilities by MPs has revealed specific
concerns that will be the focus of future investigations. Additional research should
focus on the development of standardized sampling and analytical protocols to get
a more comprehensive understanding of the destiny of MPs in wastewater treatment
facilities or other environmental conditions. Simultaneously, future study should
prioritize the thorough examination of specific MPs, especially in industrial areas.
Furthermore, comprehensive research is necessary to examine the impact of oper-
ational factors (such as salinity, hydraulic retention times, and dissolved organic
matter) on the treatment process efficiency to eliminate MPs from wastewater.

7 Declaration of Competing Interest

No conflict of interest.
20 K. A. Adegoke et al.

Acknowledgements Authors acknowledge their respective universities for the enabling platform
to write this chapter.

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Microplastic Debris Poses a Serious
Threat to the Health of Our Ecosystems
and Their Inhabitants

Barathan Balaji Prasath

Abstract Microplastics (MPs), which are smaller than 0.1–5 mm long, pose a
major environmental threat. These compounds come from cosmetics, personal care,
clothing, and industry. These particles have been found in remote places like the
Arctic and Antarctic and survive for decades. Numerous studies show that MPs
may harm biodiversity and ecosystems. For example, aquatic organisms like turtles,
whales, and fish often mistake MPs for food and consume them. This can result in
a range of health issues, including internal injuries, starvation, and reduced repro-
duction rates. MPs have the potential to cause harm to larger animals and humans
who consume seafood by accumulating in the food chain. The presence of MPs
can alter the physical and chemical properties of soil, which can negatively impact
plant growth and soil health. These particles reduce water retention and nutrient
availability, lowering soil quality. MPs may also change soil microbial commu-
nity composition and function, affecting nutrient cycle dynamics and soil structure.
Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) and heavy metals can stick to the surface of
MPs, increasing their toxicity and posing a greater risk to organisms. MPs have the
potential to transport these contaminants and cause harm to the environment. MPs
have far-reaching impacts on ecosystems, making them a significant environmental
concern. Additional investigation is required to completely understand the extent of
the issue and develop feasible measures for reducing their discharge and alleviating
their effects.

Keywords Microplastics · Pollution · Marine · Terrestrial · Environment

degradation

B. B. Prasath (B)
Coastal and Marine Ecology Division, Gujarat Institute of Desert Ecology, Bhuj, Gujarat 370001,
India
e-mail: b.balajiprasath@gmail.com

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 25

J. C. Egbueri et al. (eds.), Microplastics in African and Asian Environments, Emerging
Contaminants and Associated Treatment Technologies,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-64253-1_2
26 B. B. Prasath

1 Introduction

The issue of MPs pollution and its potential impact on the environment and living
species, including humans, is of great significance in contemporary society (Bhuyan,
2022; Mamun et al., 2023). Synthetic polymers emerged in the latter half of the 19th
century, marking the start of the plastics industry, which has seen significant growth
since the conclusion of World War II. However, plastic, initially intended to enhance
human well-being, has become an ecological menace due to its pervasive pres-
ence in several environmental domains, including the atmosphere, hydrosphere, and
lithosphere ((Melchor-Martínez et al., 2022). The food packaging industry heavily
relies on plastic materials, significantly contributing to plastic pollution. Research
has shown that the interplay between food and plastic packaging can contaminate
food products, compromising their nutritional properties and safety and making
them unsuitable for consumption (Alamri et al., 2021). MPs have been found in
several ecological systems, including soil, surface fluids, coastal sediments, beach
sands, freshwater, and deep-sea settings. Inadequate waste disposal practices result
in the accumulation of plastic, which has been recognized as a significant envi-
ronmental concern due to the severe pollution it causes. (Pandey et al., 2023; Ziani
et al., 2023). MPs extensive dispersion and enduring characteristics pose a significant
danger to the natural environment and the well-being of biological entities. Research
has shown that MPs can enter the environment and last for extended periods due
to their inherent properties. These include manufactured materials, primarily poly-
mers, which have solid particles smaller than 5 mm, do not dissolve in water, and do
not break down easily. Marine creatures are directly or indirectly exposed to MPs,
adversely affecting their eating behaviors, growth rates, and reproductive functions
(Bulannga & Schmidt, 2022; Issac & Kandasubramanian, 2021). Individuals are
susceptible to these contaminants by consuming seafood, fish, and crustaceans. MPs
can cause physical injury, including obstructing internal passages and tissue damage.
Additionally, they can exert chemical harm by serving as vehicles for transporting
pollutants and poisons. Moreover, MPs can disrupt intricate food webs, modify the
cycling of essential nutrients, and ultimately contribute to the ongoing reduction of
biodiversity (Table 1). Current research has significantly emphasized investigating
MPs in several ecosystems, including rivers, lakes, the Arctic, soil, and the atmo-
sphere. The results indicate that rivers have many MPs, often associated with human
activities. Locations with dense populations and urban land cover tend to exhibit
greater concentrations of MPs. MPs, considered a newly recognized form of pollu-
tion, present a significant concern for the integrity of water quality and the health of
freshwater ecosystems. The main reason is that they can hold harmful chemicals and
adsorb, and release persistent organic contaminants (Dalvand & Hamidian, 2023;
Wang et al., 2023). Plastic degradation leads to the formation of microplastic or
nanoplastic particles. MPs, have a diameter of less than 0.1–5 mm, while nanoplas-
tics, known as NPs, have a diameter ranging from 1 to 100 or 1000 nm. Extensive
documentation exists about the adverse impacts of MPs on the environment and many
creatures, particularly those inhabiting aquatic ecosystems (Zhang et al., 2021). MPs
Microplastic Debris Poses a Serious Threat to the Health of Our … 27

found in marine life can pose a potential risk to the health of consumers who consume
these polluted species. Therefore, increasing efforts to mitigate the escalation of
pollution resulting from MPs is crucial. This is necessary to protect the well-being
and sustainability of the ecosystem. In order to effectively address the issue of MPs in
our environment, it is crucial that develop viable solutions. This requires a thorough
comprehension of where these particles originate and how they enter river networks,
as this knowledge is key to preventing their accumulation in aquatic ecosystems.
Further investigation is required to examine the impact of altering land use patterns
on the levels of MPs in rivers throughout an urban-rural continuum. An in-depth
exposition regarding the classifications of food products that are highly susceptible
to MPs contamination, as well as the disruptive mechanisms occurring within live
food sources and the human body, is imperative to the detrimental consequences of
MPs are a growing environmental concern due to their potential impact on the safety
of food meant for human consumption. The present review provides a comprehensive
overview of the latest findings on microplastics and highlights areas where further
research is needed to inform future research initiatives.

2 The Impact of Microplastic Particles on Marine

Environments

The issue of MPs is rapidly gaining attention in coastal areas. These minute particles
present a severe hazard to sea creatures, as they are prevalent and can be ingested by
fish, shellfish, and seabirds. (Savoca et al., 2019). Numerous studies have shown this
can harm their health and reproduction ability (Pan et al., 2019; Roman et al., 2020).
Coastlines, commonly called seashores, act as the boundary between landmasses
and bodies of water, such as oceans or seas. The saline composition and various
marine life in these aquatic environments are unique to oceans. Marine habitats play
a crucial role in promoting maritime travel, and their well-being is essential to the
ecological health of our planet. According to studies by Talbot and Chang (2022) and
Lahens et al. (2018), several factors contribute to the elevated levels of MPs pollution
in coastal regions, particularly in urban areas with high levels of industrialization
and high population densities along the coast. Additionally, the Agulhas currents
influence the area’s subtropical cyclonic weather patterns, which can contribute to
the spread of MPs (Koseki et al., 2018). While the global mean concentration of MPs
in surface water remains below 6650 particles per cubic meter (m3 ), many regions still
encounter significant contamination levels. For instance, the average concentration
of MPs in the surface waters collected from the Aras River was 12.8 ± 10.5 MPs per
cubic meter. Similarly, the Qarasu estuary area had a sediment MPs concentration of
182 ± 111 MPs per kilogram (Vayghan et al., 2022). The abundance of particles in
coastal waters, namely above 100,000 particles per cubic meter in the Arabian Gulf
and Mediterranean Sea, poses a potential threat to the ecological well-being of these
regions (Xu et al., 2018). It has been observed that the silt exhibits heterogeneous
Table 1 The concentration of microplastics found in both terrestrial and marine ecosystems
28

Products Polymer types Size (μm) MPs concentration References

Terrestrial environment
Packaged meat Polystyrene 450 4.0–18.7 MP/kg (Kedzierski et al., 2020)
Chicken meat Low-density polythene 14.3–152.7 0.03 ± 0.04 to 1.19 ± 0.72 MP/ (Habib et al., 2022a)
g
Goat meat Polythene 1279.2 ± 835.0 2200–6500 MP/kg (Habib et al., 2022b)
Chicken breast Polyvinylchloride 3–4000 0 (Huang et al., 2020)
Commercial salts Polyethylene, polyurethane, 65–2500 11–193 MP/kg (Kapukotuwa et al., 2022)
Polypropylene
Packaged salts Polyvinyl acetate 3.3–4460 0.67 ± 1.15–3.42 ± 4.94 MP/kg (Fadare et al., 2021)
Table salt Polyesters, polyethylene terephthalate, 0.1–152.7 103 ± 39 to 56 ± 49 MP/kg (Seth & Shriwastav, 2018)
polyamide, polyethylene, and
polystyrene
Sea, rock and lake salt Fragment, fibre, sheet 100 to 5000 506 MP/kg (Kim et al., 2018)
Vinegar Polyethylene 1–5000 16.64 ± 6.34 /L (Makhdoumi et al., 2023)
Milk Polyethersulfone and polysulfon 0.1–5 mm 3 ± 2–11 ± 3.54 / L (Kutralam-Muniasamy
et al., 2020)
Drinking water Synthetic polymers 0.1–5 mm 0 to 61 kg/L (Kosuth et al., 2018)
Rice Polystyrene 0 67 ± 26 μg/g (Dessì et al., 2021)
Polyethersulfone
Sugar Coloured fibres and fragments 0 217 ± 123 MP/kg (Liebezeit & Liebezeit,
2013)
Soft drinks, cold tea and polyamide, poly(ester-amide), 0.1–3 mm 28 ± 5.29 particles/L (Shruti et al., 2020)
energy drinks acrylonitrile–butadiene–styrene and
poly(ethylene-terephthalate)
(continued)
B. B. Prasath
Table 1 (continued)
Products Polymer types Size (μm) MPs concentration References
Teabags Polyethersulfone 500 nm to 100 μm 0 (Xu et al., 2021)
nylon
Pear, Tomato, Apple, Fibre, plastic fragment 0.1–1 mm 2.9 ± 1.6 particles/g (Aydın et al., 2023)
Potatoes, Cucumber and
Onion
Broccoli, lettuce, and Not specified 1.5–2.5 1.0E + 05 ± 0.4E + 05 (Conti et al., 2020)
carrots
Sheep faeces Polyvinyl chloride 30 μm—2 mm 997 ± 971 43.8 ± 16.2 MP/kg (Beriot et al., 2021)
Pig manure Polymer composition 0 43.8 ± 16.2 MP/kg (Yang et al., 2021)
House dust Polyethylene terephthalate, 150 μm 38–120,000 μg/g (Zhang et al., 2020)
polycarbonate
Marine environment
Nori polypropylene, polyethylene and poly 1–5 mm 0.9 to 3.0 items/g (Li et al., 2020)
(ethylene-propylene)
Oyster, mussel, Manila Poly (ethylene-co-vinyl acetate) 0.1–0.2 mm 0.15 (0–1.8) particles/g (Cho et al., 2019)
clam, and scallop
Squid Polyethylene 100–400 0.008 ± 0.02 MPs/g w.w (Daniel et al., 2021)
Microplastic Debris Poses a Serious Threat to the Health of Our …

Polypropylene, Polystyrene,
Indian white shrimp Polyamide 0.157–2.785 mm 0.04 ± 0.07 items/g (Daniel et al., 2020)
Polypropylene
Crab Cellophane 20–5000 μm 0.80 ± 1.1 – 23 ± 25 MPs/g (Zhang et al., 2021)
Polyacrylamide w.w
Japanese anchovy Polypropylene 150–1000 μm 2.3 MPs/individual (Tanaka & Takada, 2016)
Polystyrene
Polyethylene
(continued)
29
Table 1 (continued)
30

Products Polymer types Size (μm) MPs concentration References

Urchin Poly (ethylene-co-vinyl acetate) 7–1000 μm 0.16 ± 0.09 MPs/g w.w (Feng et al., 2020)
Polyethylene
Polypropylene
Pelagic and demersal fish Rayon 0.13–14.3 mm 1.90 particles/individual (Lusher et al., 2013)
Polyamide
Benthic and pelagic fish Alkyd resin, nylon 0.217–4.81 mm 0.27 ± 0.63 (Neves et al., 2015)
Polyethylene particles/individual
Benthic organisms Polyester; polyethylene terephthalate; 0.05–5 mm 1.7–47.0 MP/g (Wang et al., 2019)
polyurethane; polyamide; nylon
B. B. Prasath
Microplastic Debris Poses a Serious Threat to the Health of Our … 31

concentrations of MPs across several sampling sites. The sediment core underwent
analysis, determining a mean abundance of 1750 pieces per kilogram of dry weight.
Several studies have found plastic trash and MPs linked to it in different sample
areas in urban estuaries in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa (Naidoo & Glassom, 2016).
The Bayhead area had the highest level of plastic abundance, whereas the sample
sites situated further away from the city center showed the lowest plastic content.
Nel and Froneman (2015) conducted a quantitative analysis of MPs in sand and
water samples from South Africa’s southeastern coastline. The allocation of MPs
is contingent upon the circulation patterns of the water system rather than being
subject to the effects of nearby land use and population density. The Atlantic Ocean,
especially the Gulf of Guinea, off the coast of Nigeria, was the site of the first
studies that looked at how MPs contamination spread and was described in sediment
samples (Fred-Ahmadu et al., 2020). The disparities in MPs found across different
beaches may be ascribed to changes in tidal waterline systems, including high and
low tides. The assessment of MPs abundance along the Atlantic Ocean coastline has
yet to be conducted, highlighting the need for quantitative and occurrence studies
(Vilakati et al., 2020). According to Venkatramanan et al. (2022), when looking at
coastal areas along the Indian coast; it is clear that the people of Chennai rely on
plastic products much more than other residents do. People are worried about the
tiny pieces of plastic seen on city streets because these particles could get into land
and sea ecosystems through different channels, such as melting snow, rain, and wind.
When salt samples from the Vellar estuary were analyzed, nylon and MPs were found
to be the most common polymers. The prevailing polymer identified in the water and
sediment samples was MPs of the low-density polyethylene kind (Nithin et al., 2022).
In Tuticorin, salt is made with water from the sea and bore wells; a study looked
at saltpans there and found about 54 ± 13.4 and 12 ± 9.5 particles per kilogram
(Sathish et al., 2021). According to the existing data, researchers have inferred that
an individual can consume around 216 particles of marine salt and 48 particles
of bore well salt annually. Moreover, people’s average daily salt consumption is
estimated at 5 g. According to the findings of (Seth & Shriwastav, 2018), there may
be a link between microdebris and the theory that marine salt is directly derived
from coastal fluids. Furthermore, the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) has
identified Gujarat as a notable region for producing plastic waste. The discovery
above aligns with a study on Gujarat’s fine salt, which revealed the existence of 1075
tiny pieces (Vidyasakar et al., 2021). A recent investigation has shown that the mean
concentration of MPs in commercially available salt packets was below 700 MPs per
kilogram, (Sivagami et al., 2021) reported.
The transportation of MPs by river currents might effectively transfer these small
particles to lakes that mostly receive water from these river systems. Chabahar Bay is
a prominent tourist destination due to its significant economic importance (Hosseini
et al., 2020). The purpose of this investigation was to detect MPs through the exam-
ination of samples of surface water and sediment obtained from the designated
bay. Various types of MPs, such as fragments, pellets, and threads, were identi-
fied during the analysis of sediment samples. The collective presence of these MPs
constituted a certain fraction of the surface water sample. According to the study
32 B. B. Prasath

Hosseini et al. (2020), fibers were most prevalent, followed by films and fragments,
which comprised most of the sample. The occurrence of fibers in wastewater may
be ascribed to the use of grill nettings in domestic and recreational settings. Within
the specific context of Qatar, it was observed that around 1.5% of the aggregate MPs
found in the surface water were in the form of pieces. On the contrary, in Chabahar
Bay, there is a higher percentage of pieces, estimated to be around. This observation
implies that the MPs in Chabahar Bay have experienced erosion over a prolonged
period. The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP, 2019) has identified a
correlation between the proximity of densely inhabited urban areas and tourist activ-
ities and the prevalence of elevated levels of marine debris along Iran’s coastlines.
Over 195,000 MPs were found along the shoreline of Bandar Abbas, with an average
density of 3252 ± 2766 particles per square meter (Nabizadeh et al., 2019). Addi-
tionally, the Qarasu estuary and the Aras River, which flow into the Caspian Sea,
had an average amount of 217.8 ± 132.6 MPs per kilogram of sediment. Overall,
the increasing prevalence of MPs in water bodies is an alarming issue that calls for
continuous research and action to reduce its effect on ocean ecosystems and wellness
(Fig. 1).
Studies conducted earlier have investigated the prevalence of MPs in several
coastal regions, including coasts, gulfs, bays, and estuaries. The study of MPs pollu-
tion in water and soil samples from water ecosystem regions shows that they are
more polluted than urban areas, based on in-depth physicochemical tests. (Avio
et al., 2017). However, the sediment samples show the highest plastic particle preva-
lence, especially in distant regions. Both macroplastics and microplastics can trans-
port pathogens and release plasticizers (Zettler et al., 2013). MPs can absorb and
release more substances, and because they have a higher surface area-to-volume
ratio, they can collect harmful contaminants through bioaccumulation. Teuten et al.
(2009) noticed the phenomenon in question in their research, semi-enclosed marine

Fig. 1 Microplastics in the ocean carry harmful pollutants and threaten both marine life and human
health
Microplastic Debris Poses a Serious Threat to the Health of Our … 33

ecosystems lead to limited interactions with the open ocean, allowing MPs to accu-
mulate. Corals, phytoplankton, zooplankton, sea urchins, lobsters, and fish are just
a few marine organisms that consume these tiny particles. Their small size leads to
misidentification as sustenance, causing them to be transmitted to higher food chain
levels. The impact of MPs on marine biota is significant, as they can cause entan-
glement and ingestion, potentially threatening marine creature survival (Alberghini
et al., 2023). The vast majority of MPs fragments come from land-based sources.
They seriously threaten coastal ecosystems, including coral reefs, because MPs pollu-
tion can harm them very easily (Sharma & Chatterjee, 2017). According to research
by Wang et al. (2018) and Cheung et al. (2018), floating MPs will be present in the
oceans in amounts ranging from 2.5 × 107 to 1.3 × 108 metric tons by the year 2100.
The analysis predicts a fifty-fold increase within a century. By 2100, global deep-
sea sediment concentrations could reach 373 particles per kilogram. Coastal regions
deposit around 5% of marine particles annually, with the Mediterranean Sea and
Atlantic Ocean being the most significant aquatic features on the African continent.
Shabaka et al. (2020) first presented a series of publications detailing three distinct
research studies in various Tunisian marine environments, including bays, gulfs,
and coastal areas within the Mediterranean Sea. According to Tata et al. (2020), the
investigations in Egypt and Algeria revealed MPs contamination in soil samples from
the Tunisian beach in the Mediterranean Sea in 2018. This marks the first recorded
occurrence of marine pollutants along the Tunisian coastline, indicating substantial
pollution from MPs in this area. Tata et al. (2020) undertook research investigating the
number and features of marine protected zones throughout the North African coast
of the Mediterranean Sea, explicitly focusing on Algeria. Matsuguma et al. (2017)
have reported the discovery of MPs contamination in sediment core samples from
the Gulf and Bay areas bordering Asia and Africa. As shown by (Pan et al. (2019), it
is projected that this phenomenon will lead to an increase in ambient concentrations,
perhaps above permitted levels, by the middle of the 21st century.
MPs are located in different positions across the world, both in estuaries and the
open ocean. The critical research pertaining to the subject of discussion includes that
done by Xiong et al. (2018), Cai et al. (2018), Pivokonsky et al., 2018). Oceanic
currents and weather conditions influence the presence and dispersion of MPs in
marine environments. This phenomenon results in an inequitable allocation of MPs
across diverse maritime regions, originating from many sources, including terres-
trial and other marine ecosystems. Researchers (Pan et al., 2019) did a study that
showed a link between MPs contamination and many factors, such as population
density and river flow. According to (Sun et al., 2018), MPs pollution is common in
China’s densely populated areas, especially in the Bohai Sea and Yellow River Delta.
According to a study published in The Lancet Planetary Health in 2017, a significant
proportion, around 80%, of MPs particles found in the oceanic habitat can be traced
back to land based sources such as rivers, ports, and coastal tourists. MPs are found
in wastewater treatment facilities, urban runoff, and fishing activities. About 20% of
MPs are attributed to these industries. MPs can adsorb chemical pollutants attributed
to chemical additives in plastic production. This study highlights the importance of
addressing these issues. (Kwon et al., 2017). They could have also come from the
34 B. B. Prasath

nearby water, which could have been dirty because plastics are very good at absorbing
them (Liu et al., 2019a, 2019b; Velzeboer et al., 2014). For the same reason, if condi-
tions change to stop the sorption process, contaminants could be released from MPs
that animals eat and enter their bodies through desorption. (Liu et al., 2019b) claim
that the present situation demonstrates that MPs have a dual role as both a source and
a sink for pollutants. Research indicates that harmful contaminants can accumulate
in animal species, suggesting a similar issue in humans. MPs can bond with pollu-
tants, causing them to enter organic matter. This raises concerns about their impact
on pollution in the marine food chain. MPs can transport chemical pollutants from
marine environments to living organisms. This increase may be attributed to human
settlements and industrial activities.
Aquatic ecosystems are home to many animals, including fish, benthic inverte-
brates, deep-sea organisms, and higher-trophic animals (Amelia et al., 2021; Naidu
et al., 2018; Savoca et al., 2019). Unfortunately, these animals have been found
to consume MPs particles, leading to the transportation of these harmful parti-
cles throughout the food chain. This issue has become a growing concern, as it
poses a significant threat to aquatic organisms and the marine environment (Wright
et al., 2013). The accumulation of MPs in marine ecosystems and animals has led to
numerous studies to understand the factors that affect MPs bioavailability (Guzzetti
et al., 2018). These factors include the physical characteristics of MPs particles, such
as their size, coloration, mass, structure, and mobility. The chances of being eaten, the
rate at which they are flushed out, and their ability to move around are also affected
by species, structure, and physiological traits (Cheung et al., 2018). Careful consid-
eration of these factors is essential while conducting toxicological investigations
on MPs to understand their potential hazards to marine organisms. MPs in marine
environments function as a reservoir or transporter, leading to the buildup of chem-
ical pollutants. The accumulation of these pollutants enables efficient transit over
extended distances, enhancing their bioavailability to organisms when consumed
(Ma et al., 2020). Although the present levels of marine pollution (MP) in the water
are now below critical limits, it is still imperative to address this issue promptly due to
the reported exponential rise trend. MPs can cause many species to move, be stressed
out, have changes in their energy budgets, have problems with their metabolism or
immune systems, change their behavior, become less fertile, have trouble digesting
food, damage their intestines a lot, and even die (Liao & Yang, 2020). In addition to
its physiological effects, MPs has been shown to have external implications on the
environment, modifying the availability of food and light resources for many species.
The ingestion of MPs by different species is subject to variation due to their distinct
physiological and anatomical attributes. For example, previous research has shown
that the bioavailability of MPs to organisms depends on the species involved and the
physicochemical properties of the MPs.
For this reason, these factors affect where and how easy it is for organisms to
find MPs that they can eat, affecting how dangerous or harmful MPs are to different
species. The effects of MPs moving through biological membranes might be different
depending on the species involved and the area where the movement takes place.
MPs can start moving through an organism when eaten or breathed in. They can then
Microplastic Debris Poses a Serious Threat to the Health of Our … 35

move to different body parts, like the lungs, gills, or digestive tract. Subsequently,
the MPs have the potential to move to many bodily systems, including the circulatory
system, hemolymph, liver, or kidney (Amelia et al., 2021). The ingestion of MPs has
been shown to have significant impacts on various marine organisms, including filter
feeders, plankton, zooplankton, sea birds, and marine megafauna, such as sharks,
whales, seals, sea turtles, and polar bears. For instance, the presence of MPs in the
gastrointestinal tracts of some fish species results in histological alterations inside
the intestinal system. The ingestion of MPs by fish has also been found to induce
metabolic alterations, such as an elevation in fatty acid levels and a reduction in amino
acid levels. Furthermore, MPs have been shown to harm the health and survival of
avian species inhabiting marine environments. The ingestion of plastic fragments
by these organisms elicits changes in their eating habits, reproductive patterns, and
mortality rates. Marine megafauna, such as sharks, whales, seals, sea turtles, and polar
bears, have also been found to exhibit vulnerability to the ingestion of MPs throughout
worldwide marine ecosystems. The ingestion of MPs by aquatic organisms poses
a significant threat to the marine environment and the survival of various marine
species. When toxicological studies are done on MPs, they need to consider the things
that affect how bioavailable they are and the possible risks they pose to marine life.

3 The Impact of Microplastics Particles on Terrestrial

Environments

Terrestrial environments are a fundamental component that provides crucial ecolog-

ical services to our planet. However, it is a well-established fact that human activities
such as mining, waste management, and farming have caused severe soil pollution
on a massive scale. This can impact climate change, biodiversity loss, crop produc-
tivity, food security, and human health. We must act now for a sustainable future (Guo
et al., 2020). MPs are emerging as a persistent pollutant in soils, and their sources,
release, transport, fate, and impacts in terrestrial systems are still not fully understood
(De-la-Torre, 2020). Extensive research has been conducted on MPs in water, but
extracting them from soil remains challenging. As a result, additional exploration is
necessary to develop efficient techniques for measuring MPs in soil and gaining a
better understanding of their impact (Campanale et al., 2022). Anthropogenic activity
in urbanized and agricultural environments is responsible for high levels of pollu-
tion in soils. All of these factors significantly contribute to MPs pollution in land
(Mbachu et al., 2021; Sajjad et al., 2022). Using sewage sludge and compost is a
significant method for plastic to enter agricultural and horticultural soils. Agricultural
land commonly uses sludge from sewage plants as a fertilizer and soil supplement.
Nonetheless, research indicates that using sewage sludge leads to the inclusion of
MPs into soils and contributes to the problem (Koutnik et al., 2021).Treatment plants
receive MPs from various sources, especially in areas with sewage sludge. Reducing
plastic waste is crucial for environmental and health protection. Sun et al. (2018)
36 B. B. Prasath

studied that sewage treatment plants remove most MPs particles from wastewater,
leaving them to accumulate in sewerage. In their study, Li et al. (2018) discovered
that 28 wastewater plants in China contained an average of 22,700 ± 12,100 MPs
per kg of dry bio solids. The exist of MPs in terrestrial ecosystems is largely due
to the role of plastic in sewage sludge, along with compost being a source of MPs
in agriculture. In addition, composting rural domestic waste can result in soil MPs.
On average, 2400 ± 358 particles/kg were found (Gui et al., 2021). Braun et al.
(2021) found composts obtained from composting plants and hardware stores may
contain plastic materials, with a range of 0.05 to 1.36 g kg-1 . The use of compost
is a significant route for plastic to enter agricultural and horticultural soils, which
could lead to 84,000 to 1,610,000 plastic particles ha-1 annually. The study cited
above highlights the prospect of plastic waste entering agricultural and horticultural
soils through compost application, indicating a significant pathway for contamina-
tion. This poses a potential threat to the environment and food systems, necessitating
careful consideration of the implications (Berg et al., 2020). Half of the total MPs
are made up of tyre and pavements wear particles, which have the potential to cause
an increase in the levels of MPs found in terrestrial ecosystem and cause a range of
toxicological effects. Tires and roads contain natural and synthetic rubbers, paints,
and unknown chemical compounds. The complex mixture of compounds contained
within tire and road wear particles could result in complex leachates, which could
adversely affect terrestrial biodiversity (Galafassi et al., 2019). Microplastics (MPs)
can be found in the environment due to the presence of tyre and road wear parti-
cles, as well as landfills and centers processing industrial waste. Up to 42% of plastic
waste worldwide is held in landfills, can cause the fragmentation of plastics into MPs
due to the conditions within, environmental extremes (Kibria et al., 2023). Leachate-
carried MPs may enter different environments and infiltrate aquatic and terrestrial
ecosystems. MPs in soils undergo less degradation than those in oceans due to lack
of mechanical processes and UV degradation. (He et al., 2019; Kazour et al., 2019).
MPs in land can have various toxicological impact on soil organisms, including alter
in soil microbial communities, reduced soil fertility, and reduced plant growth. It is of
utmost importance to comprehend the origins, movement, and ultimate destination
of MPs within the land-based ecosystems in order to minimize their adverse effects
on both the environment and human well-being (Fig. 2). The impact of MPs on soil
ecosystems has become a growing concern as research has revealed their potential
to carry pathogens and other harmful microorganisms (Zhou et al., 2020).
Bacteria are vital to the health and well-being of soil ecosystems, and MPs
can significantly affect their ecological function. MPs promote the formation of
biofilms that alter bacterial communities and can cause the spread of microorgan-
isms throughout ecosystems, leading to changes in the ecosystem’s flora and function
(Wu et al., 2017). Although MPs do not adsorb most pathogenic bacteria, studies have
shown that MPs can cause the horizontal genetic gene transfer in sewage treatment
plants (Conley et al., 2019).Despite the potential perilous, so far there are limited
research on the adsorption of microorganisms by MPs in sediment and the growth
of microorganisms on the exterior of MPs. Therefore, more research is required to
Microplastic Debris Poses a Serious Threat to the Health of Our … 37

Fig. 2 Microplastics have a detrimental impact on both terrestrial life and human health

expand and deepen our comprehension of the effect of MPs on terrestrial ecosys-
tems. The importance of protists in soil biodiversity and function cannot be over-
stated. Protists play a significant role in controlling fertile soil, nutrient cycle and
plant growth. Soil protists are important for the transportation of microplastics (MPs)
into the soil food web and can detect soil contamination. However, the population
of protists is decreasing due to the increase in plastic concentration in soils. This
is a cause for concern because soil protists are vital for the transfer and absorp-
tion of MPs within the soil food chain (Kanold et al., 2021). Further investigation
is required to acquire a complete comprehension of the relationship between soil
protists and MPs. Tardigrades, which are small invertebrates known for their ability
to survive in harsh environments, feed on microbes and detrital particles, and can exist
in various marine, freshwater, and damp terrestrial habitats. While studies have indi-
cated that tardigrades in semi-aquatic environments show minimal absorption of MPs
fibers, more investigation is requisite to comprehend the effect of plastic pollution
on terrestrial microfauna, including tardigrades. Soil nematodes are crucial for regu-
lating the populations of other soil microorganisms, soil minerals transformed into
plant-usable forms and maintaining soil health (Dissanayake et al., 2022). However,
exposure to MPs can decrease soil nematode reproduction, increase their abundance,
and alter their community composition. The toxicity of MPs, caused by extractable
additives and plastic shapes, can reduce soil nematode reproductive success (Lack-
mann et al., 2022). However, the accumulation of MPs in soils will determine the
impact on nematode survival. Further study is important to fully comprehend the
significance of plastic pollution on soil nematodes. Soil mesofauna is a group of
soil invertebrates that are sensitive to environmental changes and play crucial roles
38 B. B. Prasath

in soil functions. However, the effect of MPs on soil mesofauna is poorly under-
stood and requires further research. Recent studies have utilized soil mesofauna
organisms, particularly collembolans, to examine the influence of MPs on terres-
trial ecosystems. More investigation is required to fully comprehension the effect
of MPs on soil mesofauna (Büks & Kaupenjohann, 2020).The adsorption capacity
of MPs for organic pollutants is a complex and dynamic phenomenon that has been
the focus of considerable research in recent years. Organic pollutants, including,
pesticides, herbicides, and antibiotics, are an essential group of pollution that impact
the health of soil ecosystems. MPs have been recognized as possible agents for
the transmission of contaminants into the environment because of their extensive
existence in the surroundings (Mo et al., 2021). Research have shown that MPs can
adsorb numerous pollutants, including polychlorinated biphenyls, dichlorodiphenyl-
trichloroethane, and hexachlorocyclohexane, with different background concentra-
tions in the medium. Recent research has shown that the existence of MPs in soil
can significantly affect crops, soil structure, and microbial activity (Conesa, 2022).
Specifically, MPs can increase water retention and alter the soil structure, leading
to changes in microbial activity. Furthermore, MPs have been linked to increased
plastic additives in the soil, which can negatively affect crop growth. Soil’s response
to MPs is influenced by their concentration and particle characteristics, as revealed
by research studies. Low concentrations of MPs can lead to decreased water-holding
capacity, while higher concentrations can increase it. The type of MPs, such as
polyacrylic fibers or polyester fibers, can also have varying effects on the soil, with
researchers suggesting that the flexible nature of polyester fibers allows them to
incorporate into the soil matrix more easily. MPs can also absorb pesticides into
their matrix, which can cause them to persist in the soil for eternity (Selonen et al.,
2020). This can alter the efficacy of pesticides and increase the amount that needs
to be applied to fields. The accumulation of MPs in soil has been linked to negative
impact on crops, such as wheat, and can impact the food chain by causing crops to take
up additives leached by the MPs or the MPs themselves. While current data shows
that the levels of MPs in drinking water do not threaten human well-being, there are
concerns about the impact of ingested MPs on public health. MPs have been found
in numerous common food items, such as beer, sugar, salt, honey and fish. They can
cause irritation and inflammation and even migrate through the tissues of animals,
resulting in adverse health impacts. Overall, MPs in soil are a growing concern,
with potential effect on plant growth, soil structure, and human health (Pironti et al.,
2021). Further study is required to fully comprehend the extent of these impacts
and develop strategies aimed at mitigating potential hazards. The adsorption of these
pollutants on MPs is directly influenced by their hydrophobicity, with hydrophobic
pollutants being more readily adsorbed than hydrophilic pollutants. Variations in the
adsorption behaviour of various types of MPs can be attributed to factors such as
the material type. For example, polyethylene tends to adsorb due to the distribution
balance between solid and liquid phases. On the other hand, polyamide, polystyrene,
and polyvinyl chloride primarily adsorb organic pollutants through surface adsorp-
tion and MPs adsorption (Anbarani et al., 2023). Environmental conditions, such as
temperature, salinity and the existence of other chemicals, can have an impact on
Microplastic Debris Poses a Serious Threat to the Health of Our … 39

how MPs behave when they come into contact with pollutants. A study involving 19
different contamination, such as insecticide, pharmaceuticals, and beauty products,
was conducted using two types of MPs—polyethylene and polystyrene. The study
found that hydrophobic substances tend to be more easily adsorbed on resins than
average particles, depending on the pH of the environment (Martín et al., 2022).
The adsorption of organic pollutants by MPs in the environment is significantly
affected by their aging and weathering. As MPs age and weather, their surface prop-
erties change, which can affect the adsorption of pollutants. Additionally, the surface
assimilation of antibiotics on MPs is influenced by hydrogen bonding, multivalent
cation bridges, and π-π interactions. The surface assimilation of organic pollutants
by MPs is a complex and dynamic process that is influenced by various factors, such
as the type of MPs, the hydrophobicity of the pollutants, ecological conditions, and
the aging and weathering of MPs (Abdurahman et al., 2023). These findings highlight
the significance of comprehending the behaviour of MPs in the environment and their
potential role in environmental pollution. MPs found in soil have been observed to
have significant geochemical interactions with heavy metals, as supported by several
recent studies. The use of agricultural plastic in areas such as agricultural land and
forests, where it is often fertilized and irrigated, plays a significant role in the pres-
ence of MPs in sediment (Sajjad et al., 2022). Research has shown that High Density
Polyethylene has a higher surface assimilation capacity for Zn2+ in forest sediments
rich in humus (Sajjad et al., 2022).This surface assimilation behaviour correlates with
the Langmuir and Freundlich commonly used adsorption isotherm equations. On the
other hand, the Freundlich adsorption equation is an empirical isotherm equation that
is ideal for non-uniform surfaces. Under low-concentration adsorption conditions,
this method is more appropriate and can effectively justify experimental outcomes
across a broader concentration spectrum. (Steinmetz et al., 2016). The presence of
functional groups in soil can have a considerable impact on the adsorption of heavy
metals on MPs. Additionally, the adsorption of heavy metals onto MPs can be signif-
icantly affected by these functional groups. They can change the hydrophobic nature
of both MPs and heavy metals, thereby affecting their ability to adsorb heavy metals.
It is significantly to note that the composition of the moiety may vary depending
on the soil conditions, which further influences adsorption behaviour. As such, once
MPs enter the soil and undergo weathering and aging, they become effective carriers
of metallic elements and are fixed in the soil ecosystem. This could potentially harm
the health of the soil ecosystem and heavy metals to develop effective methods
for preventing soil contamination and protecting the environment. (Von Moos et al.,
2012). Soils are complex systems that contain various components, including organic
matter, minerals, water, and air. MPs, small pieces of plastic less than 5mm in size,
have been found to migrate through water and can be added to soil pores to facilitate
movement. (Rillig et al., 2021). The movement of tiny plastic particles in soils has
been observed to occur vertically due to the actions of earthworms. This phenomenon
is known as bioturbation (Heinze et al., 2021). However, soils tend to retain larger
MPs particles, whereas smaller ones are more likely to move downwards and reach
deep soils. The transportation of MPs in soil relies on specific factors, dependent on
40 B. B. Prasath

polymer properties such as density, shape, and size. Soil erosion and farming activ-
ities can cause larger MPs to move within soils due to external forces. It has been
found through research that earthworms can ingest and secrete MPs, leading to their
movement within soils. This process of ingestion and secretion allows MPs to adhere
to earthworms. MPs are incorporated into agricultural soils due to the widespread
use of plastic products in the agricultural industry, including mulch films, fertilizers,
and seed coatings (Lwanga et al., 2022). Mulch films significantly contribute to
plastic contamination in farming soils, particularly in China, the largest user of these
films globally. Agricultural soils are also contaminated by MPs from sources such
as sewage plants, wastewater irrigation, composts and precipitation. The impact of
MPs on soil health must be thoroughly understood to assess its toxicity. The addition
of MPs negatively affects the physical and chemical properties of soil, which in turn
affects plant health. Studies have shown that MPs harm plant root development, soil
structure, and fertility. However, our comprehension of the toxicological impacts
of MPs on human health is limited. It is needed to develop methods that accurately
detect MPs in different human tissues, such as blood and milk, and exposure-relevant
matrices, such as food and air. Further research is important to determine the toxico-
logical outcomes of MPs and their relationship to human exposure doses. The toxicity
of MPs available for human exposure through various routes may be influenced by
their sizes, shapes, and chemical composition. MPs have been found in human stool
and placenta, indicating that people are internally exposed to MPs. The presence
of MPs has resulted in a rise in the investigation of the possible negative effects
of human exposure to them (Fig. 3). According to current knowledge, the harmful
effects of MPs may come from the particles themselves and associated chemicals
like plasticizers, flame retardants, and colorants.

Fig. 3 Potential pathways of MPs can enter the body through ingestion, inhalation, or dermal
exposure to human beings
Microplastic Debris Poses a Serious Threat to the Health of Our … 41

4 Solutions and Recommendations for Microplastic

Pollution

Addressing the plastic pollution problem necessitates a holistic approach incorpo-

rating scientific research, governmental and cross-sector cooperation, and consumer
education. The primary focus should be directed towards controlling the source of
pollution and finding ways to rectify it. Using biodegradable alternatives to traditional
plastic, enhancing recycling methods, and improving wastewater treatment facilities
can all aid in achieving this objective. However, implementing such solutions can be
challenging due to the plastic industry’s resistance and insufficient enforcement. As
a result, it is crucial to engage scientists, community members, and plastic marketers
in a concerted effort to reduce global plastic waste. Although legislative and regula-
tory measures have progressed, global coordination and enforcement are necessary
to tackle this pervasive issue. It is significantly to fully comprehend the risks of MPs
before proposing any solutions or recommendations. This article provides a detailed
analysis of the effect of MPs pollution on the marine environment, ecosystem, public
health, and the economy. With this knowledge, it’s important to take an understanding
approach to address the issue of MPs pollution. Reducing the manufacture and utiliza-
tion of plastic, especially single-use plastic, and promoting practical alternatives to
plastic are effective ways to prevent plastic waste. It is critical to implement preven-
tion, mitigation, and amend strategies to address the issue of MPs waste. Material
science advancements, such as creating biodegradable plastics or materials that are
less harmful to the environment, can also help prevent pollution. It’s also crucial
to improve waste collection and disposal systems, in countries where plastic waste
ends up in the oceans. While clean-up efforts are necessary, they should not be
solely relied upon due to the vastness of the oceans and the challenges in collecting
MPs. Efforts aimed at eliminating MPs waste items, public education, awareness
campaigns, and ongoing efforts to drive behavioural changes for reducing plastic
waste and fostering a culture of responsible utilization and discarding can help. To
effectively reduce MP pollution, it’s important to involve stakeholders at all levels.
This includes individual consumers who can make conscious choices to reduce their
plastic use, large corporations that can adopt sustainable practices and reduce their
plastic footprint, and governments that can implement policies to regulate plastic
production and disposal. A collective effort from all stakeholders is crucial to make
a measurable impact towards a cleaner and healthier environment. Collaboration and
shared responsibility among individuals, organizations, and governments are essen-
tial for significantly reducing plastic waste and pollution. Policies and law-making are
crucial in managing plastic waste effectively. For example, measures such as banning
microbeads in beauty care products, restricting the use of throwaway plastics, and
incentivizing plastic reduction and recycling can help to decrease plastic waste and
pollution. It is essential to investigate various policy interventions, regulations, and
management strategies to deal the issue of MPs pollution and safeguard marine
ecosystems. This is a complex problem that requires a comprehensive approach.
It calls for international cooperation to obstruct the introduction of MPs into the
42 B. B. Prasath

ecosystem, reduce the impact of MPs pollution, and clean up contaminated areas.
Raising awareness and promoting responsible behavior is crucial in safeguarding the
environment and public health. Education is a powerful tool in achieving this goal.
To ensure appropriate protection, we need to have laws and regulations in place,
and policy initiatives can help in achieving this. Conducting continuous research is
important to gain a comprehensive the problem and to assess the efficacy of possible
solutions.

5 Conclusion

MPs contamination is a growing concern that poses a significant threat to the

ecosystem and human well-being. These MPs particles can harm the environment
and may even end up in the food we eat, thereby posing a risk to food safety. It is
crucial to conduct extensive research into microplastic pollution’s possible health
implications and develop accurate and fast methods for detecting and measuring
microplastics. To address this pressing issue, it is essential to implement more strin-
gent control measures to reduce plastic utilization, promote sustainable manufacture
and utilization practices, encourage the development of alternatives, and raise public
cognizance of ecosystem protection. These measures will require coordinated efforts
between individuals, industries, and governments to ensure we protect the planet for
future generations. There are various ways to deal with the problem of microplastics,
including reducing the use of throwaway plastic, improving waste management, and
developing innovative technologies to remove microplastics from the environment. It
is crucial to raise cognizance of the pollution and encourage individuals and organi-
zations to take action to reduce plastic pollution. The future outlook for microplastic
pollution is promising, as many ongoing efforts exist to solve this problem. Scien-
tists, engineers, and environmentalists are working together to develop new tech-
nologies and approaches to minimize the amount of plastic waste in the ecosystem.
Governments are also taking steps to address the issue, such as banning single-use
plastics and implementing policies to manage plastic waste. To mitigate this urgent
threat, it is imperative to implement more stringent foster the development of alter-
natives, and enhance public cognizance of ecosystem protection. The achievement
of these measures will require collaborative efforts between individuals, industries,
and governments to safeguard the planet for future generations.

Acknowledgements The author is thankful to GUIDE, Bhuj-Kachchh for supporting their research
work. The anonymous reviewers’ feedback improved the manuscript. They provided constructive
comments and suggestions that were appreciated.
Declarations Informed Consent Statement Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement Data are available from the authors on request.
Ethics Approval Not applicable.
Conflict of Interest The author declares no conflict of interest.
Microplastic Debris Poses a Serious Threat to the Health of Our … 43

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Regional Perspectives
Microplastics Research in Africa:
A Bibliometric Exploration of Trends,
Influencers, and Influential Themes

Toluwalase Ojeyemi, Kingsley O. Iwuozor, Ebuka Chizitere Emenike,

Abel U. Egbemhenghe, Joshua O. Ighalo, and Adewale George Adeniyi

Abstract The impact of microplastics is profound, with repercussions for both

marine and terrestrial ecosystems globally. In the African environment, the study
of microplastics holds particular significance due to the continent’s rich biodiver-
sity and unique ecosystems. In this study, the trajectory of microplastics research
in Africa within the past decade was explored, employing a bibliometric analysis
facilitated by the Scopus database. It was revealed that a total of 697 publications
have been published on the subject of microplastics in the African ecosystems from
2014 to 2023. The analysis further revealed an increase in research output, peaking at
211 publications in 2023, signalling heightened global awareness and commitment
to studying microplastics in Africa. English predominates in 694 out of 697 publi-
cations, emphasizing global resonance. Top authors contributing to microplastics
research in Africa, featuring both African and non-African scholars with commend-
able h-indices, populate this network, emphasizing the collaborative and diversified

T. Ojeyemi
Department of Environmental Toxicology, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, USA
Department of Crop Protection and Environmental Biology, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria
K. O. Iwuozor (B) · E. C. Emenike
Department of Pure and Industrial Chemistry, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, P. M. B. 5025, Awka,
Nigeria
e-mail: kingsleyiwuozor5@gmail.com
A. U. Egbemhenghe
Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, College of Art and Science, Texas Tech University,
Lubbock, USA
Department of Chemistry, Lagos State University, Ojo, Lagos, Nigeria
J. O. Ighalo
Department of Chemical Engineering, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, P. M. B. 5025, Awka, Nigeria
Department of Chemical Engineering, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, USA
A. G. Adeniyi
Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Ilorin, P. M. B. 1515, Ilorin, Nigeria
Chemical Engineering Department, Landmark University, Omu-Aran, Nigeria

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 53

J. C. Egbueri et al. (eds.), Microplastics in African and Asian Environments, Emerging
Contaminants and Associated Treatment Technologies,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-64253-1_3
54 T. Ojeyemi et al.

nature of efforts addressing microplastics challenges in Africa. The trajectory of

citations exhibits a notable increase, reaching a pinnacle of 4119 in 2023. South
Africa leads the top 20 countries, contributing significantly with 3876 total citations
and an average of 29.58, reflecting the country’s commitment to understanding and
addressing microplastics challenges. The insights presented in this chapter serve as
a compass for navigating the future trajectory of microplastics research in Africa,
steering it towards impactful and sustainable contributions to global environmental
science.

Keywords Africa · Bibliometric analysis · Ecosystem · Environment ·

Microplastics · Research

1 Introduction

Microplastics, originating from various sources, pose pervasive environmental and

ecological challenges. These tiny plastic particles, often the result of larger plastic
degradation and intentional manufacturing for consumer products, infiltrate ecosys-
tems globally (Aniagor et al., 2022; Hale et al., 2020). Primary sources include
the fragmentation of plastic debris, release during industrial processes, and inten-
tional use in products like micro-beads and synthetic fibres (Iwuozor et al., 2023;
Wang et al., 2018). Secondary microplastics arise from the breakdown of larger
items and persist in diverse environments (Emenike et al., 2023). Their presence in
oceans, rivers, soils, and even the atmosphere demonstrates the urgency of under-
standing their sources and effects. The impact of microplastics is profound, with
repercussions for both marine and terrestrial ecosystems. In aquatic environments,
these particles are ingested by a plethora of organisms, from microscopic plankton to
larger marine mammals, leading to potential bioaccumulation and bio-magnification
(Atoyebi et al., 2023; Emenike et al., 2022; Steer & Thompson, 2020). On land,
agricultural soils become repositories for microplastics, potentially influencing crop
growth and food safety (Okeke et al., 2022; Omoleye et al., 2023). The consequences
extend to human health, as microplastics can enter the food chain through seafood
consumption and other pathways, raising questions about the potential health risks
associated with their ingestion (Smith et al., 2018).
In the African environment, the study of microplastics holds particular signifi-
cance due to the continent’s rich biodiversity and unique ecosystems. Africa faces
distinctive circumstances that demonstrates the importance of studying microplastics.
Inadequate waste management infrastructure in many African countries contributes
to the improper disposal of plastic, leading to the release of microplastics into the
environment (Jambeck et al., 2018). Coastal regions, which often rely on fisheries and
tourism, are particularly vulnerable to the economic impacts of microplastic pollu-
tion (Horton & Barnes, 2020). Additionally, microplastics entering the food chain
pose potential risks to human health, especially for communities reliant on local fish-
eries and agriculture (De-la-Torre, 2020). Furthermore, the study of microplastics
Microplastics Research in Africa: A Bibliometric Exploration of Trends … 55

in Africa is essential for raising awareness and engaging local communities, poli-
cymakers, and industries in proactive measures to reduce plastic usage and improve
waste management practices.
Bibliometric analysis, a quantitative research method, systematically examines
academic publications to derive insights into patterns, trends, and the impact of schol-
arly research (Chawla & Goyal, 2022). It relies on data-driven analysis and quanti-
tative methods to evaluate and visualize academic literature, scientific collaboration,
and the broader impact of research (Albahri & AlAmoodi, 2023). For microplas-
tics in the African environment, bibliometric analysis is crucial for several reasons.
Firstly, it provides a comprehensive overview of the existing body of literature,
allowing researchers to identify publication trends, authorship patterns, and influ-
ential themes specific to the African context. Secondly, it aids in understanding the
geographic distribution of research efforts, highlighting regions where microplas-
tics studies are concentrated or underrepresented. Thirdly, by analyzing citations, it
reveals the key influencers and collaborative networks shaping microplastics research
in Africa. This method facilitates evidence-based decision-making for researchers,
institutions, funding agencies, and policymakers, guiding efforts to address the chal-
lenges posed by microplastics in the African environment. Additionally, it contributes
to a more nuanced understanding of the scholarly landscape, offering insights into
emerging research areas, evolving trends, and potential future directions, ultimately
fostering informed and sustainable strategies for managing microplastic pollution in
Africa.
In a bid to study the trajectory of microplastics, some studies have been conducted
within the last decade with the use of bibliometric analysis. Zhou et al. (2021) studied
the trajectory of microplastics research globally from 2009 to 2019. Another group
of authors studied the research hotspots and trends of microplastics research between
the years 1990 and 2022 (Davtalab et al., 2023). Ebrahimi et al. (2022) studied the
relationship between human health and the physicochemical properties of microplas-
tics. Another group of authors studied the trend of microplastics-based research in
the marine environment only (Zhou et al., 2022). However, none of these studies
have delved into studying the progress of microplastics research on the continental
level in a bid to determine the peculiarities that people have and how they affect
them. This is a major research gap that this chapter hopes to fill. The aim of this
bibliometric analysis is to systematically explore the landscape of microplastics
research in the African environment. This includes assessing publication trends,
authorship patterns, geographic distribution, influential themes, and collaborative
networks. The study seeks to provide a comprehensive and quantitative understanding
of the scholarly output related to microplastics in Africa. This study is essential as it
contributes to the existing knowledge base by offering insights into the current state
of microplastics research in Africa, allowing for the identification of gaps and areas
requiring further investigation. By uncovering influential themes and collaborative
networks, the analysis facilitates evidence-based decision-making for researchers,
institutions, and policymakers. Ultimately, the study’s relevance lies in its contribu-
tion to informed strategies, guiding efforts to mitigate the environmental challenges
posed by microplastics in Africa, and promoting sustainable solutions.
56 T. Ojeyemi et al.

2 Methodology

2.1 Literature Collection

The literature search for this study was carried out on November 20, 2023. The Scopus
database served as the primary repository for collecting scholarly publications on
microplastics in the African environment. Scopus was chosen for the microplastics
bibliometric analysis in Africa due to its extensive coverage, offering a compre-
hensive view of global research trends. Its advanced search features and indexing
capabilities ensured the precise retrieval of relevant documents. Scopus comprehen-
sive citation data allowed for a detailed assessment of the impact and influence of
individual microplastics publications, aiding in identifying both research volume
and specific contributions (da Silva et al., 2020; Olisah et al., 2022). The database’s
citation tracking feature enriched the analysis by supporting the identification of key
influencers, trends, and seminal works, enhancing the depth of the study.
A systematic search strategy was implemented using specific keywords to ensure
the retrieval of relevant literature on microplastics in the African context. The
keywords included ‘microplastics’ combined with the names of the 54 individual and
independent African countries which are Algeria, Angola, Benin, Botswana, Burkina
Faso, Burundi, Cape Verde, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Comoros,
Democratic Republic of the Congo, Republic of the Congo, Cote d’Ivoire, Djibouti,
Egypt, Equatorial Guinea, Eritrea, Eswatini, Ethiopia, Gabon, Gambia, Ghana,
Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Kenya, Lesotho, Liberia, Libya, Madagascar, Malawi, Mali,
Mauritania, Mauritius, Morocco, Mozambique, Namibia, Niger, Nigeria, Rwanda,
Sao Tome and Principe, Senegal, Seychelles, Sierra Leone, Somalia, South Africa,
South Sudan, Sudan, Tanzania, Togo, Tunisia, Uganda, Zambia, and Zimbabwe. This
approach aimed to capture a diverse spectrum of research on microplastics within
the specified African regions. Boolean operators were applied for search refinement,
and the time frame for document retrieval spanned from 2014 to 2023. The inclusion
criteria encompassed scholarly articles, book chapters, books, conference papers,
editorials, notes, letters, and data papers related to microplastics in Africa. This gave
a total of 697 documents. This approach aimed to construct a comprehensive dataset
reflective of the diverse body of literature on microplastics in the African context.

2.2 Data Processing

Following literature collection, data extraction focused on key bibliometric indica-

tors. Quantitative analysis included trends in publication volume over time, author-
ship patterns, journal sources, and the geographic distribution of research efforts.
Citation data were extracted to assess the impact and influence of specific publica-
tions. The analysis incorporated bibliometric indicators such as citation counts, h-
index, and co-authorship networks. The 697 documents published centrally between
Microplastics Research in Africa: A Bibliometric Exploration of Trends … 57

2014 and 2023 were chosen for data processing. Utilizing the “VOSviewer” software
(version: 1.6.19), various data statistics and mappings were conducted on literature
information, encompassing keywords, authors, institutions, countries, and periodi-
cals. During the data import phase, specific analysis types were chosen, such as “co-
authorship,” “authors,” “organizations,” and “countries.” For co-occurrence analysis,
“all keywords” was selected, and for citation analysis, “sources” was chosen. Visual-
ization graphics from “VOSviewer” highlighted the significance of “co-occurrence
keywords” in unveiling the main content within the research field.

3 Results and Discussion

3.1 Publication Trends

Of the 697 publications that fell into the search criteria, it was observed that 678
of the documents had been finalized, and 19 were still in press. The majority of
these documents, 694 in total, were written in English, reflecting the predominant
language of scientific communication. Other languages contributing to the corpus
include 1 in Spanish, and 2 in French. This linguistic diversity highlights the global
engagement with microplastics research in the African context, demonstrating the
international significance of the findings. The analysis of publication trends over time
reflects a notable evolution in microplastics research within African environments
(Fig. 1). In the early years from 2014 to 2016, the modest number of publications,
ranging from 2 (0.286%) to 4 (0.573%) annually, suggests a gradual emergence of
interest in the field. During this period, the global discourse on plastic pollution began
gaining momentum, prompting researchers to delve into the specific challenges and
implications within the African context (Qin et al., 2020). This initial phase could
represent a foundational period where the groundwork for more extensive research
was laid.
Subsequently, from 2017 to 2019, there has been a marked escalation in research
output, with publications reaching 13 (1.865%), 19 (2.725%), and 37 (5.308%) each
year, respectively. This surge aligns with a growing global consciousness regarding
environmental sustainability and increased scrutiny of plastic waste. Concurrently,
heightened awareness of the ecological impact of microplastics in African ecosys-
tems likely spurred researchers to explore and contribute to the nascent body of
knowledge in this domain. The most striking observation lies in the period from
2020 to 2023, where there is an explosive growth in microplastics research. The
number of publications almost doubles each year, reaching a peak of 211 in 2023.
This unparalleled increase might be attributed to a confluence of factors. The urgency
of addressing plastic pollution in Africa, driven by alarming reports on its environ-
mental consequences, likely mobilized funding and resources towards microplastics
research. Additionally, advancements in analytical techniques and methodologies in
58 T. Ojeyemi et al.

Fig. 1 Growth trend of publications on Microplastics in the African Environment

Africa may have facilitated more in-depth studies, enabling researchers to uncover
new dimensions of the microplastics issue in Africa.
The percentage breakdown complements the numerical data, illustrating a steady
and proportional increase in the contribution of each year to the overall research
output. The upward trajectory in percentages, culminating in 30.27% in 2023, high-
lights a sustained commitment to microplastics research. This could be indicative of
a growing community of researchers, both within and outside Africa, recognizing the
need for collaborative efforts to address the complex challenges posed by microplas-
tics in the region. The R-squared value of 0.9738 in Fig. 1 indicates an exceptionally
strong correlation between the trendline and actual data points, suggesting a highly
reliable and predictive model for microplastics research trends in Africa. The identi-
fied pattern is not likely due to random fluctuations but rather represents a systematic
and meaningful progression over the years. The near-perfect fit implies a consistent
and clear growth pattern, allowing for reliable extrapolation and a limited influence
of outliers (Zhou et al., 2021).

3.2 Prominent Authors in the Field

Table 1 provides an overview of the top 20 authors significantly contributing to

microplastics research in Africa. It offers insights into the participation of authors
from both African and non-African countries in microplastics research. Authors
from African countries, including South Africa, Tunisia, Morocco, and Nigeria,
Microplastics Research in Africa: A Bibliometric Exploration of Trends … 59

contribute to a diverse representation, offering contextual expertise crucial for

addressing microplastics challenges specific to their homeland. Their involvement
fosters capacity building within the region, informs relevant policy recommenda-
tions, and enhances the impact of research on local communities. On the other hand,
authors from non-African countries such the United States, the United Kingdom,
Peru, and Colombia, bring valuable global perspectives and expertise, contributing
to a more comprehensive understanding of microplastics on a broader scale. This
collaborative effort ensures a well-rounded approach to tackling the trans-boundary
nature of microplastics, fostering a global exchange of knowledge.
The analysis of prolific contributors, such as Ryan Peter from South Africa,
Abelouah Mohamed from Morocco, and Ben-Haddad Mohamed from Morocco,
reveals these individuals as prominent leaders in the field of microplastics research
in Africa. Notably, their substantial number of published articles signals a sustained
commitment to advancing the understanding of microplastics’ impact, particularly
within the African environment. The frequency and consistency of their contributions
indicate not only a depth of engagement with the subject matter but also a dedica-
tion to making meaningful advancements in the field. By consistently producing
research, these authors play a crucial role in shaping the narrative, influencing the

Table 1 Top 20 authors with the highest number of published articles on microplastics in Africa
S/No. Authors Countries Documents Authors h-index
1 Ryan Peter South Africa 20 65
2 Abelouah Mohamed Morocco 14 9
3 Ben-Haddad Mohamed Morocco 14 12
4 Hajji Sara Morocco 14 9
5 Perold Vonica South Africa 14 16
6 Benson Nsikak United States 12 24
7 Boufahja Fehmi Saudi Arabia 10 18
8 Rangel-Buitrago Nelson Colombia 10 27
9 Weideman Eleanor South Africa 10 12
10 Banni Mohamed Tunisia 9 41
11 Dalu Tatenda South Africa 9 28
12 De-la-Torre Gabriel Peru 8 28
13 Fred-Ahmadu Omowunmi Nigeria 8 15
14 Khan Farhan Norway 8 32
15 Abidli Sami Tunisia 7 18
16 Ait Alla Morocco 7 13
17 Cuthbert Ross United Kingdom 7 25
18 Owato Gilbert Kenya 7 5
19 Sparks Conrad South Africa 7 11
20 Zitouni Nesrine Tunisia 7 10
60 T. Ojeyemi et al.

formulation of policies, and fostering greater awareness of the multifaceted chal-

lenges posed by microplastics. As leaders in the field, these researchers are likely to
be instrumental in steering the direction of microplastics research and influencing
the broader conversation on mitigating the impacts of microplastics in the African
context and beyond.
The h-index, a measure combining productivity and citation impact, offers valu-
able insights into the influence and scholarly impact of authors from African and
non-African countries in microplastics research. Notably, authors from Africa like
Ryan Peter from South Africa, Abelouah Mohamed from Morocco, and Ben-Haddad
Mohamed from Morocco have h-indices of 65, 9, and 12, respectively. Authors from
non-African countries also demonstrate noteworthy h-indices, showcasing their influ-
ence and impact in the field of microplastics research. Notably, Benson Nsikak from
the United States boasts a high h-index of 24, while Khan Farhan from Norway holds
an impressive h-index of 32. These h-indices signify the recognition and impact of
their work within the scientific community. The h-index reflects the balance between
the quantity and quality of an author’s work, indicating that they not only produce
a substantial volume of research but also garner significant attention and citations
from their peers (Agarwal et al., 2016). Their elevated h-indices suggest that their
contributions extend beyond individual papers, resonating with other researchers and
influencing the broader scientific discourse on microplastics. These researchers, with
their high h-indices, play an important role in shaping the trajectory of microplastics
research globally. Their influence extends to guiding the research community, influ-
encing the direction of future investigations, and contributing to the establishment
of a robust knowledge base.
The cooperative network illustrated in Table 1 portrays a diverse web of interna-
tional collaborations. Authors originating from various nations consistently engage
in collaborative endeavours, highlighting the interconnected nature of the worldwide
scientific community as it addresses the intricate issues associated with microplas-
tics in Africa. These collaborative initiatives not only enhance the array of view-
points contributing to the research but also cultivate a cooperative atmosphere, expe-
diting the pace of discovery and fostering innovation in response to the challenges
posed by microplastics in the African context. This suggests a broadening research
landscape and highlights the increasing recognition of the global significance of
microplastics, with contributions from diverse regions to the collective understanding
of this environmental issue. These emerging trends signify a positive shift towards
a more inclusive and collaborative approach, ensuring a comprehensive exploration
of microplastics’ impact on the African continent.

3.3 Scholarly Journals

The exploration of microplastics in the African ecosystem has been significantly

documented through a myriad of scholarly journals, as elucidated in Table 2. Leading
Microplastics Research in Africa: A Bibliometric Exploration of Trends … 61

the charge is the “Marine Pollution Bulletin,” which has published a total of 101 arti-
cles on microplastics in the African ecosystem. Its consistent output highlight its
important role as a cornerstone publication for disseminating research on microplas-
tics in marine environments. With a commendable impact factor of 5.8 (2023 impact
factor), it not only contributes voluminously but also maintains a substantial influence
within the scientific community. The “Science of the Total Environment” follows
closely, with 47 articles and a robust impact factor of 9.8 (2023 impact factor). This
multidisciplinary journal serves as a nexus for research that transcends traditional
disciplinary boundaries, fostering a holistic understanding of the diverse impacts
of microplastics on the environment. The Journal of Hazardous Materials stands out
with a higher impact factor of 13.6 (2023 impact factor), signifying its profound influ-
ence in the field. This journal, by emphasizing the hazardous aspects of microplastics,
plays a crucial role in shaping discussions around potential risks and implications.

Table 2 Top journals that have published articles of microplastics in the African ecosystem
S/ Journals Number of Published Journals’ 2023 Impact
No. articles Factor
1 Marine pollution bulletin 101 5.8
2 Science of the total environment 47 9.8
3 Environmental science and pollution 29 5.8
research
4 Environmental pollution 27 8.9
5 Sustainability Switzerland 12 3.9
6 Regional studies in marine science 12 2.1
7 Chemosphere 11 8.8
8 Journal of hazardous materials 11 13.6
9 Environmental monitoring and 10 3.3
assessment
10 Environmental research 8 8.3
11 Frontiers in marine science 8 5.2
12 Frontiers in environmental science 7 4.6
13 Water, air, and soil pollution 7 2.9
14 Heliyon 7 4.0
15 Estuarine coastal and shelf science 6 2.8
16 African journal of marine science 6 1.2
17 Ocean and coastal management 5 4.6
18 Egyptian journal of aquatic biology and 5 0.9
fisheries
19 Bulletin of environmental contamination 5 2.7
and toxicology
20 Biomass conversion and biorefinery 5 4.0
62 T. Ojeyemi et al.

Other high-impact journals, such as “Chemosphere” (8.8) and “Environmental

Research” (8.3) (2023 impact factor), contribute significantly to the rigorous scien-
tific discourse on microplastics. Their elevated impact factors highlight their capacity
to not only attract quality research but also influence the broader scientific community.
The global collaborative effort in microplastics research is evident with the inclu-
sion of journals like “African Journal of Marine Science.” This international outlet
provides a platform for researchers to share findings on a global scale, facilitating
the integration of African perspectives into the broader narrative of microplastics
research. The extensive array of journals involved in microplastics research in the
African context not only reflects the quantity of research but also emphasizes the
significance of diverse outlets. These journals collectively contribute to shaping the
trajectory of microplastics research, influencing policies, fostering awareness, and
addressing the complex challenges posed by microplastics in the African ecosystem.

3.4 Citation Analysis

The escalating trend in total citations from 2014 to 2023, as shown in Fig. 2, signi-
fies a significant amplification in the impact and acknowledgment of microplastics
research in the African environment. In the early years, between 2014 and 2016,
modest citation counts ranging from 2 to 36 suggest a gradual exploration and nascent
interest in the field. Researchers were likely laying the foundation for more extensive
studies during this period. Subsequently, from 2017 to 2020, the substantial increase
in citations, reaching from 116 to 1194, indicates accelerated growth and recogni-
tion. Microplastics research in Africa gained momentum, attracting attention from
a broader audience and contributing significantly to the evolving understanding of
microplastics’ impact.
The peak in citations in 2023, totalling 4119, marks the pinnacle of impact and
maturation of microplastics research so far in the African environment. This surge
suggests that the research has not only gained widespread recognition but has also
become a focal point for discussions and actions related to environmental sustain-
ability. The substantial citation numbers in recent years indicate that microplastics
research has transcended the realm of academic curiosity to become a crucial aspect
of environmental science, guiding efforts to address the challenges posed by plastic
pollution in African ecosystems. The R-squared value of 0.9236 obtained from the
trend analysis indicates a robust correlation between the years and total citations in
microplastics research in Africa. This high R-squared value, approximately 92.36%,
signifies a strong linear relationship, affirming that the increase in citations is not a
random occurrence but a statistically significant trend. The implication is a reliable
and consistent growth in the impact and acknowledgment of microplastics research
over time, enhancing the credibility of the observed upward trajectory.
Notably, the most cited article based on the current scope of study, titled “Bio-
fouling on buoyant marine plastics: An experimental study into the effect of size on
surface longevity,” published by Environmental Pollution in 2016, stands out with
Microplastics Research in Africa: A Bibliometric Exploration of Trends … 63

Fig. 2 Annual citations obtained by published documents related to the field of study

an impressive 371 citations (Fazey & Ryan, 2016). The study found that the sinking
of plastic debris in the ocean is influenced by bio-fouling, with smaller plastic items
experiencing faster loss of buoyancy due to their higher surface area to volume ratios,
providing crucial insights into the longevity of various-sized plastic debris at the
ocean surface. The prominence of this article indicates its pivotal role in shaping the
discourse and understanding of plastic pollution in marine habitats. The involvement
of Ryan Peter from South Africa, a noteworthy figure in the field, adds credibility and
authority to the research. The article titled “Sinks and sources: Assessing microplastic
abundance in river sediment and deposit feeders in an Austral temperate urban river
system,” published by Science of the Total Environment in 2018, emerges as another
highly cited work, amassing a total of 302 citations (Nel et al., 2018). This signifies
its significant impact and influence within the scientific community. The study was
also by researchers from South Africa.
The citation analysis reveals that out of the total 697 documents on microplastics
in the African context, 539, 464, 416, 373, and 348 documents have been cited at least
once, twice, three times, four times, and five times, respectively. This distribution
illustrates the varying levels of impact and recognition these documents have received
within the academic community. Similarly, among the 286 sources, including jour-
nals and conferences contributing to the field, 218, 185, 172, 156, and 143 sources
have been cited at least once, twice, three times, four times, and five times, respec-
tively. The implication is that while a significant portion of the documents and
sources have garnered multiple citations, there is also a considerable proportion
with lower citation counts, indicating diverse levels of influence and relevance in the
microplastics research landscape.
64 T. Ojeyemi et al.

3.5 Geographic Distribution

The data in Table 3 provides a list of the top 20 countries contributing to microplastics
research in the African ecosystem based on the highest number of citations and
articles. South Africa emerges as the leading country with 131 published documents,
constituting 18.79% of the total 697 documents. This signifies a substantial research
output, reflecting South Africa’s active engagement and commitment to investigating
microplastics in its environment. The citation impact is particularly noteworthy, with
a total of 3876 citations and an impressive citation average of 29.58, suggesting that
South African research in this field has garnered significant attention and recognition
globally. Nigeria and the United Kingdom follow closely, with 84 and 66 published
documents, respectively. These countries demonstrate a considerable contribution to
the literature on microplastics in the African context. However, the United Kingdom
stands out in terms of total citations (1409) and citation average (21.34), indicating
the high impact and influence of its research.
African countries, particularly South Africa, Nigeria, Tunisia, Morocco, and
Ghana, exhibit substantial contributions to microplastics research in the African
ecosystem. South Africa, in particular, emerges as a frontrunner with a consider-
able number of publications and a high citation average, indicating both quantity
and impact in the field. Nigeria showcases a growing commitment to microplastics
research, while Tunisia’s impressive citation average reflects the quality and influence
of its contributions. Morocco’s active involvement contributes significantly to the
global discourse, and even countries with fewer publications, such as Ghana, signal a
burgeoning interest and awareness in tackling the challenges posed by microplastics.
These African nations collectively enrich the understanding of microplastics in the
region, addressing both local and global dimensions of this environmental concern.
Non-African countries, such as the United Kingdom, France, China, the United
States, and others, also play pivotal roles in advancing microplastics research in the
African ecosystem. The United Kingdom and France exhibit substantial publication
numbers and total citations, highlighting their global influence in scientific research.
China’s active engagement, particularly with a high citation average, highlights the
quality and impact of its contributions. The United States, with a significant number
of publications, contributes to shaping the international dialogue on microplastics in
Africa. Additionally, other countries like Germany, Australia, Italy, and Japan demon-
strate a diverse and widespread interest in this research, contributing unique perspec-
tives and expertise. The collaborative efforts between African and non-African coun-
tries foster a comprehensive understanding of microplastics, bridging gaps in knowl-
edge and addressing the complex challenges posed by microplastics in the African
ecosystem.
A total of 105 countries have documents related to microplastics in the African
ecosystem, and this highlights a widespread global commitment to comprehensively
address this environmental issue. This broad participation reflects a universal recog-
nition of the importance of understanding and confronting the challenges posed by
microplastics. In addition, at least 75, 62, 56, and 51 countries have demonstrated
Microplastics Research in Africa: A Bibliometric Exploration of Trends … 65

Table 3 Top 20 countries based on the highest number of citations and articles on microplastics in
the African ecosystem
Countries with the highest published Total number of citations per country
documents
Rank Countries Documents % of 697 Rank Countries Total Citation
citations average
1 South 131 18.79 1 South Africa 3876 29.58
Africa
2 Nigeria 84 12.05 2 United 1409 21.34
Kingdom
3 United 66 9.469 3 Tunisia 1340 20.30
Kingdom
4 Tunisia 66 9.469 4 Nigeria 1020 12.14
5 Morocco 59 8.464 5 France 928 16.57
6 France 56 8.034 6 Morocco 848 14.37
7 China 55 7.891 7 Malaysia 640 53.33
8 Egypt 53 7.604 8 United States 604 13.72
9 United 44 6.312 9 China 601 10.92
States
10 Ghana 43 6.169 10 Portugal 589 20.31
11 Saudi 36 5.165 11 Germany 562 15.61
Arabia
12 Germany 36 5.165 12 Australia 542 28.52
13 Italy 30 4.304 13 Italy 469 15.63
14 Portugal 29 4.160 14 Japan 431 22.68
15 India 28 4.017 15 Tanzania 413 25.81
16 Kenya 26 3.730 16 Saudi Arabia 404 11.22
17 Spain 25 3.586 17 Netherlands 398 28.42
18 Algeria 25 3.586 18 Kenya 391 15.03
19 Norway 23 3.299 19 India 380 13.57
20 Brazil 22 3.156 20 Denmark 376 23.50

sustained interest by publishing a minimum of 75, 62, 56, and 51 documents, respec-
tively. Figure 3 shows the interconnection between researchers from various coun-
tries. The size of the circles relates to the number of articles that the researchers in
that country have published in the field of microplastics in Africa. This consistent
engagement signifies a collective effort to explore, study, and find solutions to the
complex and trans-boundary nature of microplastics in the African context.
66 T. Ojeyemi et al.

Fig. 3 Country distribution

of “microplastics in Africa”
researchers

3.6 Research Themes and Keywords

The extensive use of keywords in microplastics research in the African environment,

totaling 7213 unique terms, reflects the varied dimensions explored within the field.
The repetition of keywords further emphasizes the significance and recurrence of
certain themes, as evidenced by 2209 keywords being used at least twice, 1332 at
least three times, 912 at least four times, and 684 at least five times. This pattern of
keyword recurrence suggests recurring focal points and highlights the importance
of specific concepts in microplastics research in Africa. The frequency of repeated
keywords indicates areas of sustained scholarly attention, potentially representing
critical aspects, challenges, or key concepts that have garnered consistent interest
across various studies. The keywords are divided into six unique themes: environ-
mental awareness and management, polymer degradation and analysis, bioreme-
diation and ecotoxicity, marine biology and biomarkers, anthropogenic impact and
contamination, and freshwater ecosystems and detection methods, as shown in Fig. 4.
The first theme titled “Environmental Awareness and Management” (dark green)
suggests a growing recognition of the need for effective waste management strategies,
especially in coastal zones. The inclusion of keywords such as plastic waste, waste
management, marine pollution, waste, swimming, pollution, beaches, debris, protec-
tive equipment, COVID-19, pandemic, recycling, awareness, marine plastics, circular
economy, coastal zone, climate change, environmental impact, food packaging, and
glass depicts the contemporary challenges and the broader environmental context
within which microplastics research in Africa is situated. This theme implies that
 Microplastics Research in Africa: A Bibliometric Exploration of Trends …

Fig. 4 Keywords related to the study based on data retrieved from the Scopus database from 2014–2023
67
68 T. Ojeyemi et al.

researchers are not only investigating the ecological impact of microplastics but also
considering broader socio-environmental factors. The second theme, titled “Polymer
Degradation and Analysis” (dark blue), highlights the scientific emphasis on under-
standing the chemical and physical properties of different types of plastics and their
degradation processes. This theme contains keywords such as Fourier transform
infrared spectroscopy, polystyrene degradation, polyethylene degradation, energy
dispersive x-ray spectroscopy, thermogravimetry, polyvinyl chloride, and polyvinyl
acetate. This theme has implications for developing strategies for polymer disposal,
recycling, and assessing the long-term environmental impact of plastic materials.
The focus on polymer analysis methods indicates a commitment to advancing the
technical aspects of microplastics research.
The third theme, titled “Bioremediation and Ecotoxicity” (purple), suggests a
growing interest in environmentally friendly approaches to mitigate the impact of
microplastics. This theme contains keywords such as bioremediation, Aspergillus
niger, composting, ecotoxicity, nematode, soil, dry weight, pH, toxicity, biomass,
microbial community, protein adsorption, non-human, toxicity, bacterium, biofilm,
and coastal lagoon. The emphasis on bioremediation and ecotoxicity reflects a recog-
nition of the need to explore sustainable solutions for addressing microplastic pollu-
tion. This theme’s implication is a shift toward eco-friendly interventions and a
deeper understanding of the ecological consequences of microplastics. The fourth
theme, titled “Marine Biology and Biomarkers” (light green), highlights the concern
for marine ecosystems and the identification of biomarkers as indicators of ecolog-
ical health. The inclusion of keywords such as water pollutant, animals, chem-
istry, animal tissue, environmental pollution, mussel, biomarkers, oxidative stress,
biomarkers, malonaldehyde, marine biology, dietary intake, molluscs, accumulation,
animal tissue, antioxidant, bioavailability, bio-indicator, biomarker, biota, birds, cata-
lase, enzyme activity, food chain, food contamination, food safety, food web, human
health, and ingestion rate, related to animal tissues, biomarkers, and oxidative stress,
indicates a focus on understanding the biological impact of microplastics on marine
life. This theme’s implication is a growing awareness of the intricate relationships
between microplastics and marine biodiversity.
The fifth theme, titled “Anthropogenic Impact and Contamination” (red), reveals
a keen interest in studying the human and environmental health implications of
microplastics. The inclusion of keywords such as agricultural land, air pollutant,
anthracene, anthropogenic activity, aquatic environment, aquifer, arsenic, beach sedi-
ments, biochemistry, biogeochemistry, cadmium, cobalt, chloride, child, chrysene,
combustion, copper, contamination, dissolved oxygen, and estuary, related to health
risks, contaminants, and anthropogenic activities, suggests a holistic approach that
considers the broader impact of microplastics on ecosystems and human popula-
tions. This theme implies an interdisciplinary approach to studying the consequences
of microplastic contamination. Finally, the theme of “Freshwater Ecosystem and
Detection Methods” (light blue) points to the recognition of the importance of fresh-
water environments in microplastics research. This theme consists of keywords such
as catfish, detection method, extraction, fibres, freshwater ecosystem, gill, pelagic
fish, Pisces, and gastrointestinal tract. The keywords related to detection methods
Microplastics Research in Africa: A Bibliometric Exploration of Trends … 69

highlight the ongoing efforts to enhance methodologies for studying microplastics

in freshwater ecosystems. This theme’s implication is a focus on understanding
the specific challenges and dynamics of microplastics in inland water bodies,
contributing to a more comprehensive assessment of their environmental impact.

4 Future Perspectives

The future of microplastics research in Africa holds promising avenues for explo-
ration and calls for a strategic research agenda. As the understanding of microplas-
tics in African ecosystems continues to mature, future research endeavours should
prioritize several key perspectives. Firstly, there is a need for longitudinal studies
to assess the long-term ecological consequences of microplastic contamination in
African ecosystems. Tracking changes over time will provide crucial insights into
their persistence, accumulation, and potential impacts on biodiversity and ecosystem
health.
Secondly, interdisciplinary collaboration should be fostered to address the
complex and interconnected nature of microplastics. Integrating expertise from
environmental science, chemistry, biology, and social sciences will contribute to
a more comprehensive understanding of the environmental, human health, and
socio-economic dimensions of microplastics pollution. Furthermore, research efforts
should focus on developing effective and sustainable mitigation strategies, consid-
ering the specific challenges faced by African nations. This includes the assessment of
the efficacy of current waste management practices, the development of eco-friendly
alternatives, and the establishment of policies that regulate plastic production, use,
and disposal.
Additionally, future research could delve into the socio-economic implications of
microplastics, particularly in communities directly dependent on natural resources.
Understanding the impact on livelihoods, cultural practices, and traditional knowl-
edge systems will be essential for crafting inclusive and context-specific solutions.
Moreover, efforts to enhance public awareness and environmental education should
be a priority, empowering local communities to actively participate in mitigating the
microplastics crisis. Lastly, emerging technologies and analytical methods should
be harnessed to advance the detection and monitoring of microplastics in Africa.
Continued investment in cutting-edge tools and methodologies will facilitate more
accurate assessments of microplastic distribution, sources, and potential risks.

5 Conclusion

This bibliometric exploration of microplastics research in Africa has provided invalu-

able insights into the trends, and influencers of the field. The study, utilizing the
Scopus database and advanced data visualization techniques, has illuminated the
70 T. Ojeyemi et al.

evolving landscape of microplastics research from 2014 to 2023. The identified

surge in research output and citations, particularly in recent years, highlights the
heightened global awareness and commitment to addressing microplastic pollu-
tion in African ecosystems. This upward trajectory signals a dynamic evolution
in microplastics research, fuelled by factors such as increased funding, enhanced
awareness, and advancements in analytical techniques. As the African scientific
community continues to play a pivotal role, collaborative efforts between African
and non-African nations are likely to intensify, fostering a more inclusive and glob-
ally informed approach. The study’s identification of influential authors, journals,
and themes serves as a roadmap for future research endeavours. Prolific authors
and high-impact journals are positioned to shape the discourse, while delineated
research themes indicate diverse avenues for exploration. The interdisciplinary nature
of microplastics research, reflected in the variety of keywords used, emphasizes
the need for a holistic approach that integrates the natural and social sciences.
Looking forward, the bibliometric insights provided here serve as a compass, guiding
the trajectory of microplastics research in Africa toward impactful and sustainable
contributions to global environmental science. Future research on microplastics in
Africa should embrace a holistic and collaborative approach, emphasizing long-term
ecological studies, interdisciplinary engagement, sustainable mitigation strategies,
socio-economic assessments, and technological advancements.

6 Disclosure Statements

Consent for publication: The authors have unanimously decided that this manuscript
be sent for possible publication.
Funding This work received no external funding.

Conflict of Interest The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest.

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Challenges of Microplastic Research
in Asia and Africa

Setyo Budi Kurniawan

Abstract There is no doubt that microplastics are currently one of the major pollu-
tants in our ecosystem, especially in Asia and Africa. Despite the numerous studies
delivering important information regarding microplastics in the environment, their
effects on the ecosystem, and actions taken to tackle further pollution, there are still
many challenges that needs to be solved for future studies. The number one challenge
is the lack of comprehensive studies covering a wide geographical area to understand
the extent of the issue. Currently, limited action is taken to monitor the microplastic
pollution state in Asia and Africa due to the lack of certain sophisticated equipment
and resources. In addition to the previous issue, there is no specific standardization for
microplastic analysis, including no standard sampling method, no standard protocol
for sample preparation, and no standard characterization. Moreover, many areas in
Asia and Africa are struggling with inadequate solid waste management, pollution
prevention, and the minimum development of alternatives to plastics, which leads
to extensive microplastic pollution. Addressing these challenges in future studies
may contribute to the knowledge of microplastics research and may tackle further
microplastics pollution, especially in Asia and Africa.

Keywords Ecosystem · Environmental pollution · Microplastic · Pollution

control · Waste management

1 Introduction

The increasing economic and population expansion often accompanied by envi-

ronmental damage, particularly in developing countries (Kurniawan et al., 2021b).
Surface waters and sediments are very susceptible to contamination and serve as
temporary or permanent repositories for pollutants. They are particularly affected

S. B. Kurniawan (B)
Laboratory of Algal Biotechnology, Centre Algatech, Institute of Microbiology of the Czech
Academy of Sciences, Opatovický Mlýn, Novohradská 237, 37981 Třeboň, Czech Republic
e-mail: setyobk@hotmail.com

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 73

J. C. Egbueri et al. (eds.), Microplastics in African and Asian Environments, Emerging
Contaminants and Associated Treatment Technologies,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-64253-1_4
74 S. B. Kurniawan

by human activities that degrade the quality of the environment (AL Falahi et al.,
2022). Microplastic (MP) pollution in freshwater ecosystems is a worldwide concern
because of its potential toxicity (Weber et al., 2020). This issue demands careful
attention, as shown by several studies (Alimi et al., 2022; Ma et al., 2020; Smith
et al., 2018). Studies on continental waters are relatively scarce compared to marine
waters (Ephsy & Raja, 2023). However, it is worth noting that the majority of plastic
pollution in the global ocean originates from rivers, and the concentration of plastic
is often higher in inland waters than in the marine environment. This suggests a
potentially greater level of toxicity in continental waters (Abu Hasan et al., 2023;
Lebreton et al., 2017).
Plastics are versatile, cost-effective, energy-efficient, useful, and provide conve-
niences that society and the economy rely on (North & Halden, 2013). In contem-
porary times, there is a growing need for plastic materials, which are indispensable
to modern civilizations due to their distinctive characteristics, including longevity,
resilience, adaptability, and decreased mass (Kumar et al., 2021). In 2021, the world-
wide output of plastic, excluding fibers, reached 390.7 million metric tons (Statista,
2023). This makes plastic the third most prevalent material created by humans, behind
steel and concrete (Geyer et al., 2017). A notable amount of plastic garbage that under-
goes fragmentation ultimately finds its way into the aquatic environment (Nguyen
et al., 2019). Plastic trash undergoes degradation when it comes into contact with
the environment. This degradation is caused by abiotic elements including light,
temperature, air, water, and external pressures, as well as biotic factors like organ-
isms (Sutkar et al., 2023). Plastic polymers undergo oxidation and chain-scission
during degradation processes, resulting in modifications to their mechanical and
physicochemical properties (Zhang et al., 2021). Weight loss, alterations in appear-
ance and texture, an increase in crystallinity, modifications in thermal stability and
surface area, and a reduction in tensile and shear strengths are among these alter-
ations. Plastic waste permeates numerous ecosystems and can be classified according
to its particle size: macroplastics (>25 mm), mesoplastics (5–25 mm), MPs (less than
5 mm), and nanoplastics (less than 0.1 µm) (Kurniawan & Imron, 2020; Yurtsever,
2019). There are several sources of MP that have been clearly recognized, including
poorly managed plastic trash, wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs), and indus-
trial and home drainage systems. Human activity, hydrological circumstances, and
climatic variables can influence the movement, destiny, and alteration of microplas-
tics in ecosystems (De Falco et al., 2019; Napper & Thompson, 2016; Villarín &
Merel, 2020).
MP pollution in Asia and Africa has been exacerbated by the growing urbaniza-
tion and industrialization (Kurniawan & Imron, 2019a; Mvovo, 2021; Strokal et al.,
2021). Developing countries, especially in Asia and Africa, must evaluate the impact
of MPs on still water habitats, necessitating an analysis of MP contamination (Blair
et al., 2019; Kurniawan & Imron, 2019b). Comprehending the pollution caused by
microplastics (MP) in a stagnant water environment is crucial due to three significant
factors: the presence of diverse and abundant plant and animal life, the emergence
of a new danger to freshwater creatures, and the potential impact on a range of
services provided by the ecosystem. Multiple assessments of lakes and rivers reveal
Challenges of Microplastic Research in Asia and Africa 75

elevated levels of MPs in Asia and African surface waters. The levels of microplastic
concentrations in the Nakdong River, located in South Korea, were investigated by
Eo et al. (2019). Wang et al. (2017) investigated urban surface waters in Wuhan,
China to assess MP levels. Islam et al. (2022) and (Banik et al., 2024) investigated
MP concentrations in the sediment and surface water of the Buriganga and Karna-
phuli rivers in Bangladesh, Faulstich et al. (2022) conducted an analysis of MP in
Namibian River, Saad et al. (2023) reported the high MPs concentration in Vaal
River, South Africa as well as Okeke et al. (2022) report in Victoria Lake. Multiple
research, including Zhang et al. (2018), have demonstrated that the concentration
of microplastics (MP) in freshwater systems is equivalent to or greater than that in
saltwater. The concentration of MPs in waters ranges from 0.00031 particles per
cubic meter to 10,200 particles per cubic meter (Li et al., 2018).
This chapter is aimed at detailing the challenges of microplastics research in Asia
and Africa. This chapter focuses on the current boundary of microplastic research as
related to obtaining a bigger view and comprehensive standardized analysis. Most of
the microplastics research is independent, which makes the results more scattered;
thus, this chapter was constructed to consolidate the straggled challenges and provide
a better understanding of the currently faced problems. This chapter is expected
to contribute to the future of standardizing microplastic analysis to obtain better
integrated knowledge on microplastic pollution.

2 Challenge of Further Microplastic Research in Asia

and Africa

Despite the numerous studies related to the analysis of microplastics in Asia and
Africa, there are still many challenges faced by this region to obtain clearer under-
standing of MPs pollution and establishing solid further actions to avoid further
pollutions. Challenges include the limited action taken to monitor microplastic
pollution, which is related to the lack of certain sophisticated equipment and
resources, no specific standardization for microplastic analysis, including no stan-
dard sampling method, no standard protocol for sample preparation, and no stan-
dard characterization, inadequate solid waste management, pollution prevention,
and the minimum development of alternatives to plastics, which leads to extensive
microplastic pollution (Fig. 1).

2.1 Comprehensive Studies Covering Wide Geographical

Area

The lack of comprehensive studies on microplastics in Asia and Africa is a significant

challenge that stems from a variety of factors (Fig. 2). One key issue is the fragmented
76 S. B. Kurniawan

Fig. 1 Challenges of microplastic (MP) research in Asia and Africa

nature of existing research efforts, with studies often being conducted on a regional
or local scale rather than encompassing broader geographical areas (Garvey et al.,
2022). For example, study reported by Ismanto et al. (2023) explored a specific river
basin in Surakarta, Indonesia, Huang et al. (2024) studied a specific aquaculture pond
in Yangtze Estuary, China, Preston-Whyte et al. (2021) explored Durban Port in South
Africa, while Samuels et al. (2024) studied specific estuaries in Cape Town, South
Africa. This fragmentation hampers the development of a holistic understanding of
the prevalence, distribution, and ecological impacts of microplastics across diverse
ecosystems in these continents (ter Halle et al., 2016).
Additionally, the variability in research methodologies, sampling techniques, and
analytical approaches among different studies makes it challenging to compare find-
ings and draw overarching conclusions (discussed further in Sect. 2.2). The absence
of standardized protocols for microplastic research further exacerbates this problem.
Comprehensive studies are essential to identify common patterns and trends, allowing
for the formulation of effective strategies to mitigate microplastic pollution (Tian
et al., 2023). Moreover, a lack of long-term studies and monitoring programs impedes
the ability to track changes over time, hindering our understanding of the persistence
and dynamics of microplastics in the environment (Miller et al., 2021). Kurniawan
and Imron (2019a) conduction a specific seasonal timeframe microplastic research
expanded for 3 months in Surabaya, Indonesia, while Zhao et al. (2023a, 2023b)
also conducting a seasonal microplastic analysis on the span of 4 month in Southern
China. For Africa, Mutshekwa et al. (2023) studied a pattern of microplastic abun-
dance for a year in South African reservoirs, while Apetogbor et al. (2023) also
reported a year spatio-temporal abundance of microplastic in Western Cape, South
Africa.
Challenges of Microplastic Research in Asia and Africa 77

Fig. 2 Lack of comprehensive review in microplastic research in Asia and Africa

The challenge also extended into limited monitoring and infrastructure in the
context of microplastic research in Asia and Africa, which encompasses a range of
impediments that hinder the comprehensive assessment of this environmental issue.
At the forefront is the scarcity of adequate monitoring systems and resources required
for effective data collection and analysis (Lusher et al., 2021), for example, Kurni-
awan and Imron (2019b) utilized manual separation technique, similar to Apetogbor
et al. (2023) which use density separation. The microscopic nature of microplas-
tics demands specialized techniques and equipment, often inaccessible in many
regions, thereby restricting the ability to ascertain the presence and concentration
of microplastics in various environmental mediums. Inadequate laboratory facilities
equipped with essential instruments, including advanced microscopy tools and spec-
troscopy devices (Miller et al., 2021), further hinder the meticulous examination
and identification of microplastics. Insufficient development of networks for data
collection and a lack of coordination in monitoring efforts contribute to the chal-
lenge, preventing the establishment of a cohesive understanding of the distribution
and impact of microplastics (Kurniawan et al., 2021a; Löhr et al., 2017).

2.2 Lack of Specific Standardization for Microplastic

Analysis

The reported units of microplastic abundance vary depending on the sample method-
ology employed (Biltcliff-Ward et al., 2022). Therefore, the measure of abundance
is standardized based on the sampling area, sediment weight, or volume (Löder &
Gerdts, 2015). Presently, there is a lack of a universally accepted strategy for
78 S. B. Kurniawan

collecting microplastics in terms of location, sampling technique, and sample size,

as summarized in Fig. 3. For example, Kurniawan and Imron (2019a) used quadrant
sectioning sampling method, Apetogbor et al. (2023) used grab bucket sampling
technique, Zhang et al. (2023) utilized multilayered sediment sampling, and Dahms
et al. (2020) used bottom river sediment sampling. As a result of these diversely
used techniques, the comparability of the data generated is restricted. Therefore, it
is crucial to promptly design standardized methods for sampling.
A consistent, geographically integrated sampling methodology would be reason-
able and simplify the compilation of comparable data due to the patchy distribution of
microplastics (Shi et al., 2023). Hanke et al. (2013) have initiated the process of stan-
dardizing microplastic sampling at European Union beaches. Optimal methodology
entails conducting microplastic monitoring along the strandline of sandy beaches.
To accomplish this, a minimum of five replicate samples must be gathered, with each
sample being separated by a minimum of five meters. Additionally, it is critical to
distinguish between two size categories: large microplastics, which vary in length
from 1 to 5 mm, and minuscule microplastics, which span from 20 µm to 1 mm.
Collect minute microplastics by sampling the uppermost five centimeters of sediment
with a metal utensil. Approaching the strand line, arc-shape multiple scoops held at
arm’s length until an approximate quantity of 250 g of sediment remains. In the
case of sizable microplastics, collect samples from the uppermost five centimeters

Fig. 3 Lack of specific standardization for microplastic analysis

Challenges of Microplastic Research in Asia and Africa 79

of sediment and employ a one-millimeter sieve to separate several kilograms of the

sample at the shore.
The literature often uses oxidative digesting procedures, with the majority of
protocols involving hydrogen peroxide (H2 O2 ) (Wang et al., 2021). The Fenton reac-
tion presents itself as a feasible substitute for hydrogen peroxide, as it often necessi-
tates shorter reaction durations (Prata et al., 2019). Acid-based digestion procedures,
namely hydrochloric acid (HCl) and nitric acid (HNO3 ), have been employed for the
digestion of biological materials, such as fish tissues (Karami et al., 2017; Naidoo
et al., 2017). Biological samples were also often subjected to alkaline treatments,
including the use of potassium hydroxide (KOH) and sodium hydroxide (NaOH)
(Catarino et al., 2017; Naidoo et al., 2017). Enzymatic digestions can also serve as
a viable substitute for chemical digestions, particularly when dealing with biolog-
ical tissues like fish or plankton (Catarino et al., 2017). Eventually, there are several
diverse methods for analyzing microplastics that are now accessible for research
purposes, hence complicating the comparison of data across different methodologies.
Currently, the task of determining and quantifying the amounts of microplas-
tics, namely those in the form of fibers, is also a significant challenge (Fortin et al.,
2019). The estimation of the quantity of discharged microplastics is subject to signif-
icant uncertainty due to aforementioned reasons. In addition, the acquired data is
not extensively disseminated across the scientific community and lacks validation
through inter-laboratory testing (Hurley et al., 2018; Silva et al., 2018). Currently,
the ongoing research is mostly centered on developing experimental and analytical
methods to detect microplastics in particle form, while still neglecting the iden-
tification of microplastics in fiber form. Current techniques for fabricating MFs
(microfilaments) mostly use the fragmentation or cryogenic pulverization of arti-
ficial filaments, leading to a broad range of fiber lengths (Murray & Cowie, 2011).
Scientists have synthesized microplastic fibers of nylon, polyethylene terephthalate
(PET), and polypropylene (PP) with specific lengths (40, 70, or 100 µm) using a
cryotome process. They demonstrated the efficacy of this approach in generating
a substantial number of MFs, namely in the range of tens of thousands, which are
appropriate for testing purposes (Mossotti et al., 2023). Although the results are
encouraging, the proposed analytical tools have limitations in terms of their ability
to count and separate (Mossotti et al., 2023). Therefore, a new method for quan-
tifying and distinguishing fibrous microplastics is becoming essential. In order to
ensure consistency, it is necessary to acquire a standardized analytical procedure and
then validate it.
The primary objective in the analysis of microplastic particles in environmental
samples is to ascertain their size and quantity (Gewert et al., 2017). Chemical diges-
tion methods possess the capacity to solubilize microplastic particles, leading to either
a partial or complete annihilation of particles falling within a specific size range. This
could potentially lead to an error in the microplastics’ calculations, which could have
substantial ramifications for the outcomes of certain inquiries. Furthermore, in the
realm of microplastic monitoring, the identification of polymer types is of the utmost
importance and generally necessitates the application of specific pyrograms derived
80 S. B. Kurniawan

from gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry (GC–MS) or Fourier-

transform infrared spectra (FTIR). Improper digestion may cause interference with
the distinct pyrograms/spectra, thereby hindering the precise detection of microplas-
tics. Therefore, it is imperative that the selected chemical digestion method does not
alter the size of the particles under investigation or hinder their identification.

2.3 Bad Solid Waste Management and Pollution Prevention

Previous studies have demonstrated that plastic waste pollutes the environment
persistently, even when it is disposed of in landfills, composted, or incinerated (Edo
et al., 2022; Yang et al., 2021). Mechanical operations such as compaction, agitation,
and transfer consistently discharge primary MPs into the environment throughout the
waste management process, encompassing waste production, collection, transporta-
tion to secondary waste collection sites like waste transfer stations, and final disposal
(Zhao et al., 2023a, 2023b). Nevertheless, the effectiveness of garbage collection
fluctuates based on the economic status of a nation. High-income countries have
a commendable garbage collection percentage of around 90—100%. Low-income
nations and developing countries, such as in Asia and Africa, encounter a multitude
of obstacles, such as restricted financial resources, technical limitations, and external
influences. As a result, their rate of garbage collection remains relatively low, ranging
from 26 to 48% (Kaza et al., 2018), which causes a huge issue of plastic debris piling
up on the streets. In developing countries, uncollected waste may go to other facilities
such as informal recycling units, while the fate of the rest untreated waste is also
unreported, which somehow can be found accumulated in the ocean.
Landfilling is a frequently used and cost-efficient strategy for garbage disposal,
following trash collection, which is used in many developing countries (Nanda &
Berruti, 2021). Approximately 71% of municipal solid waste (MSW) is globally
deposited in landfills (Abdel-Shafy & Mansour, 2018). Waste management special-
ists assert that landfills have a harmful impact on the environment. The lack of
adequate sorting at the point of origin results in the accumulation of plastic trash in
landfills, where it may be subjected to perilous circumstances that might endanger
the environment or human well-being (He et al., 2019). Over time, plastic waste
in landfills breaks down mechanically and physically, leading to the creation of
microplastics (Silva et al., 2021). The leachate-containing microplastics contribute
to the environmental accumulation of microplastics as a whole. Therefore, it has been
recognized that landfills are a substantial contributor to microplastic pollution (Sun
et al., 2021). Overall pathways on how bad solid waste management contributes to
the release of microplastic is illustrated in Fig. 4.
Challenges of Microplastic Research in Asia and Africa 81

Fig. 4 Pathways of bad solid waste management contributing to microplastic pollution

2.4 Limited Development on the Alternative to Plastic

Biodegradable polymers are substances designed to decompose into less toxic

byproducts under the influence of microorganisms and the surrounding environ-
mental conditions (Moshood et al., 2022). This category of materials has been
proposed as a potentially effective substitute for addressing the issues and ongoing
environmental contamination caused by plastic materials derived from petroleum
(Jung et al., 2023). However, petroleum-derived plastic is still contributing to the
majority of usage and polluting the environment. Some Asian countries—Philip-
pines, India, Malaysia, China, Indonesia, Vietnam, Bangladesh, and Myanmar—
were mentioned as the most contributing countries to ocean plastic pollution world-
wide, contributing more than 50% of the total accumulated plastic debris in the ocean
(Meijer et al., 2021). Knowing this fact, there is an urgent need to develop new mate-
rials as an alternative to petroleum-derived plastic, which causes less environmental
damage.

3 Insight into the Possibility of Tackling Microplastic

Research Challenges in Asia and Africa

In the effort of overcoming challenges in tackling microplastic research challenges

in Asia and Africa, promoting collaborative research initiatives (Moto et al., 2024),
establish standardized methodologies (Ding et al., 2022), and allocate resources for
sustained, large-scale studies that can provide a more nuanced and comprehensive
understanding of the microplastic issue are highly recommended (Huang et al., 2023;
Jain et al., 2023; Masiá et al., 2022). In addition, by implementing waste management
strategies that effectively mitigate the risk of improper plastic waste disposal, the
release of microplastics into the environment can be substantially diminished (Ali
et al., 2024). Overcoming the obstacles also involves addressing issues such as the
lack of expertise, limited financial resources, and the need for comprehensive training
82 S. B. Kurniawan

programs. Additionally, initiatives to enhance accessibility to remote areas for sample

collection and research are crucial for filling existing gaps in our understanding of
microplastic pollution in Asia and Africa (Postma, 2022).
In recent years, there has been a growing interest in biodegradable polymers
as a result of the environmental impact of conventional plastics (Balestri et al.,
2017; Mostafa et al., 2018; Neumann et al., 2017). Recent years have witnessed an
increase in the production of biobased microplastic fibers derived from microbial or
plant-based renewable biomass. The objective of this movement is to foster an envi-
ronment that is sustainable and environmentally harmless. At this time, biodegrad-
able and easily obtainable natural polymers, such as starch, cellulose, polyhydrox-
yalkanoate (PHA), polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB), and polyhydroxybutyrate valerate
(PHBV), are the subject of extensive research (Reddy et al., 2013). These polymers
have garnered significant attention and have been effectively utilized in the manu-
facturing of bioplastic materials (Ali et al., 2023), however, most of the development
still focused in the developed region such as EU and US. Hence, bioplastics are
considered essential for the growth of the plastic sector in Asia and Africa, as this
particular area of study remains mostly untapped in the region.

4 Conclusions

The increasing economic growth and population surge in developing nations have
resulted in significant environmental degradation, namely in surface waterways and
sediments. The presence of microplastic (MP) contamination in freshwater environ-
ments is a worldwide issue because of its possible harmful effects. Studies indi-
cate that minute plastic particles have the potential to cause detrimental effects
on aquatic creatures, including stunted development, internal damage, malnourish-
ment, and maybe even mortality. Nevertheless, there is a dearth of extensive research
encompassing wider geographical regions and inadequate monitoring infrastructure
across Asia and Africa. The lack of comprehensive surveillance and infrastructure
for microplastics in the environment is a substantial obstacle. This encompasses a
dearth of specialist equipment, limited availability of modern laboratory facilities,
and inadequate data collecting networks. Furthermore, the absence of a globally
recognized protocol for sample preparation in microplastic monitoring poses chal-
lenges in comparing various methodologies. The efficacy of garbage collection varies
depending on a nation’s economic condition, with high-income countries exhibiting a
greater proportion of successful collection. Landfills, commonly employed for waste
disposal, are a substantial origin of microplastic contamination. Numerous devel-
oping nations have the challenge of dealing with a significant amount of garbage
that lacks clear methods of disposal, resulting in its eventual deposition into the
ocean. The absence of research on biodegradable polymers as a viable substitute for
petroleum-based plastics exacerbates the existing situation. Tackling the aforemen-
tioned difficulties is an essential measure in reducing plastic pollution in the Asia
and Africa.
Challenges of Microplastic Research in Asia and Africa 83

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Unveiling Microplastic Pollution in India:
Reviewing Contamination Across Coastal
Ecosystems

V. Stephen Pitchaimani, S. Richard Abishek, and R. J. Jerin Joe

Abstract The exponential growth in plastic manufacturing and consumption has

led to the emergence of a novel class of environmental contaminants known as
microplastics (MPs). These plastic particles, with a diameter smaller than 5 mm,
originate from either primary or secondary sources. When bigger pieces of plastic
break apart and fall to the ground, water, or air, they become secondary microplastics,
or MPs. There is a narrow size range in which primary MPs are produced. Although
there is a lot of research being conducted on MP contamination worldwide, India is
not getting nearly as much attention. The majority of the research on the prevalence
of MP in Indian ecosystems has focused on marine systems, while the freshwater,
atmospheric, terrestrial, and human environments have received less attention. This
study aims to provide an up-to-date perspective on the prevalence of microplastic
pollution (MP) in India’s air, waterways, landmasses, and food supply by conducting
an extensive review of recent research. To better understand the behavior of these
particles in the water environment, this study conducted a thorough review of the
literature on the occurrence of microplastics in aquatic environments, divided into
freshwater, wastewater, and seawater. To achieve pollutant management goals in
diverse environmental contexts, it is imperative that we deepen our understanding of
these emerging pollutants.

Keywords Microplastics · Marine environments · Terrestrial environments ·

Human consumption · India

V. Stephen Pitchaimani (B) · S. Richard Abishek · R. J. Jerin Joe

PG and Research Department of Geology, V.O. Chidambaram College, Thoothukudi 628008,
India
e-mail: stephen.geo@voccollege.ac.in
R. J. Jerin Joe
Research Scholar in Affiliated with Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, Tirunelveli, India

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 89

J. C. Egbueri et al. (eds.), Microplastics in African and Asian Environments, Emerging
Contaminants and Associated Treatment Technologies,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-64253-1_5
90 V. Stephen Pitchaimani et al.

1 Introduction

In addition to bringing with it previously unheard-of levels of convenience and effi-

ciency, the widespread use of plastic in modern times has also brought with it the
dangerous and frequently undetectable contaminant known as microplastics (Seuront
et al., 2022; Shi et al., 2022). There are worries about the possible impacts of these
minuscule plastic particles, which have penetrated ecosystems globally and have
a diameter of less than five millimeters, on human health, the environment, and
ecosystems (Gong et al., 2023). With its numerous rivers, rich biodiversity, and
quickly changing industrial landscape, India is a country where microplastic pollu-
tion is particularly significant (Kumar and Varghese, 2021). The extensive coastlines
of the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea, which encircle the Indian subcontinent, are
renowned for their varied ecosystems, growing industrial and economic activity, and
natural beauty (Humayun, 2022). The marine environment and human activity are
therefore closely related, increasing the likelihood of microplastics spreading through
intricate pathways. The disintegration of larger plastic products, urban runoff, and
ineffective waste management are some of the causes of these particles finding their
way into oceans and other bodies of water. As a result, microplastics have become
integrated into aquatic ecosystems and can be found in a wide range of marine
environments, including open waters and coastal sediments (Karbalaei et al., 2018;
Vivekanand et al., 2021). The consumption of microplastics by marine organisms has
resulted in a significant environmental impact. These organisms may have an impact
on larger animals, including humans, as they move up the food chain. Concerns
about plastic particle movement across trophic levels have prompted extensive scien-
tific research into the potential consequences for ecosystem health and biodiversity
(Lehel & Murphy, 2021). According to Sivagami et al. (2021), microplastics can
be found in commonly used sea salts. The study also focused on the health risks to
humans. According to Jambeck et al. (2015), there is a growing trend in the amount
of plastic waste that ends up in the ocean, ranging from 4.8 to 12.7 million tons. Water
bodies serve as disposal sites for plastic waste. Their shape, size, density, chemical
makeup, and other characteristics vary widely. Cole et al. (2011) define microplastic
as plastic materials ranging in size from 1 µM to 5 mm. According to Auta et al.
(2017), there are two primary types of microplastics that are commonly found in water
bodies: secondary and primary microplastics. As per Chatterjee and Sharma (2019),
the primary sources of plastic that are used in products are adult and child products,
cosmetics, personal healthcare products, and protective items. This comprehensive
review examines the extensive research on the potential harm to human health caused
by consuming microplastic-contaminated seafood. The aim of this paper is to provide
a concise overview of the research findings that demonstrate the widespread presence
of microplastics in the air, sea, and land in India. Furthermore, the review looks into
the presence of microplastics in human consumption. It also draws attention to the
challenges associated with conducting research in these areas and the intricacy of
understanding how microplastics behave in diverse contexts.
Unveiling Microplastic Pollution in India: Reviewing Contamination … 91

2 Geographic Distribution of Microplastics

The Indian Ocean, which encompasses marginal seas, makes up 19.8% of the planet’s
total water surface and is the third largest ocean in the world, measuring 70,560,000
km2 . These oceans consist of the Arabian Sea (3.862 million km2 ), Bay of Bengal
(2.172 million km2 ), Andaman Sea (797,700 km2 ), Laccadive Sea (786,000 km2 ),
Gulf of Aden (410,000 km2 ), Mozambique Channel (700,000 km2 ), and Oman Sea
(181,000 km2 ). The definition of marginal seas excludes the Timor Sea, Java Sea,
Banda Sea, Malacca Strait, and Great Australian Bight. Secondary microplastics
(MPs) are formed when larger plastic particles break apart and enter terrestrial,
aquatic, and atmospheric environments. Primary MPs in the MP size range develop
independently. The growing global concern about MP pollution in various environ-
ments has prompted extensive research, but studies specific to India remain limited,
such as those conducted by Karthik et al. (2022), and Vaid et al. (2021). According
to Thiemann (2023), this review covers literature from 2015 to 2022 and looks
into the presence of microplastics in commercially significant fish species in the
Indian Ocean. Furthermore, Unnikrishnan et al. (2023) studied MP distribution in
the surface, middle, and bottom layers of the Udyavara River Estuary in southwest
India. In recent years, there has been a significant increase in research into the pres-
ence, distribution, and toxicity of microplastics in various parts of India. The primary
goal of this article is to look into where MPs come from, how common they are, and
what kinds of things they are in sediments, water, and living things in Indian aquatic
ecosystems, as explained by Vanapalli et al. (2021).

3 Source and Types of Microplastics

Microplastic pellets (MPPs) represent a pervasive contaminant in coastal, estuarine,

and marine environments, posing a considerable threat to biodiversity. Investigations
by James et al. (2022), and Veerasingam et al. (2016a, 2016b), delve into the distri-
bution, abundance, weathering, and chemical properties of MPPs on Goa beaches,
including their transport to the coast during the southwest monsoon. To gauge the
current extent of microplastic pollution, 28 sediment samples from Silver Beach in
southern India underwent testing for microplastics and plastic debris contamination.
Vidyasakar et al. (2020), employed FT-IR spectroscopy and visual identification to
precisely locate and categorize plastic debris. In the Indian state of Karnataka, an
assessment of microplastic particles in five beach locations along the Arabian Sea
coast was conducted. Yaranal et al. (2021) enhanced sieving and density separation
methods to boost the yield of microplastics. Researchers, keen on understanding the
abundance, chemical composition, and ecological risk of microplastics (MPs) in both
terrestrial and marine environments, utilized meta-data discovered by Ranjani et al.
(2021). The study focused on assessing the ecological risk of MPs in sediments off
the Indian coast and identified the Sal estuary in Goa, on the central west coast of
92 V. Stephen Pitchaimani et al.

India, as the source of MPs found in water, sediment, and biota matrices. This inves-
tigation demonstrates the presence of MPs in various marine organisms in the Sal
estuary, raising concerns about potential threats to human health, particularly since
shellfish is a regional delicacy and significant in the seafood industry (Saha et al.,
2021). Sambandam et al. (2022) explored the abundance, distribution, and charac-
terization (shape, size, color, and chemical composition) of microplastics (MPs) in
surface water and sediment from India’s central east coast shelf. Another study by
Selvam et al. (2020) in salt pan areas revealed the percentage of MPs found in sea salt,
emphasizing the contamination of table salt-a crucial edible commodity-with MPs
from polluted seawater, posing a potential public health risk. This review centers on
scientific articles published on MPs, collected, separated, and identified by research
laboratories in various geographical regions of India, as investigated by Karthikeyan
and Subagunasekar (2023), and Chinglenthoiba et al. (2022).
Microplastics pose significant environmental health risks in nearly all marine
habitats and biota worldwide. Notably, existing review articles have yet to explore
the topics mentioned, including the environmental fate of microplastics as identi-
fied by Ajith et al. (2020). Previous microplastics research has primarily focused on
abundance, distribution, and the effects on organisms. Daniel et al. (2022) under-
score the importance of extreme weather events, like floods, in accurately inves-
tigating microplastic entry, distribution, and accumulation across various environ-
mental compartments in marine ecosystems. This study aims to assess the extent
of microplastic (MP) pollution in the sediments and water columns of three desig-
nated beaches in Mumbai, one of India’s most populous cities. The findings provide
valuable insights into morphological attributes and spatiotemporal fluctuations, as
explored by Dutta et al. (2022), Gurjar et al. (2022) and Manickavasagam et al.
(2021). The current review focuses on the distribution and effects of microplastics
in India, with particular attention to plastic pollution in the Indian Ocean and the
nine largest coastal states of the country (see Figs. 1 and 2). Notably, the effects of
microplastic pollution on marine life along India’s coastline remain insufficiently
studied, as highlighted by Nanthini Devi et al. (2023).

4 Overview Studies of Indian Sub-continental Coastal

Environments

4.1 Western Coast of India

4.1.1 Lakshadweep

According to research on MP by Mugilarasan et al. (2017), the south side of the

uninhabited Lakshadweep island Tinnakkara has lower levels of oxidation and pellets
of white MP resin. Sand beaches tend to have a higher concentration of white pellets.
There have been no MP studies carried out in Lakshadweep.
Unveiling Microplastic Pollution in India: Reviewing Contamination … 93

Fig. 1 An overview of the microplastic pollution map of the Indian sub-continental coast region

4.1.2 Gujarath

The recent research from Vasanthkiumar et al. (2022) examined the sediments along
the Gujarat coast for the presence of MP using ATR-FTIR. The polymers, which
included polystyrene, polyethylene, and polypropylene, were found to be reddish-
blue in color.
94 V. Stephen Pitchaimani et al.

Sample collection

Drying of Samples

Seive analysis

Segrigation of primary and secondary MP

classification based on Size, Shape,and morphology using

Spectroscopy

qualitative and quantitative results

Fig. 2 Flow chart of a typical microplastic study

4.1.3 Maharashtra

Along the coast of Mumbai in Maharashtra, Udai et al. (2022) found 372,143 parti-
cles/kg of MP. Raman spectroscopy was employed to determine the various MP
shapes, including films, pellets, fibers, and fragments. The study found that the west
coast biota has been hit hard. Chowpath Beach contains a greater concentration of
MP pellets and fibers ranging in size from 0.45 to 500 m, according to Sagan Dutta
et al. (2022). Polypropylene makes up half of the polymers found in Mumbai. The
normal distribution of MP along the coast was determined using polyethylene statis-
tical tests such as ANOVA and Kollmogoro-Smisnoff. In order to assess the degree
of harm caused by MPs to biota, Bejwad et al. (2022) employed indices such as
the Clam Condition Index and the Microplastic Diversity Integrity Index. Pradeep
Kumar et al. (2023) calculated the MP using the pollution load index. Tiwari et al.
(2019) investigated the Mumbai and Tamil Nadu coasts and discovered that Mumbai
contained 20,050 kg of MP particles. To identify the various MP species, they strained
the samples in red Nile dye and looked at them under a florescence microscope. To
identify the type of polymer, they used FTIP.
Unveiling Microplastic Pollution in India: Reviewing Contamination … 95

4.1.4 Goa

The MP was found in the soft tissues of bivalves, oysters, clamps, and shellfish on the
west coast by Saha et al. in (2021). In these organisms, fiber was the most common
type of MP. In 2016, S. Veeraingam et al. used FTIP-ATR to detect polymers in
sediments and discovered numerous polyethylene and polypropylene pellets. The
carbonyl index was used to identify the source of the MP. More people experience
the MP during the south-west monsoon.

4.1.5 Karnataka

According to Navaneen Kumar et al. (2021) used FESEM-EDX to determine the

heavy metal content of MP along the Karnataka coast, discovering AL, Ca, Cu,
Fn, Pb, Ti, and Zn. The SEM was used to investigate the MP’s roughness as well
as the weathering and oxidation mechanisms. The MP’s size was determined to be
0.1 to 0.3 mm. Rizwan et al. (2022) studied the sediments on St. Mary’s Island, a
geologically significant site. According to the study, MP pollutes the region heavily,
and heavy metals such as Cu, Ca, Ti, and Cr can be found in the SEM–EDS shop.

4.1.6 Kerala

In 2020, Robin et al. looked into the MP abundance (1.25 ± 0.88 in water; 40.7 ±
33.2 sediments) along the Kerala coast. Green, red, yellow, blue, and violet make
up 58% of the MP, with black and white accounting for the remainder. Polyethylene
polymers, according to SEM results, contain a high concentration of heavy metals
such as Cd, Cr, Hg, and Pb, whereas polystyrene contains Fe, Sb, Ti, and Zn. For their
studies, Ashwin and Varghese (2021) and Damaris et al. (2022) gathered samples
between 2016 and 2019. They discovered that MP pollution in beach sediments had
increased by 1.5 times since the 2018 flood. The main source of MP, they concluded,
is the river. The amount of MP in beach sediments is proportional to the surface wave
height and wind speed. Pavithran (2021) stated that poor waste management is the
primary cause of MP in the coastal region. Sruthy and Ramasamy (2017) identified
the first MP in lake sediment (Vembanad Lake).

4.2 Eastern Indian Coast

4.2.1 Andaman and Nicobar Islands

The accumulation of microplastics on the sediments along the coast of Andaman and
Nicobar Island was examined by Mohan et al. (2022). In this regard, three coastal
stations were thoroughly evaluated: Cove Beach, Quarry Beach, and Wandoor Beach.
96 V. Stephen Pitchaimani et al.

The highest concentration of microplastics, ranging from 105 to 475 particles per
kg of sediment, was found at Wandoor Beach. Using Fourier transform infrared
spectroscopy (FTIR), researchers discovered that the beach sediment contained
polyethylen, polystyrene, polypropylena, and plasta zinc, a new type of polymer that
could be a nanoplastic. Gowswami et al. (2020) discovered MP in aquatic organisms,
specifically zooplankton. Fragments, nylon, and ionmer surlyn were abundant in the
biota and sediments, respectively.

4.2.2 Tamil Nadu

A thorough investigation of the Tamil Nadu coast was conducted by Karthik et al.
(2018), spanning from Kanyakumari to Chennai and encompassing examination of
twenty-five beaches. The study revealed notable microplastic (MP) pollution near
the river’s mouth. Employing the carbonyl index, Sathish et al. (2019) assessed the
weathering pattern of the MP, demonstrating varying degrees of weathering despite
originating from a common source. Erosional characteristics, such as small pits and
cracks, were observed in the fiber particles of the microplastic, as highlighted by
Immaculate Jeyasanta et al. (2020) in their study on the seasonal variation of MP.
Seasonal changes influenced the characteristics of the MP, but the weathering pattern
remained consistent. Examining MPs in biota, Kalaiselvan et al. (2023) found higher
concentrations in benthic species compared to pelagic species. According to Sajind
Sundar et al. (2020), the majority of MPs on the Tamil Nadu coast are secondary
candidates, particularly abundant on tourist beaches adjacent to resident beaches.
Noteworthy factors contributing to MP presence include recreational activities, reli-
gious practices, and fishing. Veeerasingan et al. (2018) collected samples both before
and after the monsoon season, revealing no significant differences in polymer types
between seasons, but a higher abundance of MPs during the rainy season. Assessing
the impact of MPs on coral reefs in the Gulf of Mannar, Vidyasagar et al. (2018)
identified common polymer types such as polyethylene, polypropylene, and nylon.
These polymers were found trapped in sediments along the high tide line.

4.2.3 Pondicherry

Dowarah and Devipriya (2019) investigated Pondicherry’s entire coastal stretch

(23.94). Following the collection of samples from six different locations, the
polymer’s shape was determined using Raman spectroscopy. The Kruskal–Wallis
H test was used to see if MP abundance differed significantly between beaches.

4.2.4 Andhra Pradesh

Raju et al. (2023) discovered that MPs in Andhra Pradesh beach sediments contain
high levels of Ni, Cr, Cu, Pb, and Zn. MPs are abundant after the northeast monsoon,
Unveiling Microplastic Pollution in India: Reviewing Contamination … 97

as are the pollution load index, polymer hazard index, and ATR-FTIR, SEM, and
EDS analyses. Abishek Mandal et al. (2023) assigned the Andhra Coast hazard levels
IV and V. According to his findings, polyethylene terephthalate pollutes 30 percent
of the biota. Muruga Sundaram et al. (2022) used SEM to study the breakdown of
MP particles (1 mm). The study collected 21 samples from the 1200 km coastline,
indicating that 77% of the MPs are fiber and 32% are fragments. These MPs are
sourced from river influx and fishing.

4.2.5 Odisha

Arunkumar et al. (2021) investigated six Odisha beaches. Raman spectroscopy and
fluorescence microscopy were used to investigate the sizes (100–1000 m) and shapes
(fragments, fibers, and spheres) of the MPs. According to Singh et al. (2022), the
concentration of MPs on the Puri beach is 731 719 particles per kilogram. Based on
the primary activity contributors of each type of MP particle, no significant differ-
ences could be found when using statistical tests like the Tukey posthoc test. However,
an ANOVA showed that the types of MP particles varied statistically differently based
on the location.

4.2.6 West Bengal

The MPs in the Sundarbans delta region were studied by Rakesh Kumar et al. in 2022.
This place is the most dangerous for MP accumulation because it is the confluence
of the rivers Meghna, Brahmaputra, and Ganga. The river influx is estimated to bring
in 3 billion MPs between the two countries. Table 1 summarized and described the
study findings.

5 Human Health Risks of MPs

MPs represent a significant threat to human health because they can readily enter the
food chain. Every day, people in India’s coastal states eat fish. Pelagic species on the
west coast have a high MP content (Saha et al., 2021), whereas benthic species on
the east coast do as well. Vidyasakar et al. (2020) collected and compared powdered
and crystalline salts from Gujarat and Tamil Nadu salt pans. A high concentration
of MP was found in Gujarati sea salt, according to the results. The MPs most often
found in salt were polyesters and polyethylene. According to Kumkar et al. (2023),
MPs derived from medications have the potential to seriously harm people’s health.
Several commercial sea species, such as mussels, oysters, crabs, sea cucumbers,
and fish, have been shown to consume microplastics and transport them through the
food chain. Microplastic particle concentration, size, shape, and chemical compo-
sition in food are unknown, unfortunately, according to BfR (2015). There was an
Table 1 A review study of the microplastic in Indian coastal area
98

S. No. Location Sample type Color of the MP Shape of the MP Type of polymer Methods used Reference
1 Andaman and Nicobar Sediments White Pellets Polyethylene ATR-FTIR Mohan et al. (2022)
Polystyrene
Polypropylene
Polyethylene
Tetphthalate
2 Andhra Pradesh Sediments White Foams Polyethylene ATR-FTIR Raju et al. (2023)
Red Fibers Polystyrene SEM
Blue Films
Green Pellets
Black
3 Goa Sediments White Pellets Polyacrylamide ATR-FTIR Saha et al. (2021)
biota Films Polyacetylene
Ethylene vinyl
alcohol
Polyvinyl chloride
nylon
4 Gujarat Sediments Red Films Polypropylene ATR-FTIR Vasanthakumar et al.
salt Blue Fragments Polyethylene (2022)
Foams Polystrene
5 Karnataka Sediments White Fragment High density Fluorescent Naveenkumar et al.
Transparent Fibers polyethylene microscopy (2021)
Pellets Low density Raman’s spectroscopy
polyethylene FESEM-EDX
Polyethylene
Polypropylne
(continued)
V. Stephen Pitchaimani et al.
Table 1 (continued)
S. No. Location Sample type Color of the MP Shape of the MP Type of polymer Methods used Reference
6 Kerala Sediments Green Fragment Polyethylene ATR-FTIR Robin et al (2020)
Biota Red Fibers Polystyrene Raman’s spectroscopy
Yellow Foams Polyvinylchloride SEM
Blue Flimms Polycarbonate
Violet Pellets
Black
White
7 Lakshadweep Sediments White Pellets Polyethylene ATR-FTIR Mugilarasan et al.
(2017)
8 Maharashtra Biota Red Fiber Polypropulene Ramans spectroscopy Naidu et al. (2022)
Sediments Blue Fragment Polyethylene
Black Pellets Polyamide
Translucent Filims Polymethacrylate
Brown Polystyrene
Green
Yellow
9 Odisha Sediments White Foams High Density ATR-FTIR Arunkumar et al.
Red Fibers Polyethylene Fluorescent (2021)
Blue Filims Lowdensity microscopy
Black Microbeads Polyethylene Raman’s spectroscopy
Unveiling Microplastic Pollution in India: Reviewing Contamination …

Green Polystyrene
Ethylenvinyl
Acetate
Nylon
(continued)
99
Table 1 (continued)
100

S. No. Location Sample type Color of the MP Shape of the MP Type of polymer Methods used Reference
10 Puducherry Sediments White Fragment Polyethylene Raman’s spectroscopy Kaushik et al.(2019)
Brown Fibers Polyvinylchloride
Red Foams Nylon
Pink
Voilet
11 Tamil Nadu Biota Transparent Fiber Polyethylene ATR-FTIR Sathish et al. (2019)
Salt Green Filim Polystyrene Ramans spectroscopy
Sediments White Fragment Nylon SEM-ERX
Red Polyvinyl chloride
Blue
Yellow
Black
V. Stephen Pitchaimani et al.
Unveiling Microplastic Pollution in India: Reviewing Contamination … 101

investigation by the German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment into the potential
dangers of using face washes, hand cleansers, toothpastes, and dental care items that
contained PE microplastic particles. According to Lassen et al. (2015), toothpaste
contains microplastics and microbead particles that can be accidentally swallowed
and absorbed by the digestive system. Mutations in chromosomes can cause cancer,
obesity, and infertility if consumed in large enough quantities (GESAMP, 2015).
Women can develop breast cancer as a result of substances that mimic estrogen.
According to Van Cauwenberghe and Janssen’s 2014 study, microplastic pollution
in seafood poses a serious threat to food safety due to its high ratio. Humans are clearly
exposed to microplastics through their diet. The possible health risk of microplastics
originating from a range of foods throughout the entire diet should be thoroughly
analyzed and assessed in order to determine the causal risk of contaminated marine
food on human health.

6 Conclusion

Major contributors to microplastic (MP) pollution in India were identified by the case
study. These included microfibers from laundry and riverbank disposal, packaging
waste from tourist and pilgrimage sites, and more. Additionally, there were trace
amounts of litter from the sea and land that were carried by the vast system of rivers
and streams. The amount and distribution of MP pollutants were heavily influenced
by the monsoon season, as well as regional geographic, environmental, and human
factors. Identification of pollution sources and primary polymers of concern was
greatly aided by the size, shape, color, and other characteristics of MPs. The specific
locations of microplastics in the area are not well known, despite these findings.
Awareness of microplastic pollution is critical because it will influence public atti-
tudes toward plastic use and, more importantly, because the public is still unaware
of the pollution’s harmful effects. It is critical to implement various campaigns and
programs that have the potential to raise public awareness about the chronic and
long-term consequences of plastic pollution. Several globally active international
organizations, including the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and
the International Maritime Organization (IMO), should coordinate specific global
campaigns to reduce microplastic pollution.

7 Author’s Contribution Statement

All authors have contributed to this paper.

102 V. Stephen Pitchaimani et al.

8 Conflicts of Interest

They no conflicts of interest.

9 Availability of Data and Material

The datasets generated during and/or analyzed during the current study are available
from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Acknowledgements The first author expresses his sincere gratitude to Shri. A.P.C.V. Chock-
alingam, Secretary, and Dr. C. Veerabahu, Principal, V.O. Chidambaram College, Tuticorin, for
their unwavering support and guidance. Appreciation is also extended to Dr. P. Sivasubrama-
nian, Professor and Head, PG and Research Department of Geology, V.O. Chidambaram College,
Thoothukudi, for his valuable assistance.

Funding There is no funding source for this study.

Declarations

Ethics Approval and Consent to Participate Not applicable.

Consent for Publication Not applicable.

Competing Interests The authors declare no competing interests.

Abbreviations

ANOVA Analysis of variation

ATR Attenuated total reflection
FESEM Field emission scanning electric microscope
FTIR Fourier- transforms infrared spectroscopy
MP Microplastic
SEM Scanning electric microscope
SEM-EDS Scanning electric microscope—Energy dispersive spectroscopy
SEM-EDX Scanning electric microscope—Energy dispersive X ray analysis
UNEP United Nations Environment Programme
IMO International Maritime Organization
Unveiling Microplastic Pollution in India: Reviewing Contamination … 103

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Sources and Environmental Distribution
of Microplastics in Nigeria

Nchekwube D. Nweke , Johnson C. Agbasi , Daniel A. Ayejoto ,

Leonard N. Onuba , and Johnbosco C. Egbueri

Abstract Microplastics are tiny plastic fragments <5 mm in size that form from
the disintegration of plastic materials over a long period through biological and
physicochemical processes and ultraviolet rays of the sun. These tiny particles
are nondegradable and cause environmental and health concerns to humans and
animals when ingested. The Nigerian ecosystems have been affected by microplas-
tics that occur in surface water, sediments, and in the digestive system of marine
organisms. This chapter analyzes previous studies on microplastics in Nigeria to
better understand their main sources and distribution across the six regions of the
country. Across Nigeria, microplastics were observed to be generated from six main
sectors: (1) manufacturing industries, (2) medical institutions, (3) the agricultural
sector, (4) households, (5) paints and coatings, and (6) public event centers. In
Nigeria, microplastics are introduced into the environment through untreated effluent
from manufacturing companies as well as from waste and wastewater treatment plants
which are released into water bodies. They are also introduced to the ecosystem
through film mulching and fertilizers from farmlands and poor disposal of single-
use plastics from event centers. From this study, it was observed that there is an
abundance of microplastics in southern Nigeria compared to the northern region.
This could be due to the presence of numerous industries, topographic factors, and
the interconnected dendritic drainage patterns that connect rivers and facilitate the

N. D. Nweke (B)
Department of Earth, Environmental and Geographic Sciences, The University of British
Columbia, Kelowna, Canada
e-mail: dieudonnenweke@gmail.com
J. C. Agbasi · L. N. Onuba · J. C. Egbueri
Department of Geology, Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu University, Uli, Nigeria
J. C. Egbueri
Research Management Office (RMO), Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu University, Anambra
State, Nigeria
D. A. Ayejoto
Department of Environmental and Sustainability Sciences, Texas Christian University, Fort
Worth, TX, USA

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 107
J. C. Egbueri et al. (eds.), Microplastics in African and Asian Environments, Emerging
Contaminants and Associated Treatment Technologies,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-64253-1_6
108 N. D. Nweke et al.

distribution of microplastics. More studies are needed in the northern part to under-
stand the impact of microplastics across the region. An understanding of the various
sources of microplastics would enable an effective mitigation process.

Keywords Agricultural waste · Biomedical waste · Geographical distribution ·

Industrial waste · Single-use plastics

1 Introduction

In the last six decades, the human population had not exponentially increased
compared to the current population size. The increase in human population can
be described using the demographic transition proposed by Thompson (1929). The
demographic transition explains the various stages of development of humans from
premodern times through industrialization to post-industrialization. The first stage
is linked with high birth and high death rates because of poor living standards. With
advancements in healthcare, technology, and the green revolution, the human popu-
lation began to increase with fewer deaths due to good healthcare and abundant
food from the green revolution. This increasing population means man must provide
new adaptative means. The new adaptation would mean, an affordable living to the
common man. The general household items including metal cups, buckets, spoons,
plates, and the like began to be replaced by low-cost take-away products made
from polymers due to their affordability and durability as described in Desidery and
Lanotte (2022). The polymers forms one of the major constituents in the synthetic
materials used in the production of low-cost products made of plastic. There are
many different forms of polymer from which plastics are made, however, some of
the most common forms of plastic polymers around us include polyethylene tereph-
thalate (PET or PETE), high-density polyethylene (HDPE), polyvinyl chloride (PVC
or Vinyl), low-density polyethylene (LDPE), polypropylene (PP), and polystyrene
(PS or Styrofoam). It is important to note that not every form of plastic is recy-
clable, and this is one of the major environmental issues being treated globally at this
time in history. According to Yalwaji et al. (2022), plastic polymers can be recycled
except polyethylene terephthalate (PET or PETE), and high-density polyethylene
(HDPE) which are non-recyclable. Plastic occurs in different shapes and sizes and can
be grouped into macroplastic (>5.0 cm), nanoplastic (<1000 nm), and microplastic
(<5 mm) (Arthur et al., 2009; Koelmans et al., 2019; Emmerik, 2021; Yalwaji et al.,
2022). For this review, we focus mainly on microplastics.
Microplastics are broken-down fragments of plastics and/or tiny pieces of debris
that are of plastic origin ranging between 5.0 mm and 333 µm (Arthur et al., 2009;
He et al., 2018; Yang et al., 2021). Ibeto et al. (2023) reported that microplastic frag-
ments <5.0 mm occur in different sizes and shapes in soils, atmosphere, air, water,
and food. According to Rillig (2012) microplastics can be grouped into primary
and secondary microplastics. Hidayaturrahman and Lee (2019) described primary
microplastics to include small plastic pellets commonly referred to as nurdles and/
Sources and Environmental Distribution of Microplastics in Nigeria 109

or microbeads which are common in products like toothpaste and exfoliation scrubs.
Talvitie et al. (2017) described secondary microplastics as involving fragments of
large plastic material and/or microscopic fibers which have been broken down by
physical processes or the ultraviolent rays of the sun. These different forms of
microplastic are found to be contaminants in surface water, air, and land (Clayer
et al., 2021; Yang et al., 2021; Yu et al., 2022). Microplastics form one of the dead-
liest pollutants in surface water nowadays affecting both humans and aquatic life
(Sekudewicz et al., 2021; Sighicelli et al., 2018; Yin et al., 2019). The increasing rate
of microplastic in the world today can be attributed to the increasing population rate
on earth and the urgent need for low-cost products to accommodate the continued
increasing population. This would mean, more people would require more plastics
for daily needs (e.g. food packaging, sachet detergents, and bottled water). Plas-
tics have been reported by Desidery and Lanotte (2022) to occur in different forms,
shapes, and sizes and are both chemically and physically resistant to degradation
but can be broken down into fragments through physical, chemical, and biological
means (de Souza Machado et al., 2018; Oni et al., 2020). Plastics are not degradable
substances, when they are not recycled, they will end up as microplastic pollutants in
air, soils, and marine environments (Sekudewicz et al., 2021; Sighicelli et al., 2018).
Nigeria is the most populated country in the African continent with over 200
million people (Fig. 1). High population comes with high consumerism which affects
environmental sustainability. It has been reported (Nnaji, 2015; Uzomah et al., 2021;
Dumbili and Henderson, 2022) that over 42 million tons of solid waste are generated
annually in Nigeria. The effects of high consumerism and waste generated in Nigeria
have caused major harm to the Nigerian ecosystem which makes it exceedingly
important to assess the effects of microplastics. Several different studies have reported
on microplastics in soil and surface water (Uzomah et al., 2021; Enyoh et al., 2021,
2023; Edet et al., 2022), others on microplastics in the marine organism (Akindele
et al., 2019, 2020; Adeogun et al., 2020) and some in table salt (Fadare et al., 2021;
Shukumbi et al., 2022). There is an urgent need to assess the various sources and
the geographical distribution of microplastic across the Nigerian ecosystem which
is currently unavailable.
The effects of microplastics in Nigeria raise environmental and human health
concerns. Enyoh et al. (2021) reported that surface water constitutes 11.5% of the
entire land of Nigeria. The majority of microplastics in Nigeria have been reported
to be in surface water (Fred-Ahmadu et al., 2020a, b, c; Uzomah et al., 2021; Enyoh
et al., 2021, 2023; Edet et al., 2022; Oni et al., 2022). The major source of drinking
water in Nigeria stems from boreholes. A recent study by Oni and Sanni (2022)
reported abundant microplastic contamination in boreholes in Lagos state of southern
Nigeria. Some authors have also reported on the abundance of microplastic within the
Nigerian ecosystem (Edet et al., 2022; Egbuna et al., 2021; Yahaya et al., 2022). The
Nigerian ecosystem may have reached its carrying capacity as the number of plastics
generated has greatly increased over time (Nnaji, 2015; Dumbili and Henderson,
2022). This has affected the environmental quality to support life which can be seen
in the case of microplastic in the tissues of fish and freshwater insects (Akindele
et al., 2019, 2020; Adeogun et al., 2020; Uzomah et al., 2021).
110 N. D. Nweke et al.

Fig. 1 The geographical map of Nigeria showing population distribution across the Nigerian states
(Kruger, 2016; Yalwaji et al., 2022)

This review is to evaluate the various sources and distribution of microplas-

tics in Nigeria to understand their impact across the Nigerian ecosystems. Most
previous studies in Nigeria were centered on the occurrences of macroplastics within
the ecosystem (Sha’Ato et al., 2007; Oyelola and Babatunde, 2008; Okeniyi and
Anwa, 2012; King et al., 2013; Ogwueleka, 2013; Bichi & Amatobi, 2013; Yalwaji
et al., 2022). However, recent studies have now been focused on the occurrences of
microplastics in different segments of the ecosystem such as in sediments (Ilechukwu
et al., 2019; Enyoh et al., 2019; Usman et al., 2019; Fred-Ahmadu et al., 2020c;
Olarinmoye et al., 2020), surface water (Abiodun et al., 2019; Briggs et al., 2019;
Adeogun et al., 2020; Oni et al., 2020 Amadi et al., 2020), and in freshwater organ-
isms (Akindele et al., 2019, 2020; Uzomah et al., 2021). Currently, there is a gap
in literature on a detailed study reporting on the sources and geographical distri-
bution of microplastics across the Nigerian ecosystems. The understanding of the
sources, distribution, and impact of microplastics on the Nigerian ecosystems will aid
policymakers in prioritizing the vulnerable areas in terms of making environmental
protection policies. This would significantly help in solving the major environmental
issues (e.g., ecosystem disruption, distortion of biota community, and degradation
of human health) resulting from microplastic pollution.
Sources and Environmental Distribution of Microplastics in Nigeria 111

2 Materials and Methods

2.1 Description of Study Area

Nigeria lies slightly above the equator (0°) with its lines of latitude and longitude
ranging between N4.27°–N13.88° and E3.5°–E14.7° respectively as described in
Akujieze et al. (2003) (Fig. 2). Nigeria is regarded as a tropical country since it is
situated within tropical latitudes, and it exhibits tropical climatic conditions of very
high temperatures throughout the year and a wet season. The country is landlocked
to the north by Niger and Chad Republics, to the east and west by the Republic
of Cameroon and the Benin Republic, and the south by the South Atlantic Ocean.
Nigeria has a diverse topographic distribution with northern, southwestern, and south-
eastern Nigeria being dominated by mountain ranges and mountainous regions while
southern Nigeria forms a basin structure as can be observed in Fig. 2. Nigeria is
drained by two major Rivers (River Niger and River Benue) whose sources are from
the northwest and northeast of Nigeria respectively. The country is drained by major
water bodies from the north being emptied directly into the South Atlantic Ocean
through the south. These rivers form a confluence at the center of Nigeria and move
southward into the Atlantic Ocean. Southern Nigeria is drained by a series of smaller
rivers forming tributaries along the banks of the South Atlantic Ocean (Fig. 2).

2.2 Detailed Literature Review

Recently published peer-reviewed articles on microplastics in Nigeria were consid-

ered in this review process. Different research databases were used to download some
of these recent articles. The databases include Google Scholar, Scopus, Microsoft,
and Google search engines. Different keywords were used to search for some of
these articles. Some of the keywords used in searching for published articles include
“microplastics and Nigeria”, “microplastics in surface water”, “pesticides and fertil-
izer” and “microplastics in the marine organism in Nigeria”. Over 120 articles were
consulted, however, only about 81 of these articles were relevant to the present study
and helped in forming the background understanding of microplastics in Nigeria.
112 N. D. Nweke et al.

Fig. 2 Relief map of Nigeria showing the topography

3 Results and Discussion

3.1 Sources of Microplastics in Nigeria

The source of microplastics in Nigeria can be grouped under six main groups linking
industrial waste based on Kanu and Achi (2011), medical institutions Yakubu et al.
(2023), the agricultural sectors, households, and public consumed products. These
different sectors are accountable for the generation and environmental distribution
of microplastics within Nigeria (Fig. 3).

3.1.1 Industrial Treatment

Odjegba and Bambose (2012) described industrial treatment plants as one of the
major sources of microplastics in Nigeria. Several companies in Nigeria specialize
in different sectors (e.g. manufacturing industries, brewery, textile, and polymer
industries, etc.). The poor treatment of effluent from these different companies poses
many risks to our environment and raises serious health concerns (Odjegba and
Bambose, 2012; Olaniyi et al., 2012; Okereke et al., 2016). Nigerian companies
Sources and Environmental Distribution of Microplastics in Nigeria 113

Fig. 3 Major sources of microplastic in Nigerian and their environment of distribution

are notorious for poor treatment of chemical waste from factories which sometimes
are channeled into the soil and/or released into water bodies Odjegba and Bambose
(2012). Microplastics have been reported in sediments within Nigeria’s coastal region
with microplastic concentrations ranging between 9 and 47 items kg−1 (Emenike
et al., 2023; Oni & Sanni, 2022). Other cases of microplastics have been reported
on surface water in Nigeria (Abiodun et al., 2019; Briggs et al., 2019; Adeogun
et al., 2020; Oni et al., 2020 Amadi et al., 2020). The occurrences of microplastics in
these areas are due to poor disposal of untreated industrial waste. Most communities
living within riverbanks and shores of southern Nigeria are mainly farmers and are
dependent on fertile soils and rivers for food through agriculture, fishing, and as a
source of drinking water. Most Nigerian water bodies have been polluted by poorly
and sometimes untreated effluent from these manufacturing industries (Kanu & Achi,
2011; Sangodoyin, 1991, 1995). The effluents are channeled through drainages, and
they end up as microplastic pollutants in surface water and soil.
Nigeria is a landlocked country except for the south coast which is bordered by
the South Atlantic Ocean. Every imported product in Nigeria is brought in through
the Atlantic Ocean. Each month, several ships deck on the southern shores of Nigeria
to bring in goods. Iduk and Samson (2015) reported on different point sources of
pollution by ships within the Nigerian waterways. The point sources include anti-
fouling, garbage and other solid waste, and wastewater discharge from sea vessels.
Some of these sea vessels get spoiled on water and may remain afloat for several
months. Anti-fouling coatings used in marine vessels are made from polyethylene
and/or polypropylene which contains microplastics, they serve as one of the major
point sources of microplastics in marine environments because these vessels spend
their entire time on water described (Iduk and Samson 2015). To prevent corrosion
and fouling, marine vessels and equipment are mostly coated. Over a long period,
114 N. D. Nweke et al.

the different coating on these vessels begins to degrade in water due to the vessel’s
continual contact with saline sea water as it remains afloat. The degraded coating
contains microplastics and is released into the marine environment, some of these
particles completely dissolve in water while others get ingested by marine animals.
The release of microplastic in marine environments continues through the mainte-
nance and repair of marine vessels. During the scrapping, repair, and repainting of
these sea vessels, off-scrap containing microplastics always find their way into the
surface water and end up as microplastic pollutants. The weathering and leaching of
these coatings through sunlight and saline water also contribute to the introduction
of microplastics into marine environments.

3.1.2 Biomedical Wastes

It is often not realized that the medical sector generates a huge amount of waste
products through medical procedures, packaging, laboratory analysis, sterilization
process, medical textiles and fabrics, and single-use items such as plastic blood bags,
hand gloves, and syringes. To prevent the spread of potentially infectious diseases,
hospitals do not reuse gloves, syringes, tubes, and intravenous bags (Yakubu et al.
2023). According to Zhou et al. (2023) medical products are dominantly made of
plastic. When these disposable medical devices are poorly handled, they break down
into microplastics over time. According to Sambo et al. (2022) biomedical waste
generated in Africa is estimated at 282,447 tons annually. In Sub-Saharan Africa,
Nigeria is often attributed with the highest number of hospitals. According to the
Federal Ministry of Health (2024), there are 38,647 registered hospitals in Nigeria.
This huge number can be tied to the country’s high population which is estimated
to be over 200 million people (Fig. 1). There may be a lot of nonregistered medical
institutions in the country which could raise the number above. The medical sector
contributes to generating microplastics through single-use items which are often
poorly managed.
Offorma (2017) described effective waste management in Nigeria via modern
means as non-existent. According to Oyebode et al. (2023), medical waste generated
from Nigerian public hospitals is poorly handled. Poor management or disposal of
medical waste could lead to environmental pollution and the spread of infectious
diseases (Oyebode et al. 2023). A recent study by Oyebode et al. (2023) shows that
waste generated from Nigerian University Teaching hospitals are poorly disposed.
The major means of waste management in Teaching Hospitals has been identified to
be through medical incineration. The medical wastes are incinerated and dumped in
dumpsites. Some of the waste products are deeply buried in the ground and would
be acted upon by microorganisms. Over time, the plastic content of the buried waste
is broken down into microplastics and leachate into the ground and could become a
source of groundwater pollution.
Sources and Environmental Distribution of Microplastics in Nigeria 115

Sterilization Processes
Most medical devices have plastic-related parts and require high-temperature steam
disinfection as described in Zhou et al. (2023). During their sterilization, there is a
breakdown of plastic materials which are released into the environment. Most of the
sterilizers use heat and high pressure which sometimes results in their breakdown. The
different sterilization methods which may include gamma radiation and/or ethylene
oxide gas cause wearing and tear to the sterilized objects because their packaging is
encapsulated in plastic materials resulting in the release of microplastics.
Medical Textile and Fabrics
Medical institutions use a series of textile and fabric materials in almost everything.
Some of them include beddings, scrubs, gowns, and other linens. These products
are mostly made of synthetic fibers which do not decay and constitute one of the
sources of microplastics generated in medical institutions (Emenike et al. 2023).
The process through which synthetic textile is broken down into microplastics is
well documented in De Falco et al. (2019). Excessive laundry and the constant reuse
of these materials cause wearing and tearing very fast and release synthetic fibers into
the laundry wastewater. Laundry wastewater is often poorly treated in wastewater
treatment plants and in some cases, the fragments of microplastics are very tinny
and could bypass the treatment plants (Emenike et al. 2023). In some occasions, the
wastewater is not properly disposed of by the laundry department which results in
the spread of synthetic fibers of microplastics into the ground, and gutters, and some
find their way into streams and end up as aquatic pollutants.
Laboratory Research
Most of the laboratory analyses run in Nigerian hospitals make use of plastic instru-
ments such as petri-dish, pipette tips, and numerous plastic storage containers.
Oyebode et al. (2023) described the waste generated in laboratories to be a global
concern since these disposable medical devices have the tendencies to cause damage
to our ecosystem. After a long period of using these instruments, degradation gradu-
ally begins to set in leaving small fragments of their body parts that constitute plastic
material in wastewater during cleaning processes. Some of the research tools (Petri
dishes and/or storage containers) get damaged during usage and are often poorly
managed. According to Emenike et al. (2023) when wastewater containing plastics
and broken analytical tools are treated in waste management departments, some tiny
fragments of microplastics bypass the treatment plants and find their way into our
surroundings when poorly disposed of.
Medical Packaging
There is a very high demand for medication in Nigeria which could be attributed
to poor environmental conditions leading to a very high disease rate (e.g. malaria
and typhoid) in the general population. The packaging of pharmaceutical and other
healthcare products mostly comes in packages made of plastic materials. Improper
116 N. D. Nweke et al.

management of these plastic materials often leads to the spread of plastics which are
broken down into microplastics over time.
Medical Procedures
Medical procedures such as blood transfusions and drips require the use of disposable
medical products. These products are seldom made of plastic materials (Zhao et al.,
2019; Zhou et al., 2023). Some of these procedures involve the extraction of medicine
out of a vial for injection. Generally, vials are often made of glass or plastic and
seldom come with a plastic lid. The plastic lid is a product of polypropylene, a plastic
polymer. Most vials are single-use and are often properly disposed of when broken
down by physicochemical activities contributing to the wide spread of microplastics.
In addition, some of the capsule drugs taken by patients are coated with binders
which are products of polymer. The poor handling and/or disposal of expired drugs
contributes to the spread of microplastics.

3.1.3 Household and Public Consumed Products

Care Products
Personal care products include cosmetics, body lotion, toothpastes, shampoo, tooth-
brushes, and the like. These exfoliation products constitute abrasives that are made
from primary microplastics such as microbeads. Emenike et al. (2023) reported that
some of these products such as cosmetics contain between 0.5 and 5% microbeads.
Prata (2018) suggests that over 3500 microbeads can be released from care products
such are toothpaste from a single usage. Emenike et al. (2023) suggest that during
the use of these products, microplastics are introduced into the wastewater and they
often end up in septic tanks or within our surroundings. Nigerian sewage companies
are notorious for emptying sewage waste and other intreated effluents in water bodies
thereby introducing microplastics in these subsurface water (Iduk & Samson, 2015;
Kanu & Achi, 2011; Sangodoyin, 1991, 1995). Additionally, most under-developed
rural areas do not have washrooms where people defecate or take their baths. The
inhabitants often take their baths in open areas using cosmetic products and other
exfoliation products which may introduce microplastics into the surrounding. The
wastewater from the bathing goes directly into the ground and peculate into the
groundwater table introducing microplastics into the water table.
Clothing and Textile
Garments have been proven to contribute to the release of microfibre from cotton
clothing and other synthetic textile materials (Fernandes et al., 2024; Julapong et al.,
2024). Synthetic textiles are used in the production of carpets, upholstery, and some
home textiles. Based on De Falco et al. (2019) microfibers are commonly released
during the laundry of these textile materials into wastewater in washing machines.
These materials often shred off pieces of microplastic fibers when they wear off
due to constant usage and during washing. The shredded microplastics are not often
Sources and Environmental Distribution of Microplastics in Nigeria 117

captured during wastewater treatment and they mostly find their way into streams or
into the ground where they become pollutants in soils and water bodies. Enyoh et al.
(2023) reported the abundance of microfibres as one of the groups of microplastics
identified in Rivers within southeastern Nigeria.
Plastic Packaging
Ogunbode et al. (2024) highlighted the current issue of water across Nigeria. It is
scarce to find pipe-born water to service the needs of the citizens, the masses now
rely on groundwater for their daily needs. The quest for quality water has resulted
in the drilling of many boreholes across the country. Water from boreholes is being
sold as sachet water and is commonly referred to as pure water by Nigerians. Plastic
bags, nylons, and plastic bottles form the major packaging medium of the water
being sold. The so-called Nigerian pure water comes in plastic bottles and sachets.
Each day, millions of sachets and bottled water are being sold all over the country.
Nigerians are notorious for throwing empty sachets and plastic bottles on the streets
after drinking. Edet et al. (2022) reported that poorly disposed plastic materials find
their way into gutters and are mostly carried into the nearest water bodies around.
Some of them get beaten by rain and are covered by sedimentation due to erosion,
over time, they fragment and are broken to form microplastics in soils. In addition,
washing detergents and soaps are wrapped in plastic bags. The poor management of
the plastic waste from these products will be broken down into microplastics over time
if poorly disposed of. Often, these plastic packaging find their way into the nuke and
cranny of the environment. One of the means of mitigating waste generated by plastic
packaging is via incineration. This process results in the release of microplastics as
residuals on land and surface water. Some of the plastic packaging materials end up
in landfills and degrade over a long period to form microplastics in the soil.
Cleaning Products
Most household cleaning products such as dishwasher detergents and laundry deter-
gents contain microplastics in the form of abrasives or thickeners which are often
washed down the drains after washing and they find their way into the marine envi-
ronment and are ingested by marine life (Emenike et al., 2023; Julapong et al., 2024;
Prata, 2018).

3.1.4 Event Centers

Nerland et al. (2014) suggest that plastic polymers and their products (e.g. single-
use utility materials) constitute over 300 million tons of plastics generated in the
world. Nigerians are eventful people. Yearly, there are several events taking place
in Nigeria, ranging from burials, weddings, and child dedication ceremonies. These
heavy ceremonies are often attended by several persons and a lot of different deli-
cacies are organized for the attendants. Due to large population size of attendants,
foods are often served in plastic packaging materials. At the end of these events,
the event centers are usually littered with hundreds to thousands of plastic water
118 N. D. Nweke et al.

bottles, polythene materials, single-use plates, spoons, cups, and containers. Plastic
containers are often poorly disposed of in landfill areas, and they always find their
way into surface water. Some of them are poorly handled by burning them in open
spaces; thereby, increasing the release of microplastic particles to the atmosphere.

3.1.5 Paints and Coating

Paintings and coating in cars, public spaces, and homes contain microplastics in
the form of additives or binders. According to Turner (2021), when paintings and
coating begin to degrade, microplastics are introduced into the environment. During
the maintenance and renovation of cars and buildings, microplastics are introduced
into the surroundings from waste treatment facilities and as runoff.

3.1.6 Agricultural Sector

The agricultural sector is one of the oldest human practices which can be traced back
to time immemorial. Over the past two centuries, there have been great improve-
ments and innovations in the farming sector. These innovations which were intro-
duced during the Green Revolution aimed at helping farms to yield more crops and
crops resistant to diseases (Pinstrup-Anderson and Hazell, 1985; Khush, 1999). New
genetic crops were introduced, and chemical fertilizers, pesticides, and irrigation
methods were introduced. According to Kumar (2007), these new practices have a
lot of side effects on the soil quality through over usage of chemical fertilizers, film
mulching, and pesticides in growing crops.
Plastic Mulching
Large-scale farming is practiced in different parts of Nigeria. One of the recent
breakthroughs in agricultural practice involves plastic mulching. Plastic mulching is
a farming technique used in regulating soil temperature, and moisture content of the
soil and to prevent weeds from growing alongside crops. This technique is useful
in tropical regions like Nigeria due to the high tropical temperature. The process
of mulching involves the use of very thin plastic films produced from polymers.
These plastic polymers are spread on the soil to cover the planted crops in other
to regulate heat from the sun causing very high temperatures and preventing other
unwanted plants from growing alongside it (Kumar et al., 2020; Yang et al., 2015).
Over time, the plastic films begin to degrade due to microbial activities, long exposure
to sunlight, and other mechanical factors. During this breakdown, microplastics from
the plastic polymer are released into the soil.
Fertilizers and Pesticides
Farmers are continually searching for means to increase their crop production and
grow crops resistant to pests and diseases. This interest has resulted in the use of
Sources and Environmental Distribution of Microplastics in Nigeria 119

agrochemicals such as fertilizers, pesticides, and herbicides in farming. These agro-

chemical products come in plastic containers and plastic packages. Weithmann et al.
(2018) described fertilizers as transportation means for microplastic to enter the envi-
ronment. Improper disposal of these plastic materials leads to their fragmentation
and deep burial in the soil, and it releases microplastics in the soil. Pena et al. (2023)
suggest that microplastics and other organic pollutants in the soil could affect soil
quality. Turner (2021) described that in some cases, the chemical packaging of the
pesticides are transported to different areas by heavy downpours, and this continues
to spread microplastics through runoff. In terrains where the packaging cannot be
transported out by erosion, the chemicals are washed deep into the ground, and
they peculate into the water table thereby introducing microplastic pollutants. This
accounts for one of the sources of groundwater pollution.
Irrigation Systems, Runoff and Erosion
Liu et al. (2023) suggest that agriculture serves as one of the major sources of
microplastics in surface water. The need to grow crops in tough and extreme condi-
tions has necessitated the use of irrigation systems to water crops periodically.
Advanced farms and gardens do not need people to water crops. Irrigation systems
are programmed to increase moisture in the soil. These systems are constructed
with Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) pipes. The PVC pipes and fittings are products of
plastic polymers. When the PVCs degrade, they introduce microplastics into the
water system and soil. Over irrigation leads to water wastage which often results in
erosion in farmland. Microplastics have been suggested (Bigalke et al., 2022; Zhang
et al., 2022) to move horizontally and vertically in surface water. Liu et al. (2023)
suggest that the eroded soils resulting from irrigation and rainfall tend to redistribute
and transport microplastics into the soil proper and nearby water bodies.

3.2 Distribution of Microplastics Across the Regions

of Nigeria

Based on the existing literature on the occurrences of microplastics in Nigeria, this

research has grouped their occurrences into regions for clarity on their environmental
distribution and is presented in (Figs. 4 and 5). We have analyzed the drainage
system in Nigeria, bearing in mind the reports on microplastics in surface water and
sediments by Oni and Sanni (2021) and in distilled water reported by Ibeto et al.
(2023). Based on our evaluation, we have compared the distribution of microplastics
in Nigeria and how it influences and contributes to the environmental distribution of
microplastics through surface water (Figs. 4 and 5).
120 N. D. Nweke et al.

Fig. 4 The distribution of macroplastics across regions in Nigeria (modified after Yalwaji et al.,
2022)

3.2.1 Northern Nigeria

There is no literature reporting on the occurrences of microplastics in the north.

However, an earlier study by Bichi and Amatobi (2013) on the characterization of
household waste products in the Sabon-gari area of Kano state, reported that plastics
constituted 17.6% of the waste products generated by 60 households in 14 days. Bichi
and Amatobi (2013), provide great insights into the possible number of plastics that
could be generated in a year from this area.
It is important to recall the earlier definition of microplastic as established in
Arthur et al. (2009) which described microplastic as broken-down fragments of
plastics and/or tiny pieces of debris that are of plastic origin ranging between 5.0 mm
and 333 µm. Northern Nigeria is the most underdeveloped region in Nigeria, which
suggests that the plastics generated by households would be poorly managed and
may find their way into streams, and water bodies and could even be deeply buried
into the ground. Household refuse in northern Nigeria is commonly collected in
wheelbarrows by young men who are often referred to as Mai-bola. The collected
refuse by Mai-bola is mostly dumped into surface water (streams, rivers) and at
times into landfill areas. Over time, these plastic products would be broken down
Sources and Environmental Distribution of Microplastics in Nigeria 121

Fig. 5 The distribution of microplastics across regions in Nigeria (modified after Yalwaji et al.,
2022)

into fragments by various agents ranging from microbial activities, UV-rays of the
sun, and weathering involving physical and chemical processes.
There is high birth rate in the northern region suggesting that the plastics generated
from this region would triple in the coming years due to the increasing population.
The data provided by Bichi and Amatobi (2013) only described an area in Kano state
of northern Nigeria and did not describe the entire region. However, it can be used as a
yardstick to understand the waste generation and management in the region. Northern
Nigeria has the largest landmass with more population than southern Nigeria. There
are chances that there would be a very large amount of microplastics in soils, water
bodies, and aquatic animals due to their high level of plastic generation and poor
waste management.
The topographic map of Nigeria (Fig. 2) depicts the possible flow direction of
water bodies in Nigeria. Northern Nigeria has a rugged topography with a series
of mountain ranges while southern Nigeria forms a basin structure. Water bodies
in the north, flows down to the south and drains into the South Atlantic Ocean
through series of tributaries. The various water bodies in northern Nigeria could
be playing a big role in the distribution of microplastics across the country. The
17.6% of plastic material described by Bichi and Amatobi (2013) includes mainly
122 N. D. Nweke et al.

plastic packaging bags, sachet water bags, disposable plastic water bottles, single-
use disposable plates, and spoons. These plastic materials are products of plastic
polymers and contain polyvinyl chloride (PVC) and polypropylene (PP) and are
transported through surface water bodies (e.g. Niger River) to the southern region
with most of the plastic materials ending up in the ocean. Based on United Nations
statistics, as reported in Okeke et al. (2022), the Niger River in Nigeria alongside
eleven rivers in Africa transport 90% of plastic material and most of these materials
end up in the ocean as macro—and microplastics. During the transportation of these
materials, polymers are further broken down into microplastics by ultraviolet rays
of the sun due to long exposures on the surface water and are ingested by aquatic
animals during their feeding process. Most of the communities in riverbank areas
(e.g. Lokoja, Itobe) depend on harvesting and selling of these aquatic animals as their
main source of income. These communities sell the aquatic animals with ingested
microplastics to different areas of the country. Northern Nigeria can be regarded
as one of the major players in the distribution of microplastic into other regions in
Nigeria due to poor waste management systems and the transport of PVC and PP
materials through surface water to the southern region. Niger River forms a major
transportation medium for microplastics in several areas in southern Nigeria due to
its series of tributaries. As the Niger River flows to the south, it separates into smaller
rivers forming one of the biggest tributaries in Africa. These smaller rivers serve as
the source of drinking water for several communities in rural areas but are now highly
polluted with microplastics.

3.2.2 Southern Nigeria

The occurrence of microplastics has been reported in soils/sediments, surface water,

and biota in southern Nigeria by different researchers (Akindele et al., 2019; Enyoh
et al., 2019; Adeogun et al., 2020; Oni et al., 2022; Oni & Sanni, 2022; Shokunbi
et al. 2023; Ibeto et al., 2023). Southern Nigeria forms the largest tributary system in
West Africa. These tributaries constitute several rivers, creeks, and inland waterways
that are connected to the South Atlantic Ocean. There are several environmental chal-
lenges associated with living in riverine areas such as flooding and water pollution.
Southern Nigeria is notorious for water pollution. These pollutions range from hydro-
carbon pollution, nitrate pollution, and microplastics, however, for this research, we
are focused on microplastic pollution. In this study, for easy reference, southern
Nigeria is grouped into southwestern and southeastern Nigerian (Fig. 5).
Southwestern Nigeria
The occurrence of microplastics in southwestern Nigeria has been summarized in
(Ilechukwu et al., 2019; Akindele et al., 2019, 2020; Abiodun et al., 2019; Fadare
et al., 2021; Olarinmoye et al., 2020; Adeogun et al., 2022; Oni & Sanni, 2022).
Southwestern Nigeria is one of the most studied regions concerning the occurrence
of microplastics. Most of these studies were centered around the city of Lagos. Lagos
state lies within the banks of the South Atlantic Ocean in southwestern Nigeria. The
Sources and Environmental Distribution of Microplastics in Nigeria 123

city forms the most populated city in Africa with over twenty-four (24) million inhab-
itants. About one-quarter (1/4) of the city’s landmass (3578 km2 ) constitutes water-
ways, lagoons, and creeks (Oni and Sanni 2022). The city is highly industrialized,
and it suffers from environmental pollution, especially from microplastic pollution.
Some of the studies (Akindele et al., 2019, 2020; Adeogun, 2020; Oni & Sanni,
2022) within that area reported on the occurrence of microplastic in the digestive
system of freshwater insects, gastropods, fish, within sediments and in borehole water
wells. Another study by Abiodun et al. (2019) suggested that microplastics constitute
about 67% of surface water in Lagos Lagoon and the soil around the lagoon contains
about 33% microplastics. The distribution of microplastic in the southwest is greatly
influenced by human factors associated with poor waste disposal. The majority of
the microplastics identified in surface water and soils are mainly white and opaque
respectively. Their origin is mostly from single-use water bottles, plastic packaging,
and nylons from sachet water. There is no pipe-borne water, the masses depend on
borehole water and sachet water which is commonly referred to as “pure water” as the
only source of drinking water. These plastic materials range from single-use water
bottles and sachet water are often disposed into the lagoon and some are deeply buried
by weathering and erosion processes. Oni and Sanni (2022) reported on microplastics
in borehole wells within this area. Because the area sits at the foot of waterways and
lagoons, the water table is shallow and easily gets contaminated by microplastics.
Southeastern Nigeria
Recent studies (Oni et al., 2020; Enyoh et al., 2021; Ibeto et al., 2023) in southeastern
Nigeria have reported on the occurrence of microplastics in surface water and distilled
water. According to Enyoh et al. (2021), the microplastics in surface water in south-
eastern rivers range between 440 to 1,556 particles/L. Ibeto et al. (2023) carried out
detailed studies on distilled table water using Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM)
and Energy-Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy (EDS). Their results reported three (3)
groups of microplastics (films, fragments, and pellets) in distilled table water ranging
between 42.83 MP particles/0.75 L, 1.16 MP particles/0.75 L, and 10.82 particles/
0.75 L. Enyoh et al. (2021) had earlier reported a similar group of microplastic
(films, fragments, and fiber) within rivers in southeastern Nigeria containing a large
number of plastic lids, single-use cutlery, cups, plates and mostly home used items.
Studies from Enyoh et al. (2021, 2023) confirmed that plastic polymers constituted
over 70% of the identified microplastics in rivers within southeastern Nigeria. Oni
et al. (2020) analyzed the seasonal distribution of microplastics at Ox-Bow Lake
in southeastern Nigeria. Based on their studies, it was observed that the microplas-
tics within the lake were dominantly made of fiber. Oni et al. (2020) reported that
the seasonal distribution of microplastic in the lake during the dry season recorded
microplastic materials which constituted 72.63% polyethylene and 10.9% polyvinyl
chloride; however, the reverse was the case during raining season. The rainy season
accounted for 81.5% polyvinyl and 4.2% polyethylene microplastic materials. The
increase in microplastics containing polyvinyl chloride during the rainy season can
be attributed to the fact that due to the very poor waste management system, house-
holds and communities dispose of their waste into the gutters and nearest surface
124 N. D. Nweke et al.

water bodies. Most of these household-generated waste products are dominated by

single-use plasticized polyvinyl chloride (PVC) materials and this has been reported
to be the most dominant form of microplastic (Oni et al., 2020; Enyoh et al., 2021).
Southeastern Nigeria has several connected rivers and waterways that receive water
and distribute to other areas. These rivers serve as the major agent of microplastic
distribution within this region. The rivers transport fibers, fragmented materials, and
films from the north to south and within the southern region.

3.3 Impacts of Microplastics on the Ecosystems

The Nigerian ecosystem has been adversely impacted by microplastics occur-

ring in sediments, marine organisms, and surface water. Microplastics generated
from medical institutions, untreated effluents from production and sewage compa-
nies, the agricultural sector, household-generated waste, and waste generated from
event centers raise environmental concerns. The microplastics generated from these
different sources end up in drainages and water bodies. Microplastics now occur
in the digestive systems of insects, gastropods, and fish (Akindele et al., 2019,
2020; Adeogun et al., 2020). The environmental pollution of microplastic in different
sectors within Nigeria has affected nearly all water bodies in Nigeria. Okeke et al.
(2022) suggest that the two main drainage rivers in Nigeria (Rivers Niger and Benue)
constitute one of the major agents transporting microplastics in Africa. These rivers
and waterways serve as sources of drinking water for rural and riverine commu-
nities. Abiodun et al. (2019) reported that most of these waterways now contains
over 67% of microplastics. Adeogun et al. (2020) and Oni et al. (2020) reported
cases of microplastics in Lakes in southern Nigeria. Soils and groundwater have
become contaminated in the process of microplastic being transported in surface
water. Southern Nigeria experiences a lot of flooding during the rainy season (mainly
in July—September). The flooded polluted surface water causes water logging for
several months and in this process, most of the polluted water begins to percolate
into the soil to recharge aquifers leading to microplastic contamination. This is very
common in regions with very shallow water tables. Microplastics are very resistant
and can stay in water for a very long period and may be ingested by aquatic organ-
isms. They pose a threat to both human and aquatic life. Microplastics are associated
with chemical toxins that when consumed by marine mammals, sea birds, sea turtles,
fish, and humans could cause internal injuries, health complications, malnutrition,
and death in some cases.

3.4 Further Discussion

Microplastics in Nigeria have been reported to be dominantly in surface water

(Ilechukwu et al., 2019; Akindele et al., 2019, 2020; Abiodun et al., 2019; Oni
Sources and Environmental Distribution of Microplastics in Nigeria 125

et al., 2020; Fadare et al., 2021; Olarinmoye et al., 2020; Adeogun et al., 2022;
Enyoh et al., 2021; Ibeto et al., 2023). The topography of Nigeria forms the major
distributing factor of microplastics in the country. Nigeria has a rugged relief that
forms mountain ranges and plateau in the north and a basin in the south. Water moves
from a region of high elevation to a region of lower elevation. The north forms an anti-
clinorium while the south forms a synclinorium. The topography of Nigeria forms an
inverted s-shape allowing surface water to be transported from the north and emptied
in the south. Microplastic pollution results mainly from poor waste management in
northern Nigeria which is associated with the disposal of plastic-related material in
surface water. The plastic-related materials are broken down into microplastics by the
ultraviolet rays of the sun due to long exposure of surface water and by other physical
and chemical processes. Bichi and Amatobi (2013) reported high plastic waste in
northern Nigeria. Their studies provide insights into the large amount of single-use
plastic materials being generated from the north and its poor waste management
system. The medical, industrial, and agricultural sectors and households contribute
immensely to generating microplastics in Nigeria. The major challenge lies in poor
waste management rather than in the amount of plastic waste generated.

4 Conclusions and Recommendations

The different forms of microplastics in Nigeria come from six major sources. The
sources include industrial waste treatment plants, waste generated by medical insti-
tutions through sterilization processes, medical procedures, hospital waste manage-
ment facilities and packaging of medical products, agricultural sector, household, and
public-consumed products. The public-consumed products, such as single-use plastic
form the most identified source of microplastics in sediments and surface water. Agri-
culture contributes greatly to the generation and distribution of microplastics through
film mulching, fertilizer, pesticide, and irrigation processes into the soil and surface
water. The distribution of microplastics across regions of Nigeria is mainly through
surface water bodies which serve as drainage pathways from the northern region to
the southern region. There are abundant microplastics in southern Nigeria compared
to northern Nigeria. This can be attributed to: (1) the presence of numerous industries
and the poor disposal of untreated effluents; (2) topographic variations across regions
facilitate in linking other waterways (forming multiple dendritic drainage patterns)
and further spreading microplastics from one water body to another; and (3) large
population size generating high amount of single-use plastic materials coupled with
poor waste management. This review reviewed that the northern region has way
less amount of microplastics in the environment. This could be due to the absence
of detailed studies on microplastics in the region. There are chances that some
microplastics in northern Nigeria could be easily transported to southern Nigeria
via major drainage rivers.
We recommend further studies on microplastics in northern Nigeria to help ascer-
tain the quality of soil and drinking water. More research should be encouraged
126 N. D. Nweke et al.

in this region by the government through research and monitoring programs. The
government should partner with non-profit organizations to create awareness of the
implications of microplastic pollution on our environment and ecosystem. We recom-
mend that the government create an effective waste management system where waste
products are sorted into garbage and recyclables and recycled into new products. It
is important to train students in schools on how to properly sort out waste into
garbage and recyclable products. Government through the legislative should set up
laws restricting the production of nonrecyclable plastic materials and give incentives
and tax waivers to companies with the lowest plastic waste footprint. Single-use
plastic packaging should be banned. Waste collectors and single-use plastic collec-
tors should be fixed in places of events for proper waste collection. Garbage cans and
recyclable cans should be in place along roads and streets for easy waste collection
and to prevent environmental littering which leads to wide spread of plastics into
different areas. In places where plastics cannot be stopped (e.g., Hospitals, medical
laboratories, and research laboratories) modern incinerators should be provided.

Acknowledgements The authors are grateful to Vincent Nwazelibe for his assistance in the design
of Figure 2.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Invisible Threats in Himalayan Region:
Unmasking the Impact of Microplastic
Pollution on Human Health Today
and Tomorrow

Kusum Pandey

Abstract Microplastic pollution is abundant in aquatic and land atmospheres.

Nowadays, studies on microplastics impact in the human health have a global concern
to the researchers, health authorities, policy makers, civil opinion, media, as well as
environmental and non-governmental groups. Although, there is several confirma-
tions that humans are contaminant with microplastics through ingestion of food and
drink consumption and via inhalation. Therefore, the present chapter goals to illus-
trate the routes of exposure to microplastics in Himalayan region, its classification
and sources, effect in human health, and recommendation for its management.

Keywords Microplastic · Ingestion · Inhalation · Himalayan region

1 Introduction

Indian Himalayan Region is a is one of the largest biodiversity hotspots and

supporting the livelihood in the region. However, due to the increasing population,
changing climate, industrial development and tourist footfall, the region faces an
increasing threat from plastic pollution. At present, plastic is used in all aspects of
human life, either entirely or in partial (Rodrigues et al., 2019). Further, approx-
imately 20% of plastics are reused, with the remaining 80% inevitably ending up
in the environment including water, earth, and oceans (Trevor, 2020). Larger plastic
objects eventually disintegrate into tiny pieces, which creates microplastics. Because
the resultant fragments can continue to threaten environments for many decades, this
breakdown cycle presents a serious concern. Plastic can pass in freshwater atmo-
spheres via various ways such as agricultural overflow, industrial waste, fishing, recre-
ation, plastic waste disposal, storm-water discharge, surface runoff, flooding events,

K. Pandey (B)
Scientist-C, G. B. Pant National Institute of Himalayan Environment, Garhwal Regional Centre,
Srinagar, Uttarakhand 246174, India
e-mail: khushipandey166@gmail.com

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 131
J. C. Egbueri et al. (eds.), Microplastics in African and Asian Environments, Emerging
Contaminants and Associated Treatment Technologies,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-64253-1_7
132 K. Pandey

and domestic sewage. This may cause several negative impacts on the Himalayan
environment (Luo et al., 2024).
The microplastics impact on aquatic environments are devastating. All aquatic life,
from massive aquatic mammals to tiniest microorganisms can be ingested and entan-
gled. This disturbs their nourishing and propagative systems which causes population
decreases and ecosystem crisis. Further, the health of terrestrial ecosystems, such as
land and freshwater bodies, is jeopardised by microplastics that enter into the food
web. Earthworms and other nematodes species may consume microplastics, which
could alter their health and behaviour. This disruption effects the soil food chain
can have adversely affected the plant development and nutrient management. The
possible toxicological effects of microplastics on biodiversity and human being are
additional concerning feature. The consumption of these harmful microplastics have
been associated to a number of health-related problems such as reproductive prob-
lems, organ damage, and even an elevated risk of cancer. Both marine and terrestrial
species have several difficulties from changed eating habits to decreased chances of
successful reproduction. The effects of these disturbances affected all the ecosystems
which impact their adaptability and overall functioning.
Nowadays, microplastic is a major health concern that is creating concerns about
the environment and food security (Lee & Fang, 2022). They are directly discharged
into the Himalayan region ecosystem by industrial sectors, wastewater treatment
facilities, routine plastic objects, and the breakdown of plastics. Further, aquatic life
consumes these pollutants once they reach the water, and microplastics get into the
food chain and pose significant threats to health. Studies on the effect of microplastics
in the human health is limited in the Himalayan region but it is rapidly growing
and attracts the attention to the researchers, health authorities, policy makers, local
people, media, as well as environmental and non-governmental groups (Yuan et al.,
2022). The main question is that what degree microplastics endanger human health?
This chapter aims to characterize the exposure routes to microplastics in Himalayan
region, its classification and sources, effect in human health, and recommendation
for its management.

2 Classification of Microplastics in Himalayan Region

Microplastic can be divided into various categories based on their source, color,
shape, and polymer (Fig. 1).

i. Based on their source: Microplastics can be divided into two categories: a)

primary and b) secondary. Primary microplastics are purposely manufactured to
its microscopic size. It is common in industrial producing products which cover
microbe ads, such as facial scrubs and toothpaste. On the other hand, secondary
microplastics can be formed accidentally through the chemical, physical, and
biological collapse of larger plastic materials over time.
Invisible Threats in Himalayan Region: Unmasking the Impact … 133

Fig. 1 Classification of Microplastic

Primary Source: (a) Domestic; (b) Wastewater treatment plants; (c) Research
stations and laboratories; (d) Agriculture; (e) Pharmaceutical medicines.
Secondary Source: (a) Physical (temperature, mechanical forces, weathers
etc.); (b) Photodegradation (UV light); (c) Biodegradation (bacteria, fungi,
algae); (d) Chemical (oxidation).
ii Based on their shape: Microplastics can be divided into following categories:
Pellet (5 mm), Microbead (1 μm), Fragment (1–5 mm), Microfragment (1 μm),
Fibre (1–5 mm), Microfibre (1 μm), Film (1–5 mm), Microfilm (1 μm), Foam (1–
5 mm), Microfoam (1 μm). Their forms are determined by a number of elements,
including the substance’s original form, the passage of time, which directly
affects the material’s breakdown procedures, and the location the substance in
relation to its surroundings (Kwon et al., 2020).
iii Based on their polymer: According to this, microplastic can be divided into
following categories: polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP), polystyrene (PS),
Polyvinyl chloride (PC), polyurethane (PU) and polyethylene terephthalate
(PET). Amongst, polyethylene is the utmost popular due to its high demand.
Table 1 lits the plastic type, size and their issues on human health.
iv Based on their color: Microplastics are available in different colors due to
different manufacturing process and purposes. They come in a variety of colors,
namely transparent, white, red, orange, blue, brown, tan, and yellow to pink,
including other variations in colors. Environmental weathering, origin, industrial
pigments cause changing the microplastic color over the time.

3 Source of Microplastics in the Himalayan Region

i. Soil
134 K. Pandey

Table 1 List of plastic type and their impact on human health

S. No. Plastic type and Impact on human health References
size
1 Polyethylene Respiratory issues Bhattacharya and Khare
(0.06–11.06 μm) (2020)
2 Terephthalate (< 4 Hormones disturbances Ye et al. (2017)
to > 100 μm)
3 Polystyrene Respiratory issues, adverse Jin et al. (2021), Li et al.
(33–190 μm) nervous system (2022)
4 Polypropylene Gastrointestinal problems, Yedier et al. (2023)
(120–220 μm) Immune system disturbance
5 Polyvinyl Reproductive system issues, Savrık et al. (2010), Liu et al.
chloride (< 10 nm respiratory issues (2022)
to 20 μm)
6 Polycarbonate Harmone disturbances, Barboza et al. (2020), Anwar
(5–200 nm) neurological system issues et al. (2021)
7 Polyethylene Respiratory problems Smith et al. (2018), Lionetto
terephthalate and Esposito Corcione (2021)
(12–18 μm)
8 Polyurethane Skin related problems, immune Segan et al. (2020)
(< 5 mm) and nervous system disturbances
9 Polyvinylidene Skin related disease Di Giannantonio et al. (2022)
fluoride (< 5 mm)
10 Acrylic Allergic related issues Ivleva, (2021)
copolymer
(80–110 nm)

The main sources of microplastics in soils are runoff, air deposition, fertiliser and
pesticide application, plastic film mulching, packaging debris, and soil amend-
ments (Han et al., 2021; Yu et al., 2022). Research has indicated that elevated
levels of microplastic pollutants within the soil ecosystems impact the fertility
and quality of soil by modifying its composition, pH, density, porosity, and
ability to retain water (Saadu & Farsang, 2023). Further, Shi, (2021) discovered
that microplastics can move from the soil into plants and subsequently through
plant food to people.
ii. Water
Surface runoff, air deposition, rainfall, home waste and sewage disposal, melting
glaciers, and the breakdown of big plastic materials are the primary causes
of microplastic in water (Talukdar et al., 2023). According to recent studies,
drinking water is a primary channel for microplastics to enter human beings and
may pose health problems (Kumar et al., 2022; Liao & Yang, 2020).
iii. Households
Invisible Threats in Himalayan Region: Unmasking the Impact … 135

These days, plastic packaging is heavily utilised in homes for fabrics, goods,
personal care items, reusable or disposable food containers, beverages, bottles,
jars, cups, and caps. This waste pollutes the environment due to inefficient
management and a lack of disposal techniques.
iv. Aquatic Food
Microplastics are directly discharged into the ecosystem by industries, wastew-
ater treatment facilities, ordinary plastic objects, and the breakdown of plastics.
Aquatic life feeds on these pollutants once they reach the water, and microplas-
tics get into the food cycle and pose serious health risks. Moreover, many
researchers have defined the occurrence of microplastic in fish (Bilal et al.,
2022; Khan et al., 2023).
V. Tourism and Trekking
Human caused events are also accountable for microplastic pollution in the
mountainous regions. There are several potential human-caused events that
contribute to microplastic pollution in Himalayan lakes, including grazing,
swimming, and trekking. In addition, mountain climbing and trekking enthusi-
asts’ clothes and sheds mostly made from synthetic materials are major sources
of microplastic (Talukdar et al., 2023).

4 Impact of Microplastic on Human Health

i. Inhalation
Cardiopulmonary disorders and lung cancer are intimately linked to air expo-
sure. (Pope et al., 2020). It has been proven already that human lungs contain arti-
ficial fibres, that can lead to lung disease. The most dangerous fibres for humans
are artificial ones because synthetic fibres can result in conditions including
allergic alveolitis, allergies, pneumonia, chronic respiratory infections, and
hypertension that cannot be distinguished from lung disease. Figure 2 shows the
distribution and their effect on human body. According to Liao and Yang (2020),
microplastics have the ability to enter the digestive system resulting their long-
term presence can cause fluctuations in mood, poor judgement, convulsions,
decreased contemplating, and behavioural issues.
ii. Ingestion and Translocation
Humans are primarily exposed to microplastics through eating, inhalation, and
skin contact. In recent years, because of unintentional digestion through a variety
of paths, microplastics have been found in human faeces and digestive tracts
(Kumar et al., 2022). According to Alimba et al. (2021), microplastics have the
ability to move through biological membrane towards the bloodstream, where
they can then find their way to the female uterus and other bodily regions.
According to recent studies on microplastics toxicity and exposure show that
the main way of people ingests plastic particle by eating (Lehner et al., 2019).
136 K. Pandey

Numerous studies have reported consume the plastic and their negative effects
such as immune system weakness, chemical toxicity, allergic reactions, and
organ damage etc. (Schwabl et al., 2019; Cortes et al., 2020; Alimba et al. 2021;
Kumar et al., 2022; Talukdar et al., 2023).
iii. Dermal Contact
It comes into touch with the skin. There have been concerns expressed over
the potential for < 100 nm particles found in personalised skin care items to
penetrate the dermal barriers and present health hazards (Sykes et al., 2014).
The indirect ingestion of microplastic into the human body occur by using the
beauty care products such as face wash, soap, toothpaste etc. However, till the
date there have not any published data on how much microplastic absorb by
skin contact. Nonetheless, the effect of microplastic on human skin are always
noticeable, particularly when the skin surface is infected. Table 2 lists the effects
of microplastic in different organ systems in humans.

5 Recommendation for Microplastic Reduction/

Management in Himalayan Region

There are following short term, mid- term and long-term actions are planned for
reduction and management of microplastics in the Himalayan region. Figure 3 shows
the six steps to reduce the plastic waste for microplastic management in Himalayan
region.
(i) Short-Term Actions:
• Management of manufacturing and use via bans or charges of plastic items which
are hazardous to the ecosystem, without negotiating people well-being or food
security;
• Minimizing the use of plastics by eliminating the unnecessary wrapping, labelling,
raising awareness, educating people, and by providing nature-based solutions;
• Strengthening the market demand for recycled plastics;
(ii) Mid-Term Actions:
• Putting in place garbage collection mechanisms, like door-to-door pickup and
deposit-refund programmes, that reduce waste generation and increase recycling
rates;
• Prioritizing recycles the plastic waste followed by biofuel and conversion of waste-
to-energy which enable the recovery of important chemicals as well as energy;
• landfills should to be set aside for garbage generated by the aforementioned
procedures;
• Reducing and recovery of waste generated after manufacturing, as well as
accountability for garbage related production effects;
 Invisible Threats in Himalayan Region: Unmasking the Impact …

Fig. 2 Distribution and effect of microplastics in the human body

137
138 K. Pandey

Table 2 Effects of microplastic in different organ systems in humans

S. No. Name Experiment design Biological effects References
1 Respiratory Human alveolar type • Affect cell viability, Xu et al. (2019)
system II epithelial A549 cell apoptosis, and cell
line cycle
• Up-regulation of
pro-inflammatory
cytokines and
pro-apoptotic proteins
• Affected gene
transcription and
protein expression
Human lung epithelial • Cytotoxicity and Dong et al.
BEAS- 2B cells inflammatory effects (2020)
through ROS
production
• May decrease
transepithelial electrical
resistance
• May increase the risk
of COPD
Human lung epithelial • Reduced cell viability Yang et al.
cells, BEAS-2B and dose-dependently (2021)
human pulmonary • May break redox
alveolar epithelial cells equilibrium and cause
inflammatory effects
• May trigger apoptotic
pathways and lead to
cell death
• Decreased
transepithelial electrical
resistance
• Increased levels of
matrix
metallopeptidase 9 and
surfactant protein A
2 Gastrointestinal Human colon • Increased abundance of Fournier et al.
system adenocarcinoma harmful microbes (2023)
Caco-2 cell and colon • Decreased abundance
adenocarcinoma of beneficial bacteria
HT29-MTX cell • Affected the
composition of gut
microbiota by repeated
PE-MPs exposure
(continued)
Invisible Threats in Himalayan Region: Unmasking the Impact … 139

Table 2 (continued)
S. No. Name Experiment design Biological effects References
Stimulation of GIT by • Biotransformation of Tamargo et al.
combining a PET-MPs in the GIT (2022)
Harmonized static and colon
model and dynamic • Structure of PET-MPs
gastrointestinal simgi appeared to be different
model from the original
particle
• Some colonic
microbiota adheres to
MPs surface and
promotes biofilm
formation
• Alters microbial
colonic community
composition
Human colon cancer • Altered gut microbial Tamargo et al.
cells Caco-2 and gut composition and (2022)
microbiota diversity
• Disturbance in gut
microbial metabolic
pathways
• Break intestinal
homeostasis
3 Cardiovascular Human embryos and • Affected Bojic et al.
system hiPSCs atrioventricular heart (2020)
valve development
RBCs • Induced hemolysis, size Barshtein et al.
and dose- dependent (2011)
manner in plasma-free
medium but not in full
plasma
Plasma • Amine modified MPs Oslakovic et al.
decreased thrombin (2012)
formation
• Carboxyl-modified
MPs induced blood
coagulation in plasma
4 Hepatic system Hepatocellular liver • Reduction in cell Goodman et al.
cells viability (2022)
• Morphological changes
in cells with MPs
particle uptake
• Reduced glycolytic
activity
• Increased cellular ROS
production
(continued)
140 K. Pandey

Table 2 (continued)
S. No. Name Experiment design Biological effects References
hPSC-derived liver • Increased apoptotic Cheng et al.
organoids cells and decreased live (2022)
cells
• Accumulation of
harmful lipids in liver
• Increased AST, ALT
and LDH activity
• Decreased GSH and
SOD activities and
increased MDA activity
• Reduced ATP
production
5 Renal system Embryonic kidney • Reduced cell viability Goodman et al.
(HEK293) cells • Morphological changes (2022)
in cells with MPs
particle uptake
• Increased cellular ROS
production
• Reduced glycolytic
activity
Human kidney HK-2 • MPs enter the kidney Cheng et al.
cells, microfluidic through endocytosis (2022)
platform, • May cause potential
carcinogenic toxicity to
kidney and testis
disease
Human kidney • Higher levels of ROS Barshtein et al.
proximal tubular and mitochondrial (2011)
epithelial cells protein Bad
• Higher levels of ER
stress, inflammatory
markers

(iii) Long-Term Actions:

• By utilising renewable energy during collection and recycle the wastes to reducing
the ecological effects of recycled products;
• Using Life Cycle Assessment for every item and procedure to enhance ecolog-
ical design with reusing, repairing, and recycling while accounting for items’
anticipated end of life;
• Reducing the environmental effects of fuel-based products through the use of
bio-based plastics;
• Using biodegradable plastics in applications where composting is advantageous
while providing specific collection and waste treatment.
• Minimizing the manufacture of degradable plastics products that produce
hazardous break downs.
Invisible Threats in Himalayan Region: Unmasking the Impact … 141

Fig. 3 Six steps to reduce plastic wastes in Himalayan region

• Enhancing the ability of e-waste recyclability and in the interim, disposal by

waste-to-energy conversion.

6 Conclusion

Microplastics are common pollution that are present in soil, water and the air. The
digestive tract is thought to be the primary pathway for microplastic consumption.
Because it is present in food on a large scale, it is a serious threat to human well-being.
Moreover, microplastics transmit contaminants and microbiological infections into
ecosystems. It can build up in the body, cause inflammation, and negatively impact
in reproductive, endocrine system, immunological, and digestive tracts Introducing
regulations governing the use of main microplastics and their discharge into the
ecosystem would be a useful first step towards reducing the microplastic burden
in the food supply chain. Further, innovative solutions are required to break down
microplastics in the ecosystem and lessen the issue of microplastic contamination.
Also, it is very essential to increase local people awareness of microplastics and
improving handling of waste management.

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Plastic Litter Pollution on the Beaches
of Lakshadweep Island: An Assessment
of their Abundance and Transport

Umakanta Pradhan, Subrat Naik, Uma Sankar Panda, Pravakar Mishra,

Shyamala Varthini, and M. V. Ramana Murthy

Abstract Plastic pollution is considered a severe anthropogenic threat in coastal and

marine ecosystems worldwide. Plastic pollutants are being accumulated in aquatic
ecosystems as a result of anthropogenic activities. In both direct and indirect path-
ways, this alters the structure and functionality of ecosystems, as well as their values
and services. The present study focuses on the abundance, distribution, and transport
of plastic litter on Lakshadweep Island’s beaches (Agatti, Bangaram, and Kadmat).
At each sampling site, two transects of 400 m2 of foreshore and intertidal zone were
sampled. All macro litter (size > 2.5 cm to 1 m) was collected and counted within
each transect. A total of 852 litter items were recorded from 20 different categories.
Kadmat Island has the highest average abundance (267 items/400 m2 ) of marine
litter, followed by Bangaram Island (86 items/400 m2 ) and Agatti Island (73 items/
400 m2 ). According to the Clean Coast Index (CCI), Kadmat Island indicates an
extremely dirty beach (CCI: 26.7), while Bangaram (CCI: 8.6) and Agatti (CCI:
7.3) have moderately clean beaches. The transport pattern of floating particles for
this region was carried out by using numerical modeling of particle tracking. The
findings show that the principal sources of beach litter are most likely to be tourists
and fishing-related activities. This study demonstrates plastic contamination in the
island’s environment to raise public awareness of the importance of a plastic-free,
healthy blue ocean shortly.

Keywords Marine litter · Clean coast index · Particle tracking · Lakshadweep

Island · Arabian sea

U. Pradhan · S. Naik (B) · U. S. Panda · P. Mishra · M. V. Ramana Murthy

National Center for Coastal Research, NIOT Campus, Pallikaranai, Chennai 600100, India
e-mail: subrat@nccr.gov.in
S. Varthini
National Institute of Ocean Technology, NIOT Campus, Pallikaranai, Chennai 600100, India

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 145
J. C. Egbueri et al. (eds.), Microplastics in African and Asian Environments, Emerging
Contaminants and Associated Treatment Technologies,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-64253-1_8
146 U. Pradhan et al.

1 Introduction

The Lakshadweep Islands, recognized for their spectacular natural beauty, are
increasingly under threat from marine waste, particularly plastics, which have nega-
tive ecological and environmental consequences. However, the tranquility of these
remote coral atolls is under threat from a modern-day menace-marine litter. The accu-
mulation of plastics and other debris endangers the ecological balance of these para-
disiacal islands, echoing a global concern for marine pollution (Sebille et al., 2020).
Marine litter, particularly non-biodegradable debris, has emerged as a major threat to
ocean ecosystems worldwide. Marine litter not only threatens the marine ecosystem,
but it also has serious consequences for economic and recreational activities including
fishing, tourism, and navigation (source). Jambeck et al. (2015) estimate that annu-
ally, about 8 × 106 metric tonnes of plastic arrive to the global oceans, resulting
in extensive pollution of marine environments. These contaminants wreak havoc on
marine life, damage ecosystems, and degrade the visual appeal of beaches globally.
Within the Indian Ocean, the Lakshadweep Islands are not immune to this problem.
A thorough investigation of the abundance, distribution, and transport of litter in
the Lakshadweep region is required. The research focuses on three remote islands:
Agatti, Bangaram, and Kadmat, which have grown in popularity among tourists and
are at a higher risk of litter buildup due to human/tourist activity (Kaviarasan et al.,
2020). Furthermore, as litter moves, it disintegrates into tiny particles known as
microplastics, which have been shown to contaminate aquatic ecosystems and enter
the food chain, potentially impacting human health (Yahya, 2023). While numerous
research has addressed marine litter and microplastic pollution globally, there is a
scarcity of detailed studies on the Lakshadweep Islands. This study, therefore, seeks
to bridge this gap using a comprehensive hydrodynamic-transport-particle tracking
model. By tracking the fate and transport of litter in the nearshore region, we aim to
identify potential accumulation zones on these islands’ pristine beaches.
Marine litter harms marine ecology and has a tremendous influence on marine
animals. Marine debris, including plastic, has detrimental effects on marine
mammals, fish, seabirds, and turtles through entanglement and ingestion (Thompson
et al., 2009; Ryan, 2018; Thiel et al., 2018; Ryan et al., 2016; Savoca et al., 2022).
Several studies have documented the abundance, composition, origins, and fluctua-
tions of microplastics and marine debris in the Indian coastal region. Marine debris
found at Mandavi Beach has been attributed to recreational and land-based activities,
as documented by Behera et al. (2021). Microplastics were the subject of research
conducted by Karthik et al. (2018) and Robin et al. (2020) at specific beaches situated
along the southwestern and southeast coasts of India. The pollution burden index of
microplastics was assessed by Ranjani et al. (2021), who concluded that the east
coast of India is less contaminated than the west coast, demonstrating a moderate
degree of contamination. The origins and distribution patterns of microplastics and
marine debris were recorded using a particle tracking model along the southeast
coast of India (Veerasingam et al., 2016; Pradhan et al., 2018) and at a sea turtle
nesting beach (Pradhan et al., 2024). An evaluation study conducted on three remote
Plastic Litter Pollution on the Beaches of Lakshadweep Island … 147

beaches of Lakshadweep Island revealed that fishing and the tourist population are
the primary contributors of litter (Kaviarasan et al., 2020).
The abundance and origin of marine debris were documented for the isolated
islands of Andaman and Nicobar (Dharani et al., 2003; Krishnakumar et al., 2020).
This study encompasses a thorough examination of the abundance, distribution, and
movement of litter in the Lakshadweep Islands, specifically focusing on the Agatti,
Bangaram, and Kadmat Islands. We employed a hydrodynamic-transport-particle
tracking model to examine the fate and transport of litter in the nearshore area,
pinpointing specific locations where litter may accumulate on these islands’ pris-
tine beaches. Our findings aim to shed light on pollution levels in these remote
islands, as well as provide policymakers with vital insights to promote sustainable
environmental management.

2 Materials and Methods

2.1 Study Area

The present study was carried out in April 2019 at Agatti (10° 51' N and 72° 11'
E), Bangaram (10° 56' N and 72°17' E), and Kadmat (11° 10' N and 72° 48' E),
which are located in the coral reef group of Lakshadweep Islands in the Arabian
Sea (Fig. 1). The Lakshadweep Islands, situated in the Arabian Sea adjacent to the
southwest coast of India, comprise a group of 36 islands and atolls spanning an
area of approximately 32 km2 . The worldwide recognized biodiversity hotspot is
distinguished by its clear, turquoise waters and immaculate coral reefs. Based on the
Census 2011, Lakshadweep Islands has population about 64,000, while the Agati and
Kadmat population is 7560 and 5389, respectively. Major economy of the peoples
is fishing and tourism. The increasing fishing industries (500 tonnes during 1950 to
12,000 tonnes on recent) and peak tourism during winter (December to February)
makes island beach crowd and loss of aesthetic value. The increasing population,
fishing, tourism along with high production and uses of plastic is major concern for
the marine litter and plastic pollution in pristine island environment.
The islands harbour a wide array of marine animals, encompassing coral, fish,
turtles, and dolphins. Nevertheless, the Lakshadweep Islands have encountered an
escalating menace from marine debris, namely the contamination caused by plastic
waste, in recent times. The presence of marine litter, including plastics, fishing gear,
and other trash, is a substantial environmental problem in the Lakshadweep Islands.
To efficiently tackle and reduce the effects of marine litter in this area, it is essential to
assess its abundance and understand its transport dynamics. Enabling the formulation
of focused approaches would facilitate the prevention and mitigation of marine litter
pollution, while also minimizing its adverse effects on the fragile ecosystems of the
Lakshadweep Islands.
148 U. Pradhan et al.

Fig. 1 Study area with sampling sites

2.2 Data and Methods

The litter samples were collected from three remote beaches, specifically Agatti,
Bangaram, and Kadmat, situated in the Lakshadweep Islands (Fig. 1). Samples were
collected from the visible litter and plastic along two transects at each study location,
starting from the beach. Each location comprised two stations, namely the back-
shore and foreshore. The litter was collected, tallied, classified, and subsequently
traced to its origin. The sampling coordinates were recorded using a portable global
positioning system (GPS). The present study aims to assess the distribution and
composition of macro-litter to collect precise data and investigate its spatial distribu-
tion. To comprehend the prevalence and spatial distribution of litter, we carried out
comprehensive beach assessments on the Agatti, Bangaram, and Kadmat Islands.
The surveys involved the systematic collection of litter items from the shoreline. We
systematically classified the litter into different categories, including plastics, glass,
metal, and organic components, and recorded their abundance and distribution along
Plastic Litter Pollution on the Beaches of Lakshadweep Island … 149

the coastline. We derived our methodology from well-established surveys on marine

litter and initiatives focused on cleaning up beaches (Cozar et al., 2015).

2.3 Hydrodynamic-Transport-Particle Tracking Model

A two-dimensional coupled numerical model was employed to simulate hydrody-

namics and particle track in the lagoonal environment of the Lakshadweep Island,
to study litter transport. The details regarding the setup and calibration of the hydro-
dynamic model for the works are presented in Table 1. The transportation of debris
and litter that does not disperse, settle, or sink from the sampling locations was
carried out in March and April of 2019 using a software called MIKE 21, devel-
oped by DHI. The software can replicate the behavior of tides, currents, waves,
and the movement and distribution of pollutants, as well as their eventual outcome
(DHI, 2021). The present model appropriately demonstrates skill in hydrodynamic
modeling and particle movement. The MIKE 21 hydrodynamic model is widely
employed in multiple studies to assess coastal currents and surface transport in the
Indian coastal seas (Kankara et al., 2013; Pradhan et al., 2018, 2019, 2024).
The model simulation was performed using the wind and tidal patterns observed
from March to April 2019. A time step of 300 s is employed in the simulation to
ensure that the CFL criteria remain below 0.8. The model incorporates essential
circulation mechanisms occurred by wind, tide, variation in density, heat and salt
transport, turbulence, Coriolis effect and bottom friction. The boundary force was
assigned by tide from the global MIKE-TIDE model and the wind data obtained from
the ECMWF. The model simulation was assigned a constant bed resistance, which
was represented by a Chezy number (C = 40 m1/3 /s), and coefficient of viscosity
(0.5) as determined by the Smagronysky formulation. The model was fine-tuned
by altering parameters including bottom friction, eddy viscosity, and flood and dry
depth.

2.4 Clean Coast Index (CCI)

The possible sources of all macro litter (> 2.5 cm to < 1 m in length) collected,
counted, and categorized by the UNEP/IOC along transects were determined. A 400
m2 area, measuring 20 m × 20 m, was allocated for both the littoral and backshore.
Following the methodology described by Alkalay et al. (2007), the Clean Coast Index
(CCI) was calculated to assess the cleanliness (Pradhan et al., 2024) of the Island
beaches.

CCI = CM × K (1)
150 U. Pradhan et al.

Table 1 Model set up and configuration

Parameters Formulation Value and sources
Method used in the simulation Finite element method and MIKE 21 HD and particle
depth averaged two tracking
dimensional
Model Domain The unstructured mesh 34,498 nodes and 67,954
elements
Depth data: Eco-sounder
measurements and C-map data
Simulation period Equidistance calendar axis 23rd March to 25th April 2019
Simulation time Time step 300 s
Technique used for simulation High order and low Time step: 0.01 s (minimum) to
algorithm 120 s (maximum) for Critical
CFL number = 0.8
Formulation Function of barotropic Model built
Eddy viscosity Smagorinsky formulation 0.5
Bottom friction Chezy number (C) 40 m1/3 /s
Enable flood and dry Drying depth, flooding User defined on site specific:
depth and wetting depth Drying depth = 0.01 m,
flooding depth = 0.05 m,
wetting depth = 0.1 m
Wind friction coefficient Wind friction parameters Source: ECMWF
Wind friction: fw is 0.0016 for
less than 8 m/s and fw = 0.0026
for more than 10 m/s
Wave Wave Parameter (height, Source: ECMWF
direction and period)
Boundary forcing Tide from global reanalysis MIKE Tide
data
Heat exchange coefficient TS Latent heat Constant = 0.5, wind
coefficient = 0.9, Critical wind
speed = 2 m/s
Sensible heat Transferred coefficient 0.0011,
Sun constant a = 0.295, b =
0.371 Light extinction
coefficient = 1.1
Particle type and nature Nature Floating, non-dispersive,
non-settling
Unit Number (1 ≥ )
Source Point source (same coordinate)
Frequency Single time
Plastic Litter Pollution on the Beaches of Lakshadweep Island … 151

Table 2 Value of CCI and inference

S. No. CCI value Inference
1 0–2 Very clean conditions or no litter observed
2 2–5 Clean conditions or no litter observed over a significant area
3 5–10 Moderately clean or a few fragments of litter are detectable
4 10–20 Dirty conditions or considerable litter on the shore
5 > 20 Extremely dirty conditions or most of the beach is covered with litter

CM represents the density of marine debris items per square meter (CM = total
number of litter items divided by total area) and K is a constant of 20. The CCI values
indicated as fellow in Table 2.

3 Results and Discussion

This study offers a direct evaluation of the amount and mobility of litter pollution
on the beaches of Lakshadweep Island. An investigation of numerical modeling was
carried out to simulate the hydrodynamic conditions and track the movement of
particles in a two-dimensional depth-averaged model. The study primarily examined
the transportation of litter on three remote islands. Agatti, Bangaram, and Kadmat
Island yielded a combined total of 852 litter items, which were classified into 20
distinct groups (Table 3). Kadmat Island exhibits the greatest average prevalence
(267 items/400 m2 ) of marine debris, with Bangaram Island (86 items/400 m2 ) and
Agatti Island (73 items/400 m2 ) following closely behind. The most prevalent types
of litter on Agatti Island are food wrappers (18.57%), plastic brushes (15.71%),
and cigarette butts (12.86%). In Bangaram Island, the most abundant litter includes
plastic rope (27.91%), cigarette butts (18.6%), and cosmetic items (10.63%). On
Kadmat Island, the most common types of litter are plastic rope (28.47%), plastic
bottle caps (13.32%), and thermocol (9.49%) as depicted in Figs. 2 and 3. Plastic
waste has been recorded on African beaches (Ryan, 2008), Asian beaches (Thushari
et al., 2017; Zhou et al., 2011), and North American beaches (Moore et al., 2001;
Wessel et al., 2019). Figure 4 exhibits images of the sampling sites situated in three
different locations, effectively displaying the occurrence of wave entrapment in the
lagoon region.

3.1 Clean Coast Index (CCI)

The clean coast index (CCI) is calculated based on the number of litter substances,
provides a measure of beach observation over three remote islands. The CCI index
values of 7.3 for Agatti and 8.6 for Bangaram indicate that their beaches have a
152 U. Pradhan et al.

Table 3 Litter items with UNCP code for the three sites
Items Agatii Island Bangaram Island Kadmat Island
Code UNEP % Code UNEP % Code UNEP %
code/ Comp code/ Comp code/ Comp
RLC RLC RLC
Plastic rope PR PL19 7.14 PR PL19 27.91 PR PL19 28.47
Plastic PBC PL01 11.43 PBC PL01 3.99 PBC PL01 13.32
bottle cap
Plastic PS PL04 0.00 PS PL04 9.97 PS PL04 0.00
spoon
Plastic PWB PL02 4.29 PWB PL02 3.99 PWB PL02 5.17
water bottle
Plastic PST PL04 3.57 PST PL04 3.99 PST PL04 5.35
straw
Plastic PBR OT02 15.71 PBR OT02 0.66 PBR OT02 3.41
brush
Plastic Toys PT PL08 2.14 PT PL08 0.00 PT PL08 1.46
Food FW RL09 18.57 FW RL09 7.97 FW RL09 9.49
wrapper
Cosmetic CI PL24 4.29 CI PL24 10.63 CI PL24 1.95
items
Lighter LI PL10 0.00 LI PL10 1.99 LI PL10 1.95
Plastic PP PL24 0.00 PP PL24 0.00 PP PL24 5.84
pieces
Thermocol TH FB04 0.00 TH FB04 2.33 TH FB04 9.49
Fishing net FN PL20 7.86 FN PL20 0.00 FN PL20 1.70
Glass bottle GB GCO2 0.00 GB GCO2 1.66 GB GCO2 2.43
Cigarette CB PL11 12.86 CB PL11 18.60 CB PL11 2.43
butts
Food FC PL06 0.00 FC PL06 3.32 FC PL06 0.97
container
Rubber RB RB06 2.14 RB RB06 0.00 RB RB06 1.46
bands
Syringe SY PL12 5.71 SY PL12 0.33 SY PL12 0.97
Footwear FW RB02 3.57 FW RB02 1.99 FW RB02 2.43
Sponge SP FB01 0.71 SP FB01 0.66 SP FB01 1.70

reasonable level of cleanliness. Nevertheless, Kadmat Island (26.7) exhibits a notably

elevated CCI score, suggesting that its beach is exceedingly polluted. The compu-
tation of CCI for the three island sites is offered in the Table 4. The CCI is used
extensively by many researchers worldwide to evaluate the cleanliness of the beach
(Alkalay et al., 2007; Portman and Brennan, 2017; Jeyasanta et al., 2020; Kaviarasan
et al., 2020; Mishra et al., 2023; Pradhan et al., 2024). A higher CCI index is positively
Plastic Litter Pollution on the Beaches of Lakshadweep Island … 153

Fig. 2 Relative abundance (%) of different types of beach litter material

associated with a greater amount of litter. The plastic litter observed on beaches can
be ascribed to a variety of activities, including fishing, tourism, and other recreational
endeavors. The accumulation of plastic garbage has deleterious consequences on both
marine ecosystems and the visual appeal of beaches. The main factors responsible
for beach litter in this area were fishing and other communal activities. The islands
possess considerable tourism prospects, which may be substantially impacted by the
gathering of litter and debris on the beaches and the entanglement and covering of
fishing nets on the adjacent coral reefs (Kaviarasan et al., 2020).

3.2 Particle Tracking

Generally, the lagoon hydrodynamics and general overturning circulation of an atoll

were driven by wind and tidal, while the excess water to the lagoon was brought
by the waves-induced radiation stress (Dumas et al., 2012). The surface is highly
disturbed by wind and the circulation is by the tide at study region. The numerical
model of particle transport study for the three atoll regions named Agatti, Bangaram,
and Kadmat were executed for marine litter/debris transport. The particles were
released from the litter collection site and the transport pathway is shown in Fig. 5a.
The transport pathways were followed by the wind direction, as the wind is blowing
from north the floating particles transport from the north to south. The simulation
was made for one month starting from the 23rd March to the 25th April for the
year 2019 during, the early period the wind was westerly and south-westerly for a
week then it was dominated by northerly and north-westerly for the rest of the period
 154

Agatti Island Bangaram Island Kadmat Island

1% 2%
Plastic rope Plastic rope 1% Plastic rope
1% 2%
1% Plastic bottle cap 0 1 2 Plastic bottle cap 2% 2% Plastic bottle cap
2% Plastic spoon Plastic spoon 2%
4% 7% 10 6 Plastic spoon
0% 6%
Plastic water bottle Plastic water bottle 9% Plastic water bottle
11%
0% Plastic straw Plastic straw 28% Plastic straw
56 84
13% Plastic brush Plastic brush Plastic brush
4%
Plastic Toys Plastic Toys Plastic Toys
0% 4% 5 6%
Food wrapper 0 Food wrapper Food wrapper
8% 7 12
Cosmetic items 0 Cosmetic items 2% 13% Cosmetic items
0% 16% Lighter 6 Lighter 2% Lighter
4% 32 30
0% Plastic pieces Plastic pieces Plastic pieces
12 9% 5%
0% 12 3% 5%
Thermocol Thermocol Thermocol
0%
2% 24 1%
19% Fishing net 0 2 Fishing net Fishing net

Fig. 3 Percentage composition of beach litter at three island beaches

U. Pradhan et al.
Plastic Litter Pollution on the Beaches of Lakshadweep Island … 155

Fig. 4 Field photos of three sites during sampling

Table 4 Clean coast index

Station Numeric index Clean coast index (CCI)
for three sites
Agatti 7.3 Moderately clean
Bangaram 8.6 Moderately clean
Kadmat 26.7 Extremely dirty

(Fig. 5b). As with the wind, the floating particles move north and north-easterly on the
initial period then they move southerly with the wind (Fig. 4). From the one-month
simulation, it is clear that the particles are moving in the shallow region instead of
moving to the deep ocean (Fig. 6a, b). The average wind speed is 3–5 m/s during the
simulation period, while, the higher wind speed causes the quick transport of litter/
debris on the water surface. The wave over trapping into the lagoon region may not
allow to litter/ debris to go outside as soon as Fig. 4d. The litter can move to the deep
ocean in a scenario of high tide, when the atoll is fully merged.

3.3 Management

The primary sources of trash and plastic pollution in the island lagoon ecosystem
are local fishing activities, human habitation, and tourism. This study examines the
measurement, prevalence, and spatial arrangement of litter to determine its composi-
tion and sources. Additionally, numerical modeling of litter transport can assess the
transport pathway during the sampling period, and the chosen approach is crucial for
156 U. Pradhan et al.

Fig. 5 Particle (non-dispersive) tracking (a) and Wind Rose (b) during March and April-2019

Fig. 6 a Lagoon, Shallow and deep region identification from Goggle Map, and b observed
bathymetry

effective litter management. It is suggested that the management for litter control on
remote islands is outlined below.
1. Regular beach cleaning can effectively eliminate litter and plastic waste found
on beaches.
Plastic Litter Pollution on the Beaches of Lakshadweep Island … 157

2. Local governments and NGOs should promote awareness and urge fishermen,
residents, and tourists to adopt a lifestyle that minimizes or eliminates the use of
plastic.
3. Single-use plastic is the utmost predominant litter item in the current study, it is
essential to reduce or ban it on a local scale.
4. The model study can be used for different seasons to identify the litter/debris
transport pathway, deposition region, and landing area for nearshore collection.

4 Conclusion

The study offers fundamental information and specific insights into the dispersion
of marine debris at three remote beaches of Lakshadweep Island. The predominant
source of debris observed on the Islands is terrestrial and is then transferred to the
beaches. The biggest littered objects at Agati beaches are food wrappers (18.5%),
followed by domestic plastic toothbrushes (about 16%) and cigarette butts (13%).
The primary littered item at Kadmat and Bangaram island is plastic rope, accounting
for approximately 28% of the litter. At Kadmat, plastic bottles account for 13%,
food wrappers for 9.5%, and thermocol for 9.5%. Meanwhile, cigarette butts make
up 18.6% and cosmetic goods 10.6% of the waste found on Bangaram beaches. Based
on the survey data, the main causes of this issue are fishing and tourism activities.
To enhance the present circumstances, it is crucial to enhance the management of
solid waste by raising awareness among local fishermen and involving the local
population in beach cleaning endeavors. Furthermore, the research offers the most
feasible solution for attaining the “Sustainable Development Goals”. To address the
problem found in this study, it is advised to regularly coordinate beach cleaning
campaigns before the fragmentation of macro plastic litter into microplastics. The
newly obtained preliminary data offers a chance to evaluate the extent of plastic
contamination in the marine ecosystem, enabling the implementation of appropriate
measures to manage trash and plastic pollution in the Islands.

Acknowledgements The authors are thankful to the Secretary, Ministry of Earth Sciences (MoES),
Government of India for kind support and help for this work.

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Airborne Microplastics in Asia: Dealing
with the Unseen

Annisa Utami Rauf, Ari Prayogo Pribadi,

Nurendah Ratri Azhar Rusprayunita, Maryami Yuliana Kosim,
and Ratna Dwi Puji Astuti

Abstract Airborne microplastics, originating from diverse sources, are silently

accumulating in ecosystems, posing a significant threat to biodiversity. This chapter
explores their sources, accumulation, potential impacts on ecosystems, and the
negative health effects they may have, underscoring the urgent need for preventive
measures. Microplastics (MPs) in the atmosphere result from plastic fragmentation,
industrial processes, and textile fiber breakdown, dispersing widely via wind. In
developing countries in Asia, the presence of airborne MPs has been detected, but
their risks and impacts have not been thoroughly examined. Nations with low environ-
mental monitoring facilities and management capabilities will confront specific envi-
ronmental crises and hazards due to the anticipated escalation in airborne MPs. These
tiny particles enter the food web, potentially disrupting ecosystems and leading to
bioaccumulation. Moreover, when inhaled, airborne MPs may cause respiratory and
chronic diseases, and there are concerns regarding their ability to transport harmful
chemicals, posing additional health risks. To address this emerging crisis, comprehen-
sive research, plastic regulation, improved waste management, and air purification
technologies are essential. Neglecting this issue not only threatens ecosystems but
also poses a direct risk to human well-being, necessitating immediate action.

A. U. Rauf (B) · A. P. Pribadi

Department of Health Behavior, Environment and Social Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Public
Health and Nursing, Universitas Gadjah Mada, Yogyakarta 55281, Indonesia
e-mail: annisaur@ugm.ac.id
N. R. A. Rusprayunita
MPH Student, Department of Biostatistics, Epidemiology and Population Health, Faculty of
Medicine, Public Health, and Nursing, Universitas Gadjah Mada, Yogyakarta 55281, Indonesia
M. Y. Kosim
Department of Basic and Emergency Nursing, Faculty of Medicine, Public Health and Nursing,
Universitas Gadjah Mada, Yogyakarta 55281, Indonesia
R. D. P. Astuti
Department of Environmental Health, Faculty of Public Health, Universitas Airlangga,
Surabaya 60115, Indonesia
e-mail: ratna.dwi@fkm.unair.ac.id

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 161
J. C. Egbueri et al. (eds.), Microplastics in African and Asian Environments, Emerging
Contaminants and Associated Treatment Technologies,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-64253-1_9
162 A. U. Rauf et al.

Keywords Air pollution · Airborne microplastics · Ecological risk · Plastic

waste · Fragments

1 Introduction

The rapid population growth worldwide has led to an unprecedented increase

in the demand for plastic production (Plastics Europe, 2020; Shaw et al., 2023;
WHO, 2019). Plastics have become popular due to their durability, convenience,
and affordability. Over the past few decades, global plastic production has soared
to over 360 million tons annually, integrating into numerous industries such as
textiles, healthcare, and agriculture (Mastrangelo et al., 2002; Torres-Agullo et al.,
2021; Yadav et al., 2022). However, the proliferation of non-biodegradable plastics
presents a significant environmental challenge (Rodrigues et al., 2019). These non-
biodegradable plastics persist in the environment, breaking down into tiny particles
that pose a threat to ecosystems and human well-being (Kannan & Vimalkumar,
2021; Lu et al., 2024).
The inherent weak bonding capacity with other components causes these
substances to migrate from plastic products to the surrounding environment, encom-
passing air, sediment, and water, by several media such as food, toys, and others
(Cai et al., 2017; Chai et al., 2020; WHO, 2019). Mechanical degradation has the
potential to disintegrate into smaller pieces that can be classified into various sizes,
from macroplastics to nanoplastics (Smith et al., 2023). MPs and nano-plastics can
be found everywhere on this earth, both in marine and terrestrial environments, from
the peak of the mountains to the deepest part of the sea trenches (Galloway, 2015;
Hee et al., 2023; Kyriakoudes & Turner, 2023; Lu et al., 2024).
There was a significant prevalence of MPs pollution in developing nations,
possibly due to increased human activity, widespread plastic usage, and inade-
quate waste management practices (Yang et al., 2023). Many countries in Asia have
documented the presence of airborne MPs indoors and outdoors, underscoring the
widespread nature of this issue (Facciolà et al., 2021; Fang et al., 2024). The MPs can
be transported over long distances from human-made sources through ocean currents
or deposited from the atmosphere (Ferrero et al., 2022). The transport mechanisms of
airborne MPs are influenced by meteorological conditions such as wind and atmo-
spheric pressure (Chen et al., 2023a, 2023b; Sharaf Din et al., 2024). Inhalation,
alongside ingestion, is considered a significant route for human exposure to these
airborne particles (Galloway, 2015; Xu et al., 2019). Thus, understanding the impli-
cations of these MPs on human health and the environment requires comprehen-
sive assessment, given their pervasive presence across diverse ecosystems. Previous
studies indicate that the deposition of MPs in the human body could lead to phys-
iological and biomedical alterations, potentially exacerbating chronic diseases and
affecting future generations (Braun et al., 2021; Enyoh et al., 2019; Romano et al.,
Airborne Microplastics in Asia: Dealing with the Unseen 163

2015). However, our understanding of these consequences remains limited, neces-

sitating further research to address potential public health challenges arising from
airborne MPs particularly in the regions of Asia.
The lack of uniformity results in researchers using diverse size ranges, leading
to varying methodologies, notably in laboratory investigations involving organ-
isms and MPs (Rani et al., 2023). Constrained access to advanced techniques and
limited funding in certain research settings hinders the adoption of precise separation
methods due to cost implications. Establishing consistent and standardized methods
is imperative to effectively advance MPs research, especially in the air environment.
The measurement and determination of threshold levels for MPs in the atmospheric
mass are yet to be fully established and remain in an evolving phase. This is primarily
due to the intricacies involved in quantifying MPs in the air and the absence of a
global consensus regarding the applicable standards (Wright et al., 2021; Zuri et al.,
2023). In the context of Asia, this chapter explores airborne MPs, focusing on their
environmental impact, intricate nature, and potential health risks specific to these
regions. Recommendations include proactive measures tailored to the challenges
faced by Asian countries, emphasizing the crucial importance of awareness, educa-
tion, sustainable practices, and public health strategies to effectively address airborne
MP issues.

2 The Origins of Airborne Microplastics

The annual global plastic production has surged from 1.7 to 360 million tonnes
in the past 70 years. This significant increase is driven by widespread use in
various consumer and construction products, particularly in packaging, building and
construction, and the automotive industry. The main polymers leading this surge
include polypropylene (19.4%), polyethylene in low (17.4%) and high (12.4%) densi-
ties, polyvinyl chloride (10%), polyurethane (7.9%), and polyethylene terephthalate
(7.9%) (Plastics Europe, 2020; Torres-Agullo et al., 2021). Microplastics exist in
two main categories: “primary microplastics”, emitted directly in this size, and “sec-
ondary microplastics”, formed from weathered plastic litter. According to Yadav
(2022), various types of MPs in India were detected in this investigation, comprising
beads, fibers, and fragments. The predominant accumulation occurs in the form of
fragments and beads. This insight reveals the particular composition of MPs that is
prevalent in the analyzed drinking water, breathable air, and prepared food in India,
as illustrated in Fig. 1.
Microplastics can settle in the atmosphere due to gravity or atmospheric processes,
eventually depositing onto surfaces, including soil, water bodies, and vegetation
(Ghosh et al., 2023; Lu et al., 2024). This deposition can occur directly from the
air or through precipitation (rain or snow), leading to their accumulation in various
environments. Strong winds can lift and transport lightweight MPs from different
sources such as landfills, agricultural fields, urban areas, and water bodies into the air
164 A. U. Rauf et al.

Fig. 1 MPs composition from water, air, food intake. Reprinted from Yadav et al. (2022).
Environmental Research, 214. 113,735, with permission from Elsevier

(Rasyid et al., 2022; Tian et al., 2023; Villanova-Solano et al., 2023). Once airborne,
these particles can travel over long distances.
The impact of winds on the distribution of MPs in Asia is evident in various studies
across the region. For instance, Hee et al. (2023) reported increased deposition rates of
MPs on the east coast of Peninsular Malaysia, attributing this phenomenon to height-
ened wind speeds during the monsoonal season (Hee et al., 2023). This emphasizes
the significant role of seasonal winds in influencing the transport and deposition
patterns of MPs in specific geographical locations. The findings align with research
conducted in Beijing, where factors such as population density, air pressure, and wind
direction were identified as primary determinants affecting atmospheric deposition of
MPs (Lu et al., 2024). Moreover, a study conducted in Manila, Philippines, revealed
that airborne MPs predominantly consisted of fibers with diameters ranging between
1000 and 5000 μm. Chemical analysis pointed to the prevalence of polyester, strongly
suggesting a textile origin for these MPs (Romarate et al., 2023). This underscores
the potential for short-distance transfer of MPs, necessitating further investigation for
confirmation. The prevalence of microfibers, without other forms like films or frag-
ments, indicates their likely source from textiles used in densely populated regions
(Villanova-Solano et al., 2023). These studies highlight the complex interplay of
wind patterns, seasonal variations, and localized sources in shaping the distribution
of MPs across different regions in Asia.
In indoor environment, a study using a thermal manikin revealed a substantial
presence of indoor airborne MPs, primarily polyester (81%), followed by polyethy-
lene (5%), and nylon (3%). These tiny particles, smaller than other indoor pollutants,
pose a direct risk when inhaled. This underscores the concerning possibility of expo-
sure to indoor air contaminated with MPs, highlighting the threat to human health.
Air filters act as reservoirs for collecting MPs, reflecting the indoor air quality we
breathe. While the quantity of MPs in indoor air may differ based on environmental
conditions and situations, their presence is definitively established (Fang et al., 2024;
Airborne Microplastics in Asia: Dealing with the Unseen 165

Torres-Agullo et al., 2022). Recent study in China found that air conditioner filters
contained tiny MPs fibers, mainly made up of polyester (45.3%), rayon (27.8%), and
cellophane (20.1%). Dormitories showed a higher buildup, especially after running
the air conditioners for 35–42 days (Chen et al., 2022). Based on several studies,
textile items found in dormitories also contribute to the accumulation of MPs in
indoor spaces, including hat, curtain, pajama and coat (Sheraz et al., 2023).
Microplastic concentrations were higher in the indoor environment than the
outdoor environment, with more fibers than particle (Amato-Lourenço et al., 2022;
Liao et al., 2021a, 2021b; Sharaf Din et al., 2024; Zuri et al., 2023). As shown
in Fig. 2, the comparison of airborne MPs abundance between indoor and outdoor
environments across various locations in the City of Wenzhou, indicates consistently
higher indoor MPs levels at all sites, with urban apartments exhibiting the highest
indoor MPs concentrations. Meanwhile, outdoor MPs abundance peaked at urban
transit stations, hospitals, and urban apartments (Liao et al., 2021a, 2021b).
The transport of MPs from the atmosphere to food can transpire through diverse
routes. The primary mechanism involves airborne MPs settling on surfaces, poten-
tially encompassing agricultural settings, aquatic environments, or directly adhering
to food items (Amato-Lourenço et al., 2022; Chen et al., 2023a, 2023b; Cordova
et al., 2019; Wright et al., 2021). Upon settling on areas where food is grown, these
minute particles may adhere to the surfaces of plants, fruits, or vegetables owing to
their diminutive size and adhesive properties (Zuri et al., 2023). Microplastics could
potentially contaminate crops either through irrigation water or via deposition from

Fig. 2 The mean abundance (±SD) of airborne MPs in indoor and outdoor environments of
Wenzhou: a indoors, b outdoors, and c the relationship between indoor and outdoor airborne MP
levels in urban settings. Reprinted from Liao and et al., (2021a, 2021b). Journal of Hazardous
Materials, 417. 126,007, with permission from Elsevier
166 A. U. Rauf et al.

the atmosphere. Aquatic food sources, such as shellfish and fish, can accumulate MPs
from water-based origins, posing a risk of human ingestion upon consumption (Ghosh
et al., 2023; Wang et al., 2021). Furthermore, during the stages of food processing,
handling, or packaging, there exists the possibility of airborne MPs, prevalent in the
surrounding environment, coming into contact with the food supply chain several
countries in South East Asia (Hee et al., 2022; Shim et al., 2016; Yadav et al., 2022).
In China, grape fields had the highest MPs levels (44% PP, 28% EPC, 21% LDPE,
5% HDPE, and 3% of PS) than solanaceous and cucurbitaceous vegetable fields,
while cotton and maize fields had the lowest MP levels (Chen et al., 2023a, 2023b).
This is similar with findings from research in Turkey, where polypropylene (PP) was
found to accumulate in maize stems and wheat roots. Maize showed a notably higher
and more substantial accumulation of PP particles compared to other plants (soil
with < 125 μm PP particles) (Çelen Erdem et al., 2023).

3 Factors Shaping MPs Particle Movement

3.1 Wind and Meteorological Conditions

The dispersion of MPs depends on how the air moves due to turbulence, while the way
these particles settle is determined by their size and shape (Enyoh et al., 2019; Sheraz
et al., 2023). Plastic debris has the potential to escape landfills through wind-driven
dispersion. This movement, influenced by wind, can induce degradation patterns such
as linear fractures. A study in China found the degradation of MPs in the atmospheric
environment may be influenced not only by mechanical abrasion caused by wind but
also by chemical weathering processes (Cai et al., 2017). During dry weather, MPs
tend to accumulate on roads and road verges. Heavy storms flush away these particles,
although the exact threshold triggering this phenomenon remains unclear. Utilizing
principal component analysis, scientists identified airborne MPs originating from
textile clothing in Shanghai, with the predominant proportion being fibrous MPs at
67% (Liu et al., 2019).
Wind-driven dispersion of MPs leads to their widespread distribution, affecting
terrestrial, freshwater, and marine ecosystems (Carvalho Ferreira & Lôbo-Hajdu,
2023; Galloway, 2015). These particles can be transported across continents,
impacting even remote and pristine environments. Understanding the dynamics of
wind patterns and atmospheric conditions helps in predicting the potential distri-
bution patterns of MPs and their deposition in different ecosystems (Shaw et al.,
2023; Su et al., 2020). In Kangbao, China, the high temperatures may contribute
to the degradation of plastics, altering their physical and chemical properties. This
degradation can influence the behavior of MPs in the atmosphere (Tian et al., 2023).
According to study of Singh et al (2019), degradation of a mixture of plastics yields
an intermediate range of oil during the pyrolysis of individual plastic wastes. The
recovery of low-density pyrolytic oil with the highest liquid yield is observed to be
Airborne Microplastics in Asia: Dealing with the Unseen 167

optimal at 500 °C with a heating rate of 20 °C. The sequence of oil yield from various
plastics is in the following order: PS > PET > PP > HDPE (Singh et al., 2019). Rainfall
and storms also influence the leaching of airborne MPs. During heavy precipitation,
MPs suspended in the atmosphere can be brought down to the ground or washed
into water bodies. This leads to their deposition and subsequent leaching into soils or
aquatic environments. Microplastics deposited on land surfaces by rain can leach into
the soil, potentially affecting soil quality, nutrient cycling, and possibly entering the
food chain through terrestrial organisms (Azeem et al., 2023; Bullard et al., 2023).
The potential for the transportation of MPs over significant distances and their
subsequent deposition exists on oceanic islands (Hee et al., 2023; Rasyid et al., 2022;
Suteja et al., 2021). Previous studies have highlighted the wind’s ability to transport
not just sizable dust particles but also MPs across extensive distances (Enyoh et al.,
2019; Tian et al., 2023; Villanova-Solano et al., 2023). For instance, particles orig-
inating from the Sahara covered a distance of 3500 km to reach the North Atlantic,
underscoring the wind’s capability to carry MPs across vast geographical expanses
(Van Der Does et al., 2018). The Japanese researcher made a discovery of MPs in
clouds. The research team identified nine distinct types of polymers and one type of
rubber in the airborne MPs, with sizes ranging from 7.1 to 94.6 μm. The analysis
revealed that each liter (0.26 gallons) of tested cloud water contained between 6.7
and 13.9 pieces of these plastic particles. This will certainly affect weather and global
temperature (Uteuova, 2023).

3.2 Particle Size

The proportion of MPs with particular sizes showed an inverse correlation with
the size, meaning that as the size of MPs particles decreased, the quantity of MPs
increased (Chai et al., 2020). The majority of airborne MPs in the Tibetan Plateau
mountainous region are reported to be small particles (<100 μm) in size by Luo
et al. (2024). The anthropogenic indicators, such population density and intensity
of nocturnal light, positively correlates with the dispersion of these MPs. While
dispersed communities are a contributing factor to the introduction of airborne MPs
into wilderness regions, the study also acknowledges the influence of long-range
atmospheric transport (Luo et al., 2024). Moreover, the size distribution analysis of
MPs present in road dust underscores a notable prevalence of particles smaller than
1000 μm. This data reveals that 16.6% were sized below 100 μm, 16.3% fell within
the range of 100–250 μm, 24.7% measured between 250 and 500 μm, 19.1% sized
500–1000 μm, and 23.3% were categorized as 1000–5000 μm. The prevalence of
smaller MPs in road dust is particularly concerning due to their ease of transportation
via stormwater runoff into aquatic systems as recorded in Pakistan (Sharaf Din et al.,
2024; Su et al., 2020; Torres-Agullo et al., 2022). Once within water bodies, the
smaller MPs pose heightened environmental risks as they are more likely to be
consumed by a variety of organisms, presenting significant ecological challenges.
168 A. U. Rauf et al.

Fig. 3 Microplastic distribution in road dust: size, color, shape, and polymer composition in Asia
and Australia. Reprinted from Yang et al. (2023). TrAC Trends in Analytical Chemistry, 168,
117,348, with permission from Elsevier.

This poses a considerable issue in major urban centers throughout Asia and Australia
region, as illustrated in Fig. 3.
If the deposition rate were to be determined using samples taken in a single day, it
may rise orders of magnitude. On the other hand, when the sample period was longer
than 10 days, there was no discernible change in the deposition rates. In this case,
the majority of the studies that have been published are located around 30° south of
the equator, where UV radiation levels are somewhat higher (Leonard et al., 2024).
This situation might accelerate the breakdown of macroplastics into microplastics.
The research conducted in Iran, characterized by an arid climate, and China, with a
temperate climate, reveals respective deposition rates of 1754–3157 n m−2 day−1 and
700–1900 n m−2 day−1 for a detection limit of 10 μm (Abbasi et al., 2023; Li et al.,
2020). Different findings were observed in research conducted in Jakarta, Indonesia,
which experiences a tropical climate. The deposition rate over a 120-day sampling
period was determined to be 6–31 n m−2 day−1 , with a detection limit of 5 mm.

3.3 Sources

Since 2018, there has been an increasing trend in South and Southeast Asian nations
to repatriate plastic waste containers that were unlawfully sent from their coun-
tries of origin. Simultaneously, a growing number of media reports have shed light
on the unauthorized disposal and incineration of plastic waste exported to Turkey,
Malaysia, Indonesia, and the Philippines in open areas (Mihai et al., 2021). The pres-
ence of indoor MPs accumulation is significantly impacted by both the variety of
Airborne Microplastics in Asia: Dealing with the Unseen 169

items present and the activities conducted by individuals within that space (Sheraz
et al., 2023). The movement of things or people between places is influenced by
multiple factors like the environment, wind flow, and the speed and direction of the
moving object. This also occurs outdoors, where MPs are highly likely to be found
in agricultural activities, serving as a primary source of MPs in food. According to
Chen et al. (), farmers grow grapes in greenhouses and employ mulch films for weed
control. In open-air grape fields, nylon anti-bird nets shield the fruits from birds in
China. Furthermore, they use plastic covering via fruit bagging techniques, which
aids in improving color, safeguarding against pests and diseases, and reducing the
need for frequent pesticide application (Chen et al., 2023a, 2023b).
Recent study has enhanced our comprehension of how MPs move from land-
based origins to the vast open ocean. Investigations have highlighted specific sources,
namely wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs), plastic industries, and fishing activ-
ities, as major contributors to MPs pollution in catchment areas (Su et al., 2020). In
Australia, regions that are less frequented and remote are susceptible to receiving
MPs from dispersed sources through long-range transport and atmospheric deposi-
tion. In contrast, areas near trails may encounter MPs originating from both recre-
ational activities and diffuse sources (Forster et al., 2023). In Iran, Myanmar, Korea,
Nepal and Japan, the human-driven factors, such as dense populations and extensive
urban development, have been proposed as potential contributors to the observed
concentrations of MPs in specific areas, often referred to as “hotspots” (Enyoh et al.,
2019; Yang et al., 2023). Surface runoff, particularly from roadways, is posited as
a potential contributor to the observed characteristics of MPs (Monira et al., 2022;
Myszka et al., 2023). Among the identified MPs colors, gray and blue predominated.
While the reasons for variations in MPs colors are not entirely clear, the prevalence
of gray and blue hues and the consistent thread-like form of the sampled MPs suggest
a common source for the ingested MPs (Hee et al., 2023; Peters & Bratton, 2016;
Xu et al., 2019). Urban sites exhibited the highest diversity in color among MPs and
showcased the lowest percentage of body fray compared to upstream and downstream
locations. Higher MPs concentrations in urban areas could result from increased MPs
sources and human activities compared to suburban regions. In Indonesia, observa-
tions found various MPs colors—black, brown, red, green, and transparent—with
black being the dominant color, comprising over 70% in both urban and suburban
areas. Colors serve as a basic means to identify potential plastic types (Syafina et al.,
2022).

4 Health Implications

The presence of MPs in our surroundings undoubtedly has some adverse health
impacts. Due to its transmission route through the air, it can be dispersed all over the
continents, mainly in America, Europe, Asia, and the Arctic, both in rural and urban
areas. While research on the existence of airborne MPs is extensive, a noticeable gap
170 A. U. Rauf et al.

persists in studies that directly examine the impact or correlation of MPs on human
health, especially in Asia.
In Asia, the presence of MPs has become an urgent issue to tackle. For instance,
research conducted in five big cities in China shows that humans are likely to be
exposed to 1–2 million MPs annually. In addition, the distribution of MPs in Indonesia
is highest in East Java, Central Java, and DKI Jakarta, but this research does not assess
further human health. Reviewing several studies across the continents, we identified
similar patterns in how MPs affect the health of living organisms; they disrupt health
conditions by eliciting an inflammatory response at the cellular level regardless of
the type of organism.
Airborne MPs can effortlessly penetrate the human body through different path-
ways, with inhalation being a primary mode of exposure. Despite extensive research
on the effects of MPs in animals, there is limited investigation into their impact on
humans, particularly in terms of comprehensive physiological aspects. The initial
discovery of MPs in the lungs of wild birds in Japan revealed fragments measuring
under 100 μm in barn swallows and rock doves. Surprisingly, no such particles were
found in black kites, indicating that certain species of wild birds encounter MPs not
only through ingestion but also via inhalation, highlighting an additional exposure
route beyond feeding (Tokunaga et al., 2023). In Iran, the median concentrations
found in street dust indicate estimated acute exposure through ingestion at around 5
and 15 MPs per day for construction workers and 2 and 7 MPs per day for young
children, respectively (Abbasi et al., 2019). Microplastic exposure through inhala-
tion can increase pro-inflammatory cytokine production (TNF-α, IL-6 and IL1β). As
a result, the increasing amount of TNF- α is positively related to the dysregulation
of cell inflammation, which becomes the headmost aspect in various diseases and
disorders in the upcoming explanation (Lu et al., 2022a, 2022b). Health implications
due to the deposition of MPs in the human body and its pathways in various systems
can be found beneath.

4.1 Respiratory Outcomes

Various pathophysiological mechanisms contribute to certain respiratory disorders

resulting from inhaling MPs. After being inhaled and deposited in the lungs, our
immune system identified the MPs as foreign bodies that need to be excreted. The
result of several mechanisms, such as mucociliary clearance in the upper respira-
tory tract, direct phagocytosis by alveolar macrophage and resettling through the
lymphatic system, tend to precipitate the inflammatory cascade (Xu et al., 2019). All
these mechanisms cause the overproduction of reactive oxygen species (ROS). The
cytotoxic effect of MPs and nanoplastics differs by their characteristics, such as their
hydrophobicity, size, and surface size, which affect the translocation to other organs
as well.
Particles trapped in lung and nasal mucus can be expelled through actions like
coughing, nose blowing, or sneezing, either ejected or swallowed with the mucus. If
Airborne Microplastics in Asia: Dealing with the Unseen 171

swallowed, these particles may enter the digestive tract, potentially exerting effects
akin to MPs ingested from food and beverages (Vianello et al., 2019). Based on find-
ings from research conducted in India, the elevated presence of e-waste intensifies the
carcinogenic risks linked to biota-contaminated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
(PAHs). The calculated cancer risks, considering a lifetime of MPs ingestion, are
1.13 × 10−5 for children and 1.28 × 10−5 for adults, exceeding the recommended
threshold of 10−6 (Sharma et al., 2020). The working period may coincide with the
generation of airborne MPs. Research conducted in China examined the concentra-
tion of airborne MPs in five megacities, revealing that concentrations peaked at noon,
followed by the morning and night. The potential intake of MPs (size < 10 μm) during
the 8-h working period ranged from 131 to 5460 MPs through inhalation. However,
precise information regarding the impact of airborne MPs on human health is not yet
fully clarified.
Prior studies have disclosed a potential link between chronic exposure to airborne
MPs and the development of cancer (Mastrangelo et al., 2002). According to Dris,
workers employed in the textile industry face a higher risk of inhaling synthetic fibers
compared to individuals not working in similar environments (Dris et al., 2017). This
chronic exposure to synthetic fibers through inhalation is associated with various
respiratory problems such as dyspnea, asthma, and persistent coughing. These health
issues are frequently reported by employees working in sectors involving textiles and
paint manufacturing, highlighting the potential health risks associated with prolonged
exposure to synthetic fibers (Periyasamy & Tehrani-Bagha, 2022).

4.2 Hormonal Outcome: Altered Thyroid Functions

As previously stated, inhaled MPs, especially the BPA compound, could alter the
endocrine system, especially the thyroid hormones. Thyroid hormones such as
thyroxine (T4), triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroid-stimulating hormones (TSH) are
essential for metabolism, growth and development and are easily analysed in blood
assessment. Various mechanisms underlie the thyroid function alterations due to
BPA, such as binding bisphenol A to thyroid receptors (TR), which later inter-
feres with thyroid hormone synthesis, transport, and metabolism as shown in several
study conducted in Korea, China, Thailand and Japan (Kim & Park, 2019). A recent
prospective cohort study found that maternal exposure to BPA could lower the TSH
level in both sexes (Chevrier et al., 2013; Romano et al., 2015). Moreover, exposure
to BPA positively correlates with thyroid cancer proliferation by regulating oestrogen
receptors (ERs) and membrane receptors (GPR30) (Zhang et al., 2017).
172 A. U. Rauf et al.

4.3 Reproductive Health Outcomes

Nowadays, reproductive health become a captivating topic to discuss. Bisphenol

A (BPA) is one of the common compounds found in MPs, and it is widely used
in consumer products and exposed to humans by inhalation, ingestion, and dermal
contact. Although there is limited human study, it has been shown to be dangerous
in animal trials (Rochester, 2013). Bisphenol A has a unique feature mimicking
xenoestrogen, which is widely known as an endocrine disruptor chemical (EDC),
and influences steroidogenesis as shown in animal study in Korea (Chung et al.,
2017; Hafezi & Abdel-Rahman, 2019). There are some effects of BPA on hormone-
dependent tumours, both non-malignant tumours and malignant tumours such as
breast and prostate cancer. Bisphenol A is responsible for accelerating tumorigen-
esis and metastasis through a couple of mechanisms, namely from overstimulating
the Estrogen Receptor Negative (ER-) and Estrogen Receptor Positive (ER+) breast
cancer cells by altering the oncogene expression in these cells (Heckler et al., 2014;
Song et al., 2015). It is also disclosed that low exposure to BPA could induce
resistance in various chemotherapeutics agents, especially for breast, colorectal,
and prostate cancer, such as doxorubicin, cisplatin, carboplatin, tamoxifen (TAM),
bevacizumab, PARP inhibitors, vinblastine and so on (Hafezi & Abdel-Rahman,
2019).
Microplastics have an impact not solely on the female reproductive system but
also induce modifications in the male reproductive system. The spermatogenesis
cycle requires support from various cell types, such as Leydig, Sertoli, peritubular
myoid cells, hormonal stimulus, paracrine factors, and normal genetic and epige-
netic regulations (Zhou et al., 2019). The increasing number of inhaled MPs does
affect spermatogenesis, and it causes male reproductive toxicity through the molec-
ular mechanism. The disruption occurs only when humans are exposed to MPs at a
minimum of 0.016 mg/kg/day; below this threshold, the molecular activity remains
relatively unaffected by their presence. In addition, drawing from various studies,
our hypothesis suggests that the size of MPs plays a crucial role in the extent of
cell disruption and inflammation. A study in China found smaller size of MPs corre-
late with increased severity of the inflammation and molecular mechanism, exerting
a potent effect on cell destruction (Lu et al., 2022a, 2022b; Zhang et al., 2022;
Zhao et al., 2023). Through oxidative stress response, MPs alter spermatogenesis by
reducing cell quality, accounting for cell apoptosis. Continued occurrences of this
phenomenon result to a gradual decrease in the production of sperm cells, potentially
leading to male infertility over time.

4.4 Pregnancy Outcomes

In several studies, exposure to airborne MPs in pregnant women has shown that
it could cross the blood-placental barrier. By doing some microscopic imaging
Airborne Microplastics in Asia: Dealing with the Unseen 173

assessments, the MPs particles are found mainly in the placental villi and several
different placental cell layers, especially the syncytiotrophoblast (Ragusa et al.,
2022). Some common particles found in placental cells and tissues are polypropylene
(PP), polyethylene (PE), and polyurethane (PU) (Braun et al., 2021). It undoubtedly
shows that there is a huge chance for MPs to be highly transmitted from mother
to foetal, as the syncytiotrophoblast is the direct placental layer between maternal
and foetal blood responsible for nutrients and gases exchange; thus, the syncy-
tiotrophoblast plays important roles in foetal growth throughout gestation period
(Kidima, 2015). These MPs are transferred through active, energy-dependent trans-
port pathways (Grafmueller et al., 2015). Microplastics in placental cells trigger cell
danger response, leading to alteration in intracytoplasmic organelles. If this condition
continues for a long time, especially in the first trimester of gestation, it changes the
epigenetic level and alters the foetal development process throughout the concep-
tion. As a result, activation of some pathological traits such as excessive oxidative
stress, cell apoptosis, and cell inflammation would expedite the existence of char-
acteristics of metabolic disorders. This condition could be the underlying factor for
future chronic diseases, for instance, diabetes and metabolic syndrome (Ragusa et al.,
2022). In a Chinese study, endometrium samples were examined using laser direct
infrared technology to assess the qualitative and quantitative presence of MPs. The
outcomes disclosed a total of 13 types of MPs within the collected samples, and
among them, six types displayed both a high abundance and a high detection rate.
The abundance of these specific MPs varied from 0 to 117 particles per 100 mg, with
a median abundance of 21 particles per 100 mg (Sun et al., 2024).

5 Prevention and Mitigation Strategies

5.1 Technological Detection

Technological advancements stand as an indispensable solution in combating the

escalating problem of airborne MPs pollution. Sophisticated methodologies encom-
passing spectroscopy, microscopy, and various analytical techniques have dramati-
cally enhanced our capacity to precisely detect, quantify, and characterize airborne
MPs (Gaston et al., 2020). These cutting-edge methods, such as Fourier-Transform
Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) and Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), enable
accurate identification and measurement of MPs suspended in the atmosphere, even at
minute scales (Andoh et al., 2024; Athulya & Chandrasekaran, 2023). Spectroscopy
instruments reveal polymer changes during aging by detecting characteristic func-
tional group peaks. For instance, FTIR shows increased hydroxylation and carbony-
lation in aging PE, assessed by the carbonyl index. This method also enables non-
destructive identification and offers physical details like size and color when paired
with microscopy (Liao et al., 2021a, 2021b; Tokunaga et al., 2023; Zhang et al.,
2024). The evolution and refinement of detection methods play an instrumental role
174 A. U. Rauf et al.

in confronting the challenges posed by airborne MPs pollution. Governments, indus-

tries, and environmental agencies increasingly rely on these advanced technologies
to conduct thorough evaluations and quantify the extent of airborne MPs pollution
(Athulya & Chandrasekaran, 2023). The different stages in evaluating airborne MPs,
starting from the sampling process to the final outcomes, are illustrated in Fig. 4.
These protocols have been outlined for the examination of MPs in soil, sediment,
and water contexts, with the primary distinction residing in the utilized sampling
approaches.
FTIR is a powerful technique for characterizing MPs, but it does face limitations,
especially when it comes to the size of MPs. Analyzing very small MPs can be
challenging due to the limited amount of material available for examination. Addi-
tionally, the presence of other organic or inorganic substances in the sample matrix

Fig. 4 A comprehensive review of methods for analyzing, detecting, studying the movement, and
assessing the risks associated with airborne MPs. Reprinted from Enyoh et al. (2019). Environmental
Monitoring and Assessment, 191(11), 668, with permission from Springer
Airborne Microplastics in Asia: Dealing with the Unseen 175

might interfere with the accurate identification and characterization of MPs, leading
to potential misinterpretations of the data. The sensitivity and resolution of the FTIR
instrument might be insufficient for these smaller particles, impacting the accuracy
and reliability of the results. In a previous study that addressed MPs emissions from
dryers and air sampling methods, there were challenges in accurately measuring
mass loss and estimating fibers per cubic meter due to variable air volumes (O’Brien
et al., 2020).
Pyrolysis gas chromatography (PYR-GC/MS) represents an invaluable analyt-
ical tool for evaluating airborne MPs (Salthammer, 2022). This method involves
subjecting the large molecular structures present in airborne MPs to controlled
thermal decomposition within an inert atmosphere or vacuum. Through the analysis
of resulting fragment masses and integration with thermal desorption and DART-
MS (direct analysis in real time), PYR-GC/MS facilitates the precise identification
and detailed characterization of polymers within airborne MPs. This comprehen-
sive analytical approach significantly contributes to understanding the composition
and properties of MPs suspended in the atmosphere, supporting broader investiga-
tions into environmental pollution and potential human health risks associated with
airborne MPs (Velimirovic et al., 2021).

5.2 Air Filters and Ventilation

The air filters serve as useful indicators for monitoring indoor air quality regarding
MPs, posing ongoing environmental concerns due to daily human exposure (Fang
et al., 2024). The diversity in quantity, size, shape, and type of detected MPs is heavily
influenced by the chosen detection method. The constituents of roads, aggregates,
and bitumen, affect the detection of MPs, metals, and inorganic materials from nearby
construction. Extracting MPs via organic removal, density separation, and filtration
in environmental samples is common but time-consuming, potentially leading to
particle loss due to multiple steps (Shim et al., 2016). The harmful impacts of MPs
pollution emphasize the immediate requirement for effective mitigation strategies to
protect the health and resilience of ecosystems (Cai et al., 2017). Air filtration stands
as a prime method to diminish indoor MPs accumulation. However, some devices
lack the ability to effectively capture these particles. Inadequate filtration systems
in air conditioning and ventilation units can be a “door” of outdoor pollutants to
penetrate indoors (Gaston et al., 2020). This is particularly evident in commercial
buildings reliant solely on-air conditioning that integrates outdoor air. Commercial
AC systems commonly use an economy cycle, circulating exterior air for more than
50% of the year. In a study conducted in Shanghai, the composition of indoor MPs
demonstrated significant variations compared to outdoor environments. The presence
of ventilation played a crucial role in reducing indoor MPs concentrations (Xie et al.,
2022).
Vacuum cleaners have been shown to effectively reduce the concentration of
indoor MPs (Bahrina et al., 2020; Schlawinsky et al., 2022; Sheraz et al., 2023).
176 A. U. Rauf et al.

Active pump samplers have been successfully employed to draw precise air volumes
through collection filters for defined durations at chosen locations. This methodology
was previously utilized by Vianello et al. (2019), employing a manikin-based pump
to evaluate the potential risk linked to indoor MPs exposure (Vianello et al., 2019).
Another study conducted in Surabaya, Indonesia, yielded similar results, demon-
strating that vacuum cleaners were effective in capturing MPs from classrooms and
office spaces (Bahrina et al., 2020).
Various factors contribute to divergent results in the assessment of MPs presence
indoors. These include the utilization of space and occupancy patterns, the type of
ventilation systems employed, the positioning of sampling apparatus, the extent of
outside air infiltration into indoor spaces, and the accumulation of both primary
and secondary MPs (Kacprzak & Tijing, 2022). Space usage and occupancy play
a pivotal role as they affect the generation and dispersion of MPs, influenced by
human activities, movements, and the introduction of MPs from various sources.
The type of ventilation system and its efficiency significantly impact the circulation
and purification of indoor air. When ventilation rates are higher, there is an increased
exchange of indoor and outdoor air, leading to a dilution effect (Bahrina et al., 2020;
Q. Zhang et al., 2020). This means that any MPs present indoors, which might
originate from various sources such as furniture, textiles, or external contamination,
have a higher chance of being diluted and carried away with the outgoing air. As
demonstrated in a previous study, the quantity of indoor MPs decreased with longer
total ventilation times (Choi et al., 2022).

5.3 Improved Waste Management and Substitution Materials

Reducing MPs in ambient air involves various strategies, one of which is mini-
mizing the production and usage of disposable plastic items. By limiting the utiliza-
tion of single-use products like shopping bags, water bottles, cutlery, cups, plates,
containers, and straws, less plastic waste is generated, subsequently decreasing the
potential for airborne MPs pollution (Calero et al., 2021; Deselnicu et al., 2018).
Implementing bans or regulations on these items can significantly curb the amount of
plastic entering the environment, thus reducing the presence of MPs in the ambient
air. Promoting proper waste management, recycling, and encouraging the use of
biodegradable alternatives can further contribute to diminishing MP contamination
in the air we breathe (Chawla et al., 2022). The Malaysian government has imple-
mented several action plan initiatives to address environmental concerns, particu-
larly related to plastic waste. These include the prohibition of single-use plastics like
plastic bags and straws, the introduction of a plastic bag levy, efforts to promote recy-
cling, and educational initiatives aimed at minimizing the impact of plastic waste,
including the issue of MPs pollution (Praveena, 2024). This also has emerged as a
significant concern for the Indonesian government, prompting the implementation of
“waste banks.“ These institutions facilitate the buying and selling of waste, aiming to
Airborne Microplastics in Asia: Dealing with the Unseen 177

mitigate the accumulation levels in landfills while concurrently fostering economic

opportunities (Rimantho et al., 2022).
The effort to combat airborne MPs pollution has led to a focus on reevaluating
the composition of road marking materials. Commonly composed of polymeric or
non-polymeric binders, thermoplastic road marking materials are identified as a
significant contributor to this form of pollution. Ineffective sorting systems often
lead to down-cycling, causing material loss from the value chain. Some recycling
methods, like using recycled rubber from tires for artificial sports fields, inadver-
tently contribute to MPs pollution. About twenty-one percent of European car tires
are recycled in this manner (Elsamahy et al., 2023; Verschoor et al., 2021). In several
Asian countries such as Japan, India, and China, the concept of a circular economy
has been employed to reduce the accumulation of MPs from electronic waste (e-
waste). This is substantiated by various studies and policies supporting sustainable
programs and waste management facilities, particularly focusing on plastic waste as
a primary source of MPs (Rauf, 2024).
Synthetic clothing, bedding, curtains, and similar items are major contributors to
indoor MPs pollution due to the shedding of synthetic fibers during everyday use
(Kacprzak & Tijing, 2022; Q. Zhang et al., 2020). To mitigate this issue, opting for
natural fabrics like cotton, linen, wool, or silk could be a solution (Zhang et al., 2020).
However, transitioning from synthetic to natural fabrics faces challenges, including
resistance from fabric manufacturers and fashion industries. Achieving this change
may necessitate governmental regulations to regulate synthetic fabric use in the
industry (Dris et al., 2017; Mastrangelo et al., 2002; Periyasamy & Tehrani-Bagha,
2022). If products retain or are attributed value even in their end-of-life phase, there
is a possibility to keep them within the value chain (Ahmed et al., 2022; Kubiczek
et al., 2023; Tadsuwan & Babel, 2021). For instance, plastic bottles are less commonly
found in Danish nature compared to other parts of Europe, likely due to an effective
deposit-refund system long established in Denmark (Syberg et al., 2020). This prac-
tice is also implemented in Indonesia through waste banks, acting as a platform for the
buying and selling of plastic bottles in exchange for money (Rimantho et al., 2022).
This mechanism prevents the accumulation of plastic waste with residual value from
reaching final deposition or landfill sites. Over time, the structural integrity of plastic
bottles within landfills can deteriorate due to environmental factors like temperature
variations, moisture, and degradation of surrounding materials.

6 Conclusion and Recommendation

The investigation of airborne MPs has unearthed a concerning reality—a pervasive

and silent threat to ecosystems and human health originating from diverse sources.
Several research in Asia illuminates the extensive entry of MPs into ecosystems,
propelled by plastic fragmentation, industrial processes, and the degradation of textile
fibers, disseminating widely through atmospheric dispersion. The infiltration of these
minute particles into the food web poses potential disruptions to ecosystems and the
178 A. U. Rauf et al.

looming risk of bioaccumulation. The developing countries lack specific standards

for permissible limits of airborne MPs. Numerous types of MPs identified in studies
involving animals have been associated with cellular damage and disruptions in
the endocrine system. Researchers have also examined the presence of MPs in the
human lungs, but the long-term consequences of extended exposure are still uncer-
tain. Most studies on airborne MPs in Asia are led by China, followed by India
and Iran. However, research in other countries is limited, possibly due to constraints
in research facilities and testing instruments for airborne MPs. This limitation is
exacerbated by insufficient plastic waste management, the main contributor to the
rise of MPs in the air. Exploring the link between waste management practices and
airborne MPs in diverse regions can inform targeted environmental policies. A thor-
ough assessment of the long-term ecological and health effects of chronic exposure
to airborne MPs is essential for developing sustainable waste management practices.
Collaborative international efforts, particularly in regions with limited research, will
contribute to a global understanding of this emerging environmental issue.

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Navigating the Ongoing Threat
of Microplastic Across Asia

Annisa Utami Rauf, Vena Jaladara, Siti Mei Saroh, Rahmawati,

and Sulistiowati

Abstract In Asia, where rapid industrialization, extensive coastal development, and

dense urban populations converge, the prevalence of microplastics (MPs) poses
a particularly acute environmental challenge. This chapter aims to delineate the
extensive negative effects of MPs on Asia’s diverse ecosystems, emphasizing their
disruptive influence on natural systems. In the dynamic landscape of developing
nations across Asia, vulnerability to MPs pollution unfolds through a series of
interconnected factors. Studies have underscored the escalating concentrations of
MPs in water bodies, adversely impacted aquatic life, and potentially infiltrated the
food chain, thus posing risks to human health. China and India rank among the
leading global sources of plastic waste, where both countries confront ecological
and health hazards. Coastal communities in developing nations heavily depend on
marine resources for food and livelihood. This reliance increases exposure to MPs
as these pollutants infiltrate marine ecosystems, affecting fish and other seafood.
Addressing this issue requires a multi-faceted approach, encompassing robust waste
management practices, enhanced recycling infrastructure, and stringent regulations.
Public education and awareness campaigns tailored to regional contexts are imper-
ative to promote responsible plastic use and minimize the release of MPs into the
environment. Implementing immediate and region-specific interventions, coupled
with sustained research endeavors and widespread awareness initiatives, is vital to

A. U. Rauf (B) · V. Jaladara

Department of Health Behavior, Environment and Social Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Public
Health, and Nursing, Universitas Gadjah Mada, Yogyakarta 55281, Indonesia
e-mail: annisaur@ugm.ac.id
S. M. Saroh
MPH Student, Department of Biostatistics, Epidemiology and Population Health, Faculty of
Medicine, Public Health, and Nursing, Universitas Gadjah Mada, Yogyakarta 55281, Indonesia
Rahmawati
Graduate School of Fisheries and Marine Science, Jl. Agatis Gedung Fakultas Perikanan Dan
Ilmu Kelautan, IPB University, Kampus IPB Dramaga, Bogor 16680, Indonesia
Sulistiowati
Department of Fisheries, Faculty of Agriculture, Universitas Gadjah Mada, Jl. Flora, Bulaksumur,
Yogyakarta 555281, Indonesia

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 187
J. C. Egbueri et al. (eds.), Microplastics in African and Asian Environments, Emerging
Contaminants and Associated Treatment Technologies,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-64253-1_10
188 A. U. Rauf et al.

mitigate the profound ecological implications and ensure a sustainable future for the
region.

Keywords Microplastic pollution · Environmental risk · Asian environment ·

Plastic debris · Nanoplastic

1 Introduction

The economic growth and modern lifestyle have led to the emergence of numerous
products predominantly composed of plastic, including cosmetics, electronics,
household items, as well as food and beverages (Hee et al., 2022; Oßmann et al.,
2018). Consequently, this has resulted in a high accumulation of plastic waste in
various countries (Piyawardhana et al., 2022; Wang et al., 2021; WHO, 2019). As a
result of these environmental concerns, the United Nations Environment Programme
(UNEP) reports that more than 60 countries have implemented policies including
taxes or bans on single-use plastics, mainly plastic bags (WHO, 2019). The produc-
tion of plastics has rapidly increased over time, skyrocketing from about 1.7 tons
per year in the early 1950s to surpassing 350 million tons annually in the twenty-
first century. This vast production encompasses a wide array of synthetic poly-
mers, including polyethylene (PE, approximately 28.5%), polypropylene (PP, around
16.7%), polyvinyl chloride (PVC, roughly 9.1%), polyethylene terephthalate (PET,
about 8.1%), polystyrene (PS, roughly 6.1%), alongside polyurethanes (PU) and
polyamides (PA) (Borriello et al., 2023; Oktavilia et al., 2020).
In developed nations, numerous programs, technologies, and regulations are
extensively implemented to reduce plastic waste. This differs from developing coun-
tries, which often encounter limitations concerning facilities and comprehensive
education for their citizens (Ahmed et al., 2022; Deselnicu et al., 2018; Robaina
et al., 2020). Plastic holds vital importance in modern economies. However, the
current production, usage, and disposal methods of plastics fail to harness the
economic advantages of a more “circular” approach, resulting in significant envi-
ronmental damage (Campitelli et al., 2023; Deselnicu et al., 2018). The continued
reliance on the linear economic model in developing Asian countries has led to
substantial waste buildup and depletion of resources (Ahmed et al., 2022). More-
over, the prevalent use of outdated dumpsites and landfills aggravates environmental
degradation and intensifies MPs pollution (Lee & Wong, 2023). In contrast to the
circular economy, which emphasizes resource reuse and recycling, the linear model
involves discarding products post-use, consequently allowing MPs to infiltrate and
contaminate the environment (Chawla et al., 2022; Rhodes, 2018).
The widespread occurrence of MPs presents significant environmental risks and
potential future disasters across ecosystems. These small plastic particles, arising
from the breakdown of larger plastic items or deliberately produced for specific
applications, pervade various environmental matrices, including soil, water bodies,
and the atmosphere. Microplastics pose a substantial threat to biodiversity, as they
Navigating the Ongoing Threat of Microplastic Across Asia 189

are consumed by a broad spectrum of organisms, from microscopic plankton to larger

marine mammals (Jeyasanta et al., 2023; Piyawardhana et al., 2022; Yamamoto et al.,
2021). Studies previously conducted in Southern China and Pakistan have revealed
the presence of MPs contamination in farms that rear livestock and poultry (Bilal
et al., 2023; Wu et al., 2021). This ingestion disrupts ecosystems and can lead to
adverse effects on human health due to the potential transfer of contaminants through
the food chain (Dwiyitno et al., 2021; Fu et al., 2020; Kwon et al., 2020).
The long-term presence of MPs in the environment poses serious scientific
concerns in Asia’s dynamic landscapes. Unlike organic matter, which decomposes
naturally, plastics degrade slowly, remaining in the environment for long periods
of time and continuously contributing to widespread contamination. This persistent
threat affects a wide range of Asian ecosystems, offering significant challenges to
regional biodiversity, ecosystem dynamics, and, potentially, human health. To handle
the continuous issues posed by microplastic pollution, a thorough understanding and
rigorous scientific treatments are required. Effective and comprehensive policies,
strong waste management strategies, and global collaboration are crucial to combat
the widespread presence of MPs and ensure the protection of our environment.
This chapter explores the global consequences of the escalating presence of
microplastics, shaped by economic growth and lifestyle shifts. It examines vari-
ations in waste management, emphasizing the environmental effects, particularly
those associated with microplastics. While recognizing the economic importance
of plastics, the chapter underscores the essential need for sustainable methodolo-
gies and worldwide collaboration. Focusing on the Asian region, it advocates for
thorough scientific scrutiny and the implementation of robust measures to system-
atically address the increasing environmental challenges stemming from enduring
microplastic contamination. The primary aim is to heighten awareness and encourage
specific mitigation solutions.

2 Distribution of MPs in the Asian Environment

2.1 Coastal and Waterways Contamination

Microplastics have different types of density. MPs have a low density and small size,
which tends to remain on surface waters. Rivers are an essential transport from land to
sea for MPs; in addition, estuary areas often experience significant urbanization and
industrial expansion, resulting in direct plastic pollution from these sources, mainly
originating from anthropogenic activities, rainwater discharge, and wastewater from
processing facilities (Stead et al., 2020). Water currents allow MPs particles to travel
relatively long distances until MPs finally reach remote locations, and have even
been found on uninhabited islands (Hidalgo-Ruz et al., 2012). Microplastics are
transported by ocean currents to uninhabited islands, such as Sintok Island in the
Karimunjawa Islands (Marganita et al., 2022). Multiple reports have highlighted
190 A. U. Rauf et al.

MPs pollution in the surface waters of Indonesia. Studies have been conducted in
various locations in the country, including the north coast of Surabaya (Cordova et al.,
2018), Benoa Bay (Cordova et al., 2018; Suteja et al., 2021), and the waterways of
the Ciwalengke River (Alam et al., 2019). In Iran and Philippines, MPs particles have
entered a river exclusively through municipal and commercial effluents, indicating
a notable influence of the surrounding environment on MPs abundance. The data
reveals a clear trend: the farther from the contamination source, the lower the observed
levels of microplastic contamination (Bonyadi et al., 2022; Gabriel et al., 2023).
Coastal area plays a crucial role in preserving biodiversity and supplying essential
ecosystem services, particularly food, which are vital for vulnerable human commu-
nities. However, the lagoons are highly prone to accumulating various pollutants like
MPs, toxic organic compounds, and inorganic substances, creating potential interac-
tions among them (Carvalho Ferreira & Lôbo-Hajdu, 2023; Thushari & Senevirathna,
2020). The activities associated with tourism, restaurants, and hotels near coastal
lagoons significantly add to the growing problem of plastic waste buildup in these
vital areas. Prominent tourist cities in Asia, such as Rayong (Thailand) (Prarat &
Hongsawat, 2022), Bali (Indonesia) (Suteja et al., 2021), Jeju (South Korea) (Min
et al., 2023) and Torghabeh (Iran) (Bonyadi et al., 2022), encounter notable challenges
due to this situation. Tourists often seek recreational activities such as swimming,
skydiving, or sunbathing at beachfronts. Although these activities are shorter in dura-
tion compared to daily routines, pose an elevated risk of MPs exposure, particularly
when consuming seafood or processed food obtained from vendors near the beaches.
This ingestion route significantly heightens the probability of MPs intake (Fu et al.,
2020; Yamamoto et al., 2021). One of the mediums impacted by the accumulation
of MPs is traced in consumed salt. Peixoto (2019), reported the discovery of MPs
accumulation in salt products from numerous brands across 38 countries (Peixoto
et al., 2019). This observation corresponds with earlier studies conducted in Java,
where the traditional technique for salt production results in decreased salt produc-
tion because it permits saltwater to penetrate the soil. As a result, solid MPs particles,
remain confined within the evaporation pond (Dwiyitno et al., 2021).
The negative impacts of MPs pollution within coastal ecosystems can be
damaging. Marine organisms may inadvertently ingest these particles, resulting in
potential health hazards. In a coastal nation boasting extensive shorelines, multiple
investigations conducted in Indonesia have monitored the absorption of MPs by
various organisms, including shellfish, fish, and seaweed (Cordova et al., 2018;
Dwiyitno et al., 2021; Rahmawati et al., 2023). Local seafood-based foods face
a significant risk of MPs accumulation, posing a potential threat to food quality.
Several studies on MPs in Asian fish have documented the presence of MPs in 14
different dried fish products. The majority of dried fish showed the presence of MPs,
with fibers constituting approximately 80% of the total. Major plastic polymers iden-
tified included polyethylene (35%), polyethylene terephthalate (26%), polystyrene
(18%), polyvinyl chloride (12%), and polypropylene (9%). The highest MP counts,
either per individual (1.92 ± 0.12) or per gram of dried fish (0.56 ± 0.03), were found
in Etrumeus micropus from Japan (Piyawardhana et al., 2022). The accumulation of
MPs in fish in various countries in Asia is illustrated in Fig. 1.
Navigating the Ongoing Threat of Microplastic Across Asia 191

Fig. 1 A study analyzed microplastic levels in dried fish products from Taiwan, Thailand, Japan,
China, South Korea, Vietnam, and Sri Lanka. They averaged two 20-g fish samples per country,
with vertical bars indicating standard deviation. Reprinted from Piyawardhana et al. (2022)

Sediment, due to its deposition process, is recognized as a major sink for signif-
icant MPs accumulation (Yona et al., 2019). The deposition of MPs into sediment
can occur due to biofouling, which increases their density, size, and shape (Kowalski
et al., 2016). Research has revealed the presence of MPs in sediment across different
regions, with quantities ranging from 310 to 2620 items/kg found in the Wujiang
River, China (He et al., 2022). Another study in Northeast Java, Gresik, Indonesia,
identified MPs in mangrove sediments at an average rate of 896.96 ± 160.28 particles/
kg. Additionally, Sulistiowati et al. (2023) reported MPs presence in the sediment of
the Sembilang National Park mangrove ecosystem, ranging from 10 to 710 particles/
kg (Sulistiowati et al., 2023). Beyond mangrove ecosystems, MPs have been detected
in seagrass ecosystems across Indonesia (Cordova et al., 2018; Rahmawati et al.,
2023; Sawalman et al., 2021; Tahir et al., 2019). MPs were also discovered in Singa-
pore’s mangrove ecosystems, where 3.0–15.7 particles/250 were found (Mohamed
Nor & Obbard, 2014).

2.2 Airborne Contaminations

Apart from MPs in sediment and water, MPs in the air are a high source of MPs
contamination. The presence of MPs in the air can contaminate MPs in water and
sediment. Observations of MPs in the air are still in the early stages. Still, interest
in the presence of MPs in the air is increasing because these small particles can be
192 A. U. Rauf et al.

inhaled into the human body directly and continuously (Prata et al., 2019). The distri-
bution of MPs suspended in the atmosphere is similar to other airborne pollutants.
The abundance, movement, distribution of these MPs depends on the initial pres-
ence of contaminants, meteorological conditions, transportation, and other factors.
Research on MPs in the air was successfully carried out in several locations in Asia,
such as in the outdoor atmosphere of Shanghai, China, where MPs were found at
0–4.18 MPs/m3 (Liu et al., 2019), the area at Asaluyeh, Iran was seen at 0.3– 1.1 MP/
m3 in the form of fiber (Akber Abbasi et al., 2020), outside the city of Beijing, China
MPs fibers were found as much as 5.1–7.2·10–3 MPs/mL (Li et al., 2020a, 2020b). In
Wenzhou, MPs were found fragments were found in two different observation loca-
tions, the outdoors as much as 9 ± 85 MPs/m3 and indoors with 1583 ± 1181 MPs/
m3 of MPs (Liao et al., 2021). According to Cui, the quantity and composition of
MPs in households are correlated with factors such as usage duration, human activ-
ities, types of goods used, cleanliness practices, and the composition of occupants
(family members) (Cui et al., 2022).
The detection of MPs in airborne extends to diverse settings, encompassing public
spaces and mass transportation vehicles. Consequently, adopting self-protection
measures becomes imperative to mitigate potential exposure to the various MPs
dispersed in the air. According to Torres-Agullo (2022), MPs concentrations were
observed to be highest in buses at an average of 17.3 ± 2.4 MPs/m3 , followed by 5.8 ±
1.9 MPs/m3 in subways, 4.8 ± 1.6 MPs/m3 in residential spaces, and 4.2 ± 1.6 MPs/
m3 in workplaces (Torres-Agullo et al., 2022). Moreover, the identified polymers
predominantly consisted of polyamide (51%), polyester (48%), and a minor pres-
ence of polypropylene (1%). These polymers were commonly found and related to
the used of personal care items and synthetic textiles (Dris et al., 2017; Periyasamy &
Tehrani-Bagha, 2022). In Kerala, India, airborne MPs primarily emanate from munic-
ipal landfills, driven by the prevailing northeast monsoon winds. The forward trajec-
tories originating from the landfill site extend into the Arabian Sea, providing clear
evidence of the potential atmospheric transport and subsequent deposition of MPs
into the ocean (Kannankai & Devipriya, 2024).
The fragile barrier in human lung tissue may facilitate the penetration and systemic
distribution of MPs. Only those smaller than 20 µm may penetrate organs, with
approximately 10 µm-sized MPs potentially accessing all organs, crossing cell
membranes, and even traversing the blood–brain barrier via the circulatory system
(Vattanasit et al., 2023). Figure 2 provides a visual representation of the prevalence
in the environment, physical and chemical attributes, as well as the deposition of
MPs within the human respiratory system.

2.3 Soil Contaminations

The size of MPs plays a vital role in defining soil properties and environmental
implications. Smaller MPs, particularly nanoparticles, can plug soil micropores or
Navigating the Ongoing Threat of Microplastic Across Asia 193

Fig. 2 Visualization of microplastics (MPs) dynamics in human respiratory system. Reprinted from
Vattanasit et al. (2023)

be digested by soil organisms and plants. This trait raises more complex environ-
mental considerations than its larger counterparts. The interactions and impacts of
these smaller MPs on soil structure, organisms, and subsequent ecological processes
are complex, emphasizing the importance of studying and managing the environ-
mental consequences of MPs in soil systems (Ihenetu et al., 2024). A variety of
factors can contribute to the prevalence of MPs in soil, including plastic compo-
nents in electronic equipment, such as casings, printed circuit boards, connectors,
and insulating layers, can degrade and emit MPs into the environment, including soil
(Anaya-Garzon et al., 2021). The materials can degrade during the life cycle of an
electronic equipment, from manufacturing to use and disposal, due to mechanical
wear, environmental exposure, and other factors. This breakdown generates MPs,
which can enter the soil by a variety of channels, including air deposition, water
runoff, and direct dumping. This is found in several developing countries in Asia
such as Thailand, the India, Pakistan and Indonesia (Bilal et al., 2023; Soetrisno &
Delgado-Saborit, 2020; Thanomsangad et al., 2020; Yadav et al., 2022). Insufficient
e-waste sorting capabilities and inadequate infrastructure in Asia’s dump sites lead
to continued MPs contamination from electronic waste (e-waste). Limited sorting
capacity limits effective e-waste treatment, resulting in MPs dispersion in the soil
environment (Priya et al., 2023).
Despite being widely regarded as a safer option to tap water, bottled mineral
water is susceptible to microplastic contamination. Bottled mineral water, commonly
considered a more secure option compared to tap water, can also be the main source
of MPs. The projected increase in potential risks linked with MPs in the area demands
194 A. U. Rauf et al.

immediate action (Oßmann et al., 2018). In addition to contaminating drinking water

through bottled packaging, the widespread daily use of food packaging has become a
notable factor in contributing to soil pollution with MPs. With the increase in fast food
and delivery services, food packaging that uses plastic as packaging will contribute
to land pollution. The single-use plastic containers, utilized for a single meal, even-
tually become integrated into the discarded plastic waste, potentially contributing to
soil pollution as they undergo degradation and release microplastics into the environ-
ment. Considering the observed microplastic abundance in take-out containers from
restaurants in Shanghai, individuals who order take-out food 4–7 times weekly may
potentially ingest 12–203 pieces of microplastics through these containers (Du et al.,
2020). Traces of food packaging waste were identified on three beaches in Thanh
Hoa, Vietnam, particularly evident on sandy soil and water surfaces. The MPs abun-
dance varied across locations, with Hai Tien beach exhibiting the highest density
at 44.1 items/m3 and Sam Son beach displaying the lowest at 15.5 items/m3 . The
predominant MP shape was fragmented, constituting 61.4 ± 14.3% of the total MPs
(Dao et al., 2023).
Furthermore, the habit of tea consumption has raised concerns due to the potential
transfer of MPs into the tea infusion. Teabag samples from Persian and German
origins exhibited elevated concentrations of phthalate esters (PAEs), with average
levels of 2.87 mg/g (4.76 mg/L) and 2.37 mg/g (3.93 mg/L), respectively (Kashfi et al.,
2023). While MPs are prevalent in various food sources, their impact on the human
gastrointestinal tract from food consumption has been insufficiently investigated.
Preliminary findings in Shanghai from a study involving eight participants from
diverse countries revealed the presence of 20 MPs particles per 10 g of feces in
humans (Zhang et al., 2021a, 2021b). Figure 3 displays various plastic-based food
packaging and wraps commonly utilized in Malaysia and other Southeast Asian
nations.
In the agricultural sector, MPs can be detected in farming activities, particularly
in local farming practices lacking stringent standards. Smallholder farming prevails
in Chinese vegetable cultivation, with more than 80% of farmers tending to areas
smaller than 0.56 hectares. Unlike large-scale farming, smallholder practices, which
are not governed by comprehensive environmental policies, significantly contribute
to agricultural pollution, primarily through over-fertilization. While smallholders use
mulch films less frequently, these films are extensively distributed, posing manage-
ment challenges, and resulting in lower recovery rates (Hao et al., 2023). In previous
study, MPs in agriculture were mostly tiny particles (50–250 µm), with decreasing
abundance as particle size increased. Polyethylene and polypropylene were the most
common MPs found, accounting for 50.0% and 19.7%, respectively (Qi et al., 2023).
Food and beverage plastic packaging, along with utensils used in agricultural prac-
tices, contribute to soil pollution through littering and runoff from adjacent roads,
including particles from tire wear (Briassoulis, 2023). In China, India, and Japan,
the continuous degradation of MPs exposed to natural soil conditions is influenced
Navigating the Ongoing Threat of Microplastic Across Asia 195

Fig. 3 The plastic containers being analyzed encompass: an eat-in melamine bowl (a), a takeaway
polypropylene bowl and lid (b), a polystyrene insulated box for takeaway purposes (c), a high-
density polyethylene bag designed for takeaways (d), and a polypropylene cup accompanied by a
polystyrene lid for takeout use (e). Reprinted from Hee et al. (2022)

by factors such as UV radiation, thermal degradation, mechanical stress, and inter-

actions with organisms. Transport mechanisms, such as wind and surface or ground-
water routes, can facilitate the movement of MPs to distant land and water regions,
potentially contributing to marine litter over time (Silori et al., 2023).

3 Microplastics in the Food Chain

Asian water bodies, including rivers and oceans, act as major repositories for MPs
due to factors like rapid economic growth, high population density, and inadequate
waste management (FAO, 2017). Research indicates that MPs can readily transfer
between trophic levels, ultimately reaching humans primarily through seafood intake
(Bergmann et al., 2015; Geyer et al., 2017). This process can lead to the buildup of
MPs in marine and land organisms, posing potential health risks to both wildlife and
humans (De Souza Machado et al., 2018; Duis & Coors, 2016a). These MPs are
ingested by marine life, initiating their journey up the food chain (Duis & Coors,
2016b).
Microplastic consumption by zooplankton not only disrupts the aquatic food
chain, but they also pick up harmful chemicals like heavy metals and pesticides
that can accumulate in larger animals. Research from different marine areas in Asia
shows that zooplankton like copepods and cladocerans are consuming various kinds
of tiny plastic pieces and fibers (Ji et al., 2023; Lei et al., 2021; Zhao et al., 2018).
196 A. U. Rauf et al.

The MPs consumption can have a bad impact on zooplankton, including altered
feeding behavior, reduced reproduction, and, in some cases, increased mortality.
Zooplankton exposed to MPs often exhibit a tendency to avoid ingesting algae that
share an identical size or shape with the MPs present in their environment, as a
strategic adaptation to avoid the consumption of these plastic materials (Coppock
et al., 2019). A lesser preference for their usual prey leads to a lower consumption
of food and potential nutrient deficiencies (Coppock et al., 2019). The intake of
MPs may disrupt the hormonal signaling and reproductive processes in zooplankton,
potentially causing a reduction in egg production and diminished survival rates of
their young (Wright et al., 2013). In some cases, MPs may inflict physical damage
on zooplankton or block their digestive systems, potentially leading to mortality (Li
et al., 2020a, 2020b). As these vital zooplankton struggle due to MPs ingestion, the
entire food chain weakens (Coppock et al., 2019). This leads to declining popula-
tions and lesser diversity among predatory species such as fish, birds, and whales
(Rai et al., 2023). Zooplankton consumes zooplankton-sized MPs that have absorbed
harmful chemicals like heavy metals and pesticides. These toxins can bioaccumulate
in higher order consumers as they move up the food chain (Hamilton et al., 2023).
The common occurrence throughout Asia’s waters points to the serious issue of MPs
pollution. It raises critical worries about these plastics carrying harmful chemicals
up the food chain (Zhao et al., 2018).
Microplastics become unwelcome “food” for fish, ingested directly or through
contaminated prey. This bioaccumulation of harmful chemicals and MPs disrupts
digestive and reproductive functions, reducing individual fitness and impacting popu-
lation health (Bergmann et al., 2015; Duis & Coors, 2016b; FAO, 2019). Studies
show decreased appetite, growth, and reproductive success in exposed fish, raising
concerns about long-term ecosystem stability (Geyer et al., 2017). Top predators like
birds and marine mammals sit high in the food chain, unwittingly accumulating MPs
from contaminated prey. This biomagnification leads to a potent cocktail of toxins in
their bodies, potentially causing reduced fitness, organ damage, and even death (De
Souza Machado et al., 2018; Ji et al., 2023; Lei et al., 2021). Studies have documented
stomach blockages in seabirds mistaking MPs for food, highlighting the immediate
threat of physical harm (De Souza Machado et al., 2018). Increased mortality rates in
marine mammals have been linked to high levels of MPs contamination, underscoring
the severity of this global threat (Zhao et al., 2018).

4 Adverse Health Impacts

The growing impact of MPs on human health becomes increasingly evident as

research continues to reveal the potential implications of the infiltration. While a
complete understanding remains unclear, accumulating evidence suggests these tiny
particles may pose significant risks. Microplastics not only transport harmful chem-
icals and pathogens into our systems, entering through consumption and inadvertent
exposure (Zhao et al., 2018), but also investigations have raised concerns regarding
Navigating the Ongoing Threat of Microplastic Across Asia 197

their ability to accumulate within the body and cause detrimental effects, such as
inflammation, cellular harm, and disturbances to the gut microbiome (Rochman &
Browne, 2013).
Plastic production incorporates numerous chemicals, such as styrene (NIEHS,
2021), and phthalates (Varshavsky et al., 2018). Based on a study conducted in
South Korea, styrene particles (460 nm and 1 µm) are suggested to pose poten-
tial hazards, including the ability to adhere to red blood cells (RBCs) potentially
leading to hemolysis, and elevated concentrations may induce early inflammation by
provoking the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as IL-6 and TNF-alpha
(Hwang et al., 2020). Phthalates trigger a range of cellular reactions, such as altering
the expression of steroid hormone receptors, transcription factors, and paracrine
signals (Su et al., 2023). In an example, when male rats were administered di(2-
ethylhexyl)phthalate (DEHP), they showed delayed puberty and variations in serum
levels of anti-Mullerian hormone (AMH), estrogen, follicle-stimulating hormone
(FSH), and gene expression patterns (Tassinari et al., 2021). This interaction can
lead to developmental anomalies, including atypical uterine structures, increased
epithelial growth, altered uterine receptivity, and issues with endometrial shedding
in rats (Somasundaram et al., 2017). Some human research have identified links
between exposure to phthalates and altered timing of puberty onset, either earlier or
delayed. However, these findings are not consistent across studies, highlighting the
need for more comprehensive research in this area. A study conducted with adoles-
cents in South Korea suggests a possible link between phthalate exposure around the
time of puberty and an increased risk of early menarche (Park et al., 2021). Further-
more, Phthalates are capable of penetrating the placenta and reaching the unborn
child, which could potentially impact fetal development and heighten the risk of
birth defects and health complications in infancy (Swan et al., 2015).
Microplastics act like sponges, readily absorbing harmful chemicals in the envi-
ronment such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polycyclic aromatic hydrocar-
bons (PAHs), toxic metals, bisphenol A (Ashton et al., 2010; Bakir et al., 2012;
IMO/FAO/UNESCO-IOC/UNIDO/WMO/IAEA/UN/UNEP/UNDP/ISA, 2019). A
scoping review study demonstrates how MPs can transport and release EDCs like
PCBs and BPA, known to disrupt hormone function and increase cancer risk (Rahman
et al., 2021). Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) is persistent organic pollutants linked
to cancer, developmental issues, and immune system dysfunction (Carpenter, 2006).
The study conducted in Eastern Coast of Thailand found concerningly high levels of
PCBs in all analyzed seafood species, exceeding international safety limits in many
cases (Jaikanlaya et al., 2009). The study conducted in East China Sea suggests that
fish from the East China Sea might pose a potential health hazard to consumers
due to PCB contamination (Zhang et al., 2021a, 2021b). The review study identi-
fies several heavy metals commonly associated with MPs in Asian marine environ-
ments, including lead, mercury, cadmium, and chromium (Brennecke et al., 2016).
A Study conducted in Bohai Sea, China found that lead was detected in all analyzed
MPs, potentially entering the food chain that threaten human health through seafood
consumption (Zhao et al., 2018).
198 A. U. Rauf et al.

5 Monitoring and Detection

Monitoring and detection are crucial steps in understanding the extent of this pollution
and informing mitigation strategies. Through the surveillance and identification of
MPs, researchers can gain insight into their origins, transportation mechanisms, and
the potential implications they may have on ecosystems and human health. Over time,
the techniques for monitoring and detecting MPs have evolved to address the chal-
lenges presented by the small dimensions and extensive distribution of these particles.
Plankton nets have long been used for reliable tool for collecting zooplankton and
other microscopic organisms. Then, they have been repurposed to capture these tiny
plastic fragments. Plankton nets are effective tools for collecting phytoplankton in
diverse aquatic environments, such as freshwater lakes and oceans, and their larger
mesh size allows for efficient sampling (Moruff et al., 2016). Plankton nets are rela-
tively simple and cost-effective, making them available to a wide range of researchers
(Gjøsund & Enerhaug, 2010) Their increased mesh dimensions enable the efficient
capture of larger MPs (> 300 microns) (Isobe et al., 2017). However, plankton nest
unable to collect MPs smaller than 300 microns. Up to 90% of MPs in some envi-
ronments are under 100 microns, posing a potentially big problem (Guzzetti et al.,
2018).
Focusing on smaller MPs, researchers have used various alernative methods to
assess MPs concentrations in the water column. A notable technique used is bulk
water collection with sequential filtration. This technique involves gathering a large
volume of water, known as a bulk sample, and then progressively passing it through
filters with increasingly smaller pore sizes. This process concentrates the MPs, which
are typically much smaller than other materials present in the water, allowing for their
easier detection and analysis. Flow cytometry has been used as prominent technique
in MPs research, offering a rapid approach to identify and quantify individual MPs
particles within environmental samples. This method leverages the power of lasers to
interrogate individual particles based on their size, fluorescence, and other intrinsic
properties (Szwarc & Namiotko, 2022).

6 Policy and Recommendations for Asian Countries

Globally, there has been an upsurge in political dedication and public involvement
due to escalating apprehensions regarding plastic and MPs contamination (Hee et al.,
2023; Wang et al., 2021). Various approaches and techniques rooted in chemistry
and environmental engineering have been employed to decrease the generation and
accumulation of MPs. Through chemical and engineering interventions, technologies
like pyrolysis, chemical recycling, and innovative reprocessing methods have been
developed. Pyrolysis and gasification are chemical recycling methods that break
down plastic waste using heat or solvents. They handle mixed plastic waste and
create raw materials that similar to new plastics. Pyrolysis produces oil, usable for
Navigating the Ongoing Threat of Microplastic Across Asia 199

making diesel, while gasification turns plastic waste into energy, syngas, and reusable
ash (Lee & Wong, 2023). Current research is examining how these technologies can
fit into plastic recycling, identifying industry gaps and potentials.
Managing MPs in the environment is a multifaceted issue involving diverse
stakeholders, including industries, policymakers, environmental organizations,
researchers, and the general public. Effectively addressing this challenge necessi-
tates collective efforts and collaborations among these parties. To ensure the efficacy
of these actions, it is imperative to establish legally binding regulations and rules
that outline specific standards, guidelines, and restrictions governing the produc-
tion, utilization, disposal, and recycling of plastics. To date, several initiatives have
been made to reduce the circulation of MPs in Asian countries. The most common
effort to reduce the incidence of MPs in Asian countries involves legislation limiting
the use of single-use plastics at both regional and national levels, as demonstrated
by actions implemented in China, India, Indonesia, Cambodia, Malaysia, and Thai-
land (Halfar et al., 2021; Li et al., 2021; Ng et al., 2023). Meanwhile, Malaysia
and Singapore have adopted mandatory plastic bag taxes in supermarkets. Further-
more, Thailand has banned the use of microbeads in cosmetic items (Ng et al.,
2023). In certain other places, more advanced measures have been undertaken with
the goal of commencing management techniques that will reduce MPs in a more
sustainable manner by enhancing waste management. Countries such as Japan, South
Korea, and Vietnam have implemented waste management techniques and recycling
program. Furthermore, Japan and South Korea have also push businesses to reduce
their reliance on disposable plastic (Huang et al., 2022; Salhofer et al., 2021; Usman
et al., 2022).
Despite the numerous policies that have been enacted, studies have found prob-
lems of varied severity in all of them, which should be rectified in the future
(Hettiarachchi & Meegoda, 2023). Numerous barriers persist, with a prominent chal-
lenge being the sluggish development and implementation pace in response to the
aggressive and rapidly increasing levels of production and indiscriminate disposal
(Halfar et al., 2023; Usman et al., 2022). For example, industrial discharges of plastic
contaminants into water bodies are common as a result of insufficient restrictions
or enforcement. The poor success in managing plastic pollution is linked to weak
or uneven legislation governing plastic manufacture, use, and disposal, emphasizing
the importance of strong enforcement mechanisms (Choudhury et al., 2022; Miraj
et al., 2021). To address these issues, it is necessary to support eco-friendly alterna-
tives and promote sustainable consumption practices by strengthening and enforcing
regulations related to the production, usage, and disposal of plastics, with a specific
focus on controlling the generation of MPs. Additionally, promoting the concept of
a circular economy, which involves encouraging the recycling and repurposing of
plastics to minimize the generation of new plastic waste, including MPs, should also
be considered as a viable option.
On the one hand, a lack of public understanding about the sources and effects
of MPs on health and the environment decreases individual motivation to adopt
sustainable practices and minimize plastic use (Pheakdey et al., 2022). It is crit-
ical to increase public awareness of the sources and risks of MPs to health, using
200 A. U. Rauf et al.

various social media channels to convey information more effectively across diverse
populations. Furthermore, incorporating educational programs on MPs into school
curricula and community initiatives to raise awareness at a young age, combined with
engagement in local communities through workshops, seminars, and informational
events, represents a proactive approach to addressing this issue.
Many Asian countries depend on informal waste management systems, which
result in insufficient plastic waste collection and recycling. This scenario is
compounded by gaps and restrictions in plastic management infrastructure (Pheakdey
et al., 2022; Song et al., 2023). As a result, it is critical to improve formal collection,
treatment, and disposal techniques, with a focus on reducing plastic waste genera-
tion and improving recycling systems. Furthermore, investments should be made to
improve waste management infrastructure to enable efficient collection, recycling,
and disposal of plastic waste, reducing the risk of MPs entering ecosystems.
There is a noticeable dearth of appropriate instruments for monitoring policy
impacts, as well as an inadequate evaluation of the problem across the plastic life
cycle (Rajmohan et al., 2019). In many cases, little attention is paid to research and
development into their effects on aquatic species, food safety, human health, and
prospective plastic substitutes. As a result, it is advised that policies be expanded
broadly and harmoniously at both the national and international levels, with quan-
titative instruments to measure their overall impact. This strategy is critical for
dealing with the global threat of plastic pollution. Furthermore, the development
of standardized evaluation methodologies for assessing MPs exposure and its health
consequences is critical.
Microplastic pollution is often transboundary, demanding coordinated regional
and international initiatives for efficient control and reduction. The lack of standard-
ized methodologies for monitoring and analyzing MPs pollution in air, water, and
soil makes it difficult to compare data across regions and develop complete policy
(Choudhury et al., 2022). It is crucial for Asian countries to collaborate in devel-
oping standardized guidelines and specific regulatory frameworks to address the
unique challenges associated with the circulation and usage of MPs in the region.
The predicted creation of new and more stringent legislation is expected to compel
sustainable plastic production and recycling procedures, perhaps reversing Asia’s
current trend of high MPs concentration.

7 Conclusion and Recommendation

The imperative to navigate the persistent threat of MPs across Asia is underscored
by the profound environmental challenges elucidated in this study. The deleterious
effects of MPs on aquatic ecosystems and the associated potential risks to the food
chain emphasize the pressing need to address this issue. Coastal communities, heavily
reliant on marine resources, are particularly susceptible to heightened vulnerability.
Effectively mitigating the ecological implications demands the implementation of a
comprehensive strategy, encompassing robust waste management, advancements in
Navigating the Ongoing Threat of Microplastic Across Asia 201

recycling infrastructure, stringent regulatory frameworks, and targeted public educa-

tion. The region-specific interventions, ongoing research initiatives, and sustained
awareness campaigns proposed in this study constitute indispensable components of
the collective endeavor to safeguard the diverse ecosystems of Asia and ensure the
well-being of its inhabitants.

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Transport Mechanism of Microplastic
in the Environment

Temidayo O. Ogunjinmi and Joshua O. Ighalo

Abstract Microplastics are small plastic particles that have evolved over the years
as persistent contaminant in the environment and this have a detrimental effect on
the environment. Plastics are abundantly produced worldwide and after immediate
and subsequent use, they are released into the environment, therefore contributing
to environmental pollution. These plastics degrade over time into microplastic, thus
contributing to the secondary source of microplastic. Alternatively, microplastic can
be manufactured primarily to meet specific needs. To be able to assess the envi-
ronmental impact of these microplastics, there is a need to know how they are
transported into the environment. This chapter aims to explore the transport mech-
anisms of microplastics in aquatic and terrestrial environments. Understanding the
transport pathway of microplastics is important to predicting their environmental
fate, assessing their potential ecological impact, and developing effective mitigation
strategies. Wind and water are important agents for microplastic transport. They can
be transported further by conditions of the environment or act as carriers of other
pollutants.

Keywords Microplastic · Transport · Degradation · Environment · Ecological

processes

T. O. Ogunjinmi (B)
Department of Chemical and Biomedical Engineering, University of Maine, Orono, ME, USA
e-mail: temidayo.ogunjinmi@maine.edu
J. O. Ighalo
Department of Chemical Engineering, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, P. M. B. 5025, Awka, Nigeria
Tim Taylor Department of Chemical Engineering, Kansas State University, Manhattan, NY, USA

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 209
J. C. Egbueri et al. (eds.), Microplastics in African and Asian Environments, Emerging
Contaminants and Associated Treatment Technologies,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-64253-1_11
210 T. O. Ogunjinmi and J. O. Ighalo

1 Introduction

Plastics are polymers made up of repeating monomer units. Most plastics are manu-
factured from oil-based raw materials and are in high demand with a global annual
production of 360 million tons in 2018 (Chen et al., 2021) and production still
increasing to meet its high demand. The durability and chemical inertness of plastic
makes it outstanding for specific purposes and these properties also make its recycling
process difficult. After a single or repeated use of plastic, most are discharged into the
environment constituting a heap of waste while only a small fraction of it is recycled
(Ighalo & Adeniyi, 2020). The low degradation rate of plastic makes it remain in the
environment for a long time and finally ends up in the marine system (Zhu, 2021).
Degradation can be either physical through exposure to sunlight (Andrady, 2011),
wind, wave, and heat, or by chemical means (Browne et al., 2007) into small-sized
particles called microplastics.
Microplastics (MPs) are plastic particles with a size of less than 5 mm (Frias &
Nash, 2019; Thompson et al., 2004). The two major classifications of microplastics
are primary microplastics and secondary microplastics. Primary microplastics are
produced in industries such as the cosmetics and personal care industry, the paint
and coating industry, the textile and clothing industry, tire and rubber industry and are
used for the manufacture of other products such as plastic pellets and road markings
among others. However, as production increases to meet the ever-increasing demand,
one can only imagine the pollution contributed by the use and discharge of these
materials in the environment. On the other hand, secondary microplastic results
from the fragmentation and weathering of used plastic and it is a major contributor
to environmental pollution (Kershaw et al., 2019). Pollution caused by microplastics
either through used primary microplastics or through the secondary type can cause
serious ecological, environmental, and health problems. The main contributing factor
that makes microplastic waste ubiquitous is it size; the small size promotes their easy
transport and can be easily ingested and consumed by aquatic organisms contributing
to their food chain (Ivleva et al., 2017). Microplastics are also present in the indoor
environment and can contribute to air pollution (Khalid et al., 2022; Ogunjinmi et al.,
2023). The low degradation rate of these particles and abundance in the environment
make them serve as carriers of other pollutants like persistent organic pollutants
(Bakir et al., 2012; Ighalo et al., 2022), heavy metals (Ajala et al., 2022; Turner,
2016) and even serve as habitat for growth of microbes (Arias-Andres et al., 2018)
by providing a surface for their easy transport in the environment.
To be able to address the pollution problems caused by microplastics in the envi-
ronment, there is a need to understand their transport mechanism in the environment.
The properties of microplastics such as texture, size, shape, density, and long shelf
life influence their transport and interaction with the environment. Microplastics are
widely found in environments such as terrestrial (van den Berg et al., 2020), atmo-
spheric (Enyoh et al., 2019), aquatic (Isobe et al., 2019), and freshwater (Piehl et al.,
2019; Wong et al., 2020). Transport originally starts in the terrestrial environment
where it is produced, used, and discharged. An understanding of how these materials
Transport Mechanism of Microplastic in the Environment 211

is transported in the terrestrial environment can generally help to reduce their release.
Often referred to as ‘turning off the tap’ (Boucher & Friot, 2017).
This chapter aims to explore how microplastics are being transported in the envi-
ronment starting from the terrestrial environment where it was originally produced
and deposited to the aquatic environment and the carriers responsible for its trans-
port through the environment. An understanding of the transport mechanism of
microplastics will help to monitor and minimize their discharge and effect on the
environment.

2 MPs Transport Through Wind, Turbulence, and Wave

Action

The terrestrial environment is the first point of contact and the sink of most plastic
waste including microplastics. Pollution coverage in this region increases through
direct littering, improper waste management, spillage from industries (Horton &
Dixon, 2018), tire abrasion, and release from landfill sites (Hale et al., 2020). Agricul-
tural activities (Mahon et al., 2017) such as soil properties amendment using biosolids
(Xue et al., 2020), plasticulture activities, netting materials, plastic mulches, irriga-
tion activity by plastic contaminated water, the use of organic fertilizers (Corradini
et al., 2019; Mason et al., 2016; Weber et al., 2022) can also contribute to microplastic
in the terrestrial environment. It has been estimated that 44,000–300,000 tonnes of
microplastics are emitted annually to farmland in North America (Nizzetto et al.,
2016).
Wind, turbulence, and wave action are major carriers responsible for the trans-
port of microplastic waste from point sources. It travels through the atmosphere to
other areas because of its lightweight. Transport of microplastics from landfills to
the surroundings can occur through airborne pathways from which they spread and
finally end up in freshwater such as rivers, groundwater, and then oceans through
leachate (Rillig, 2012; Su et al., 2019). Particularly, the atmosphere can act as a
pathway through which microplastics can be transported from urban areas to remote
areas (Allen et al., 2020; Roblin et al., 2020) and from terrestrial to aquatic envi-
ronments via wind. During transportation, sunlight acts on the bigger size plastic
and degrades it further to microplastics contributing to its population in the envi-
ronment. Also, organisms in the soil can feed on macroplastics, digest, and excrete
back microplastics into the environment (Chae & An, 2018). Furthermore, the accu-
mulation of microplastics can be transported through the external surface of inver-
tebrate tissue. This is a transport mechanism known as cutaneous transport. In this
method, the organism transports microplastics through body contact from one point to
another, some organisms can burrow the soil and contaminate the groundwater with
the attached microplastics. Rillig (2012) reported microplastic transport by earth-
worms from the surface to deeper layers of the soil. Airborne microplastic transport
is summarized in Fig. 1.
212 T. O. Ogunjinmi and J. O. Ighalo

Fig. 1 Summary of airborne microplastic transport (Shao et al., 2022). (Reprinted from Journal of
Cleaner Production, Vol 47, pg. 131048, 2022, with permission from Elsevier)

3 MPs Transport Through Rain and Runoff

Rain can also contribute to the transport of microplastics in the environment. Accu-
mulation of rainwater can result in runoff that can help move microplastics from
terrestrial environments to freshwater bodies and finally deposit them into streams,
rivers, and oceans (Fig. 2). It was reported by Boucher and Friot (2017) that unfil-
tered runoff from urban areas and storm drainage can be deposited directly into the
nearby water system by rain. It was also reported by Xia et al. (2020) that rainfall
is a major contributor to the pollution of groundwater by microplastic deposits. The
atmosphere acts as a pathway for the transport of microplastic by wind; similarly,
freshwater and groundwater can act as pathways for the transport of microplastic by
rain and the journey continues.
After the movement of microplastic from land through wind in the atmosphere,
through rain, agricultural and domestic runoff of water that contains microplastic,
and wastewater discharged from industrial activities, its destination is the aquatic
environment (freshwater, ocean, groundwater). The properties of microplastics such
as size and buoyancy promote their ability to remain suspended in water and float
(Rodrigues et al., 2019) without sinking to the bottom of the ocean for extended
periods and this makes it a common contaminant in aquatic ecosystems. It can be
transported over long distances by water currents, and it is the main mechanism
through which microplastics are being moved in the aquatic environment. Alterna-
tively, it can accumulate in certain regions and pose a threat to aquatic ecosystems.
Either through microplastic transport or accumulation, it can be consumed by aquatic
Transport Mechanism of Microplastic in the Environment 213

Fig. 2 Key elements of microplastic dispersal and transport through river ecosystem (Lu et al.,
2023). (Reprinted from Journal of Hazardous Materials, Vol 442, pg. 130033, 2023, with permission
from Elsevier)

life such as fish, invertebrates, birds, and marine mammals and can result in physi-
ological changes in them such as feeding efficiency reduction through blockage of
the digestive system and it can even contribute to their food chain from the phyto-
plankton and algae and progresses through the different trophic levels (Ma et al.,
2020).

4 Microplastics as Transport Vectors for Pathogens

and Chemical Pollutants

Microplastic can also act as a surface for the deposition of eggs, growth, and transport
means for pathogens through the plasticosphere (Agathokleous et al., 2021). Horton
et al. (2017) found that microplastics can accumulate in sediments and coastal areas
of aquatic environments and alter the composition of the substrate therefore posing
a threat to organisms that feed on the sediment. This can have an impact on benthic
communities and important ecological processes such as sediment stability, nutrient
cycling, and species interactions. Furthermore, microplastics are made of polymers
and the slow degradation rate of polymers can encourage long exposure to toxicity by
aquatic life. Aquatic Plants can also be affected by microplastics through coverage
of the plant surface therefore preventing light penetration for photosynthesis to take
place and inhibiting their growth. Toxicity release from microplastics into water
bodies can impact the nutrient uptake of the plants. Kane et al. (2020) reported that
microplastics can interfere with the exchange of oxygen between plants and their
environment.
Furthermore, microplastics can serve as a surface for heavy metals deposition and
chemical interaction can occur between the metal deposition and the polymer that
214 T. O. Ogunjinmi and J. O. Ighalo

makes up the microplastics. Also, other emerging pollutants can be adsorbed onto
the surface of microplastics and serve as vectors for the pollutant up the food chain
(Kwon et al., 2017; Wang et al., 2020; Zhang et al., 2020). The bioavailability of these
pollutants in the ecosystem can be increased through sorption and bioaccumulation
(Guzzetti et al., 2018; Horton et al., 2017). Barboza et al. (2018) reported that twice
the concentration of mercury was observed in the gills and livers of juvenile European
Seabass Dicentrarchus labrax in a microplastic-mercury mixture compared to when
the juvenile was fed with only mercury.
The aquatic environment is often considered the receiver of microplastics.
However, it can serve as a source of microplastics back to the terrestrial environ-
ment transported by the atmosphere through wind-driven sea spray formation and
bubble burst ejection (Allen et al., 2020). Generally, the transport of microplastic
in the environment is circular from terrestrial environments to aquatic environments
and vice versa. There is a need to minimize the transport of microplastics in the
environment by concentrating on how to control the source of its discharge starting
from production to end use of plastics and microplastics. This will help to minimize
the problems associated with its discharge and maintain the ecosystem at large.

5 Conclusions

Microplastics are a pervasive environmental pollutant owing to its abundance in the

environment. An understanding of its transport mechanisms starting from where it
was produced, to where it was used and discharged off; the agent responsible for
its transport from one point to another, and the pathway through which it is being
transported up to its destination is important to be able to determine control measures
that can be used to minimize this waste in the environment. This chapter explains how
microplastics are transported from terrestrial to aquatic environments and vice versa.
It was inferred that wind and water can act as an agent for microplastic transport. Once
it gets to a location, it can be transported further by the condition of the environment,
life present in the environment, or act as a carrier of other pollutants. The presence of
microplastics poses a threat to the safety and well-being of the environment including
humans because of their presence in the food chain. Minimizing the source of its
release plays a crucial role in controlling exposure to microplastic in the environment
because once it starts its journey it is already everywhere.

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Microplastic Pollution in the Changing
Climate

Victor E. Ojukwu, F. C. Akaeme, and Joshua O. Ighalo

Abstract The rate of microplastic build-up in our environment is a major concern

to all stakeholders in the pursuit of environmental sustainability. Microplastic
can adsorb and harbour other pollutants from the environment making them
more harmful to aquatic life when ingested. The impact of microplastics affects
the primary consumers of these polymers as well as secondary consumers and
humans. Microplastics come from parent polymers such as high-density polyethene
(HDPE), low-density polyethene (LDPE), cellophane, Polyethylene terephthalate
(PET, PETE), nylon, polypropylene, polyurethane (PU) among others. This pollu-
tion has been impacted by changes in average weather conditions and long-term
changes over time. The pattern of accumulation of this waste is dependent on the
physical properties of the particular polymer in question, for instance, the density,
crystallinity, biodegradability, and surface properties. The aging of microplastics can
affect the soil biota leading to evolutionary consequences and greenhouse gas emis-
sions. When compared with sea, ocean, and coastal pollution, terrestrial pollution is
about 23-fold more than marine pollution. This chapter focused on the occurrence
and the effect of microplastic on marine life and habitats across the African region as
it relates to the changing climate. It also showed the distinction between the physical
and chemical impact of these materials, and the biological effect over time on the
marine ecosystem, especially remote areas. And succinctly pointed out the sources,
abundance, and distribution pattern of the microplastics in the ecosystem.

Keywords Polymers · Climate change · Environmental pollution · Environmental

protection · Plastics

V. E. Ojukwu (B) · F. C. Akaeme · J. O. Ighalo

Department of Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Nnamdi Azikiwe University,
Awka, Nigeria
e-mail: ve.ojukwu@unizik.edu.ng
J. O. Ighalo
Tim Taylor Department of Chemical Engineering, Kansas State University, Manhattan, USA

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 219
J. C. Egbueri et al. (eds.), Microplastics in African and Asian Environments, Emerging
Contaminants and Associated Treatment Technologies,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-64253-1_12
220 V. E. Ojukwu et al.

1 Introduction

Microplastics are fragmented materials (plastic origin < 5 mm or nanoplastic origin <
0.1 micron) that are obtained from large plastic materials or through environmental
emission (de Souza Machado et al., 2018). This is a result of increased anthro-
pological activities which are changing the climate and affecting biodiversity and
ecosystem function (Egbueri et al., 2023). These are a set of materials that persist
in the environment over a very long time. It is worthy of note that of all the plastics
produced globally, 85% of them are synthetic which range from polypropylene (PP)
to Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) (Vetrimurugan et al., 2020). Microplastics are
divided into two distinct groups which include primary and secondary microplas-
tics—while the primary ones are those that are small in size and are used as resin
pellets in the production of creams, toothpaste, and abrasives for skin care products-
the secondary ones are formed from the breakdown of larger plastic products such
pet bottle, cellophane which is usually referred to as macroplastics (Fig. 1) (Aragaw,
2021; La Daana et al., 2017). Plastic pollution is a widespread challenge the world
over, but Africa ranks second just after Asia as the highest producer of plastics
which eventually disintegrate into microplastics. Microplastics cannot be mentioned
without a link to plastics which have been used in Africa for several activities ranging
from food packaging to industrial machinery for the sake of their light weight and
durability. Researchers have warned that if the increase in the microplastics present
in aquatic bodies continues unabated, then there may, shortly waterbodies where
microplastics are greater than fish (Okeke et al., 2022). Even more worrisome is
the fact that these microplastics do not only act as pollutants but also act as vectors
for the transmission of other chemicals such as Polybrominated Diphenyl Ethers
(PBDEs), Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs), and heavy metals; from one-
place to the other (Aragaw, 2021). Microplastics are found in all habitats from the
terrestrial to the aquatic. There are numerous reports about microplastic impacts on
the aquatic environment but that on the terrestrial is not as abundant. It is also clear
that plastic materials which are the source of microplastic are first disposed of on
the land before they eventually find their way into the aquatic habitat (de Souza
Machado et al., 2018). This implies that microplastic interaction with biota begins
in the terrestrial environment leading to several environmental changes and impacts
mediated by microorganisms such as the terrestrial fungi and soil pollinators. Since
the microplastic particles provide materials for ingestion for aquatic life, a solid
platform for transmission of contaminants, and potential for physical changes, more
attention has been given to the menace of microplastics in this habitat. Since the
transmission of this tenacious material follows a well-defined pattern in the conti-
nental systems, its impact should be studied as well. The impact of microplastics on
the aquatic habitat is of huge concern given the fact that these materials may not be
reduced even if the migration of plastic debris to the ocean is halted (La Daana et al.,
2017). Since there is already a large amount of plastic debris in the ocean bed, frag-
mentation will continue to increase the amount of these microplastics thereby leading
to a changing climate. This chapter elucidates the origin and sources of microplastics
Microplastic Pollution in the Changing Climate 221

Fig. 1 Formation of
microplastics

shading light how they are distributed in various habitats, their impact on the climate
and how it can be salvaged.

2 Origin and Sources of Microplastics

Microplastics are fragmented materials (plastic origin < 5 mm or nanoplastic origin

< 0.1 µm) that are obtained from large plastic materials or through environmental
emission (de Souza Machado et al., 2018). This is a result of increased anthropolog-
ical activities which are changing the climate and affecting biodiversity ecosystems’
function (Agbasi et al., 2023). Natural agents of pollution and weathering namely;
water, wind, and sunlight contribute to the fragmentation of large plastics with agents
such as wind, ultraviolet radiation from the sun, and microbial action (Alimi et al.,
2021; Arienzo et al., 2021; Merga et al., 2020). These are a set of materials that persist
in the environment over a very long time. Even those plastic materials thought to
be degradable just disintegrate at best rather than degrade. Microplastics have been
found in ocean waters, marine organisms, deep-sea sediments, and sea ice. Africa
as a continent generates about 70% of the world’s daily plastic generation stemming
from myriads of activities including but not limited to fishing, waste transport over
waterways, and tourism (Okeke et al., 2022). Microplastic pollution has hitherto
been fueled for the following reasons; Africa has been increasing in population and
consumption, top waste dumpsites are located in Africa, high import of primary
plastics, and there is high plastic waste mismanagement (Merga et al., 2020; Okeke
et al., 2022).
222 V. E. Ojukwu et al.

2.1 Terrestrial Habitat

The microplastic pollution in this habitat has been linked to air deposition, erosion,
street runoff, plastic mulching, and littering. This will be taken up by some plants,
fruits, and vegetables which will eventually transfer some amount of microplastics
to humans and animals who consume them in the food chain (Okeke et al., 2022).
Microplastics here can also play host to some microbes in the terrestrial habitat
which eventually colonizes it. Metagenomic and microscopic investigations give
complementary evidence that the terrestrial plastisphere is a suitable home for fungal
organisms which includes animal and plant vectors, which form the plastisphere core
mycobiome (Gkoutselis et al., 2021). Apart from the interruption of microbe activity
in the terrestrial habitat, microplastics in soil are said to affect plants by blocking
the pore of seeds, restriction the process of transfer of nutrient materials through the
roots, or worse still the accumulation of these in the leaves, roots and shoots (Khalid
et al., 2020).

2.2 Aquatic Habitat

Research has shown that microplastic concentrations were abundant in the conver-
gence region of five sub-tropical gyres of the world’s oceans (La Daana et al., 2017).
The places in which these microscopic plastics are found include riverine beaches,
rivers, lakes, ponds, reservoirs, freshwater systems, estuarines etc. One of the most
important sources of microplastic in the marine environment is badly managed plastic
which may include; municipal and agricultural plastic wastes, personal care prod-
ucts, synthetic laundry fibres, and car tyres (Nel et al., 2018; van Wijnen et al., 2019).
Due to the improved interaction of microplastics with organisms, the microplastic
abundance in the rich water biota needs to be investigated. Microplastics have been
shown to impact aquatic organisms thereby reducing biodiversity and disrupting the
food web and ultimately causing health challenges for humans. One of the major
sources of microplastics in the marine environment is the harbour which is charac-
terized by long-range distributions of microplastics by ocean current at a large scale
made possible by the absence of spatial variation (Nel et al., 2018). Prolonged expo-
sure of aquatic organisms to microplastics can lead to bioaccumulation of smaller
microplastics impacting the environment of the concerned organism (La Daana et al.,
2017). These have led to some adverse effects namely; oxidative damage, mortality,
and degeneration of neurofunctional activity among others (Alimi et al., 2021). An
emerging area of concern is the symbiotic yet dangerous combination of microbes
and microplastics to form what can be called microorganism-microplastic complexes
where microplastics provide an extensive surface for microbes to assemble and grow
while the microbes alter the physical and chemical orientations of microplastics
(Arias-Andres et al., 2019). This is made possible because microplastics can adsorb
a wide variety of nutrients and organic substances making it a good site for microbial
Microplastic Pollution in the Changing Climate 223

biofilms and xenobiotic formation (Arienzo et al., 2021). This ability is founded on
the very small size of this particle which confers on a very high surface area for the
carriage of microorganisms and xenobiotics.

3 Distribution of Microplastics Around the African

Continent

The problem of microplastics pollution can be addressed by determining where these

plastic fragments are found, their composition, and the quantities in which they occur
(Table 1). Microplastics generated from terrestrial habitats are carried into the rivers
and streams through flood and these disintegrated plastics can further be transferred
into oceans via tributaries triggering environmental issues and risk for marine biota
(van Wijnen et al., 2019). Microplastics can be of different forms which include
sheets, fibres, foams, fragments, pellets, or flakes and can be of either primary or
secondary origin (Arienzo et al., 2021). Once generated the Microplastics can move
about in the ocean for different reasons namely; waterpower, Microplastics weight,
airflow and currents, and location of sources and waves (Arienzo et al., 2021; Auta
et al., 2017). And this transition has led to the migration of over 2 million tonnes of
plastic waste from rivers to sea according to Arienzo et al. (2021). Different water
bodies have different transition forces and mechanisms that guide the dispersion of
microplastics, for instance, currents affect the distribution of microplastics in lakes
while forces under unidirectional flow affect the distribution of microplastics in rivers
(Eerkes-Medrano & Thompson, 2018).

4 Physical Properties of Microplastics

Microplastics are particles derived from the decomposition of plastics due to the
action of some physical, chemical, biological, or environmental factors. They are
categorized into primary and secondary microplastics. The former are microplastics
originally manufactured with a diameter of less than 5 mm (Kida et al., 2022), while
the latter are microplastics that have undergone degradation due to their exposure
to different environmental conditions (Zhang et al., 2021b). Microplastics are char-
acterized physically by the following properties: size, density, colour, shape, and
crystallinity. These properties are obtained with the aid of microscopes. They have
been found to potentially influence the behaviours and toxicity of microplastics in the
environment and ecosystem (Chen et al., 2021). Size and distribution is an impor-
tant property in characterizing microplastics. It is dependent on the sampling and
separation methods used and equally affected by the pore size of the filter adopted
(Cai et al., 2020). Generally, smaller-sized microplastics are more toxic as they are
224 V. E. Ojukwu et al.

Table 1 Distribution of microplastics in the African continent

Location of Quantity The test Composition References
Microplastics used to
determine
it
South Africa 1200 ± 133.2 and 413.3 ± Fibres, fragments, Nel et al.
(Durban and 77.53 particles/m3 Nurdles (2018)
Bay Harbour)
Ethiopia 30,0000 particles/m3 ATR & Polypropylene, Merga et al.,
(Lake Ziway) FTIR polyethene, and (2020)
alkyd-varnish
South East 85 particles/m3 FTIR Polypropylene, Vetrimurugan
Coast of Rayon, et al. (2020)
South Africa Polycarbonate,
nylon, polyester,
polyacrylonitrile
Atlantic Polyesters (49%), La Daana
(Biscay and polyamide or et al. (2017)
Cape Town) acrylic/polyester
(43%) and fibres
(94%)
Africa Fibers, fragments, Okeke et al.
pellets, flakes, (2022)
sheets or foams
Plankenburg 1587.50 MP/kg FTIR-ATR Polyethylene Apetogbor
River, et al. (2023)
Western
Cape, South
Africa
Vaal River in 4.6 × 102 ± 2.8 × 102 SEM Polyethene co-vinyl Ramaremisa
Johannesburg, particles/kg acetate, polyester, et al. (2022)
South Africa polyurethane, and
polyethene/
hexene-1-copolymer
Lake 0.183 ± 0.017–0.633 ± 0.067 ATR-FTIR Fragments, fibres, Migwi et al.
Naivasha particles/m2 and films composed (2020)
(Kenya) of polypropylene,
polyethene, and
polyester
South Eastern 440–1556 particles/L PET (29%), PE Ebere et al.
Nigeria (22%), PVC (16%), (2019)
PP (14%), and
others (6%)
Microplastic Pollution in the Changing Climate 225

more susceptible to being taken up by organisms and plants (Huang et al. 2021;
Mateos-Cárdenas et al., 2021).
Density is also used to characterize microplastics. It varies depending on the type
and process of production of the polymers (Zhang et al., 2017a). Research has shown
that microplastics denser than water float and are suspended on the surface of the
water, so are ingested by marine organisms living on or in between the water body.
Color is an essential property of microplastics used to determine the origin/source of
the plastic. They come in different colours which determines their residence time and
degree of degradation (Chen et al., 2021). Oxidation and weathering of microplastics
in the environment occur when they are exposed to prolonged weather conditions,
while residence time and degree of degradation of microplastics depend on their
colours.
Microplastics come in different shapes, including sponges, beads flakes pellets
etc. The shape and colour of microplastics are so important in tracing their base.
The adsorption and desorption of microplastics into the environment depend on their
shape. Research has shown that sharp-edged microplastics intrude faster into the
environment than smooth-edged ones which have longer residence time than the
former. Presently, our environment is mostly dominated by fragments, thin films,
pellets, foams and fibre-shaped microplastics.
Additionally, microplastics are characterized by their degree of crystallinity. Mei
et al. (2020) defined crystallinity as a property used to refer to the volume or mass
ratio of the crystal regions in a polymer. Depending on the polymer type, crystallinity
ranges from 30 to 85%. It has equally been established that the mechanical stability
of microplastics depends on the degree of crystallinity of the polymer from which the
microplastic was obtained (Chen et al., 2021). Polymers are divided into three based
on their degree of crystallization, crystalline polymers, semicrystalline polymers
and amorphous polymers. Research has demonstrated that no polymer is purely
crystalline, hence we can only have semicrystalline and amorphous polymers (Chen
et al., 2021). Guo and Wang (2019) reported that semicrystalline polymers have high
strength and resistance, while amorphous polymers are characterized by softness
and flexibility. It is worth noting that as microplastics found in an environment age,
their crystallinity changes owing to the degradation of their polymer chains or the
rearrangement of their molecular chains as a result of the environmental conditions
taking place in such regions (Rouillon et al., 2016).

5 Climatic Impact of Microplastics

Different climatic conditions, global warming, sea level rise, extreme weather events,
and ocean acidification) can enhance the effects of microplastics on the environ-
ment by influencing their breakdown to smaller sizes, distribution to several envi-
ronments, and interactions with different ecosystems (Haque & Fan, 2023). Plastics
when exposed to severe temperatures (due to global warming) over a long period can
226 V. E. Ojukwu et al.

degrade into fragments (microplastics/macroplastics). This makes them (microplas-

tics/macroplastics) more prone to further degradation to release smaller microplastics
(Fig. 2) (Zhang et al., 2021b). Global warming is seen to increase the temperature
of an environment thereby, leading to the degradation of microplastics to smaller
plastics (nanoplastics) in such areas. Corcoran (2022) in his study reported that
microplastics found in an environment can be chemically, mechanically, and biolog-
ically degraded. He went further to state that at a higher temperature, the chemical
degradation of microplastics is accelerated due to increased oxidation, hydrolysis,
and photodegradation reactions. Again, Karlsson et al. (2018) added that thermal
oxidation occurring at elevated temperatures significantly led to the degradation of
microplastics.
Additionally, microplastics have been observed to adsorb or leach out chemicals
during their degradation process. These chemicals when found in the environment can
cause some health and behavioral challenges for environmental organisms (Do et al.,
2022). An increase in temperature could necessitate the leaching out of chemicals,
especially from aged microplastics than virgin ones. Plastics are made from polymers
and some additives or fillers. So as temperature increases, the ultraviolet radiation
following the high temperature causes the breakdown of the polymer matrix and
subsequently, the chemical additives found in these plastics are also released into the
environment (Li et al., 2024).

Fig. 2 Impact of microplastics on humans and organisms

Microplastic Pollution in the Changing Climate 227

Adsorption and temperature have an inverse relationship, this implies that as

temperature increases, the rate of adsorption of chemicals onto the surface of
microplastic reduces due to increased kinetic energy/agitation. Whereas, the rate
of desorption of chemicals from microplastics increases (Romera-Castillo et al.,
2023). The formation of biofilm on the surfaces of microplastic is equally caused by
temperature variation (Chen et al., 2020). The presence of this biofilm on the surface
of microplastic makes the microplastic carriers or habitat for disease-causing micro-
organisms. The morphological and physicochemical properties of microplastics are
altered by the formation of these films because they affect the rate of microplastic
weathering, transportation/migration as well as biodegradation (Tu et al., 2020).
(Zhang et al., 2021a) observed that the higher the temperature, the higher the rate
of biofilm formation as he categorically stated that during summer the thickness of
biofilm observed was much higher than that observed during winter.
Additionally, climate change can give rise to extreme weather events (storms,
hurricanes, floods severe rainfall, winds etc.) (Iwuchukwu et al., 2023). These events
are capable of dispersing microplastics across different regions, especially from their
urban areas, agricultural fields, and waste disposal sites into rivers, ocean lakes etc.
(Haque & Fan, 2023), hence, enhancing their distribution and interaction within the
ecosystem. An increase in sea level and ocean acidification which occurs due to
changes in the climatic condition of the ocean can lead to the breakdown and degra-
dation of microplastics found in the marine environment (Lee & Li, 2021). Changes
in ocean currents as a result of climate change are capable of transporting these
microplastics over a long distance, thus increasing their chances of contaminating
other unaffected regions (Haque & Fan, 2023). On the other hand, the presence of
microplastics in the environment tends to increase the soil surface temperature due
to their ability to absorb and retain solar radiation (Zhang et al., 2017b). Again, when
compared with natural soil/sand, microplastics have been confirmed to possess less
thermal conductivity. This implies that they are less effective at transferring heat.
As a result, microplastics act as an insulator that traps heat energy, while causing an
increase in the temperature of the environment (Fuentes et al., 2023).
Microplastics found on the earth and ocean are exposed to heat and sunlight,
causing their gradual degradation and subsequent release of greenhouse gases
(methane and ethylene) into such environments, hence endangering the inhabitants of
such environments (Haque & Fan, 2023). Again, the presence of microplastics in the
ocean has been reported to adversely impact the ocean carbon cycle by affecting the
growth of microalgae and their photosynthetic efficiency, thus, lowering their carbon-
capturing ability (Zhang et al., 2020). Similarly, microplastics, when subjected to
abiotic degradation as a result of climate changes release organic acids, carbon
dioxide, and dissolved organic carbon. These compounds can impact the alkalinity
of the ocean, by reducing their ability to neutralize acids, hence, endangering aquatic
life (Romera-Castillo et al., 2023).
228 V. E. Ojukwu et al.

6 Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Microplastics

The presence of microplastics in the environment poses a serious threat to human

health, the environment, and the ecosystem at large. In Nigeria, research has shown
that only 12% of our plastic wastes are recycled while the remaining 80% ends up
in landfills and water bodies thereby endangering human and marine lives (Adeniyi
et al., 2021; OLAJUYIGBE). During the cause of microplastic degradation, green-
house gases are emitted, which causes a serious change in the climatic conditions
(global warming) (Kida et al., 2022). Microplastics found on both land and water
bodies are capable of releasing greenhouse gases when acted upon by some endoge-
nous and anthropogenic factors. Royer et al. (2018) discovered that microplastics
obtained from polyethene, polypropylene, and polystyrene when exposed to both
ambient solar radiation and ultraviolet radiation for some months release green-
house gases (methane and ethylene). He went further to add that the morphology of
plastic and its age determines the rate of greenhouse emissions from such plastics.
Note that the smaller and less aged the plastic is, the more the amount of greenhouse
gases it can emit with time. This could be attributed to the anti-ultraviolet plasticizing
occurring in aged microplastics which inhibits the effects of ultraviolet radiation as
well as slows down the rate of degradation taking place in such plastics. Another
study, by Li et al. (2022), investigated the effect of microplastics on the release of
soil greenhouse gases (CO2 and CH4) from freshwater and saltwater ecosystems.
From the results obtained, it was concluded that the presence of microplastics in
these two studied soil ecosystems greatly promoted the emission of both CO2 and
CH4 gases, with polyethene terephthalate having the higher CO2 emission while
high-density polyethene recorded the highest CH4 emission. It is worth noting that
the type of microplastics used does not only determine the rate of greenhouse gas
emission, but this rate is also dependent on the factors surrounding the ecosystem
under consideration.

7 Remedy for Greenhouse Gas Emissions

from Microplastics

Microplastics and their impacts cannot be eliminated but can be managed to drasti-
cally reduce their impacts on human health, the environment and the ecosystem by
the following measures; First, globally controlling the production of plastics from
which these microplastics emanated, by placing a general ban on the global produc-
tion of unnecessary or non-essential plastic products (packaging, food/beverages
services and disposable plastics commonly used in fast-moving consumer goods).
This will go a long way in reducing plastic pollution as the majority of our waste
dumpsites are filled with waste coming from these sectors. Secondly, it is neces-
sary to control the construction of new coal, oil, and natural gas because the largest
percentage of cheap raw materials for plastic production comes from these sectors
Microplastic Pollution in the Changing Climate 229

and if their source is not properly managed, little or no effect will be recorded on
the side of global plastic production control to mitigation greenhouse gas emission
by microplastics. It is a general belief that consumers tend to be attracted to cheap
commodities rather than the expensive ones. These raw materials used for plastic
production make plastic products very cheap and affordable, hence increasing its
demand and usage by the masses. But when these sources are controlled either by
reducing production or creating competitors for the same materials, thus, increasing
cost and invariably reducing demand and usage.
Subsequently, the use of biodegradable plastics has been suggested as a
possible way to reduce greenhouse gas emissions from microplastics. Though these
biodegradable plastics are crucial for lowering greenhouse gas emissions, they also
have drawbacks, such as the fact that plastic decomposition only happens under
specific circumstances and quickly. Also, the use of biomass in the formation of
biodegradable plastics although reduces greenhouse gas emissions generates a large
number of new emissions which could be harmful to health and the environment.
Additionally, more attention and research should be geared towards developing
sustainable and efficient methods and techniques for waste plastic recycling and
biodegradation as a possible root of managing and disposing of plastic waste or
products. Finally, it is generally accepted that the presence of microplastics in the
ocean alters the ability of plankton to fix carbon, which in turn alters the marine
ecosystem’s food chain and web. On the other hand, Royer et al., (2018) found that,
in natural circumstances, microplastics emit greenhouse gases in both terrestrial and
marine habitats. So, ocean plastic cleanup has been suggested to mitigate these prob-
lems in the marine environment. Ocean cleaning is seen to be labour-intensive and
will have little effect in reducing greenhouse gas emissions.

8 Conclusion

Microplastics have been a major challenge to the climate of the African region
providing profound effects on habitats, humans, and animals. These impacts have
led to environmental changes which include; global warming, variation in weather
conditions, and disruption in seasons. One of the chief reasons for this is the tenacity
of microplastics which makes them persist in our environment for a long time.
Humans and animals are at the receiving end of deleterious effects of microplas-
tics and microorganisms are not left out as well. This research provided a description
of microplastics, their origin, their impact on the environment, their distribution
over the African region, climatic effects, emission of greenhouse gases, and their
remedy. These will aid policymakers and researchers in understanding more about
the tenacious materials and learning how to manage them better.
230 V. E. Ojukwu et al.

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Transport and Environmental Impact
Considerations and Perspectives
on Microplastics in Air as an Emerging
Challenge

Shobhna Shankar , Shivangi Sharma , and Ranu Gadi

Abstract Air pollution affects almost every aspect of human physiology. Microplas-
tics (MPs) are emerging environmental contaminants. In recent years, MPs from all
spheres have been largely overlooked. Their transport from aquatic and terrestrial
ecosystems into the atmosphere is emerging as a serious issue. Current literature in
atmospheric MPs is at its early stage, hence, lacks in sufficient data on composition,
abundance and characterization, especially in case of remote areas. Not only outdoor
air, but indoor air also possess an equal threat of developing life-threatening ailments
and to the air quality. This study focuses on physical characteristics of MPs such as
length, size and colour. It was found that most of the MPs were of fibre- and film-like
morphology. The length and colour of the MPs might depend upon the source and/
or transportation. Since, MPs may give rise to secondary MPs, its abundance and
chemical characterization are highly necessitated. Moreover, it has been found that
MPs tend to adsorb certain pollutants such as semi-volatile compounds and transi-
tion metals, hence, are a matter of concern. This study presents the contemporary
understanding of usual approaches for characterization of MPs in the atmosphere.
This study also provides a better insight of the currently used methods and would
contribute to prospect on detecting atmospheric MPs. More investigations for its char-
acterization and quantification are required in order to comprehend its abundance as
well as transportation.

Keywords Air pollutants · Long-range atmospheric deposition · Synthetic

polymeric constituents · Fragments · Fibres · Films

S. Shankar · S. Sharma · R. Gadi (B)

Indira Gandhi Delhi Technical University for Women, Kashmere Gate, New Delhi 110006, India
e-mail: ranugadi@igdtuw.ac.in
S. Shankar
e-mail: shobhna001phd19@igdtuw.ac.in
S. Sharma
e-mail: ssharma19chemistry@gmail.com

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 235
J. C. Egbueri et al. (eds.), Microplastics in African and Asian Environments, Emerging
Contaminants and Associated Treatment Technologies,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-64253-1_13
236 S. Shankar et al.

1 Introduction

The early nineteenth century was the era reporting the synthesis of the plastic from
the synthetic polymers for the very first time (Andrady & Neal, 2009). Subsequently,
the plastic production rate experienced a drastic increase from ~1.5 million tonnes (as
in 1950) to ~370 million tonnes (as in 2019), which estimates ~3% rise in production
every year on the global scale (Verla et al., 2019). Their anthropogenic generation
and environmental persistence are of growing concern due to their over-exploitation
and non-degradability. With increased anthropogenic activities, microplastics (MPs)
are emerging as one of the most concerned atmospheric pollutants. Due to inef-
fective waste handling, MPs are distributed in the environment and eventually lead
to rise in secondary MPs. These secondary MPs have been reported to be gener-
ated due to photochemical effects, wind erosion, fragmentation, and abrasion and/or
degradation of bulk particles (Mammo et al., 2020; Rezaei et al., 2022). Incomplete
polymerization have been one of the major factors for migration of the monomers
from the plastic matrix, which may create enhanced chances of exposure to the envi-
ronment. The gradual rise in MPs contributes to upsurge their accumulation in the
snow, soil, and marine environment. Currently, there are numerous studies related to
MP-pollution in marine environment, intake/deposition inside aquatic organisms and
soil, but limited studies have been reported in air samples (Hasegawa & Nakaoka,
2021; Margenat et al., 2024; Vanapalli et al., 2021; Wright et al., 2020). Numerous
studies (Allen et al., 2019; Allen et al., 2021; Dris et al., 2015; de Souza Machado
et al., 2018; Huang et al., 2021; Fox et al., 2023; Hee et al., 2023; Klein et al.,
2023) have reported the presence of MPs in urban, rural and long-range atmospheric
deposition. Moreover, MPs have been found to adsorb certain pollutants such as,
poly-chlorinated biphenyls organochlorine pesticides, poly-aromatic hydrocarbons,
and transition metals (Bakir et al., 2012; Chen et al., 2023; Rai et al., 2023; Torres
et al., 2021), hence, are matter of concern.
This study aims to comprehensively represent the current findings and proceed-
ings obtained in the field of analysis of airborne MPs. The study contributes towards
assessing various methods devised for the characterisation, identification and estima-
tion of MPs suspended in the air. Various analytical methods used for the quantization
of MPs were explored, and has also devised the advantages and limitations associated
with each methods, as gathered from the data available till date.
The study also includes physical characteristics, occurrences, sources, distribution
and transportation of the airborne MPs across the world have also been addressed.
This work aims to provide valuable insights towards the estimation of the liberation
and deposition of MPs into the air. Thus, it could be used for the efficient charac-
terisation of the MPs in the air and their mitigation, which, further, would help in
restoring a heathy environment.
Considerations and Perspectives on Microplastics in Air as an Emerging … 237

Fig. 1 Classification of
Plastic Materials
plastic materials on the basis
of size and shape
Size Shape

Megaplastics
Fibres
>1 m
Macroplastics
Films
<1 m
Mesoplastics
Granules
25 mm - 5 mm
Microplastics
Fragments
1 mm-1 μm
Nanoplastics
Foam
1 μm-1 nm

Microbeads

2 Characterisation of Microplastics

Microplastics are ubiquitous particulates and fibrous plastic of diameter < 5 mm

(Liao et al., 2021; Sridharan et al., 2021). Since, these are quite smaller in size,
hence, there has been an enhanced awareness for inhalable MP fragments dispersed
in air. Plastic materials on the basis of their size, can be broadly classified into the
following categories of megaplastics, macroplastics, mesoplastics, microplastics, and
nanoplastics (Akanyange et al., 2021). The physical properties of MPs can easily be
observed under sophisticated microscopes. Hu et al. (2022) utilised stereomicroscope
to assess the physical properties (length and shape) of MPs collected at municipal
solid waste transfer stations in China. The general designated sizes for MPs have
been mentioned in the Fig. 1.
This is due to the fact that these possess elevated risk to infiltrate the airways,
and get settled into the alveoli (Amato-Lourenço et al., 2020; Jenner et al., 2022). A
set of organic synthetic polymers are utilized to manufacture various thermoplastics.
Compounds such as 1 PE, PU, PS, PVC, PP and PET are the dominant polymeric

1 Abbreviations Used:
PE—Polyethylene.
PET—Polyethylene terephthalate.
PP—Polypropylene.
PS—Polystyrene.
PC—Polycarbonate.
PA6—Polyamide 6.
PU—Polyurethane.
PVC—Polyvinyl chloride.
PEMA—Polyethyl Methacrylate.
PMMA—Polymethyl Methacrylate.
ALK—Alkyd resin.
238 S. Shankar et al.

constituents in atmospheric MPs. Figure 2 tabulates the major polymeric constituents

observed in airborne MPs.
It is well evident that sputum is generated in the lower airways of respiratory
system. Huang et al. (2022) examined human sputum and detected twenty-one
different types of MPs (namely, pure PS-MPs and mixed MPs, including PE, PP,
PC, PA6, PET, PU, PVC, PS, PMMA, and rubber), and found PU and PES as the
most prevailing MPs constituting 33.95% and 21.63% (> 50% collectively), respec-
tively, of the total amount of MP particles (particles/10 mL). Whereas, polycarbonate
was found in least abundance of 0.07%. Horvatits et al. (2022) examined normal-
functioning human liver, kidney and spleen tissue samples against cirrhotic hepatic
tissues for the traces of MPs. They found six different MPs (size: 4–30 µm) in
cirrhotic liver tissues, which may be a potential cause for further health complica-
tions. This might be indicative of indirect ingestion of MPs through food sources
and their possible atmospheric deposition. On the basis of the shape of MPs, these
have mainly been observed as fibres, films, granules, fragments and foam (Fig. 1).
Fibres are one of the most observed shapes of MPs from the atmosphere. Other
physical features include foams, fragments, films, granules and beads. Dris et al.
(2015) observed that ~90% of the airborne MPs were fibres. However, the polymeric
composition of secondary MPs may be altered during photochemical effects, wind
erosion, fragmentation, abrasion or degradation (Tatsii et al, 2021). Studies have
reported varied colours for the MPs identified in the atmosphere. Numerous physical
characteristics along with polymeric composition of MPs have been presented in
Table 1.

3 Sources of Microplastics in Air

Evidences for the quantification of airborne MPs majorly remain obscured, despite
a number of potential reasons that may include resuspension of tyre wear (Sommer
et al., 2018), the air/water interface and sea spray (O’Brien et al., 2023), nail salons
(Chen et al., 2022), wind abrasion (Chandrakanthan et al., 2023), synthetic material
(Sridharan et al., 2021), and areas of landfill (Kannankai & Devipriya, 2024; Loppi
et al., 2021) have been encountered in various studies. Since, the studies are at nascent
stages, the emergence of other sources may serve in addition to the previous sources.

EP—Epoxy resin.
EVA—Ethylene vinyl acetate.
PES—Polyester.
PET—Polyethylene terephthalate.
PAA—Poly(N-methyl acrylamide).
PAN – polyacrylonitrile.
PTFE—Teflon.
PUR—Polyurethane.
PVA—Poly(vinyl acetate).
PBR—Polybutadiene Rubber.
RY—Rayon.
Considerations and Perspectives on Microplastics in Air as an Emerging … 239

Polyethylene
terephthalate Polypropylene Polystyrene
Polyethylene

Polyethylene Polyamide 6 Polyacrylonitrile

terephthalate Polyurethane

Poly-silicone compounds
Polycarbonate (polydimethylsiloxane)
Polymethylmethacrylate

Polyester Polycarbonate
Polyvinyl chloride Poly(N-methyl
acrylamide

Fig. 2 Polymeric constituents observed in airborne microplastics (Source Open)

3.1 Sea Spray/Air Water Interface

Over 30% of atmospheric particles have been identified as MPs (O’Brien et al., 2023).
Their morphology (size, shape and colour) and concentration in the atmospheric and
sea water samples (Afdal et al., 2019) suggest that MPs could be aerosolized from
240 S. Shankar et al.

Table 1 Physical characteristics and the polymeric composition of MPs in air samples
Location Size Composition Morphological References
(instrumentation characteristics
deployed)
Iran Fragments and PET (33%), PE Fragments (63%) Akhbarizadeh
films: < 2.5 µm (29%), nylon Fibres (27%) et al. (2021)
Fibres: 8 µm to (22%), PS (10%), Films (10%)
1 cm and PP (6%) Color
Transparent/white
(39%)
Black (21%)
Red (20%)
Grey (12%)
Orange (8%)
Japan Major physical Bandung includes Forms (site Hidayat et al.
diameter at both PE (98.17%), abundance): (2024)
sites: 1–20 µm EVA, PBR, Fragments (77%;
(54–60%) Polycaprolactone, 59%)
Polydially Fibres (65% at both
Phthalate, PET, sites)
and PVA Granules (65% at
Osaka includes both sites)
PET (48.12%)
EVA, PE, PP
Copolymer,
PEMA, PMMA,
PP, PS, and PVC
Spain 43 to 4436 µm PA (51%) Forms: Fibres, Torres-Agullo
PES (48%) Fragments et al. (2021)
PP (1%) Color: Black (fibres
Natural fibres (61%) and
(cellulose, fragments (43%)),
cellulose + colourless (17%),
indigo, cellulose grey (14%), blue
+ amide) (4%), and yellow
(4%) in fibres and
orange (13%),
yellow (13%),
brown (9%), grey
(9%), transparent
(9%), and maroon
(4%) in fragments
Australia 0.08–4.7 mm PES, PP, and Fibres: ~ 75% Su et al.
(< 3 mm: 95% Rayon Fragments: ~ 23% (2020)
< 1 mm: ~ 45%)
(continued)
Considerations and Perspectives on Microplastics in Air as an Emerging … 241

Table 1 (continued)
Location Size Composition Morphological References
(instrumentation characteristics
deployed)
Bushehr city Mostly < 10 µm Microplastic Forms: Abbasi et al.
Microrubber Fibres (75.87%) (2017)
Fragments (17.5%)
and films
Color:
white/transparent
(11.9%)
yellow/orange
(3.9%)
red/pink (56.21%)
blue/green (7.77%)
black/gray
(20.20%)
Dongcheng, 200–700 µm Cellulose (73%), Forms; Fibres, Cai et al.
Guancheng, and (28%) PE (14%), PP foams, fragments, (2017)
Nancheng (9%), and PS (4%) and films
Pyrenees Plastic fibres: PS, PE, PP, and Forms: Fibres and Allen et al.
mountainous 200–700 µm PET films (2019)
regions remote, (47%)
pristine mountain 50–200 µm
catchment (30%)
Shanghai 87% of all: < PET, PE, PES, Color: black (25%), Liu et al.
1 mm PAN, blue (28%), red, (2019)
poly(N-methyl transparent, brown,
acrylamide), PAA, green, yellow and
rayon, EVA, grey
epoxy resin, EP, Shape (size): round
and ALK (29%) (14–19 µm),
flat (10–37 µm
long)
Coastal Maximum indoor PS (46%), PET Fibres Gaston et al.
California fibres length (36.4%), PE (9%), Fragments (2020)
(8961 µm) Acrylic: 9%
Maximum fibres Other: PVC (5%),
(2061 µm) PE (5%), resin
Indoor and (5%), acrylic
outdoor fibres (6%),
length: polycarbonate
101–301 µm (3%), and PS
(3%),
non-polymer
anthropogenic
substances,
mineral or
cellulose and dyes
(continued)
242 S. Shankar et al.

Table 1 (continued)
Location Size Composition Morphological References
(instrumentation characteristics
deployed)
Test setups – PP, PAN, PET (all – Wesch et al.
up to 50 µm in (2017)
thickness)
Sizao PVC particles PE (73.82%) Forms: Xie et al.
Jiangqiao (>85%): < 20 µm PE (9.21%) Fragments: > 85% (2022)
Phenolic Resin Phenolic Resin of particles detected
particles (>95%): (9.05%) Fibres: polyester
< 10 µm PVC (3.06%) and cotton
PE beads Cotton (1.36%) Beads: blue colored
(<10 µm): > 95% PP (0.57%) PE beads: blue and
Longest PU (0.34%) green colored
dimension: Rubber (0.18%) Colors: black, blue,
2.40–2181.48 µm green, indigo, pink,
Longer than purple, red,
100 µm: 11.72% transparent, white
Less than 10 µm: and yellow
21.24% Films:
Length/width: > 3 Transparent PE
Beads: less than fragments
10 µm (films)—most
abundant,
Blue (12.00%), and
white (7.26%)
Beijing 5–30 µm: PE (26.6%) Forms: Zhu et al.
64.5 ± 4.6% PET (16.0%) Fibres: (2021)
Tianjin 5–30 µm: PS (14.9%) 100–300 µm
55.1 ± 8.0% PP (13.6%) (80.0%)
PA (7.3%) 300–1000 µm
Shanghai N/A PVC (6.6%) (86.6%)
Hangzhou 5–30 µm: Fragments:
62.7 ± 7.9% 5–30 µm (98.4%)
Nanjing 5–30 µm: and 30–100 µm
64.9 ± 9.7% (79.1%)

the oceanic surface (O’Brien et al., 2023). MPs of size 20 ± 13 µm are categorised
as aerosolized, and their potential sources are bursting of bubbles or ejection from
sea sprays (Allen et al., 2022). Through this mechanism, the air–water interface has
been shown to transfer nanoplastics (< 350 nm) into the immediate atmosphere.
Degradation from UV radiation, aging of plastic and smaller bubble size support
aerosolization efficiency for the formation of MPs (Masry et al., 2021; Oehlschlägel
et al., 2024). Masry et al. (2021) have reported that PS can enter into the atmosphere
as an individual or group of particles with restriction of size (600 nm) and number (3
particles). It is possible that flowing waterways could serve as a primary source for
Considerations and Perspectives on Microplastics in Air as an Emerging … 243

the release of MPs into the air due to the consistencies observed in the composition
of MPs collected from water and atmospheric samples.

3.2 Wind Abrasion

Wind erosion serves an important source for the suspension of surface based MPs
into the atmosphere with an approximate rate of 0.08 to 1.48 mg/m/min (Rezaei
et al., 2019, 2022). Yang et al. (2022) reported the effect of soil aggregate size on
MP emissions induced by wind erosion. Degradation of environmental MPs through
temperature fluctuations and UV exposure (Costa et al., 2018; Ding et al., 2020) into
the particulates, results in their faster discharge to the atmosphere than their marine
counterparts. Hu et al. (2022) estimated wind abrasions from the landfill sites being
0.16 MPs/t of waste/h.

3.3 Tire Wear

Tire wear particles contribution has been found to be higher (34%) than that of brake
wear particles (30%) from the vehicular emitted particles into oceanic deposition
(Evangeliou et al., 2020). The light absorbing properties of these emphasize accel-
eration in rise in Earth’s temperature. Trainic et al. (2020) observed a mixture of
poly-silicone compunds (polydimethylsiloxane), PS, PE and PP in certain samples
of marine atmosphere. MPs from tire-wearing contributes to ~3–75% to airborne fine
particulate matter. In comparison to other tear and wear particles, MP emission from
car tires has been found to be substantially higher (100%) than artificial turf (12%),
brake wear (8%), road markings (5%), airplane tires (2%). However, 5–10% of the
tire-wear particles end into oceans, globally (Kole et al., 2017). Tire-wear particles
have been observed to be ~50 times higher than other MPs in road dust, irrespective
of the locations (residential, commercial, industrial) (Rasmussen et al., 2023). The
total annual generation of tire-wear particles has been calculated to ~98,400 tonnes/
annum (Baensch-Baltruschat et al., 2021).
Within road dust, MPs easily get transported to different sinks. Patchaiyappan
et al. (2021) estimated the average MP abundance in the road dust to be ~22.79 ±
8.98 particles/10 g; whereas, Abbasi et al. (2017) investigated MPs to range between
210 to 1658 particles/10 g. As speculated, MPs were abundant in the surface road dust
in crowded commercial areas, and correlated well with vehicular load, population
level, land use characteristics and industrial activities (Yukioka et al., 2020). Since,
tire wear MPs are highly prone to external and atmospheric degradation they may
not show a trend in their size.
244 S. Shankar et al.

3.4 Microplastic Fibres

Microplastic fibres, from textiles, have been detected in outdoor as well as indoor
atmospheric samples (Dris et al., 2017; Prata et al., 2020). Liu et al. (2020) estimated
an amount of ~0–36.64 g/km of MP fibres discharged into the air to be globally
generated from textiles.
Textile fibres such as fibres from fabrics and laundry driers serve as an important
source of indoor dust (O’Brien et al., 2020). Both natural and synthetic types of MP
fibres have been discovered in the atmosphere, where the synthetic type contributes
PVA, PAN, PTFE, PE, PET, PES, PUR, PAA, RY, EVA, EP, ALK and natural includes
the fibres of cotton and wool. While their predicted shapes include fibres, foam,
fragments, microbeads, films and granules. The process of drying synthetic textiles
via mechanical dryers was also found responsible for the emission of MP fibres in
the surrounding indoor air at a rate of 1 MP fibre/m3 (O’Brien et al., 2020) and
between 4344 ± 2066 and 12,570 ± 6514 MP fibre/m3 into the adjoining outdoor
environment (Kapp & Miller, 2020).
Particle emissions by humans are also present in the abraded form and is being
captured and transported on synthetic materials during their movements. Depending
on the particle size and fabric types, the particulate emissions generated were related
to the intensity of activity such as folding clothing and dressing (Licina et al., 2017).
These emissions were found to be influenced by the fabric loading, bonding and fibre
construction (Bhat et al., 2022; Licina et al., 2019).

4 Instrumental Analysis of MPs Sourced from Air

Quantification of MPs differs in type of sampling (whether active or passive) adopted.

A vacuum pump is employed for active sampling, whereas, passive sampling involves
collection of particles deposited on the exposed sampling surface for a specific period
of time. This may involve dry or wet deposition, or both. Unlike later, the active
sampling can be done in any weather conditions. The heterogeneity in size, shape
and density of MPs makes it challenging to adopt the most suitable sampling method.
Studies report that that due to the constraints encountered in the detection process,
majority of the MP particles still need to be recognised (Caputo et al., 2021; Xie
et al., 2022).
Vianello et al. (2019) studied exposure of MPs in an indoor environment using a
mannequin that stimulated breathing and metabolic rate as of human, by sampling
suspended particles. A volume of 16.8m3 of air was sampled through silver membrane
filter connected to the dummy and the mechanical lung, which closely resembled
real conditions. Although, passive sampling is easier than the active sampling, but
it fails to represent or mimic human exposure. Nevertheless, this method might
be useful in assessment studies. Analytical techniques for identifying or quantifying
MPs have varied and evolved over time in order to improve accuracy. Hence, with due
Considerations and Perspectives on Microplastics in Air as an Emerging … 245

consideration of the environmental and health risks involved, necessitates the need
of development of better analytical techniques, which may reduce the production of
MPs.
Wright et al. (2020) mentions that particulate matter is able to coat the MPs
leading to underestimation of the MP abundance in the sample caused due to signal
interference. MPs presents plausible exposure to inhalation pathway being inhalable
in size range. Since, MPs are ubiquitous contaminants, and one of the novel air pollu-
tants, hence draw extreme attention. Despite certain analytical challenges, numerous
research literatures mention about various analytical techniques applied. Frequently
used techniques are being discussed below.

4.1 Raman Microscopy

This coupled spectroscopic technique serves as a potential method to estimate the

MPs morphologically as well as chemically. This technique facilitates attainment
of spatial resolutions for the corresponding laser wavelengths required for different
objectives. The shorter the laser wavelength required, the higher the spatial resolu-
tion obtained. MP’s determination usually demands the usage of lasers in the UV–vis
range, provides spatial resolution in the micrometer (µm) range which limits the
detectable size range of the particles (Xu et al., 2019). A higher certainty in the iden-
tification of the particles is gained by the degree of similarity expressed as matching
factor (Anger et al., 2018), which provides a comparison between the attained data
with that of the recorded data available in the databases.
In MP analysis, the occurrence of Fluorescence serves a critical limitation to
the Raman spectral analysis (Lenz et al., 2015; Jin et al., 2022). Besides, Raman
spectra produced, by the additives in MPs and the impurities deposited over the
particle surface, may overlap with the spectrum of the parent polymer. This may
prove challenging in distinguishing the types of MPs collected. (Oßmann et al.,
2020). MP analysis might get impacted due to the monochromatic light source in
Raman spectrometers which may cause thermal decomposition or photodegradation
of parent MP (Krafft, 2022). Therefore, a number of improvements have been made
to Raman spectroscopy, where it is optimized with a software which significantly
improves the effect of Raman spectroscopy to detect MPs (Araujo et al., 2018).
Raman spectroscopy serves a potential method in the characterization of real samples
of MPs in the future.

4.2 Thermo-Analytical Methods

Thermal analysis techniques are gaining a lot of attention for analyses of MPs. These
are used to examine materials’ properties through the analysis of functional relation-
ship at varying temperature and time (Wunderlich, 2005). The MPs identification
246 S. Shankar et al.

through thermo-analytical techniques, by heating the sample, exploit changes in the

physical and chemical properties of polymers. The different types of thermograms,
thus, obtained through thermal analysis, correspond to different thermal stability of
the MPs as per their composition (Ghani et al., 2022). Thermo-analytical methods
such as thermogravimetry (TG), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and other
methodologies are adapted for the detection of MPs (Huppertsberg & Knepper, 2018).
Techniques where the coupling of TG with varied methods are, namely, DSC,
pyrolysis gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (Py-GC-MS), and thermal extrac-
tion desorption gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (TED-GC-MS) catering to
definite results the estimate of MPs (Goli et al., 2022). TGA–DSC is a cost effective,
hassel-free, and well-explored methodology for the MPs detection (Huppertsberg &
Knepper, 2018). Both DSC and TGA–DSC are based on the similar principle where
the samples are determined ranging from 1 to 20 mg and the phase transitions of
the polymers are performed and detected at elevated temperatures (Castrejón-Flores
et al., 2020; Müller et al., 2020). However, there are a number of drawbacks associ-
ated with the TGA–DSC methods, due to the existence of an overlap in the transition
temperatures, hence, every polymer may not be identified distinctly. Moreover, the
transition temperatures are impacted by the impurities, additives and polymeric chain
branching, which could influence the identification of complex polymers. Character-
ization of morphological properties of MPs cannot be attained through the thermal
analysis as it leads to destruction of the samples due to the high temperatures. Thus,
the method is only viable for the determination of chemical composition or quantiza-
tion of the MPs. (Huppertsberg & Knepper, 2018). MPs are quantified by the compar-
ison of peak areas with isotopic internal standards where each marker detected are
examined with the matrices. Although, the thermal analysis is free of pre-treatment of
samples for analysis, it incurs some shortcomings as well. Like Raman microscopy,
the determination of certain copolymers becomes difficult as their transition temper-
atures get influenced by the polymer branching and other impurities present in the
MPs (Huppertsberg & Knepper, 2018).
Perhaps, due to these limitations of the thermal analysis, these methods could only
be used for the first screening of bulk samples of MPs, which may be completely
analysed by the spectroscopic techniques later.

4.3 MALDI-TOF Mass Spectrometry

MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry serves a potential technique to detect various poly-

mers with a high degree of selectivity. It directly detects the additives or the sorbed
pollutants on the particle, which results in its significant application in MP analysis
(Marie et al., 2000).
Spectral analysis via imaging techniques helps to provide promising morpholog-
ical information such as shape and size of the MPs. MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry
imaging helps determining the modifications in the polymer structure while under-
going a degradation reaction. Samples are placed on the glass slides made up of
Considerations and Perspectives on Microplastics in Air as an Emerging … 247

indium-tin oxide which is then sublimated and deposited onto the target through a
special coating chamber. The spectra are recorded and various m/z ranges of interest
are selected to create MSI (Norris & Caprioli, 2013).

4.4 FT-IR Microscopy

Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR) detects spectra obtained through

the changes in the dipole moment of the particles, which then is compared with
known spectra is available in the spectral libraries in order to determine the chemical
composition of the MPs (Xu et al., 2019). FT-IR provides a potential source for
spectral analysis of MPs owing to its easier equipment and analytical operations, as
well as an access to its data from easy to use libraries.
FT-IR micro-spectroscopy (micro-FT-IR) serves to characterize MPs in micron-
grade (Li et al., 2020). At present MPs detection are performed in transmission,
reflectance, and attenuated total reflectance (ATR) modes (Rathore et al., 2023).
Where the transmission mode provides a high quality spectra that requires an infrared
transparent substrates. The ATR mode was able to produce stable spectra of even
from irregular MP surfaces and the reflectance mode facilitates a quick analysis of
thick and opaque samples of MPs (Li et al., 2020). ATR-FTIR and micro-FT-IR are
used to analyse size of the fibres within the limit of 50 µm (Dris, 2016). ATR-FTIR
mode provides a high resolution accurate spectra, as the mode is least influenced by
the impurities present in the samples. Therefore, the mode is feasible the detecting
particulate matter with irregular shape and extremely small particle size (Shankar
et al., 2022).
Since, FT-IR record the transmission spectra, therefore, the samples should be
present on the IR-transparent sampling matrix (usually, silica or aluminium oxide).
The methods include the estimation of a single particle or entire filter depending
on the measurement modes. However, the measurement performed on complete
filters often leads to the validity and accuracy issues as the method not only requires
ample time for completion but generally analyse the filter area less than 10%. Due
to the discrepancies encountered in the number of identified plastic samples over
the examined areas of sampling matrix with that of the total number count of the
particles, the need for the analysed filter should be representative of the entire filter
(Shankar et al., 2022). Thus, to reduce the errors in the obtained results, a proper
examination of MPs burden is required to put on to the representative areas prior to any
measurement. Unlike FT-IR, the Raman spectroscopy analyse the backscattered light
only, thus, it does not require any transparent sampling matrix, leading to one of the
major cause of fallacy in the FT-IR results (Huppertsberg & Knepper, 2018). Hence,
due to these incurring difficulties in sample detection, a technique for their coupling
with the microscopy methods is adopted which not only enables the mapping of the
entire sampling matrix, but also helps in the characterization of the morphological
and chemical properties of the plastic samples.
248 S. Shankar et al.

Susceptibility of FT-IR spectroscopy to the various factors such as heterogeneity

of MPs, aging degree of MPs and other organic matter in the environment (Campanale
et al., 2023; Chen et al., 2021) also results in fallacy in the analysis as well. Therefore,
a method called as focal plane array (FPA)—FT-IR spectroscopy was developed that
can detect the MP samples over a larger area and with higher efficiency, but has not
been used extensively in estimation of airborne MPs (Ojeda et al., 2015).

4.5 Focal Plane Array Detectors

FT-IR imaging is done through FPA detectors. Focal plane arrays comprise of a grid
of detectors, (approximately, 64 × 64 grids) which enables for simultaneous record of
several spectra. These detectors can be operated in both reflectance and transmittance
mode, and facilitate the sample analysis over the entire sampling matrix, unlike single
particle FT-IR (Tagg et al., 2015; Zhu et al., 2023). Image of the sampling matrix,
thus, created consists of only C-H stretch vibration (2980–2780 cm−1 ). Although,
the MP particle detection rate of FPA are much faster than that of single particle
FT-IR. The major drawback of this technique is that the instrumentation cost of FPA
is way higher and requires a high processing power.

5 Evidences for the Global Existence of MPs

Existence of the MPs in the Earth’s atmosphere has become an emerging concern
across the global nations over past few decades (Gasperi et al., 2015; Shao et al.,
2022). These are basically considered as the major by-products released into the
environment through varied industrial, agricultural and domestic practices of humans
which liberates MPs in the form of anthropogenic pollutants (Abbasi et al., 2017;
Dris et al., 2016). Recent studies has made it evident that a vast increase in the
anthropogenic activities throughout the world results in the frequent detection of
these MPs. Atmospheric transportation has been the suggested probable reason for
the fact that not only in the major urban locations, but to the far remote areas has
reported a bulk concentrations of MPs without any interventions of any other local
sources (Allen et al., 2019). In this section, few latest research work have been
included from across the globe that validate the existence of MPs.
Some of the recent reported studies of MP-quantitation and the computed abun-
dance, involving various techniques, in the different cities across the globe are
depicted in Table 2.
Certain reported results are as follows:
Yantai city of China, reported a concentration of about 602 particles/m2 /day depo-
sition of MPs particles into the atmosphere (Qian et al., 2017). Such a high abundance
of these particles reported in this particular city of China have been proclaimed due to
the high population density which results in high industrial and human activities that
Considerations and Perspectives on Microplastics in Air as an Emerging … 249

Table 2 Table depicting studies deploying instrumentation used for assessment and abundance of
airborne MP samples
Location (instrumentation Abundance References
deployed)
Iran (Binocular microscope 5.2 MPs/m3 Akhbarizadeh et al. (2021)
and Micro-Raman analysis)
Japan (µ-FTIR) Average: Hidayat et al. (2024)
Site 1: ~ 6.6 MPs/m3
Site 2: ~ 1.5 MPs/m3
Spain (µ-FTIR) Site 1: inside buses: 17.3 ± 2.4 Torres-Agullo et al. (2021)
MPs/m3
Site 2: subway trains: 5.8 ± 1.9
MPs/m3
in house: 4.8 ± Site 3: 1.6 MPs/
m3
workplace: 4.2 ± 1.6 MPs/m3
Australia (Stereo microscope Site 1 roadside Su et al. (2020)
µ-FTIR) Dust: 342.7 items/kg
Site 2 catchment
Dust: 101.5 items/kg
Bushehr city Microplastic: 744.80 mg kg−1 Abbasi et al. (2017)
Fluorescence microscope Microrubber: 235.50 mg kg−1
Dongcheng, Guancheng, and non-fibrous microplastics and Cai et al. (2017)
Nancheng fibres:
(µ-FTIR scanning electron 277 ± 32,
microscopy) 208 ± 3, and
198 ± 27 particles m−2 d−1
Microplastics:
43 ± 4, 33 ± 2, and 31 ± 8
particles m−2 d−1
Pyrenees mountainous regions Average: 365 ± 69 particles Allen et al. (2019)
remote, pristine mountain m−2 d−1
catchment (French Pyrenees)
(visual microscopy inspection
and micro-Raman analysis)
Shanghai (µ -FTIR) 1.42 ± 1.42 n/m3 Liu et al. (2019)
(Mean ± SD)
Coastal California (FTIR and Indoor fibres: 26.6 ± 0.1% of all Gaston et al. (2020)
Raman spectroscopy) indoor fibres
Outdoor fibres: 29.7 ± 0.1% of
all outdoor fibres
Sizao 15.88 N/m3 Xie et al. (2022)
Jiangqiao (Raman microscope 38.52 N/m3
system)
Beijing 393 ± 112 items/m3 (n = 15) Zhu et al. (2021)
Tianjin (324 ± 145 items/m3 (n = 15)
Shanghai 267 ± 117 items/m3 (n = 15)
(continued)
250 S. Shankar et al.

Table 2 (continued)
Location (instrumentation Abundance References
deployed)
Hangzhou 246 ± 78 items/m3 (n = 15)
Nanjing 177 ± 59 items/m3 (n = 15)

serves as one of the main cause. Almost about 50% of total MPs particles, size of the
particles majorly estimated smaller than 500 µm. Whereas PS foams, PE fragments,
PET fibres, PVC fibres and films were the different types of MPs stated (Zhou et al.,
2018).
In the south of Yantai another coastal city named as Shanghai has also been investi-
gated a number of times. A study reports that the air samples collected from shanghai
contains 1.42 ± 1.42/m3 MP particles, which may extends upto 4.18 particles/m3
(Liu et al., 2019). Major shape analysed for the particle samples of Shanghai were
found to be the fibres. Length of these MP fibres of 30% of them was in the range of
less than 500 µm.
Another study from Dongguan city situated in China determines the fibrous and
non-fibrous MPs, whose concentrations range from 175 to 313 particles/m2 /day in
the atmosphere (Cai et al., 2017).
Studies in some European cities were also encountered. Where in Hamburg an
average rate of deposition of MPs into atmosphere was estimated as 275 particles/
m2 /day in which the shapes of all the particles contribute to ~95% in fragment form,
and the rest 5% were of fibre form, whose lengths are longer than that in China, with
their diameters in the range of 300–5000 µm (Dris et al., 2016; Klein & Fischer,
2019). The particles have their composition majorly dominant of PE and ethyl vinyl
acetate.
In Barcelona, Spain the MP concentrations were found in abundance in buses and
in subway areas due to their crowdedness which lead to the contribution of the MPs
from the synthetic textile fibres (Torres-Agullo et al., 2021).
Snow are one of the means to retain the atmospheric pollutants’ signature. Arctic
region reports the atmospheric deposits of MPs through the samples collected from
snow that ranges between 0 and 14,400 particles/L, compared to European cities’
samples which were found to be within the range of 190 to 154,000 particles/L
(Bergmann et al., 2019). A number of studies performed in various cities of China
and in some European cities such as Paris and France revealed that an almost four
times greater concentrations of MPs particle deposits were found in Arctic regions
in comparison with them, although the arctic region is situated far from such a dense
populated and industrial areas (Cai et al., 2017; Dris et al., 2017). Even a great
distinction in the MPs size obtained from the snow samples of European and arctic
regions were also obtained, where ~80% of the detected MPs were < 25 µm in the
former region, while in the later, > 98% of MPs diameters were distributed in the
range of < 100 µm. Also the length of the microfibres in the snow of Europe were
significantly longer than those of the arctic ones (Bergmann et al., 2019).
Considerations and Perspectives on Microplastics in Air as an Emerging … 251

From the Gulf cities, Asaluyeh a city in the southern coast of Iran was studied
for the presence of MPs. The distinct geographical location of the city causes a
development of poor ventilation over the city that in turn results in poor air quality
with a contribution to a high concentration of MPs in its atmosphere. Street dust
shares the major contribution to the MPs concentration for about 60 MPs particles/
g, with the shapes of spherules of 74% and films 14% in proportion (Abbasi et al.,
2019). Another two cities as Bushehr Port and Shiraz in Iran, were also examined
for the MPs. An average numbers of MPs in Shiraz and Bushehr were estimated to
be 90.8 and 80.8 items/mg in concentrations, respectively, with fibre and PE to be
the profound determined shape and types among the observed MPs.

6 Conclusions

This study reveals the analytical techniques, abundance and properties of airborne
MPs, worldwide. The primary constraint in analysing these lies in the adsorption
of external agents present in the atmosphere creating signal interference. Therefore,
the composition of sample substrate needs to be considered carefully. However,
limited literature is available regarding airborne MPs. More investigations for their
characterization and quantification are required in order to understand the abundance
and transportation of MPs through atmospheric route. Its size gives serious alert
for tools and techniques in conjunction with highly sensitive analytical technique,
combatting the presence or fresh addition of MPs to the atmosphere, as these are
easily inhalable. The MP deposition in the snow depicts about the local sources or
long-range atmospheric transport, which becomes crucial to be analysed. Moreover,
this study will emphasize on the formation and implementation of effective policies
and mitigation strategies.

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The Nexus Between the Transport
Mechanisms and Remediation
Techniques of Microplastics

Johnson C. Agbasi , Leonard N. Onuba , Nchekwube D. Nweke ,

Johnbosco C. Egbueri , and Daniel A. Ayejoto

Abstract Microplastic (MP) transport mechanisms refer to the pathways through

which MPs migrate within the environment, while MP remediation techniques
encompass methods employed to mitigate their presence. Despite prior research
efforts investigating various aspects of MPs, knowledge gaps persist in this emerging
field. This book chapter contributes a novel perspective by exploring the nexus
between MP transport mechanisms and their corresponding remediation strategies.
The findings indicate that each environmental compartment is influenced by unique
factors, but is interconnected. Airborne MPs are dispersed by wind currents, with their
transport influenced by MP characteristics, anthropogenic activities, and climatic
conditions. In terrestrial ecosystems, MPs are carried by water and biota, with
environmental factors, MP properties, and soil characteristics exerting significant
influence. Aquatic systems receive MP inputs from runoff and atmospheric deposi-
tion, with organisms, salinity levels, waves, and currents acting as key determinants.
Optimal remediation approaches were identified for different settings based on their
distinct transport mechanisms. In urban and industrial areas with elevated levels of
airborne MPs, air filtration systems or phytoremediation techniques have proven
effective. Regions prone to bioturbation by earthworms or other soil organisms may
benefit from bioremediation strategies that exploit the metabolic capabilities of these
organisms. In coastal and marine environments, where MPs are transported by ocean
currents and waves, strategic interventions such as barrier installations or the creation

J. C. Agbasi (B) · L. N. Onuba · J. C. Egbueri

Department of Geology, Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu University, Uli, Nigeria
e-mail: johnsonagbasi@gmail.com
J. C. Egbueri
Research Management Office (RMO), Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu University, Uli,
Anambra State, Nigeria
N. D. Nweke
Department of Earth, Environmental and Geographic Sciences, The University of British
Columbia, Kelowna, Canada
D. A. Ayejoto
Department of Environmental and Sustainability Sciences, Texas Christian University, Fort
Worth, TX, USA

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 259
J. C. Egbueri et al. (eds.), Microplastics in African and Asian Environments, Emerging
Contaminants and Associated Treatment Technologies,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-64253-1_14
260 J. C. Agbasi et al.

of artificial eddies are vital tools. To effectively address the MP pollution challenge,
further research is needed to identify effective remediation techniques for specific
environmental compartments.

Keywords Aquatic ecosystems · Terrestrial environments · MP elimination ·

Nature-based Systems (NbS) · Air filtration systems

1 Introduction

Microplastics (MPs) have emerged as a prevalent environmental concern due to their

ubiquitous presence in extensively examined locations, including the air humans
inhale and the consumables they ingest (Xing et al., 2023). Generally, environ-
mental MPs originate from two sources, resulting in varying particle dimensions:
one being the primary source and the other the secondary source (An et al., 2020).
However, pinpointing the precise origin of MPs detected in the environment proves
challenging. The complexity of identifying the source of MPs is compounded by
the ability of these particles to traverse considerable distances from their point of
origin, as evidenced by observations of MPs in diverse regions globally (Fahren-
feld et al., 2019; Lusher et al., 2015; Martina & Castelli, 2023). Primary sources of
environmental MPs encompass tire abrasion from vehicles, synthetic turf, sewage
sludge, personal care items containing microbeads, rubberized city road surfaces,
plastic pellets, wastewater from laundering, paint, and synthetic tracks in school
facilities (An et al., 2020). In contrast, secondary sources involve agricultural film,
discarded fishing materials, municipal refuse like plastic bottles and bags, and other
sizable plastic refuse. Presently, secondary sources predominate in contributing to
environmental MPs (Malli et al., 2022), with noteworthy contributions identified
from vehicle tire wear (An et al., 2020) and wastewater (Rasmussen et al., 2021).
The predominant generation and disposal of plastic waste occur on land prior to
its entry into aquatic ecosystems. Consequently, a substantial portion of plastic waste
tends to accumulate in terrestrial surroundings and inland water bodies. Following
their introduction into the environment, MPs undergo a process of weathering, subject
to environmental factors that include the presence of biofilm, temperature, light expo-
sure, and oxygen concentrations (Mei et al., 2020; Wang et al., 2020a). MPs can be
transported to different systems via various mechanisms. In terrestrial environments,
routes influenced by flow patterns and surface roughness and made possible by micro-
and macrorelief, carry MPs (Laermanns et al., 2021). In the oceanic environment,
MPs are transported through the marine food chain, affecting animals at all trophic
levels, including humans (Zhao, 2022). Turbidity currents, or gravity-driven flows,
have been found to transport and deposit MPs in submarine canyons, with fibers
being more evenly distributed and preferentially buried within deposits (Abolfathi
et al., 2020). Additionally, a significant route for MP pollution is air movement, with
particles produced by road traffic being transported to remote regions, including the
World Ocean and the Arctic (Zinke, 2020).
The Nexus Between the Transport Mechanisms and Remediation … 261

MPs have various effects and dangers on both the environment and human health.
In the environment, MPs can disrupt marine ecosystems, leading to mortality, disrup-
tion of reproduction, and intake by marine life (Ghosh et al., 2023). They also
contribute to the loss of marine biodiversity, disrupt ocean carbon sequestration, and
pose concerns about food safety (Bhattacharya & Roychoudhury, 2023). In terms
of human health, MPs can access the body through a variety of routes, including
nutrition and when within, they have the ability to induce endocrine, respiratory,
and gastrointestinal problems, oxidative stress, and even cancer (Bostan et al., 2023;
Oleksiuk et al., 2023). However, to properly comprehend the effects of MPs on health,
more investigation is necessary.
Despite the lack of full context on the impacts of MPs, several efforts have been
made to reduce their further spread and recover existing particles in the environment
through various methods. The most effective methods for remediating MPs include
advanced oxidation processes, nanotechnology-based strategies, and biodegrada-
tion. Nanotechnology-based strategies using nanomaterials have shown efficiency
in raising the performance of water treatment procedures for the elimination of MPs
(Ouda et al., 2023). Biodegradation, although environmentally friendly, has limita-
tions in terms of low removal rates and efficiency (Osman et al., 2023). Ultrafil-
tration technology, which entails running water over a membrane with tiny pores,
has achieved the best performance for the removal of MPs (Sharma et al., 2023).
Electrochemical strategies have also been reported for MP remediation, and there is
potential for using electrochemical sensors for monitoring MPs (Martic et al., 2022).
However, challenges and gaps still exist. For instance, the kind and structure of MPs
in the water can have an impact on the technology’s effectiveness (Sharma et al.,
2023). In addition, the presence of other contaminants in the water can impact the
efficiency of the remediation process (Ouda et al., 2023). Nonetheless, a combina-
tion of several methods can effectively remediate MPs and mitigate their detrimental
impacts on the ecosystem and organisms.
Several facets of MPs have been extensively investigated in prior studies, including
their occurrence (Syamsu et al., 2024), distribution (Dalvand & Hamidian, 2023),
sources (Liu et al., 2023), transport mechanisms (Malli et al., 2022), impacts
(Saikumar et al., 2024), and remediation techniques (Nohara et al., 2024). Notably,
researchers have explored the transport mechanisms of MPs in various environments,
encompassing terrestrial surfaces (Yu et al., 2024), marine waters (Li et al., 2023a),
estuaries (Malli et al., 2022), and soils (Zhou et al., 2020). Despite the extensive indi-
vidual examinations of these aspects, a critical knowledge gap remains, as no study
has comprehensively explored the interconnection between the transport mechanisms
and remediation strategies of MPs in the environment. The demonstration of volun-
tary discontinuation and the enactment of laws to forbid the incorporation of plastic
bags and MP particles in personal care items serve as a representation of how effec-
tive mitigation approaches can be implemented when the origins and transmission
routes are distinctly identified, alongside the presence of other facilitating circum-
stances (Arroyo Schnell et al., 2017; Xanthos & Walker, 2017). In a similar light,
this chapter contributes to solving the issue of plastic pollution by addressing the
following key objectives: (1) unveiling the intricate pathways through which MPs
262 J. C. Agbasi et al.

migrate in different environments; (2) exploring the diverse range of remediation

methods available and their potential applications; and (3) investigating how the
transport mechanisms of MPs influence the effectiveness and selection of remedi-
ation strategies. Through a thorough examination of the interconnections between
these two pivotal aspects of MPs, researchers can discern the most appropriate tech-
niques for removal and develop targeted approaches to mitigate their environmental
impact.

2 Methodology of Review

To critically evaluate the interplay between MP transport mechanisms and reme-

diation strategies, a comprehensive literature review was conducted. A system-
atic search strategy was employed to identify relevant scholarly publications
across multiple reputable databases, including Scopus, ScienceDirect, Springer
Link, Google Scholar, IEEE Xplore, and PubMed. The search terms combined
the keywords “microplastics,” “MPs,” “transport mechanisms,” and “remediation
techniques” with additional terms such as “air,” “atmosphere,” “land,” “terrestrial
environment,” “aquatic environment,” “freshwater,” “estuarine,” and “marine water.“
Individual searches for specific remediation methods were also performed to broaden
the scope of the review. The preliminary search results underwent a two-stage
screening process. First, titles and abstracts were reviewed to assess their relevance.
Subsequently, the full texts of more relevant articles were examined for inclusion
in the review. Key information from the selected articles was extracted, focusing on
MP transport mechanisms in various environmental compartments and their corre-
sponding remediation strategies. The synthesized data were then organized to provide
a structured overview of MP transport pathways, remediation techniques, and the
critical nexus between these two elements. This approach facilitated a thorough
understanding of present knowledge and identified gaps and opportunities for future
research in this emerging field.

3 Transport Mechanisms of Microplastics

The pervasiveness of MPs in many settings, including remote areas with limited
human activity, polar regions, deep oceans, and towering mountain ranges, has been
extensively documented by scientific studies (Eyheraguibel et al., 2023; Kaliszewicz
et al., 2023; Materić et al., 2022; Padha et al., 2022; Pavlíková et al., 2023; Walkin-
shaw et al., 2020). These minute plastic particles possess inherent properties that
facilitate their transportation across vast distances via water and air currents. Specif-
ically, their lightweight nature, diminutive size, buoyancy, durability, and variable
shapes contribute to their ability to traverse extensive geographical expanses through
various transport mechanisms. In this section, we delve into the intricate modes of
The Nexus Between the Transport Mechanisms and Remediation … 263

Fig. 1 Transport mechanisms of MPs in the environment

transportation that enable the dissemination of MPs throughout the environment

(Fig. 1).

3.1 MP Transport via Air

The atmosphere serves as a significant conduit for the long-range transportation

of MPs, as evidenced by studies in Nanjing, China (Rao et al., 2024), Plymouth,
England (Kyriakoudes & Turner, 2023), and across Asia and its adjacent oceans
(Long et al., 2022). These minute plastic particles, originating from diverse sources,
readily become airborne due to their lightweight nature and minute size. Conse-
quently, they are dispersed across vast distances through atmospheric circulation,
eventually depositing both on land and in water, proximal and remote.
Airborne MPs exhibit a wide array of shapes, with fibrous particles shed from
textiles constituting the predominant form. Other potential sources encompass
construction materials, pollutants from factories, leftover plastic from household
furnishings, garbage landfills, fragments related to traffic, burning of trash, arti-
ficial particles used in horticultural soils, and sewage sludge applied as fertilizer
(Dris et al., 2016, 2017; Liebezeit & Liebezeit, 2014). Deflation caused by the wind
easily entangles MPs and other low-density particles, facilitating their atmospheric
transport.
Research efforts on MPs in the atmospheric realm can be broadly categorized into
three domains: indoor dust, atmospheric fallout, and suspended atmospheric MPs
(Huang et al., 2020a). Indoor MPs are primarily influenced by human actions like
264 J. C. Agbasi et al.

pedestrian traffic, the operation of air conditioning systems, humidity, and tempera-
ture (Huang et al., 2020b; Zhang et al., 2020a). Conversely, outdoor MPs are subject
to meteorological conditions like snowfall, humidity, rainfall, wind direction, and
speed (Firouzsalari et al., 2024; Ambrosini et al. 2019; Allen et al., 2019). Further-
more, airflow generated by window ventilation can help interchange MPs between
interior and outdoor environments (Zhang et al., 2020b). Heavy precipitation and
other high-humidity weather events promote the settlement of airborne MPs (Dris
et al., 2016; Liu et al., 2019a).
Although the total flux of MP deposition may appear modest in comparison to
traditional pollutants like organochlorine pesticides and polycyclic aromatic hydro-
carbons (Jurado et al., 2005; Nežiková et al., 2019), the inhalation of atmospheric
dust remains a significant exposure pathway for human uptake of MPs. Moreover,
this transport mechanism potentially yields the greatest spread of MPs because it is
less constrained by obstacles compared to unidirectional flows that typically govern
land and water transport (Horton & Dixon, 2018).
Predicting and tracing the presence of airborne MP pollution poses an immense
challenge due to the wide range of MP sources, the different features of the particles
that determine their behavior, and the numerous environmental conditions that affect
particle transport (Horton & Dixon, 2018). It is still unknown how much air debris
contributes to the pollution of land and water, underscoring the need for further
research in this domain. A summary of MP transport mechanisms is portrayed in
Fig. 2.
While air mass backward trajectory analysis has been employed as a qualita-
tive method to assess the potential sources and transport pathways of atmospheric
pollutants (Su et al., 2022), future efforts should be directed toward developing more
rigorous and efficient approaches to evaluate the mechanisms governing the transport
and deposition of atmospheric MPs.

Fig. 2 An overview of MPs transport mechanisms in air

The Nexus Between the Transport Mechanisms and Remediation … 265

3.2 Microplastic Transport via Land

The terrestrial environment serves as a significant reservoir for MP contamination,

with diverse sources contributing to its presence (Fig. 3). These sources encompass
inefficient waste management practices, agricultural activities involving plastic film
coverings, irrigation with wastewater, application of compost and excess sludge,
release from landfill sites, and debris from vehicle tires (Mai et al., 2024; Kolomijeca
et al., 2020; Li et al., 2020; Horton and Dixon, 2018; Lechner & Ramler, 2015).
Once introduced into the terrestrial realm, MPs are subjected to various external
forces that facilitate their transport, including water flow, animal activities, and human
interventions (Fig. 3; Huang et al., 2020b). These minute plastic particles can traverse
short distances through processes such as bioturbation and agricultural practices,
while long-range transport occurs through water runoff from the surface and soil
loss (Nizzetto et al., 2016a).
The mobility of MPs within soil matrices is influenced by several factors, including
their diminutive size (typically < 10 µm), which enables their facile movement
through sediments, sands, and soils. Additional0ly, larger MPs (> 10 µm) can access
tunnels or micropores formed by animal activities or plant roots, facilitating their
transport within the soil column (Wang et al., 2020b; Huerta Lwanga et al., 2016).
Other elements that govern the transport of MP include the soil solution’s ionic
strength, granular media surface coatings, water content, and heterogeneity (Alimi
et al., 2018; Dong et al., 2018). Furthermore, when plastic particles aggregate homo-
geneously or when plastics combine with other substances (such as organic matter
and soil particles) in a heterogeneous manner, the resulting aggregates can grow in
size, impacting their transport behavior (Huang et al., 2020b).
Intrinsic characteristics of MPs, including surface chemistry, shape, density,
charge, and size, in addition to external variables, are crucial in dictating how they are

Fig. 3 A summary of ways through which MPs travel in land

266 J. C. Agbasi et al.

transported and distributed within soils. For instance, fibrous MPs are less susceptible
to transfer than granular or spherical particles (Keller et al., 2019), as their elongated
shape increases the likelihood of entanglement with soil particles, forming obstruc-
tions. Moreover, smaller plastic particles exhibit a greater propensity for downward
migration, as they can pass through surface soil pores and reach deeper layers (Rillig
et al., 2017a). Functional groups and hydrophobicity have also been identified as
significant variables influencing MP transport (Liu et al., 2019b; Ren et al., 2021).
Agricultural practices, such as cultivation, harvesting, and others, can disturb the
soil, leading to the downward migration or dispersion of surface plastics. Further-
more, the penetration of water from precipitation or irrigation facilitates the down-
ward transfer of MPs along soil voids, potentially reaching groundwater reservoirs
(Panno et al., 2019; Wong et al., 2020). Furthermore, MPs have the ability to attach
to the viscous bodies of soil creatures like earthworms, whose movements play a role
in the spatial transport of these plastic particles (Rillig et al., 2017a).
Agricultural and forest soils exhibit a higher propensity for particle retention,
partly because of their reduced levels of overland flow and their porous structure
when compared to urban terrain (Nizzetto et al., 2016b). A study investigating MP
retention within soils revealed the presence of artificial fibers made from sewage
waste in agricultural land that has been treated for no less than fifteen years following
the previous sludge utilization (Zubris & Richards, 2005). Significantly, the research
also demonstrated the possibility of collection hotspots at inches deep, with fibers
found at depths greater than 25 cm in regions with strong drainage from the soil
movement downward (Zubris & Richards, 2005). Plastics present in the terrestrial
environment can be subsequently transported to marine environments through surface
runoff, ultimately reaching the ocean through creeks and rivers.
To further elucidate the factors influencing MP transport in soil, researchers have
conducted experimental studies utilizing dedicated setups (Li et al., 2023b; Rillig
et al., 2017b; Zhang et al., 2019). These investigations have revealed that transport
extent is primarily correlated to the level of interconnected pore spaces, while vertical
migration is likely influenced by flushing processes. Additionally, the sand cycle
from dry to wet has been highlighted as a key factor affecting MP transport. While
such column experiments may not fully replicate the complexities of actual soil
environments, they provide insightful information about the transport mechanisms
of MPs in soil matrices.

3.3 Microplastic Transport via Water

The aquatic environment serves as a significant reservoir for MP contamination,

receiving inputs from both atmospheric deposition and terrestrial runoff. Unlike the
transport mechanisms in air and land, there is a higher MP inflow into reservoirs of
water, positioning the aquatic realm as potentially the largest sink for these ubiquitous
pollutants (Huang et al., 2020a, 2020b).
The Nexus Between the Transport Mechanisms and Remediation … 267

Fig. 4 Key transport mechanisms of MPs in water systems

The transport and fate of MPs in aquatic systems are governed by a complex
interplay of factors, encompassing the intrinsic characteristics of the plastic particles
themselves as well as the physical and chemical properties of the aquatic environment
(Fig. 4). Hydrodynamics, affixation to surfaces, and ingestion by aquatic creatures
also play pivotal roles, directly influencing the settlement, resuspension, and transport
distances of these plastic particles, ultimately shaping their environmental trajectory.
It is important to note that the transport dynamics of MPs may vary across the
three main aquatic systems: freshwater, marine, and estuarine environments (Fig. 5).
This discrepancy arises from the distinct environmental conditions and processes
governing each of these systems. In general, small and lightweight plastic particles
have a tendency to float, whereas larger and heavier particles are more prone to
deposition at the bottom of water bodies. However, the natural aquatic environment
harbors a diverse array of inorganic and organic particles, as well as microorganisms,
which can interact with MPs through aggregation processes. Heterogeneous aggre-
gation occurs when MPs associate with these natural particles and microorganisms
(Dahms et al., 2020), while homogeneous aggregation involves the clustering of the
individual plastic pieces. These accumulation processes can alter the plastic particle’s
initial density, consequently impacting their settlement patterns and residence times
within the aquatic environment.

3.3.1 Freshwater Ecosystems

The transport and fate of MPs in freshwater ecosystems, encompassing rivers,

streams, ditches, lakes, ponds, and groundwater reservoirs, present a complex land-
scape shaped by diverse characteristics and processes. These aquatic systems serve
as recipients of MP inputs from terrestrial environments, act as conduits facilitating
268 J. C. Agbasi et al.

Fig. 5 Influencers of MP transport across the three main aquatic systems: freshwater, marine, and
estuarine

the transfer of MPs to marine environments, and function as both sources and sinks,
where larger plastic items can fragment into smaller particles while sediments retain
MPs concurrently. Inadequate waste disposal practices, such as littering or uncon-
trolled releases from landfills, contribute to the introduction of larger plastic items
into freshwater systems. These items can be subsequently carried from the soil by
runoff or wind. While hotspots of MP contamination usually happen near cities,
research suggests that most MPs probably enter bodies of water through drainage
systems, underscoring the importance of addressing inputs from combined sewage
overflows, effluent outfalls, and storm drains, which may be located beyond densely
populated regions (Horton et al., 2017; Browne et al., 2011).
The concentration and distribution of MPs within freshwater systems, including
sediments, are governed by variables such as geographical location, streamflow rate,
wind patterns, and currents (Bellasi et al., 2020). For instance, the speed of transmis-
sion has a major impact on MP occurrence, concentration, and transport. Variations
in flow speed determine changes in MP content, with higher particle concentrations
observed in regions with lower flow (Tibbetts et al., 2018). This phenomenon has
been attributed to decreased flow velocities as water enters lakes, promoting the
accumulation of MPs and fine particles. Corroborating findings have documented
greater quantities of MP in lower-velocity conditions such as storage dams, flood-
plains, lakes, and meander cutoffs compared to rivers and streams (Balla et al., 2024;
Kataoka et al., 2019; Migwi et al., 2020). Conversely, increased flow rates have
been associated with faster MP transmission and flooding events, which cause MP to
rush through river systems (Hurley et al., 2018). Commonly, locations with slower
The Nexus Between the Transport Mechanisms and Remediation … 269

flow rates, like lakes, function as MP sinks, while rivers and streams transport these
particles. Remarkably, rivers and lakes may also be key suppliers of secondary MPs
(Bellasi et al., 2020). The manufacture is caused by currents, stream movement, and
waves breaking up brittle plastic debris, which is similar to processes seen in marine
habitats (Bellasi et al., 2020; Kataoka et al., 2019).
In groundwater systems, the transport mechanisms of MPs are affected by a
number of elements, such as their dimension, form, and surface charge, coupled
with groundwater ionic strength and flow velocity (Ameen et al., 2022; Dong et al.,
2022). The existence of other contaminants in the groundwater may also impact
MP transport. Furthermore, the physical properties of the porous medium, such as
pore size and compression, can impact the persistence and transportation of MPs in
groundwater reservoirs (Alvarado-Zambrano et al., 2023). Elucidating these trans-
port mechanisms is crucial for assessing the ecological impacts and potential dangers
inherent in MP contamination of groundwater resources.

3.3.2 Marine Environment

The marine environment, encompassing ecosystems with high levels of dissolved

salts, such as the open ocean, deep-sea regions, and coastal areas, has been identified
as a significant sink for MP taint. Consequently, these environments have garnered
substantial research attention in the past years (Chen et al., 2024; Petersen & Hubbart,
2021; Sun et al., 2024). Studies on marine MPs can be broadly categorized into two
domains: surface water investigations (encompassing sea ice and coastlines) and
seafloor examinations (including deep-sea explorations). This distinction arises from
the varying densities of different plastic types, which influence their distribution and
accumulation patterns.
Lower-density MPs typically gather around the top of the water and along shore-
lines (Browne et al., 2011), while denser particles are more prone to sinking onto the
seafloor (Kane & Clare, 2019). Plastic particles with densities lower than seawater
are mostly concentrated and carried by gyres, wind, and water currents (Petersen &
Hubbart, 2021; Pohl et al., 2020). This procedure makes it easier for MPs to disperse
widely across marine ecosystems (Zarfl & Matthies, 2010) and accumulate in the
main waste patches found in the Pacific, Atlantic, and Indian oceans (Lebreton et al.,
2018). Nevertheless, lighter MPs can drop to the bottom, or weightier MPs could
remain on the surface of the sea as a result of changes in polymer density brought
on by attachment to other materials.
Three main mechanisms drive the movement of MPs in deep marine environments:
the movement of MPs due to gravity in sediment-laden flows, the movement of
MPs due to thermohaline currents, which includes the settling and transformation
of deposited MPs, and the biological settling or transport of suspended particles
on the water’s surface (Kane & Clare, 2019). For gravitational transport, particles
move downward as they settle based on their morphology and mass through turbidity
currents. Spherical and denser particles tend to descend more rapidly compared to flat
and less dense particles (Pohl et al., 2020). This process leads to the concentration of
270 J. C. Agbasi et al.

heavy, spherical materials at the bottom of the flow, while turbulent activity disperses
less-dense, flat particles all the way through the flow (Kane & Clare, 2019).
Biologically influenced conveyance entails the involvement of organisms in the
movement of MPs (Courtene-Jones et al., 2017). This includes processes like the
consumption and accompanying movement of MPs by organisms, in addition to the
manual burying of MPs in layers of sediment made possible by organisms’ digging
actions, with the potential for previously buried MPs to be unearthed (Näkki et al.,
2017). Additionally, organisms contribute to MP transport through the expulsion of
fecal pellets containing MPs, which are more prone to settling under the influence
of gravity (Kane & Clare, 2019). Furthermore, organisms can change the buoyancy
of MPs by adhering to the particles through processes such as the development of
biofilms (Kaiser et al., 2017).
Akin to how they contribute to the establishment of areas with heightened sediment
deposition on the seabed, currents from thermohaline circulation play a significant
role in shaping the distribution of MPs (Kane et al., 2020). These focal points of
accumulation arise from contour currents adhering to the bottom and the stratification
of temperature and salinity in the water column (Kane & Clare, 2019). Contour
currents that clinch to the seafloor facilitate the lateral movement of MPs, leading to
localized areas of increased accumulation. Additionally, thermohaline stratification
facilitates the development of nepheloid layers, which hinder the fallout of fine
particles, including MPs (Kane & Clare, 2019). The interplay among these transport
mechanisms results in roughly doubling the activities of MPs in submarine canyons
and deep-sea trenches (Kane & Clare, 2019; Petersen & Hubbart, 2021; Pham et al.,
2014).

3.3.3 Estuarine

Estuarine environments, characterized by the convergence of freshwater from rivers

and saline water from the marine realm, exhibit a unique set of hydrodynamic forces
that profoundly influence the transport and fate of MPs. These dynamic systems
are governed by an intricate network of interactions, like tidal patterns, seasonal
fluctuations, and wind dynamics, which collectively shape the pathways of MPs
through processes such as advection, dispersion, suspension, and settling (Zhang,
2017; Krelling et al., 2017; Vermeiren et al., 2016).
One of the key determinants of MP abundance and transport in estuaries is the tidal
regime. On a daily timescale, the oscillation between ebb and flood tides dictates the
residence time and conveyance pathways of MPs within the estuary. During ebb tides,
transport of MPs occurs seaward, while flood tides facilitate their inshore movement
(Leads & Weinstein, 2019). An approximate estimation for the quantity of particles
confined in the estuary throughout a daily tidal cycle may be obtained by contrasting
the MP concentration in these two tidal phases, shedding light on whether the estuary
acts as a sink or a source for MPs. It is noteworthy that MPs and other particles that
exit the estuary during ebb tides may be reintroduced during subsequent flood tides
(Defontaine et al., 2020).
The Nexus Between the Transport Mechanisms and Remediation … 271

On a monthly scale, the interplay between spring and neap tides exerts a significant
influence on MP dynamics. Although less extensively discussed in the literature,
findings suggest that MP abundance is greater in the water column and sediments at
spring and neap tides, respectively (Lima et al., 2020; Wu et al., 2020). This pattern
indicates that estuaries retain MPs under neap tide conditions, characterized by lower
movement of water, which stimulates the settling of particles on sediments via the
water column. Conversely, the higher energy conditions associated with spring tides
facilitate the expulsion of MPs from the estuary into the marine environment.
Seasonal variations in river flow also play a crucial role in regulating the input
of terrestrial MPs into estuarine systems. During the wet season, surface runoff,
stormwater, and tributaries lead to an elevated influx of MPs. The intense river flow
during this period has the ability to revive MPs in sediments and return them to the
water column (Pohl et al., 2020; Qian et al., 2021; Yan et al., 2021). Additionally,
precipitation events can remobilize MPs confined to urban buildings and vegetation
(Gorman et al., 2020). On the other hand, during the low precipitation season, when
river flows are reduced, MPs are more likely to settle and become less ample in the
water column (Costa et al., 2011). It is worth noting that, although less pronounced
in large-scale estuaries, high river flow in smaller estuarine systems can contribute
to the atomization of larger plastic items into MPs through friction (Zhang et al.,
2019). However, there are rare instances where MP transport is more active during
low precipitation seasons, potentially attributable to gusts that create turbulence and
facilitate the disintegration of bigger particles (Sánchez-Hernández et al., 2021).
Wind dynamics, often referred to as windage, have been recognized as a crucial
process for MP transportation in river estuaries (Malli et al., 2022; Sánchez-
Hernández et al., 2021). Specifically, the spatiotemporal distribution as well as the
abundance of MPs within these systems are influenced by wind direction and strength.
Winds can facilitate the import or export of enlarged MPs and less dense films to or
out of the estuary (Cheung et al., 2016; Naidoo et al., 2015; Vermeiren et al., 2016).
In contrast to heavier particles buried in the water column, these low-density MPs
are more vulnerable to windage because of their surface location. Furthermore, as
depth increases, the level of MPs drops significantly because the windage influence
drops (Kooi et al., 2017; Vermeiren et al., 2016).
It is important to recognize that marine, freshwater, and terrestrial habitats
have close ties with indefinite and porous borders (Horton & Dixon, 2018). The
connections amongst these distinct areas are weather- and environmental-dependent,
suggesting that the ultimate fate and quantity of MPs in any one habitat will depend on
how connected they are to neighboring settings, which can change greatly spatiotem-
porally. Furthermore, MPs’ behavior and ecological interactions in a particular setting
can be influenced by processes that affect them in another. For instance, when parti-
cles from land enter an aquatic environment, they can be greatly affected by degrada-
tion, chemical association, or the acquisition of an organic covering. Consequently,
it is inappropriate to think of these ecosystems as discrete, independent areas under
the control of distinct mechanisms (Horton et al., 2017).
272 J. C. Agbasi et al.

4 Remediation Techniques of Microplastics

Remediation techniques for MPs encompass strategies aimed at eliminating or

reducing their contamination in various environments. These approaches can be cate-
gorized into physical, chemical, and biological processes (Fig. 6). Physical mitigation
technologies, such as filtration, density separation, magnetic separation, air filtration
systems, and vegetative barriers, involve the physical removal or interception of MPs.
Chemical techniques, including oxidation processes, coagulation and flocculation,
adsorption, and solvent extraction, degrade MPs into simpler organic compounds or
mineralize them into water and carbon dioxide. Biological methods, such as microbial
degradation, phytoremediation, vermiremediation, and bioremediation, harness the
capabilities of living organisms to break down or immobilize MPs, often exploiting
their metabolic processes or the production of extracellular substances. In addi-
tion to these direct remediation strategies, complementary approaches, such as envi-
ronmental awareness campaigns and educational initiatives, play a crucial role in
disseminating reliable information about MP pollution, raising public conscious-
ness, and minimizing the introduction of MPs into the environment through behav-
ioral changes. While most remediation techniques have been developed primarily for
the removal of MPs from aquatic systems, a limited number of biological approaches
can also be applied to terrestrial environments. In contrast, techniques specifically
targeting the remediation of atmospheric MPs are still in their infancy compared
to those for other environmental compartments. Considering the main focus of this
work, a few remediation techniques will be discussed.

Fig. 6 MP remediation techniques/strategies

The Nexus Between the Transport Mechanisms and Remediation … 273

4.1 Magnetic Separation

Magnetic separation has shown potential as an approach for MP remediation from

various environmental matrices. This technique capitalizes on the magnetic prop-
erties of MPs or their ability to be rendered magnetic through the application of
specific treatments. The magnetic separation process typically involves three key
stages: the preparation of magnetic seeds or particles, the induction of aggregation
through magnetic seeding, and the optimization of separation efficiency (Wan et al.,
2011).
One of the notable advantages of magnetic separation lies in its potential for
separation enhancement due to the long-range nature of magnetic forces, coupled
with its capacity to process large volumes while generating minimal waste sludge
(Zhang et al., 2021). Compared to traditional filtration techniques, magnetic sepa-
ration exhibits relatively few pressure drops and is not constrained by the minimum
size of MPs, as size selectivity can be tailored by modifying the size and composition
of nanoparticles with magnetic capabilities (Saboor et al., 2022).
Contemporary research has shown the efficacy of magnetic separation techniques
in recovering MPs from both freshwater and saltwater environments. Researchers
have employed iron oxide nanoparticles to facilitate the binding and subsequent
retrieval of micro- and nanoplastics from water samples. Notably, these studies have
reported the removal of 100% of particles between the sizes of 2 and 5 mm, with
about 90% of nanoplastics between the sizes of 100 and 1000 nm, utilizing basic
permanent neodymium magnets (Martin et al., 2022).
Furthermore, advancements in magnetic separation methodologies have enabled
the quick recovery of low- and high-density MPs from soil matrices. Innovative
three-stage extraction methods have been formulated. This involves employing
high-gradient magnetic separation to eliminate magnetic soil components, followed
by applying surface-altered iron nanoparticles for magnetically tagging MPs, and
finally, recovering the tagged MPs using high-gradient magnetic methods (Ramage
et al., 2022). These optimized methods have demonstrated remarkable performance,
achieving average recoveries exceeding 90% for both fibrous and particulate MPs
across various soil types, outperforming traditional density separation techniques,
particularly for high-density MPs and fibers. Notably, these advanced magnetic sepa-
ration techniques have demonstrated the ability to recover fiber-aggregate complexes,
a significant advantage in accurately assessing MP quantities in environmental moni-
toring studies. The practical application of these methods has been validated through
their successful implementation in recovering high-density MP particles from farm
soil samples (Ramage et al., 2022).
274 J. C. Agbasi et al.

4.2 Air Filtration Systems

In the domain of air filtration, the classification of filters is fundamentally anchored

in the minimum efficiency reporting value (MERV), a system that links a filter’s effi-
ciency with its resistance to airflow (Purchas & Sutherland, 2002; Kacprzak & Tijing,
2022). The categorization encompasses several key types: coarse dust filters (MERV
1–4), fine dust filters (MERV 5–8), high-efficiency particle air (HEPA) filters (MERV
9–12), and ultra-low penetration air (ULPA) filters (MERV 13–16). These compo-
nents are crucial for the optimal performance of mechanical ventilation systems, not
only in purifying the air from contaminants but also in safeguarding the functionality
of heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) units. However, the efficacy of
these filters may be impacted by various elements, like the extent of pollutants and
the quality of the installation. It is noted that the use of higher-efficiency filters
can escalate operational costs for HVAC systems due to the increased initial resis-
tance to airflow, which intensifies with use (Kacprzak & Tijing, 2022). This chal-
lenge can be mitigated by employing high-quality filters with an expanded surface
area to minimize pressure drops, although this necessitates frequent maintenance,
including the costly replacement of filter media. Finding an equilibrium between
operational and maintenance expenses remains a complex task, often prompting
building management to compromise on filtration quality to reduce costs (Australia,
2017).
HEPA filters, recognized for their ability to trap about 99.97% of particles and
contaminants in the air down to 0.3 µm, are extensively utilized across various
industries, notably in aviation, pharmaceuticals, and healthcare, despite necessi-
tating more powerful fans to counteract their higher airflow resistance and requiring
professional maintenance (ASHRAE, 2020; EPA, 2021). ULPA filters, capable of
capturing particles in the 0.12–0.4 µm range, offer even finer filtration but come with
higher acquisition and operational costs, making them suitable primarily for special-
ized applications like microelectronics production or cleanroom environments (EPA,
2021).
Furthermore, air purifiers, or air cleaners, are designed to eliminate pollutants
from indoor air by circulating it through a series of filters to remove impurities,
including MPs. Some manufacturers claim their devices can filter fragments as tiny
as 0.003 µm, targeting even the tiniest detected MPs, utilizing advanced filtration
technologies like the HyperHEPA system (IQAir, 2021). Another promising devel-
opment is the multiwalled carbon nanotube membrane, which demonstrates high
efficiency in pollution removal, affordability, simplicity, and scalability, presenting
a viable option for air purification (Vishwakarma et al., 2022).
Despite these advancements, the irony lies in the fact that most filter media are
plastic-based, potentially contributing to the proliferation of MPs in indoor air. More-
over, air filtration merely redistributes pollutants from one environment to another
(Kacprzak & Tijing, 2022), thus not effectively tackling airborne MP problems.
The Nexus Between the Transport Mechanisms and Remediation … 275

4.3 Vegetative Barriers

In recent times, there has been an increasing emphasis on the execution of nature-
based solutions (NbS) to mitigate environmental pollution in urban areas (Biswal
et al., 2022). These systems, encompassing constructed wetlands, green roofs, and
bioretention systems, are frequently used in cities for the oversight and remediation
of stormwater hydrology, while vegetation proximal to roads is employed to mitigate
air pollution originating from local traffic sources. Both wetlands and bioretention
systems have demonstrated the capability to remove diverse pollutants, including
MPs, from runoff.
Constructed wetlands (CWs) are regarded as sophisticated NbS, employing
natural methods like phytoremediation and bioremediation, which involve using
vegetation, microorganisms, and other biologically related systems to clean several
kinds of wastewater (Biswal & Balasubramanian, 2022; Tao et al., 2017). A study
investigated the Tres Rios treatment CW in Phoenix, Arizona, USA, to gain a better
understanding of MPs’ presence, fate, and movement within a wetland (Cisco, 2023).
The findings revealed a retention rate of 55% for MPs, indicating that MPs are being
held within the wetland. The MPs ranges that were preserved by the vegetation
and soil samples were 1017–10,100 MPs kg–1 and 133–700 MPs kg–1 , respectively.
Although the removal efficiency of the Tres Rios CW was not exceptional, there are
clear indications that the method aids in removing MPs from the surrounding surface
water.
The effectiveness of CWs in stormwater purification is contingent upon multiple
components such as the volume of stormwater entering the system, detention time,
velocity, and hydraulic retention time, which are shaped by the amount of inflowing
contaminant, features of permeable media, rate of hydraulic loading, wetland config-
urations (area and volume) and plant types, intensity of rain events, and temperature
(or seasonal change) (Biswal et al., 2022; Guo et al., 2014; Sharma et al., 2021). It
is crucial to remember that there are existing gaps in the use of this method, such as
the absence of comprehensive longitudinal investigations into how well CWs work
to remove MPs from stormwater.
To evaluate the efficiency with which bioretention systems remove microparticles
in North Portland, Oregon, Wolfand et al. (2023) inserted three distinct geomedia
(standard mix, a proprietary mix, and layered sand and compost) into constructed
bioretention columns. Irrespective of the medium type, a removal effectiveness of
99.8% was seen in all columns. Based on the findings, bioretention could be a useful
technique to lessen the amount of MP that is transported from urban runoff into
recipient bodies of water.
In Kaunas City, Lithuania, the hedge of Thuja occidentalis was selected to evaluate
the abilities of the selected elements of urban green infrastructure to capture transport-
related MPs for a healthier urban environment (Varnagirytė-Kabašinskienė et al.,
2024). The preliminary data analysis revealed that traffic-related MPs accumulated
on the Thuja hedge, indicating its ability to capture MPs, thus protecting pedestrians’
exposure during dry weather conditions.
276 J. C. Agbasi et al.

In the three case studies of NbS, vegetation plays a crucial role and is regarded
as one of the key elements. Therefore, additional study is required to filter vegeta-
tion species based on their long-term sustainability, possibility of phytoremediation,
strong resistance to severe weather, and indigenous availability, given that the density
of plants and variation in species may both affect how effective NbS is (Biswal et al.,
2022). It might also be essential to uphold an acceptable degree of plant density and
diversity with periodic checks and maintenance-related operations in order to retain
the excellent performance of installed NbS over the long run (Biswal et al., 2022).

4.4 Oxidation Processes

Oxidation processes represent a pivotal chemical strategy in mitigating MP pollu-

tion, involving robust oxidizing agents that fragment or entirely decompose MPs
(Albazoni et al., 2024). Oxygen (O2 ) and hydrogen peroxide (H2 O2 ) are primary
agents that, upon interaction with MPs, disrupt the polymer chains, facilitating their
breakdown. This reaction can be expedited through the introduction of catalysts such
as iron or titanium dioxide, enhancing the effectiveness of the degradation procedure
(Kim et al., 2022).
Advanced oxidation processes (AOPs), employing potent oxidizing compounds
to produce reactive species like hydroxyl radicals or superoxides, have also emerged
as effective methods for the comprehensive mineralization of stubborn pollutants,
yielding water and carbon dioxide as end products. Recent applications of AOPs have
shown promise in MP degradation, utilizing techniques such as Fenton and photo-
catalysis processes (Vo et al., 2024; Zhou et al., 2024). The Fenton process, in partic-
ular, catalyzes the decomposition of H2 O2 when there are ferrous ions under acidic
conditions to generate hydroxyl radicals, effectively breaking down MPs (Nohara
et al., 2024; Zhou et al., 2024). Photocatalysis, alternatively, leverages light to acti-
vate a semiconductor catalyst, producing oxidant radicals instrumental in tertiary
wastewater treatment.
One of the advantages of AOPs is their capability to significantly reduce and miner-
alize MPs with minimal generation of harmful by-products (Singh et al., 2024). A
comprehensive review by Dos Santos et al. (2023) elucidates that while the conven-
tional Fenton process achieves modest oxidation of MPs, affecting primarily their
surface, variations of the Fenton methodology can substantially enhance MP removal
under specific conditions, including elevated temperatures, extended reaction dura-
tions, and optimized pH levels, achieving up to a 96% reduction in MP weight. Other
key factors influencing the efficacy of AOPs include the concentrations of catalyst
and pollutant, reaction medium, particle size, and the presence of other substances.
However, challenges such as the scalability of photocatalytic processes, the necessity
for prolonged exposure to light, and stringent conditions for effective degradation
present obstacles to their widespread application (Nohara et al., 2024). Therefore,
advancing AOPs to practical, large-scale use necessitates further exploration and
optimization to identify more feasible operational parameters.
The Nexus Between the Transport Mechanisms and Remediation … 277

4.5 Complementary Strategies

Complementary strategies are targeted at controlling MP sources, which can be

separated into the phases of manufacture, use, and disposal (Zhang et al., 2021).
At the production stage, consumer education and awareness campaigns have shown
potential. Grelaud and Ziveri (2020) conducted pilot actions, including awareness
initiatives, new trash bins, and signage on Mediterranean island beaches. After imple-
mentation in summer 2019, they observed an average 52.5% ± 20.8% decrease
in the accumulation rates of visitor litter items most likely left on the beaches.
Banning microbeads used in toiletries, including shampoos, face washes, toothpaste,
and cosmetics, is another effective strategy that has shown promising results (Chat-
terjee & Sharma, 2019). A comparison of plastic microbeads in Toronto, Canada,
before and after a ban showed a decline of up to 86% in wastewater treatment plant
effluents from 2016 to 2019, and this trend was also observed in the surface waters
of adjacent Lake Ontario between 2015 and 2018 (Akhbarizadeh et al., 2024). Addi-
tionally, taxes on plastic products containing microbeads in sectors such as cosmetics
could disincentivize their use (Chatterjee & Sharma, 2019).
In the application stage, enhancing the lifespan of plastic products and last-minute
handling are emphasized. Wastewater discharge from treatment plants is identified as
a major MP source requiring mitigation (Prata et al., 2020). More broadly, adhering to
the waste management principles of reuse, reduce, recycle, recover, and eco-friendly
disposal could result in significant reductions in MP emissions across product life
cycles (Rose et al., 2023).
Finally, at the discharge stage, national and international governance frameworks
have been proposed to regulate MP releases from various sources into the envi-
ronment (Prata et al., 2020). A combination of outreach, policies, improved waste
management, and coordinated governance may serve as complementary strategies
for controlling MP pollution at the production, application, and discharge stages.

5 The Nexus Between MP Transport and Remediation

Techniques

This section explores the interconnection between MP transport mechanisms and

existing remediation techniques with the goal of identifying the most effective
methods for eliminating these tiny particles from the environment (Fig. 7).

5.1 Air Transport

The air transport mechanisms of MPs play a pivotal role in determining the most
suitable remediation techniques. For instance, the size and shape of airborne MPs
278 J. C. Agbasi et al.

Fig. 7 The nexus between MP transport mechanisms and existing remediation techniques

influence their capacity for long-distance transportation and deposition. Smaller

MPs, particularly those in the nanometer range, may stay suspended in midair for
a long time and travel long distances, making their remediation more challenging.
Conversely, larger MPs may settle more readily, allowing for targeted remediation
efforts in specific areas.
The effectiveness of remediation techniques can be influenced by the air transport
mechanisms of MPs in several ways. Firstly, the distribution and deposition patterns
of MPs, influenced by wind, humidity, and precipitation, can make it difficult to
accurately identify and target hotspots for remediation. Secondly, airborne MPs can
reach remote or inaccessible areas, posing challenges for remediation techniques
that require physical intervention or on-site treatment (Kaliszewicz et al., 2023;
Padha et al., 2022). Additionally, even after successful remediation in a specific area,
airborne MPs can be reintroduced through long-range transport or resuspension from
nearby sources, potentially undermining the effectiveness of remediation efforts.
Effective techniques for air remediation of MPs may vary based on their sources
and transport mechanisms. For instance, in urban or industrial areas with elevated
concentrations of airborne MPs from sources like industrial emissions and traffic-
related particles, air filtration systems or phytoremediation (using plants to remove
MPs from the air) may be suitable (Biswal et al., 2022). In areas where MPs are
predominantly from textile or household sources, strategies targeting these specific
sources, such as improved waste management or public awareness campaigns, could
be effective (Gasperi et al., 2018).
The Nexus Between the Transport Mechanisms and Remediation … 279

5.2 Land Transport

The nexus between terrestrial MP transport and remediation techniques is a critical

consideration in developing effective strategies for mitigating MP effects in terres-
trial ecosystems. The sources of terrestrial MPs (Fig. 3) dictate the potential hotspots
and pathways for MP transport, influencing the selection and implementation of
remediation techniques. For instance, in areas with significant plastic film mulching
practices, remediation efforts may focus on developing biodegradable alternatives
or implementing proper disposal and recovery protocols. The influencing factors
(Fig. 3) can significantly affect the effectiveness of remediation techniques. For
example, the hydrophobicity of MPs can hinder the performance of chemical oxida-
tion processes, necessitating the use of surface modifiers or alternative techniques
(Liu et al., 2019b; Ren et al., 2021). The carriers (Fig. 3) determine the pathways
and extent of MP transport within and between different terrestrial compartments.
In areas prone to bioturbation by earthworms or other soil organisms, bioremedi-
ation techniques exploiting the metabolic capabilities of these organisms may be
particularly effective in degrading MPs (da Silva et al., 2024).
Various studies have explored the impact of terrestrial transport mechanisms on
the effectiveness of remediation techniques. Rahmani et al. (2022) demonstrated that
the efficiency of MP removal was strongly influenced by characteristics of the soil,
like the amount of organic matter and the ability to exchange ions, which affect MP-
soil interactions. In another study, Azizi et al. (2023) discovered that the effectiveness
of phytoremediation using specific plant species was dependent on MP dimensions
and surface characteristics, in addition to soil characteristics like pH and moisture
content.
Effective techniques for terrestrial remediation of MPs can vary based on their
sources and transport mechanisms. For MPs originating from vehicle tire wear, road-
side remediation techniques like filtration systems or vegetative barriers have been
explored to intercept and capture MPs before they disperse into surrounding environ-
ments (Li et al., 2023c). In agricultural settings, where MPs are introduced through
the application of compost or sludge, pre-treatment processes like sieving or flota-
tion can be employed to remove MPs before land application, or bioremediation
techniques using MP-degrading microorganisms can be implemented.

5.3 Water Transport

Several studies have investigated the influence of aquatic transport mechanisms on

the effectiveness of remediation techniques. Feng et al. (2023) demonstrated that the
efficiency of beach cleaning techniques for MP removal was strongly influenced by
hydrodynamic conditions, such as wave action and tidal currents, which can redis-
tribute MPs along the shoreline. Wang et al. (2022) explored the potential of using
280 J. C. Agbasi et al.

membrane bioreactors to eliminate MPs from wastewater, highlighting the impor-

tance of considering MP size and density when building and running these kinds of
systems. The presence of filter-feeding organisms can influence the bioavailability
and accumulation of MPs, potentially impacting the efficiency of bioremediation
approaches or eco-friendly remediation techniques (Thacharodi et al., 2024). Addi-
tionally, the function of aquatic organisms in the movement and buildup of MPs
has been explored, leading to the development of bioremediation strategies utilizing
MP-degrading microorganisms (De Jesus & Alkendi, 2023; Hadian-Ghazvini et al.,
2022).
Effective remediation of MPs in aquatic environments necessitates the imple-
mentation of strategic techniques that address the diverse transport mechanisms and
the complexities of the aquatic ecosystem. In urban regions with significant atmo-
spheric deposition of MPs, remediation efforts may focus on implementing regu-
latory measures to minimize the amount of MPs added to water bodies, like using
better waste management techniques, promoting sustainable alternatives to plastic
products, and regulating industrial and agricultural activities. Strategic deployment
of membrane filtration, sedimentation, and skimming techniques can be employed
to remove MPs from water bodies, particularly in localized areas or at treatment
facilities. In freshwater environments, like rivers and lakes, remediation techniques
may include the installation of in-situ filtration systems, sedimentation basins, or the
use of natural or artificial wetlands to trap and retain MPs. Strategic exploitation of
the metabolic capabilities of microorganisms to degrade or transform MPs into less
harmful compounds, either in situ or in controlled environments, is another avenue
for remediation (De Jesus & Alkendi, 2023; Hadian-Ghazvini et al., 2022). In coastal
and marine environments where MPs are transported by ocean currents and waves,
employing strategic interventions such as the installation of barriers or the creation of
artificial eddies can facilitate the containment and recovery of MPs (Silliman et al.,
2023).

6 Conclusions

This study reveals that the transport mechanisms of MPs are unique for each environ-
mental medium (air, water, and land), yet interconnected, forming a complex network
of movement across different environmental compartments. Each medium can be
further subdivided based on specific characteristics. In the atmosphere, three trans-
port domains are present: MPs in indoor dust, atmospheric fallout, and suspended
atmospheric particles. Indoor MPs are primarily influenced by anthropogenic actions,
the operation of air conditioning systems, humidity, and temperature. Conversely,
outdoor MPs are subject to meteorological conditions such as snowfall, humidity,
rainfall, wind direction, and speed. Furthermore, internal and exterior MP exchange
can be facilitated via airflow generated by window ventilation. Heavy precipitation
and other high-humidity weather events promote the settlement of suspended parti-
cles of MPs in the air. In aquatic systems, the transport and fate of MPs are governed
The Nexus Between the Transport Mechanisms and Remediation … 281

by a complex interplay of factors, encompassing the intrinsic features of the plastic

particles themselves as well as the physical and chemical properties of the aquatic
ecosystem. Different mechanisms influence MP transport in freshwater, estuarine,
and marine environs. Furthermore, the transport of MPs in the terrestrial environment
is primarily controlled, but not limited three key factors: MP features (size, shape,
surface properties), soil features (water content, porosity, organic matter content),
and environmental factors (rainfall, wind, land use).
By carefully studying the transport mechanisms of MPs in different environmental
settings, the influence of these mechanisms on the effectiveness of MP remedia-
tion techniques was understood, and the most suitable remediation techniques were
determined. One of the key transport mechanisms identified in the air was geographic
location. Consequently, in urban or industrial areas with high levels of airborne MPs,
air filtration systems or phytoremediation may be appropriate. Bioturbation is a key
influencer of MP transport on land. Thus, in areas prone to bioturbation by earth-
worms or other soil organisms, bioremediation techniques exploiting the metabolic
capabilities of these organisms may be particularly effective in degrading MPs. On the
other hand, the efficiency of beach cleaning techniques for MP removal was strongly
influenced by hydrodynamic conditions, such as wave action and tidal currents,
which can redistribute MPs along the shoreline. As a result, in coastal and marine
environments where MPs are transported by ocean currents and waves, employing
strategic interventions such as the installation of barriers or the creation of artificial
eddies can facilitate the containment and recovery of MPs. The success of voluntary
discontinuation and legislative bans on plastic bags and MP particles in personal care
products motivated this study, which showcases how mitigation approaches can be
implemented when the sources and transport routes are distinctly identified, along-
side the presence of other facilitating circumstances. While this study demonstrates
the importance of understanding MP transport mechanisms for developing effective
remediation strategies, further research is needed. Future studies should focus on
quantifying the effectiveness of various remediation techniques in different environ-
mental settings and exploring potential synergies between methods. Additionally,
investigating the long-term impacts of these remediation strategies on ecosystems
will be crucial for sustainable MP management.

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Microplastics in Soils and Sediments

Piyush Pandey and Avinash Pratap Gupta

Abstract Microplastics (MPs) are widely acknowledged as a hazard to the

biosphere, mediated by human activities, and are the subject of global discourse.
Persistent contaminants, such as MPs, have a substantial impact on agricultural
productivity, soil ecology, and the overall ecological environment. Substantial quan-
tities of plastic detritus persist in the aftermath of crop cultivation. Over time, the
residual plastic waste undergoes fragmentation, resulting in the formation of MPs,
which are particles less than five millimeters in diameter. Physicochemical prop-
erties of the soil, including enzymatic and microbiological activity, porosity, plant
development, and yield, are altered by MPs. Despite the potential harm they may
cause, MPs in the soil environment have not been the subject of extensive research.
MPs are capable of contaminating subterranean water through their extensive infil-
tration of the soil. Literature examining the origins and varieties of MPs in soil, their
detrimental effects on soil health and functionality, methods of detection, preventa-
tive measures, and the possible future evolution of soil MPs has been compiled in
this study. Additionally, it investigates the overarching concept of MP contamina-
tion and its potential environmental ramifications. This chapter will provide readers
with a comprehensive comprehension of the soil pollution caused by MPs. It will
also establish the scientific foundation for the development of novel management
approaches that will protect and improve soils, promote the sustainable development
of the environment, and pinpoint crucial domains that require additional research.
In addition, it will address a number of the most crucial subjects for future research
and significant policymaking stakeholders.

Keywords Microplastics · Crop cultivation · Enzymatic and microbiological

activity · Soil environment · Sustainable development

P. Pandey (B) · A. P. Gupta

Department of Environmental Science, University Teaching Department, Sant Gahira Guru
Vishwavidyalaya, Sarguja, Ambikapur, Chhattisgarh 497001, India
e-mail: piyushpandey0025@gmail.com

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 293
J. C. Egbueri et al. (eds.), Microplastics in African and Asian Environments, Emerging
Contaminants and Associated Treatment Technologies,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-64253-1_15
294 P. Pandey and A. P. Gupta

Abbreviations

MPs Microplastics
PAHs Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons
PTEs Potentially Poisonous Elements
PCBs Polychlorinated Biphenyls
PE MPs Polyethylene Microplastics
PP MPs Polypropylene Microplastics
PS MPs Polystyrene Microplastics
PVC MPs Polyvinyl Chloride Microplastics
PET MPs Polyethylene Terephthalate Microplastics
PA Polyamide
SOM Soil Organic Matter
DOC Dissolved Organic Carbon
AMF Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi
MIT Mineralization-Immobilization Turnover

1 Introduction

A range of synthetic and semi-synthetic organic compound ingredients, including

polyethene (PE), polypropylene (PP), polystyrene (PS), polyvinyl chloride (PVC),
polyethene terephthalate (PET), and polyamide (PA), are combined to form plastic,
a polymer. Because of their low cost, high ductility, and durability, plastic mate-
rials have been extensively employed in numerous industries, including industry,
agriculture, medicine, and many more.
Around the world, plastics have become much more in demand during the past few
decades (Sajjad et al., 2022). Environmental plastic waste accounts for around 75%
of the virgin plastics produced (Geyer et al., 2017). These plastic wastes undergo
processes including weathering, fragmentation, and degradation, which reduce them
into tiny bits, fragments, film, beads, and fibres, according to Thompson et al. (2004).
Polymers classified as MPs are those with a diameter of less than 5 mm (1 μm to
5 mm) (Yu et al., 2021a, 2021b). According to Zhang and Liu (2018), MPs are
widely distributed and simple to identify, making them emergent pollutants. The
following sources of information about MPs’ release into the terrestrial environment:
surface runoff; treated wastewater discharged for irrigation; plastic film mulching;
litter discharge; landfill leachate; and the application of sludge, biosolids, organic
fertilisers, fertiliser coatings, and atmospheric fallout (Dris et al., 2016, Bläsing &
Amelung, 2018, Zhang & Liu, 2018, Heuchan et al., 2019). MPs are therefore mostly
hidden under soil in the terrestrial environment, where they may be found at all soil
depths and in topsoil as well as deep soil (Zhang et al., 2018). Plasticizers, pigments,
surfactants, antioxidants, UV stabilisers, and flame retardants are among the MP-
associated chemicals that leak into the soil matrix and have been found to have
Microplastics in Soils and Sediments 295

detrimental effects on all ecological receptors (Brown et al., 2022; Sajjad et al., 2022;
Xiang et al., 2022). Via changes to microbial populations, rhizodeposition input,
organic matter content, organic matter content breakdown, and the biogeochemical
cycles of nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium, they affect the functioning of soil
ecosystems (Rillig et al., 2017; Yu et al., 2020; Zhou et al., 2021b).
The introduction of consumer goods derived from petroleum during the latter half
of the twentieth century, including synthetic-fiber clothing, was the most probable
means by which plastic infiltrated the various soil habitats (Geyer et al., 2017). At the
moment, various sources of MPs entering these sectors include agricultural, horti-
cultural, forest, and sewage sludge (possibly including its digestates and composts),
waste waters, composted and fermented organic waste products, mulching foils that
have experienced weathering or, in severe instances, ploughing, and irrigation with
water sourced from contaminated lakes or rivers (Blasing & Amelung, 2018; Stein-
metz et al., 2016; Weithmann et al., 2018). In addition, the decomposition, littering,
and comminution of plastic pollutants contribute to the input of diverse soil ecosys-
tems (Huerta Lwanga et al., 2016); leakage from inadequately managed landfills (He
et al., 2019); and the aeolian transport of small-sized MPs, even in geographically
isolated regions (Rezaei et al., 2019). In addition, MPs are often delivered to coastal
regions via dispersed sources in the aquatic environment, including floodplains, river-
banks, tidal flats, and beaches (Barnes et al., 2009). Consistent MP application leads
to substantial accumulation in soils, as indicated by research (Corradini et al., 2019;
van den Berg et al., 2020). The introduction of MPs is anticipated to cause changes
in various physical attributes of the soil, such as the composition and activity of
microbial communities, the presence of soil fauna and flora, aggregation, and water-
holding capacity (WHC) (de Souza Machado et al., 2018; Fei et al., 2020; Lehmann
et al., 2019; Rillig et al., 2019a, 2019b).
In summary, the emergence of MPs as a substantial worldwide environmental
concern has sparked apprehension regarding potential health hazards. Given the
substantial growth of research in recent years devoted to MPs in soil, it is critical to
investigate the interactions between soil and MPs so as to identify research directions
and gaps. The objectives of this chapter are as follows: (1) provide a comprehensive
examination of the various types and origins of MPs present in soil; (2) assess the
impact of these particles on soil health and nutrient cycling; (3) deliberate on tech-
niques for identifying MPs in soils; (4) discuss preventative measures against MPs
in soil; and (5) contemplate the future trajectory and emphasis of soil MPs.
296 P. Pandey and A. P. Gupta

2 Microplastics in the Soil

2.1 Types of Microplastics in Soil

According to a Zhang et al. (2021) study, soil contains more than 20 distinct types of
MPs. The two most often found plastic types were polyethylene microplastics (PE
MPs) and polypropylene microplastics (PP MPs). According to Zhang et al., (2020),
they were frequently created by plastic films that had been left on the soil’s surface
for a long time. Additionally, sizable amounts of MPs composed of PET, PVC, and
polystyrene (PS, PVC, and PTE, respectively) have been identified. According to
Zhang et al. (2021), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) discovered in soil
may have their origins in the degradation of food packaging materials. The usage of
dustproof nets contaminates MPs constructed of polypropylene (PP) and polyethy-
lene (PE). In Beijing, China, Chen et al. (2021) measured the concentration of MPs
in soil shielded by dustproof nets. The MPs were discovered to vary between 272 and
13,752 units per kilogram. Of the MPs, polypropylene (PP) accounted for 41.25%
and polyethylene (PE) for 50.12%. A region’s or country’s topography, population
density, level of development, and waste disposal policies all have an impact on
the different types of MPs that are found in its soil. 2019 saw the discovery by
Lv et al. (2019) of a significant amount of MPs derived from polypropylene (PP)
and polyethylene (PE) in Chinese agricultural soil. However, PVC was discovered
in considerable quantities in soil samples collected from an industrial location in
Australia (Fuller & Gautam, 2016).

2.2 Sources of Soil Microplastics

MPs can originate from many different places, travel swiftly through the soil
ecosystem, and evolve over time.

2.2.1 The Extensive Usage of Agricultural Films

A common kind of plastic film in the agriculture sector is called agricultural films.
Film products for agriculture are made from polyethene and polyvinyl chloride.
While PVC film has excellent heat insulation qualities but comparatively low light
transmittance, PE film is distinguished by its lightweight design and high light trans-
mission. Furthermore, hazardous and poisonous materials are released during the
burning of PVC film (Singh et al., 2017). China’s economy, which is based mostly
on agriculture, is using more agricultural films every year. As to the findings of Espí
et al. (2006), there was a 15% rise in China’s usage of agricultural film between
1991 and 2004, exhibiting a 30% annual growth rate. China’s overall use of agricul-
tural plastic film increased by 41% between 2006 and 2015, from 1.85 × 106 metric
Microplastics in Soils and Sediments 297

tons to 2.60 × 106 metric tons. Worldwide agricultural film coverage is predicted
to expand by 5.7% as a result of the extensive marketing and application of film-
mulching agriculture technology, according to Brodhagen et al. (2017). A significant
accumulation of abandoned agricultural film would accumulate in the environment
over time due to the inadequate rate of recovery and reutilization. Its resilience and
propensity to produce plastic trash make it a significant contributor to the MPs found
in agricultural soil.

2.2.2 Sewage Sludge

According to an assessment of Clyde River sewage treatment facilities, 15.7 ± 5.23

MPs particles per liter of entering wastewater were found to be present. After sewage
treatment, the MPs level of the effluent was decreased to 0.25 ± 0.04 particles per liter,
indicating an elimination effectiveness above 98%. Nonetheless, the MPs that were
removed did not undergo appreciable degradation and were maintained in the sludge
(Mintenig et al., 2017; Murphy et al., 2016). Sludge may be utilized as an important
part of the composting process and subsequently put into agricultural soil to increase
its productivity. Sludge has a considerable amount of nitrogen (N), phosphorous (P),
and other soil-modifying ingredients. Considering sludge application, the amount of
MPs detected in sludge in Europe and North America was 6.3 × 104 tons and 43 ×
104 tons, respectively. Ng et al. (2018) estimate that sludge application in Australia
may yield anywhere between 2.8 × 103 tons and 1.9 × 104 tons of MPs. According
to Hall’s, 1995 research, Finland and Ireland employ up to 72% of their sludge
for agricultural purposes. Consequently, the application of waste as a fertilizer to
the soil will lead to the buildup of MPs. Furthermore, scientific investigations have
demonstrated that sediment comprises hazardous substances, including medicinal
antibiotics, toxic metals, persistent organic compounds, pathogenic bacteria, and
parasitic eggs. The accumulation of detrimental compounds and worm eggs on the
surface of MPs present in the environment may exacerbate soil contamination. At
present, there is a scarcity of substantial research findings and considerable debate
regarding the matter of MP-induced soil contamination (Rillig et al., 2017).

2.2.3 Irrigation Water

Treated sewage, surface water, or groundwater are utilized for agriculture in many
developing countries with insufficient water supplies. Urbanization, population
growth, and climate change are making the water problems worse. Farms are increas-
ingly being irrigated by untreated sewage. Mintenig et al. (2017) estimate that 20
million hectares of cultivable land are irrigated with untreated or inadequately treated
sewage globally. According to Corcoran et al. (2010), 10% of the world’s popula-
tion eats polluted, wastewater-grown food. The primary sources of MPs in house-
hold sewage are detergents and personal hygiene products. Lei et al. (2017) discov-
ered MPs, predominantly polyethylene, in face cleansers and shower gels. Multiple
298 P. Pandey and A. P. Gupta

approaches are being used to study MPs in aquatic environments. When surface
water is utilized for irrigation in agriculture, certain MPs are present. In surface
waterways, MPs are disseminated extensively. Numerous studies have connected
soil MP contamination to surface water. Rubber from road tires has the ability to
separate from the environment or spill into the ground next to a road, as noted by
Kim et al., (2004, 2006). The yearly emissions of tire dust in Germany and Sweden
are estimated by researchers to be 1.1 × 104 metric tons and 1.0 × 104 metric tons,
respectively. The actual results deviate from the estimate of plastic garbage world-
wide. Scientific research on plastic contamination has been done in great detail. The
infiltration of plastic garbage into soil ecosystems is a serious problem that needs
international attention.

2.2.4 Atmospheric Deposition

MPs can enter soil ecosystems through air deposition. In 2016, Dris et al. studied
Paris’ atmospheric conditions and found something unusual. They found that 3–10
metric tons of fibrous MPs were deposited every day through the atmosphere. Fibers
comprised 90% of these MPs. Half of these fibers were greater than 1,000 μm.
Multiple researchers studied fiber MPs in atmospheric deposition. 50% are natural
fibers, 21% are processed natural fibers, 17% are synthetic plastic fibers, and 12% are
synthetic mixed fibers (Dris et al., 2016). Thus, to better study MPs in the atmosphere,
one must understand their temporal and geographical dispersion, their movement in
the atmosphere, and their influences.

3 Ecotoxicological Effects of MPs on Soil Environments

The combinatorial toxicity of co-transported pollutants and the microplastics them-

selves is primarily responsible for the ecotoxicological consequences of MPs in soil,
which have an impact on plants, soil microbes, and animals.

3.1 Microplastics’ Effects on Soil Creatures

Many studies assessing the toxicological impacts of microplastics on soil organisms

use earthworms, and much of the work is done in controlled laboratory settings. Expo-
sure studies have been carried out by researchers to evaluate the impact of varying MP
concentrations on earthworms. According to Huerta Lwanga et al. (2016), exposure
to dry soil containing 0.2–1.2% MPs resulted in higher death rates and slower growth
rates. In a similar vein, Wang et al. (2019) discovered that earthworms exposed to MP
concentrations ranging from 1 to 20% had increased tissue damage and lipid peroxi-
dation. The amounts of 0.2, 0.4, 0.5, and 1.2% were deemed ecologically significant
Microplastics in Soils and Sediments 299

by the researchers. The scientists maintained a constant soil moisture content of

20% and an experimental temperature of about 20 °C. There appears to be a clear
correlation between earthworm consumption and the number of MPs present in the
environment. However, this increase in eating is correlated with a significant decrease
in earthworm body mass. Zhu et al. (2018) have demonstrated that the microbiota of
the digestive tract of earthworms undergoes alterations when there is an abundance
of MPs. Furthermore, earthworms suffer from these tiny plastic particles, which have
an impact on the terrestrial biological system.

3.2 Microplastics’ Effects on Soil Microbes

MPs significantly influence soil microorganisms’ microbial populations and enzyme

function (Awet et al., 2018; Qian et al., 2018). Catalytic soil enzymes can reveal the
fertility of the soil. The environment frequently has a big influence on their behaviour.
Enzymatic activity in the soil is impacted by MP pH changes. They limit oxygen
transmission by altering the porosity and moisture content of the soil. The proportion
of aerobic to anaerobic bacteria is altered as a result (Guo et al., 2020). It mostly
affects the microbial ecology in the vicinity of plant roots. Plant development and
soil quality can be impacted by reductions in soil fertility caused by modifications
in microbial community abundance and enzyme activity.

3.3 Microplastics’ Effects on Soil-Based Vegetation

Plant development is influenced by MPs in both direct and indirect ways. Thus,
they have an effect on plant development by indirectly disrupting soil fauna and
microorganisms. Additionally, plant roots are directly impacted by MPs. Bosker et al.
(2019) identified an adverse impact on seed germination caused by the existence of
soil MPs in their preliminary investigations. Furthermore, an increase in the size of
MP particles over a period of 8–24 h subsequent to germination was observed to have
a more pronounced adverse effect on seed germination. Presumably, the detrimental
consequence originates from MP particulates that obstruct seed stomata physically.
Specifically polystyrene, crop roots are capable of absorbing and accumulating MPs.
The processes described lead to alterations in the quality of the roots, the overall
biomass of the plant, and the composition of tissue components (Hao et al., 2021).
In summary, the ecological ramifications of MPs contamination in soil could
potentially jeopardize human health and the integrity of the terrestrial ecosystem
(He et al., 2019). Therefore, it is imperative to undertake comprehensive research on
the ecological impacts and mechanisms by which MPs affect soil media in order to
efficiently address the problem of pervasive MP contamination.
300 P. Pandey and A. P. Gupta

4 Microplastics’ Effects on Nutrient Cycling

The MP contamination present in natural ecosystems may pose a risk to nutrient

cycling. Nutrient cycling is an intricate process that involves the interchange and
circulation of various nutrients throughout the Earth’s ecosystem, occurring both
within and between inanimate entities and living organisms. Nutrients are known
to exist in diverse chemical states, including gaseous (N2 , CO2 ), inorganic (NH4 + ,
NO3 − , SO4 2− , H2 PO4 − ), and organic (incorporated into a vast array of carbon-
based compounds found in living or deceased organisms or their byproducts) ions
(e.g., apatite, the primary mineral containing phosphorus) (Lavelle et al., 2005).
Natural ecosystems are characterized by the enduring stability of the macronutrients
carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus. The equilibrium of nutrients can be considerably
impacted by alterations in natural ecosystems. Huang et al. (2019) provide evidence
that a decrease in the soil carbon reservoir disrupts the balance between carbon
and nitrogen ratios in the soil, thereby influencing the phosphorus content and the
amount of phosphorus available for microbial utilization. This segment examines the
profound disruptions to nutrition cycles caused by MP contamination.

4.1 Soil Nitrogen Cycling

Carbon dioxide is transferred from the atmosphere to the land and ocean via the
nitrogen cycle, during which it undergoes a diversity of chemical transformations.
Nutrient fixation, denitrification, nitrification, and mineralization are the five primary
phases of the soil nitrogen cycle (McNeill & Unkovich, 2007).
N fixation is the biological or commercial conversion of atmospheric N2 into reac-
tive N. Reactive nitrogen is easily absorbed or transformed by biological systems
due to its binding to hydrogen (NH3 , NH4 + ), oxygen (NOx , NO3 − , N2 O), and carbon
(organic N). Plant and microbial absorption of mineral nitrogen (N) comes from soil
organic matter decomposition in the plant root zone, the largest N pool. Organic
nitrogen can mineralize into ammonium ions (NH4 + ). Organic waste decomposi-
tion is largely aided by soil fauna and bacteria. Soil organic matter decomposition
releases nitrogen that plants and microbes may use. Plants and microbes die, while
grazing animals excrete dung and urine, replenishing soil nitrogen. Mineralization-
immobilization turnover (MIT) converts mineral nitrogen into organic nitrogen or
vice versa. Jansson and Persson (1982) offer the reference. In nitrification, soil ammo-
nium is transformed into nitrite (NO2 − ) and oxidized into nitrate (NO3 − ). Denitri-
fication, the fifth step of the nitrogen cycle, includes microorganisms converting
ionic nitrogen oxides (NO3 − and NO2 − ) to N2 using gaseous oxides (NO and N2 O)
(Knowles et al., 1982).
Microplastics in Soils and Sediments 301

4.2 Carbon Cycling in Soil

MPs are crucial for fortifying the soil with carbon derived from sources other than
plants (Rillig & Lehmann, 2020). MPs are predominantly composed of carbon. Due
to their incorporation with organic molecules and minerals, the majority of MPs in
soil become immobile. MS-formed soil aggregates disrupt the natural carbon cycle
in the following ways: Zhou et al. (2021b) assert that they alter the decomposi-
tion process, introduce additional carbon sources, influence microbial development
and function, impact plant growth, and alter the distribution of carbon derived from
plants. Compaction products (MPs) have been found to elevate soil organic matter
(SOM) and dissolved organic carbon (DOC) levels (Liu et al., 2017). Additionally,
MPs inhibit the growth of naturally occurring SOM (Chen et al., 2020). However,
depending on their properties, MPs either promote or impede the natural decomposi-
tion of SOM. (Zhou et al., 2021a) MPs comprised of biodegradable polymers promote
the decomposition of organic compounds in soil by providing adequate carbon for
microbial growth and activity. They may negatively impact SOM decomposition by
concurrently increasing DOC levels (Rillig et al., 2021).
The amount of MPs supplied influences the carbon cycle through its ability to
absorb and release carbon dioxide (CO2 ). This cycle involves both the atmosphere
and soil. To illustrate, the introduction of 10% polythene and PVC particles led to a
reduction in soil carbon content while concurrently augmenting the supply of carbon
to the roots. With the addition of PE, however, no discernible change occurred. In
contrast, Zang et al. (2020) found that the incorporation of carbon into the soil was
enhanced through rhizodeposition and root growth promotion induced by the addition
of 1–5% PVC powder. In addition, the rate of colonization by Arbuscular mycor-
rhizal fungi (AMF) is contingent upon the carbon distribution. This variability has
significant implications for critical carbon cycle processes such as rhizodeposition,
photosynthetic activity, and organic carbon storage (Zhou et al., 2021b; 2021b).
The mineralization of low-molecular-weight carbon in soil is unaffected by the
addition of MPs made of PE and PVC, according to Zang et al (2020). The amount
of dissolved organic matter (DOM) in soil was not significantly impacted by PVC,
according to Yu et al. (2021a). A key factor influencing the rates of SOM decompo-
sition in soil is the number of microbial communities present. For example, 1% w/
w PE applied to paddy soil decreased microbial activity and carbon consumption,
whereas 0.01% w/w PE added caused SOM to dissolve (Xiao et al., 2021). Xiao et al.
(2021) also found that MPs applied to paddy soil improved carbon storage without
affecting the breakdown of exogenous substrates containing carbon, such as glucose
and rice straw.
302 P. Pandey and A. P. Gupta

4.3 Soil Phosphorous Content

MPs are capable of exerting a substantial influence on the overall phosphorus content
of soil. According to Yu et al. (2021a), the aggregate phosphorous content was signif-
icantly reduced when PS and PVC MPs were utilised. Conversely, the incorporation
of plasticized PVC MPs into acidic red soil resulted in an elevation of the phosphorus
content accessible for utilisation, thereby expediting the phosphorus cycle within the
soil (Yan et al., 2021). The availability of phosphorus in soil is enhanced through
organic phosphorus conversion and inorganic phosphorus dissolution, respectively
(Qu et al., 2020).

5 Detection of Microplastics in Soils

Unexpectedly many methods for the qualitative, quantitative, or combination analysis

of MPs within environmental samples have been devised since their recognition in
academic circles has increased. When implemented on soil samples, certain detection
methods may prove to be efficacious.

5.1 Techniques Relying on Visual Recognition

The initial and foundational method of MP analysis involved the visual identification
of substances using a light microscope (Day et al., 1989; Shaw & Day, 1994). With
rates of error ranging from 20 to 70%, this procedure is, nevertheless, extremely
biassed (Hidalgo-Ruz et al., 2012). The “hot needle test,” which utilises the thermo-
plastic properties of certain synthetic polymers, is proposed in some publications as
a way to alleviate the drawbacks associated with the sole visual distinction between
plastic and natural particles (Campbell et al., 2017; Lusher et al., 2017; Roch &
Brinker, 2017; Silva et al., 2018). Expanding upon this notion, Zhang et al. (2018)
presented a straightforward methodology for identifying low-density polymers in
soils: Following a water-based density separation, the supernatant residue is exam-
ined under a contrasting microscope using images captured prior to and subsequent
to subjecting the sample to a thermal cycle of 130 °C for 3–5 s. After this, thermo-
plastic polymers are recognised as the molten particulates. Although this identifica-
tion method is straightforward and functional in the majority of field laboratories, it
is destructive, unable to determine the precise type of polymer, and overlooks high-
density and thermosetting polymers. Furthermore, it disregards the melting point of
certain natural substances, such as wax.
Microplastics in Soils and Sediments 303

5.2 Thermogravimetric Analysis

Analysing the variation in sample mass as a function of temperature is the primary

objective of thermogravimetric analysis (Majewsky et al., 2016). MPs exhibit distinct
patterns of weight loss in comparison to other constituents of the soil. Accurately
predicting the correlation between MPs and temperature is possible by utilising the
temperature at which pyrolysis takes place. Weight loss between 600 and 800 °C
may also be attributed to the degradation of MP surface attachments, given that the
polymer degrades at approximately 500 °C. The rapid determination of attachment
types, content, and MPs is possible through the utilisation of thermogravimetric
spectroscopy. TGA-MS stands for thermogravimetric analysis-mass spectrometry,
TGA-FTIR represents thermogravimetric analysis-Fourier transform infrared spec-
troscopy, and TGA-GC–MS signifies thermogravimetric analysis-mass spectrom-
etry. These are all prevalent techniques within the field of thermogravimetric spec-
troscopy. A 100 mg injection volume is required to guarantee injection consistency
(Mansa & Zou, 2021). According to Duemichen et al. (2017), this approach has
the capability to conduct qualitative and quantitative evaluations of substances, such
as complex components like soil MPs, within a maximum of two to three hours.
Nevertheless, overlapping infrared signals emitted by the pyrolytic compounds in
MPs complicate the quantitative analysis of MPs, as demonstrated by research. The
quantitative analysis of soil MPs, including PE, PP, and PVC, can be accomplished
using TGA-FTIR-GC–MS. David et al. (2018) state that in order to further decrease
result variation, it is critical to select suitable indicators and pretreatment procedures
for distinct environmental samples.

5.3 X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy

In X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), a sample is subjected to X-rays, which

excite the valence or inner electrons of atoms or molecules to liberate energy. The
electron energy is evaluated to ascertain the chemical composition of the sample
(Yang et al., 2022). This makes it possible to ascertain the makeup of particle surfaces
without causing any damage to them. XPS has been used to quantify the changes
in MP particles prior to as well as after light withering (Hu et al., 2020). After
96 h, oxygen-containing functional groups like OH and CO were present on the
MPs surface. In order to recover the carbon oxide functional groups created by
photodegradation, LDPE subjected to UV light underwent quantitative XPS anal-
ysis (Bonyadinejad et al., 2022). When IR and Raman must be used to capture the
alterations that take place both before and during MP aging, the study’s complexity
increases. XPS is more sensitive to surface information detection and has a higher
resolution than IR and Raman spectroscopy but requiring larger sample sizes.
304 P. Pandey and A. P. Gupta

5.4 Matrix-Assisted Laser Desorption Ionization

Time-of-Flight Mass Spectrum

MaLDI-TOF–MS has been utilised to identify and ionise intact molecules with a high
molecular weight (Badia et al., 2011). This is a task for which MALDI-TOF–MS is
an efficient method. MALDI-MS confirmed the existence of MPs through the iden-
tification of MP oligomers. Further MS analysis is facilitated by the ensuing random
division of the polymer chains, according to Luo et al. (2022). In oligomers, which are
short monomer chains that produce periodic patterns in MS spectra, the m/z difference
is indicative of the monomer unit, according to Luo et al. (2022). Different polymers
are represented by peaks that are discernible in the MS spectrogram database (Badia
et al., 2011). MALDI-TOF–MS is a highly regarded technique for the detection and
quantification of recently introduced pollutants in the environment due to its excep-
tional sensitivity and user-friendly nature. The utilisation of MALDI-TOF–MS has
enabled the identification of MPs in river sediments. The quantification correlation
curve can be employed to ascertain the PS and PET concentrations in the sample.
Lower-molecular-weight and higher-molecular-weight plastics exhibit correlation
coefficients between the normalised signal and their respective plastic concentra-
tions that exceed 0.960 and 0.980. The inadequate quantitative capabilities of this
method are a consequence of its inaccuracy in detecting mixed samples. Conse-
quently, more attention should be given to the precision of pretreatment throughout
actual detection so as to minimise disruption from other compounds in the sample. It
is thus critical to modify the composition, concentration, and technique of matrix and
sample combining in order to enhance the accuracy and efficacy of MP detection.

5.5 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance

In order to ascertain the quantity, nature, and spatial proximity of specific atoms
within a molecule, nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) employs resonance spectra
generated by fluctuations in the energy level of the molecule or nucleus. Ceccarini
et al. (2018) suggest that NMR can be employed in conjunction with mass spec-
trometry to further elucidate the chemical composition of polymer particles. 1.50–
1.00 mm PE, 500 μm PET, and less than 300 μm PS particles were quantified in
a granulated model sample by means of 1 H-qNMR (Peez et al., 2019). With this
method, the detection limit is not influenced by the particle size. While its application
in MP characterization is infrequent, it is considered a potentially valuable adjunct
in the investigation of MPs in soil.
Microplastics in Soils and Sediments 305

6 Soil Microplastic Prevention Measures

It is anticipated that the presence of MPs in soil ecosystems will continue to increase
for an extended period of time. This can be attributed to several factors, including the
expansion of production, the increasing prevalence of MPs (Hahladakis et al., 2018a,
2018b; Thompson et al., 2015), resistance to degradation, and the present abundance
of substantial quantities. In order to eradicate MP pollution and the associated risks,
therefore, potential control and remediation solutions are urgently required.
By reducing the utilisation and disposal of plastic materials at their origin, it is
vital to prevent an overabundance of MPs in the soil environment. European and
American governments have implemented policies and legislation with the aim of
regulating the origin of plastic products. As per a 2015 proposal by the United Nations
Environment Programme, the incorporation of plastic microbeads into cosmetics
and personal hygiene products was criminalised and prohibited on a global scale. In
2016, following the categorization of plastic microbeads as hazardous contaminants,
the “Regulations on Plastic Microbeads in Cosmetics” were promulgated by the
Canadian Federal Government. Italy intended to implement a ban on the utilisation
of cotton swabs that do not meet the criteria for being recyclable and biodegradable by
2020. Since then, the incorporation of plastic particles into cosmetics, such as natural
health products and over-the-counter medications, has been strictly prohibited. On the
heels of the “Emergency Notice on Immediate Cessation of Production of Disposable
Foamed Plastic Tableware,” the “Plastic Restriction Order” was implemented in
China in 2000. In response to the December 31, 2007 publication of the “Plastic
Restriction Order,” the notice prohibiting the manufacture and sale of plastic shopping
bags was issued. The implementation of biodegradable films and the recycling of
agricultural film waste were both recommended in the Soil Pollution Prevention and
Control Action Plan of the State Council, which was published on May 28, 2016, and
the Soil Pollution Prevention and Control Law of the People’s Republic of China,
which was enacted on August 31, 2018. China is at the moment engaged in the
execution of initiatives aimed at categorising and overseeing municipal waste. Each
approach to plastic waste management is specifically engineered to diminish the
amount of plastic debris that affects the environment.
One potential strategy for mitigating the introduction of MPs into soil ecosystems
via effluent irrigation is the incorporation of MP removal methods into wastewater
treatment processes. It is critical that MP removal technology continue to advance.
In recent years, bioremediation has received considerable attention in the absence
of MPs due to its capacity to conserve energy and protect the environment. Biore-
mediation involves the utilisation of microorganisms to facilitate the degradation of
polymer polymers, which serve as a carbon source and provide energy to the microbes
(Caruso et al., 2015). Yang et al. (2014) reported the discovery of two bacterial isolates
capable of degrading PE in the intestines of Indian mealmoth larvae (Plodia inter-
punctella): Enterobacter absuriae YT1 and Bacillus sp. YP1. Previous studies have
reported the ability of mealworm larvae (specifically, the larvae of Tenebrio molitor
Linnaeus) and Exugiobacterium sp. YT2, which was isolated from the intestines of
306 P. Pandey and A. P. Gupta

mealworms, to degrade polystyrene (PS) (Yang et al., 2015a, 2015b). Mealworms

are capable of mineralizing and depolymerizing PS into CO2. Mealworms’ ability
to degrade chemically distinct polymers, including PE and mixtures (PE + PS),
as demonstrated by Brandon et al. (2018), suggests that mealworm gastrointestinal
microorganisms might not be plastic specific. Additionally, a robust correlation was
observed between PE and PS and the intestinal microbiota of mealworms, particularly
Citrobacter sp. and Kosakonia sp. Additional studies have demonstrated that plas-
tics can be degraded by the bacterial species Pseudomonas putida and Rhodococcus
ruber (Caruso et al., 2015; Mor & Sivan, 2008). Potentially capable of bioreme-
diating soil contaminated with MPs are these bacteria. Nonetheless, the potential
dangers that accompany MP removal via bioremediation must be carefully consid-
ered. Terrestrial invertebrates and other specific ecological targets may be adversely
affected by persistent residues of resilient pollutants, the discharge of sorbed pollu-
tants, and the generation of hazardous secondary metabolites of plastics throughout
the bioremediation procedure, according to the research of Andersson et al. (2009)
and Ortega-Calvo et al. (2013).

7 The Future Focus and Trajectory of Soil MPs Research

1. An Extensive Investigation of the Intricate Workings of Microplastics’ Movement

in Soil Media

At this time, the extant literature concerning the migration patterns of MPs in soil
medium is insufficiently comprehensive (Bo et al., 2023), and a clear understanding
of the migration process is scarce. Further investigation is required to ascertain the
mechanism through which MP carriers convey additional contaminants. The migra-
tory patterns of MPs in soil media may be investigated in the future by employing
the isotope tracing technique to quantify their migration times at different soil levels.
2. Deepen Studies into Methods for Removing Microplastics from Soil
Since frequently, the soil environment is more intricate than the aquatic environment,
as stated by Moller et al. (2020). In general, it is richer in organic matter, including
fiber and remaining plant refuse. Moreover, contaminants such as bitumen and grit
may accumulate on the surface of the soil adjacent to the roadway on both sides.
The extraction or separation of MPs from intricate soil ecosystems is an essential
component in determining the origins, dispersion, and quantity of MPs present in
soil. Meixner et al. (2020) state that at present, there exists an absence of state-of-
the-art technologies capable of efficiently extracting or segregating MPs from soil.
an urgent issue that requires immediate attention.
3. Development of a Microplastic Pollution Evaluation Method and Risk Assess-
ment Model
Microplastics in Soils and Sediments 307

Determining the risk of heavy metal contamination in soil has been the subject of
substantial advancements in previous studies (Cui et al., 2022; Xiaoli et al., 2007).
Nevertheless, a significant deficiency exists in the establishment of quality evaluation
standards and ecological risk assessment models for MP contamination (Henseler
et al., 2022). This issue also presents a peril to soil. The establishment of an assess-
ment framework to quantify the prevalence of plastic and the prompt harmonization
of international standards for determining the concentration of MPs in soil should
receive more attention.
4. Offer Practical Recommendations for Managing and Mitigating Soil
Microplastic Contamination
The three components of data support necessitate a practical and scientifically sound
strategy for reducing MP contamination in soil. Source, end, and local govern-
ment stakeholders should work together to develop this strategy. Reduce the use
of superfluous plastics initially. It is imperative to utilize environmentally sustain-
able processes in the production of biodegradable plastic compost, films, bags, and
other related products. To ensure the success of recycling, conventional plastics must
be recycled expeditiously. Prevention and education initiatives at the national level
are vital.
There has been a growing emphasis in MP research on the terrestrial system.
Investigating the abiotic sources of soil MPs is most effectively conducted in the
expansive, pristine arid interior. However, few publications and studies have been
conducted on this subject. Badain Jaran (Wang et al., 2021), Mu Us (Ding et al., 2021),
and Kavir (Abbasi et al., 2021) are arid regions located in Inner Mongolia and Iran,
respectively. These investigations provided evidence that arid MPs are formed as a
result of sand and wind deposition, with long-distance air travel serving as a facilitator
in this process. The establishment of an international network of arid MPs remains
inadequate. Mixture pollutants (MPs) and polar regions, deserts, and the Qinghai-
Tibet Plateau have been the subject of research. Although these locations possess
ecological and environmental significance, that fact is not accounted for in this study.
Therefore, future research on soil MPs should prioritize environmentally sensitive
regions such as deserts, the arctic, and the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau. The environment
must be taken into account with regard to the polygonometric consequences of MP
contamination.

8 Conclusion

The effects of MPs on soil ecosystems are critical topics within a rapidly expanding
field of study. The impacts of MPs on the plant and animal life that inhabit soil envi-
ronments have been the subject of scientific inquiry. Recent research has identified
serious concerns regarding the adverse impacts of soil containing MP, including its
detrimental effects on plant and animal life, in addition to its chemical and physical
308 P. Pandey and A. P. Gupta

properties. Through their deleterious effects on soil enzymatic activity, microorgan-

isms, and other species, MPs endanger biogeochemical and ecological processes in
the soil. The presence or absence of MP in the soil has an effect on both agricultural
productivity and plant development. The impact of MPs on the transmutation of
pollutants in the soil environment is still the subject of an abundance of unanswered
questions. Mitigating microbial activity and disrupting nutrient-soil interactions are
potential consequences of additive incorporation into MPs; consequently, nutrient
accessibility for biological processes may be diminished. MPs can have an impact
on the availability and reaction of nutrients for biological processes by altering the
physical, chemical, and biological properties of the soil. Additionally, due to the
lack of comprehensive examination, further investigation is justified regarding the
transport patterns of MP in soil. Furthermore, research into techniques for sepa-
rating or eradicating microplastics from soil must be expedited. This will facilitate
the development of more efficiency-enhancing risk assessment models and facilitate
the creation of a standardised procedure for evaluating MP contamination. Further
study is necessary in order to gain a comprehensive understanding of the dangers that
arise from the contamination of the soil ecosystem with MPs and other contaminants,
which can affect soil, plants, and animals.

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Microplastics in Wetland Ecosystem:
A Complex Nexus and Way Forward

Avinash Pratap Gupta and Piyush Pandey

Abstract The most recent non-biodegradable contaminants in natural ecosystems

are micro-plastics. Due to of its small diameters (less than 1 mm), it has an influence
on both people and wildlife, especially aquatic species. In addition to being prevalent
in freshwater ecosystems like those found in lakes, reservoirs, river basins, wetlands,
and even moist agricultural areas and groundwater, micro-plastics are also frequently
found in marine habitats. This study focuses on the main sources, identification, and
estimation of micro-plastics in wetlands. Because microplastic pollution is perva-
sive in aquatic habitats and there is mounting proof that it has harmful biological
impacts, this pollution is alarming. Micro-plastics are frequently found in the forms
of fibres (thread), foams, and plastic pellets in wetland habitats. In the presence of
the four types of micro-plastics, soil pH was not considerably impacted, but organic
matter, potassium, total nitrogen, and phosphorus altered dramatically. The richness
and diversity of algae on the soil surface greatly increased when polystyrene micro-
plastics were introduced to the soil. So, when soil microbial communities are altered
by micro-plastics, some unique soil microbial species engaged in nitrogen cycle are
enriched. These findings show that plastic residues have both direct and indirect
effects on the plant–microbe-soil system, with possible further repercussions on the
health of wetland ecosystems. Our study aims to report the existence of microplas-
tics in the wetland environment and how they are ingested by lifeforms. There is
requirement of more research to completely analyse the impact of micro-plastic
contamination in the wetland ecosystem.

Keywords Micro-plastics · Nitrogen cycle · Wetland · Plastic pellets · Aquatic

species · Microbial community

A. P. Gupta (B)
Commission On Ecosystem Management (CEM), IUCN, Ambikapur, India
e-mail: avi.gupta005@gmail.com
P. Pandey
Department of Environmental Science, Sant Gahira Guru University, Ambikapur, India

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 317
J. C. Egbueri et al. (eds.), Microplastics in African and Asian Environments, Emerging
Contaminants and Associated Treatment Technologies,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-64253-1_16
318 A. P. Gupta and P. Pandey

1 Introduction

Wetlands, one of the planet’s three main ecosystems, provide around 40% of its
services and activities, including biogenic habitats, nitrogen cycling, and ground-
water recharge (Pendleton et al., 2020). They support the local economy in addition
to being significant environmentally. A fifth of the world’s natural organic carbon
is exported by wetlands. Additionally, for aquatic life, wetlands, especially riverine
wetlands, are crucial habitats and food sources. Every wetlands share a common
characteristic of having varying water levels, a desalination site for briny water,
substantial primary as well as secondary productivity, a high transfer of resources to
other ecosystems, and a function as bird nesting and security. Along with providing
economic services for humans, it also serves as a landfill, a pathway for terrestrial
animals, and a gene bank for numerous plant and animal species. Wetlands are also
valued by society for their historical significance in preserving the climate, for leisure
and relaxation, and as a place to dispose of solid waste. Hence, wetlands have a more
significant role in global processes than the estimation of their aerial expanse. it helps
produce biomass, of which animals make up a significant portion despite their small
size (Andrady, 2011). On the other hand, wetlands might be a significant source of
micro-plastics via surface runoff, sewage discharge, and plastic debris (Qian et al.,
2020; Reynolds & Ryan, 2018).
Plastics are a versatile, flexible, resistant, and cost-effective material widely used
in modern society due to their versatility and affordability. Plastics have become
essential materials for a wide range of technical, industrial, and health uses over
the last seventy years, thanks to their distinctive qualities(Andrady & Neal, 2009;
Ryan, 2015). Because plastic garbage is so common in estuaries, beaches, and seas,
it has become a serious environmental problem. Micro-plastics are plastic fragments
lesser than 5 mm in any dimensions (MSFD GES Technical Subgroup on Marine
Litte, 2013). These particles have been identified as a potential threat to aquatic
ecosystems and may have negative health effects on humans (Van Cauwenberghe &
Janssen, 2014).
Freshwaters have been identified as critical to the impacts of micro-plastics and
as pathways for emissions to the oceans (Horton et al., 2017; Vaughan et al., 2017).
Cities and highway stormwater runoff are direct conduits for land-based micro-
plastics into freshwaters. However, they have received relatively little research atten-
tion and have only been loosely quantified (Rochman, 2018). Among the ecosystems
with the greatest productivity are coastal wetlands, which support significant wildlife
populations and serve as vital habitats for a variety of creatures (Barbier et al., 2011).
Due to being inappropriate for development or cultivation, most coastal wetlands see
minimal anthropogenic damage. Recent research, however, indicates that MPs are
highly abundant in salt marsh and mangrove environments, indicating that wetland
vegetation serves as an efficient MP retention medium (Li et al., 2018; Nor & Obbard,
2014). Due to a lack of monitoring data, insufficient research has been done despite
the fact that coastal wetlands are thought to be a significant sink for MPs (Zhang,
2017).
Microplastics in Wetland Ecosystem: A Complex Nexus and Way Forward 319

The manufacturing of plastics surpassed 300 million tonnes in 2013, and by

2050, it is predicted to reach 33 billion tonnes (Law, 2017). Plastic waste is
mostly composed of synthetic polymers (Ryan, 2015). The oceans are home to
about 5 trillion particles of plastic garbage, which weigh over 250,000 tonnes and
pose a serious threat to marine life (Eriksen et al., 2014; Jambeck et al., 2015;
Thompson, 2004). Numerous sources, including rivers, storm drainage systems, wind
currents, and wastewater that flows directly into aquatic ecosystems, aggravate this
problem (Moore, 2008). These micro-plastics can originate from primary sources,
like microbeads, pellets, films from cosmetics and personal care products, or from
secondary sources, like larger plastics weathering and laundry detergent (Andrady,
2011; Crawford & Quinn, 2016; Wagner & Lambert, 2018).
Due to their potential to directly or indirectly impact aquatic life upon ingestion
and subsequent transfer into the food chain, these particles are regarded as envi-
ronmental concerns in bodies of water (Crooks et al., 2019; Zhang et al., 2019).
These massive plastic fragments, often called macroplastics, typically weather into
tiny pieces in the natural world. They can be divided into three groups according
to their size range: mesoplastics, or particulates greater than 5 mm, the micro-
plastics or particles lesser below 5 mm and nanoplastics that are smaller than 1
µm. Specifically, micro-plastics (MPs) are the end product of many mechanisms,
including hydrolysis, mechanical impact against rocks and sand, UV light, and other
processes, which break down large plastics into smaller bits (Rochman et al., 2015;
Wang et al., 2017). In contrast to those previously created in a microscopic size
for commercial use or consumer reasons (e.g., microbeads from personal care prod-
ucts), these MPs are generally referred to as additional MPs (Andrady, 2011; Barnes
et al., 2009; Thompson et al., 2009). Because aquatic species can absorb polymers
(MPs), which can lead to biological accumulation and/or a phenomenon known as
bio-magnification, MPs are particularly concerning. The low degradability of plas-
tics, their ability to release chemical compounds (like hazardous additives), and their
potential to act as a conduit for other pollutants, propagating their detrimental effects,
are additional factors that raise the possibility of plastic pollution in aquatic envi-
ronments (Teuten et al., 2009). Furthermore, some studies have connected MPs to
oxidative stress, metabolic and energy imbalances, and other physical alterations in
reproductive biology (Chen et al., 2019; Da Costa et al., 2016; Paul-Pont et al., 2018;
Payton et al., 2020; Wright et al., 2013). Since they’re smaller in size, aquatic species
with a variety of ecological characteristics can absorb these toxins and their additions
(Saley et al., 2019).
Due of their diminutive size, MPs are challenging to identify in water. Visual
inspection is always the first step in the identification and study of MPs. Other
methods used include Raman spectroscopy, FTIR (Fourier-transform infrared spec-
troscopy), Pyrolysis mass spectrometry using gas chromatography (Pyro GC–MS),
and so forth (Li et al., 2018; Pico & Barcelo, 2019).
320 A. P. Gupta and P. Pandey

1.1 Objectives

With a focus on wetlands specifically, this chapter offers a comprehensive review

of the prevalence, pathways, and impacts of microplastics in aquatic environments.
The most commonly detected MP particles (80%) are polyethylene (PE), polypropy-
lene (PP), polystyrene, or PS, polyvinyl-chlorides (PVC), polyurethane (PUR) and
PET (polyethylene terephthalate). Depending on the collecting sites, pre-treatment,
and identification analytical procedures, there are certain variances in these Micro-
plastic particulate types, such as copolymer compositions (Plastics Europe, 2016;
Weithmann et al., 2018).

2 Potential Pathways and Prevalence of Micro-plastics

There are many possible pathways for the absorption of micro-plastics. Through
breathing, regular feeding activities, or exposure to contaminated sediments, species
may consume plastic. They can be directly absorbed from the surrounding envi-
ronment or through the ingestion of contaminated prey; uptake can be passive in
unselective species like detritivores or selective in creatures hunting planktonic prey.
Many species may be at danger of regular microplastic uptake and its related damage
as a result of relationships between organism and microplastic particles becoming
increasingly common as environmental concentrations of micro-plastics rise. The
potential pathways of some micro-plastics in the wetland can be illustrated in Fig. 1.

Fig. 1 Pathways of micro-plastics in wetlands. Source NERC, https://encounteredu.com/multim

edia/images/sources-of-micro-plastics
Microplastics in Wetland Ecosystem: A Complex Nexus and Way Forward 321

Three potential pathways have been identified for the introduction of micro-
plastics into freshwater systems:
1. Wastewater treatment plant effluent discharge.
2. Overflow of wastewater sewers during heavy precipitation events, and
3. Runoff from sewage solids utilised on cropland (Eriksen et al., 2013).
The transfer of micro-plastics from ground into bodies of water can also be accel-
erated by storms and other extreme weather conditions (Cole et al., 2011). Freshwater
MPs pollution is closely linked to the terrestrial ecology, as rivers pass through towns
and cities and dump sewage and effluent from plastics-related industries (Wong et al.,
2020).
Farmland is another significant terrestrial source. A significant amount of MPs
are found in agricultural soil as a result of irrigation, fertiliser (Yu et al., 2017),
and plastic film or greenhouses used to preserve crop heat (Ma et al., 2020). By
irrigation runoff from farms and rainfall, they can move into the nearby rivers and
surface waters (Kumar et al., 2020). First off, numerous studies have found synthetic
fibres, or MPs deposited in sewage sludge, indicating that MPs had been utilised as
repair or fertiliser. Plastics are introduced into the terrestrial environment in such
vast quantities. Following that, they permeate the land or are brought into contact
with freshwater via rainfall (Gao et al., 2020).
In freshwater environments, atmospheric settling is also verified as a source of
MPs. For instance, Dris et al.’s study of air dust in urban Paris regions revealed
the presence of synthetic fibres (Dris et al., 2016). Research has demonstrated that
sedimentation and transit can transfer micro-plastics (MPs) from the air environment
to the aquatic environment (Liu et al., 2019a, 2019b). This may be illustrated as Fig. 2.
According to preliminary research, microplastic movement and dispersal are facil-
itated by physical factors that are comparable to those proposed for marine systems
in freshwater environments. Wave energy was found to be an essential indicator of

Fig. 2 Atmospheric source of Microplastic contamination. Source Skipper (2023)

322 A. P. Gupta and P. Pandey

microplastic dispersion in Lake Hovsgol, Mongolia. The extent of fouling may have
an impact on particle presence at the lake’s surface, where wave energy interacts
with particles, according to the study’s authors (Free et al., 2014).
Similarly, the patterns of micro-plastics distribution at the northernmost point of
Lake Garda, Italy, were proposed to be explained by southerly winds causing the
surface circulation and an oscillating eddy (Imhof et al., 2013); similarly, trends of
particle density in Lake Erie have been stated by converging currents close to the
sampling areas (Eriksen et al., 2013).
Other physical elements that could affect particle movement in freshwater include
substrate type, bottom topography, velocity of flow, water depth, and seasonal vari-
ations of water flows, according to studies on suspended sediments (Simpson et al.,
2005). The tide cycle (estuary), storms, floods, or human activity (e.g., dam discharge)
are examples of variables that may have a temporal component (Kessarkar et al., 2010;
Moatar et al., 2006). For Ex. - Surface waters from Ontario Lake, the Lake Erie basin,
and urban streams that feed into Lake Ontario were sampled in 2014. Between 90,000
and 6,700,000 particles/km2 were discovered in these waters, and at the majority of
sample locations, fragments were the most common form of micro-plastics (Helm
et al., 2016). All surface water samples taken in 2014 from Lake Winnipeg included
micro-plastics; the highest concentrations were found at the lake outflow, and the
northern input had higher levels than the southern input (Rennie & Anderson, 2016).

3 Impacts and Actions of Micro-plastics

Three routes are most likely responsible for micro-plastics’ potential toxicity:
1. Intake stress, such as physical obstruction or energy consumption during intake.
2. Plasticizers and other additives seeping out of the material, and
3. Being exposed to toxins linked to micro-plastics, such as “POPs,” or persistent
organic pollutants (Andrady, 2011; Cole et al., 2011; Ross & Morales-Caselles,
2015).
It is also anticipated that the impacts of microplastic exposure will differ based on
the organism’s capacity to ingest the particles, the accumulation and transportation
of the particles within tissues, and the possibility of trophic exchange (Wright et al.,
2013).
Because of their large surface area and superior adsorption, MPs are recognised as
an essential transporter for substances and pathogens that can seriously harm aquatic
organisms and even the ecosystem. MPs have a high degree of hydrophobicity and
are thought to be pollution vectors.
MPs contain two main categories of pollutants: environmental aqueous chemicals
and heavy metals, along with the monomers, additives, and various other MP-specific
byproducts. (Turner & Holmes, 2015; Yuan et al., 2020). The heavy metals lead, zinc,
copper, chromium, and cadmium are frequently absorbed by MPs (Godoy et al.,
2019). Under natural conditions, MPs are highly easy to wear and adsorb charged
Microplastics in Wetland Ecosystem: A Complex Nexus and Way Forward 323

Fig. 3 Movement of micro-plastics in food chain. Source Malinika M., https://www.shutterstock.

com/search/micro-plastics

minerals, organisms, and sediments, which causes metal cations to adsorb on the
surface of the charged material (Ta & Babel, 2020).
Research has demonstrated that two critical variables influencing MPs’ ability to
adsorb metal ions are the pH of the water habitat and the duration of MPs’ presence
in the environment (Mammo et al., 2020). Additionally, MPs have the ability to
adsorb a variety of hydrophobic persistent organic pollutants (H-POP), including
bisphenol A, pesticides made from organochlorine compounds, polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons (PAH), petroleum hydrocarbons, and polychlorinated biphenyls and
diphenyl ethers (Wang et al., 2020). Because MPs have a hydrophobic surface, some
bacteria were able to settle on them with ease, leading to the formation of a type of
biofilm known as “plastic rings” (Liu et al., 2019a, 2019b).
The detrimental impacts of microplastic fragments on primary producers must be
thoroughly investigated due to their propensity to disrupt any kind of ecosystem food
chain that serves as the foundation of a food web. The movement of micro-plastics
in a food chain can be represented as in Fig. 3.
The first proof of the physical effects of nanosized plastic beads on two algae
species—Chlorella spp. and Scenedesmus spp.—was presented by Bhattacharya
et al. (2010). The majority of research on plant-soil interactions shows that either
specific plants have an impact on the biological, chemical, and physical characteris-
tics of the soil, or the biological characteristics of the soil have an impact on plant
development, community composition, along with biodiversity (Harrison & Bard-
gett, 2010; Xue et al., 2018). Micro-plastics may have a direct or indirect impact on
ecosystem function once they get into the soil.
Numerous species of invertebrates from aquatic as well as terrestrial environments
have been shown to absorb micro-plastics. The quantity and kind of microplastic that
these species interact with is greatly influenced by their feeding habits and the envi-
ronment in which they reside. Deposits feeder and filterers are among the creatures
that are most frequently observed consuming plastics (Setala et al., 2016). For Ex.-
Zooplankton and Crustaceans, such as copepods, are known to be microplastic filter
consumers (Cole et al., 2013 and Setala et al., 2014).
Quantitative investigation of aquatic species gathered in the natural environment,
their predators, and animals grown in laboratory environmental research reveals the
324 A. P. Gupta and P. Pandey

indications of micro-plastics movement in different trophic levels of food chain

(Santana et al., 2017). Micro-plastics are known to impact about 700 species of
aquatic creatures, and they can be seen at various nutritional stages (Carbery et al.,
2018). Micro-plastic build up in low trophic species will impact the food chain
through linkage. Along with the feeding of aquatic organisms, MPs will travel through
the food chain (Armando et al., 2020).
Inhalation, ingestion, and skin contact are the three main ways that microplastics
and nanoplastics enter the human body (Prata et al., 2020; Rahman et al., 2021).
Numerous studies conducted in vitro and in vivo have demonstrated the potential
for micro-plastics and nanoplastics to have detrimental effects on the human body,
including oxidative stress, inflammation, necrosis, apoptosis, physical stress, and
immune system responses (Koelmans et al., 2019; Oliveira et al., 2019; Qiao et al.,
2019; Wright & Kelly, 2017).

4 Knowledge Gaps

Most of the research done in the decade preceding and the numerous publications
that resulted from those studies form the basis of our current understanding of micro-
plastics in aquatic environments. The following are some ways that this review adds
to the worldwide discussion about knowledge gaps that could direct future research
on micro-plastics in aquatic habitats, particularly wetland ecosystems:
1. There is not enough data to draw any conclusions on how eating aquatic food
can expose humans to micro-plastics and affect their health.
2. The mechanisms by which micro-plastics enter tissues and the chemical
compounds they link with are not well understood, thus research at many levels
of biological organisation is required to comprehend the negative consequences
and toxicity mechanisms.
3. It is necessary to research how micro-plastics affect organisms at various trophic
levels in order to understand their effects on enzymatic, hereditary, histological,
reproductive, and developmental processes.
4. The mode(s) of action and dose–response relationships have not been determined
correctly, regulatory guidelines and thresholds for harm have not been produced
effectively at this time.
5. There is a dearth of comprehensive worldwide protocols for the isolation, charac-
terisation, and verified instrumental analysis needed to identify micro-plastics in
different freshwater matrices, particularly in wetland habitats. In comparison with
the marine environment, freshwater ecosystems have received far less research
attention when it comes to micro-plastics. As a result, little is known about the
existence and impact of micro-plastics that are in freshwater environments.
Microplastics in Wetland Ecosystem: A Complex Nexus and Way Forward 325

6. Prioritising research should go towards finding biodegradable substitutes for

microbeads in cosmetic items. In place of microbeads, natural ingredients such
as cocoa beans, ground almonds, ground apricots pits, ocean salt, ground pumice
and oats can be utilised in cosmetic products.

5 Conclusion

Without appropriate actions, the ongoing environmental catastrophe caused by

microplastic contamination could put the planet in danger. Nonetheless, it appeared
that a comparatively large amount of research was focused on marine environments,
with fresh water bodies, rivers and lakes, and reservoirs receiving far less scien-
tific attention. Although the detrimental effect of micro-plastics to aquatic life is
unknown, other studies have demonstrated that the quantity of micro-plastics in
freshwater life is not great enough to pose a threat. It’s probable that the additives
found in micro-plastics pose a greater risk.
Future efforts to address the ecotoxicological dangers of micro-plastics must be
prioritised in light of the consequences and interactions of micro-plastics with chem-
icals. Plastic, then, is indisputable physical evidence of people’ extensive impact
on ecological systems. Regardless of one’s stance on the formal anthropocentric,
plastic will probably endure for millennia or longer before leaving a noticeable trace
of human habitation. The current analysis offers a comprehensive, if incomplete,
picture of the impacts that MP have on freshwater organisms. There is increasing
evidence that micro-plastics (MPs) are found in aquatic ecosystems and shoreline
sediments across the globe. The migration of Micro-plastics from surface water
to marine systems is probably a major cause of marine microplastic pollution. A
deeper comprehension of MP origins and pathways, such as wastewater discharges,
stormwater from cities and runoff from farms, atmospheric movement of fibres, and
inappropriate solid waste disposal next to freshwater systems, is necessary to control
the occurrence and transmission of MPs in water bodies. More research on this topic
using cutting-edge technology is required in order to gain a better grasp of the issue at
hand and to identify all potential solutions. It is still entirely unknown how different
kinds of nanoplastics and micro-plastics may affect human health and other living
forms due to their wide range of particle sizes, shapes, and chemical compositions.
Thus, we suggest that future studies concentrate on comprehending the possible
risks and hazards of long-term exposure to various nanoplastics and micro-plastics
at appropriate doses.

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Microplastics in Plant Species: Impacts
and Ecological Perspectives

U. Umasankar and P. C. Sabumon

Abstract Microplastics are ubiquitous environmental contaminants whose presence

in terrestrial ecosystems has become a growing concern, particularly regarding their
impact on plant species. This chapter provides an in-depth analysis of the effects of
microplastic pollution on plant health and soil ecology. We explore the ways in which
microplastics affect plant growth, soil properties, and nutrient cycling through both
direct and indirect mechanisms. These were done by reviewing current literature on
microplastic interactions with soil biota and the resulting changes in soil structure and
function, which ultimately influence plant physiology. Further, we discuss the absorp-
tion and accumulation of microplastics in plant tissues. Evidence from both controlled
experiments and field studies reveals the potential of microplastics to induce stress
responses in plants, including reductions in seed germination, root elongation, and
photosynthetic activity. The role of microorganisms in microplastic degradation and
the subsequent effects on plant- microbe interactions are also addressed, thereby
identifying gaps in current knowledge. In summary, this chapter underscores the
urgent need to better understand the environmental implications of microplastics
and develop sustainable practices for managing microplastic pollution. The findings
presented call for increased research efforts to determine the long-term implica-
tions of microplastics on plant life, the resilience of ecosystems, and the broader
implications for human well-being.

Keywords Microplastics · Biodegradable microplastics · Plant health · Crop

growth · Plant germination · Plant biomass

U. Umasankar
School of Advanced Sciences, Vellore Institute of Technology (VIT), Chennai, Tamil
Nadu 600127, India
e-mail: umasankar.u2022@vitstudent.ac.in
P. C. Sabumon (B)
School of Civil Engineering, Vellore Institute of Technology (VIT), Chennai, Tamil Nadu 600127,
India
e-mail: pcsabumon@vit.ac.in

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 331
J. C. Egbueri et al. (eds.), Microplastics in African and Asian Environments, Emerging
Contaminants and Associated Treatment Technologies,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-64253-1_17
332 U. Umasankar and P. C. Sabumon

Abbreviations

PHA Polyhydroxyalkanoates
PLA Polylactic acid or polylactide
PEV Polyethylene vanillic
HDPE High-density polyethylene
PCL Polycaprolactone
PET Polyethylene terephthalate
LDPE Low-density polyethylene
PBS Polybutylene succinate
PEC Polycarbonate
PBAT Poly (butylene adipate-co-terephthalate)
PPC Polypropylene copolymer
WHC Water holding capacity
BD Bulk density
MP Microplastics
BMP Biodegradable microplastics
PEC Polycarbonate
PA Polyamide
PS Polystyrene
PTFE Polytetrafluoroethylene
PHBV Poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate)

1 Introduction

The generation of plastic waste is expected to exceed 12 thousand million tonnes

by 2050 (Geyer et al., 2017). Both ecosystems on land and in water are susceptible
to the direct or indirect entry of microplastics (Khalid et al., 2020). Recently, there
has been an increase in awareness of the presence and effects of MPs terrestrial
ecosystems, especially in soil. The physical–chemical characteristics of soil, such
as pH, aggregation of soil, bulk density, and ability to retain water, can be changed
by MPs (de Souza Machado et al., 2018). MPs have the tendency to directly or
indirectly affect ecosystem functioning once they are in the soil. MPs have been
proven to affect plant function in both adverse and beneficial ways (Khalid et al.,
2020). Due to higher bioavailability, non-petroleum-based biodegradable MPs may
have the largest detrimental effect on plant development (Qi et al., 2020).
The persistence of microplastics, their capacity to adsorb and transport pollu-
tants, and their contribution to long-term ecological harm underscore the urgency
of addressing this issue. As scientific research unveils the extent of the problem
and its multifaceted impact on ecosystems, public awareness campaigns and advo-
cacy efforts have gained momentum, urging for regulatory actions, sustainable prac-
tises, and global cooperation to mitigate and prevent further microplastic pollution.
Microplastics in Plant Species: Impacts and Ecological Perspectives 333

Addressing this concern requires coordinated efforts at the local, national, and global
levels to develop sustainable practises, innovative solutions, and effective policies to
reduce and manage microplastic pollution.
While MPs are becoming more common in terrestrial environments, their study
has lagged behind that of MPs in marine environments. MPs are especially partic-
ularly problematic for the soil because they interfere with plant growth and devel-
opment, which might be risky (Kumari & Raj, 2024). The use of plastic mulching
material and bio-fertilisers might also trigger the production of MPs in agricultural
fields (Qi et al., 2020). The accumulation of microplastics among plants can have
direct environmental impacts and consequences for food safety and sustainable agri-
culture (Goddard, 2021). Growing concern about microplastic pollution stems from
its pervasive and far-reaching impacts on ecosystems, human health, and the environ-
ment. This concern is fuelled by their ability to enter the food chain, posing threats
to marine life, terrestrial organisms, and potentially human health. The influence
of MPs on terrestrial ecosystems, particularly plant communities has come to light
more and more.
This book chapter, aims to navigate through the intricate web of interactions
between microplastics and plants in the soil/aquatic environment, while most of the
reviews only focus on the soil environment. In addition, this chapter sheds light on
the ecological consequences that extend beyond conventional environmental bound-
aries. From the origins and distribution of microplastics to their uptake and translo-
cation in plant tissues, this chapter explores the intricate mechanisms driving this
phenomenon. It delves into the physical, physiological, and biochemical impacts
on plant species, scrutinises potential risks to ecosystems, and explores mitigation
strategies. By adopting an ecological lens, this chapter presents a comprehensive
explanation of how MPs weave into the fabric of plant ecology, influencing biodiver-
sity, ecosystem dynamics, and ultimately, the delicate balance of our natural world.
Through this exploration, we embark on a journey to unravel the complexities of
microplastics in plant ecosystems, underlining the urgency of ecological perspectives
in shaping effective strategies for sustainable co-existence.

2 Definition, Sources, and Distribution of Microplastics

in Plant Communities

Microplastics are small, solid particles of plastic material that encompass a broad size
spectrum, ranging from nanometres to a few millimetres. They are commonly clas-
sified into micro-sized (less than 5 mm) and nanoplastics (less than 1 µm), although
there is no strict size limit universally agreed upon. They can be categorised into two
main types: primary microplastics, which are intentionally manufactured in small
sizes for various purposes such as in cosmetics or abrasives, and secondary MPs,
which arise from the disintegration of more substantial plastic debris via processes
like weathering, and degradation (Chah et al., 2022).
334 U. Umasankar and P. C. Sabumon

Fig. 1 Sources and routes of MPs to plant communities

These MPs are composed of various polymers, including but not limited to
polyethylene, polypropylene, polystyrene, and polyethylene terephthalate (PET).
The composition influences buoyancy, persistence, and environmental fate. MPs have
been encountered in a number of environmental compartments, including marine,
atmospheric, soils, and rivers (Ge et al., 2021). MPs often have complex surface
characteristics due to their interaction with environmental factors. This can lead to
the adsorption of other pollutants onto their surfaces, potentially magnifying the
ecological impact.
MPs primarily reach plant communities through the soil in terrestrial habitats.
Apart from soil, the primary sources of MPs in plant species are surface water runoff,
irrigation water in agricultural land, land usage of municipal sewage, residual break-
down of plastic debris and agricultural mulching film, and atmospheric microplastic
deposition (show in Fig. 1). Among these, airborne particulates can directly impact
plant aboveground portions and penetrate the soil to impact the roots (Yu et al., 2021).

2.1 Primary and Secondary Sources

• Plastic Products and Waste: Breakdown of larger plastic items into MPs. This
disintegration of plastic products can be done through various actions such as
Microplastics in Plant Species: Impacts and Ecological Perspectives 335

(1) Mechanical breakdown by weathering process, chemical breakdown by

hydrolysis and oxidation, biological degradation by microbial activities and
biofouling, hydrodynamic forces like water action and wave action, thermal
stress, and finally age and polymer characteristics.
(ii) Textile synthetic fabrics break down after washing, releasing small fibres
into wastewater that lead to the build-up of textile-derived MPs in soil and
water.
(iii) Nautical activities, including shipping, fishing, and maritime industries,
release microplastics into the oceans through various mechanisms. Aban-
doned or lost fishing gear (ghost nets), disintegrates over time, releasing
microplastics into the marine environment. Additionally, the wear and tear of
maritime equipment and vessels contribute to the breakdown of larger plastic
products, leading to the release of MPs. The accumulation of microplastics
from nautical activities has profound implications for marine ecosystems,
impacting biodiversity and posing risks to marine life through ingestion and
entanglement.
• Industrial processes: industrial processes contribute significantly to the genera-
tion of MPs, representing a noteworthy source of environmental contamination.
During various manufacturing stages, plastic materials are utilised, processed, and
often result in the unintentional release of MPs into the various environments.
• Biodegradation of macro plastics: MPs generated from the deterioration of
larger plastic objects like PLA and PBS. While plastic is generally resistant
to degradation, exposure to environmental factors, including sunlight, heat,
and microbial activity, can initiate the breakdown of its molecular structure.
Microorganisms, including fungi and bacteria, are essential for biodegradation by
secreting enzymes that catalyse the degradation of plastic polymers. However, the
effectiveness of biodegradation varies depending on the type of plastic, environ-
mental conditions, and the presence of suitable microbial communities. Despite
the potential for biodegradation to reduce the size of microplastics, it also raises
concerns about the release of microplastics, which can pose environmental chal-
lenges due to their widespread distribution and potential impacts on ecosystems
and organisms.
• Tyre wear particles: Tyre wear particles represent a significant and often over-
looked source of microplastic pollution. As vehicles traverse roads, the friction
between tyres and road surfaces generates wear particles composed of microplas-
tics, primarily from the degradation of tire rubber. These tyre wear particles
can range in size from nanometres to micrometres and are released into the
environment. Rainfall and traffic-related processes contribute to the transport of
these particles from roads to aquatic ecosystems, where they can accumulate in
sediments and water bodies.
• Agricultural Activities: One significant contributor is the use of plastic mulches
in farming, commonly employed to control weeds, conserve moisture, and
enhance crop yields. Over time, these plastic mulches can disintegrate into
336 U. Umasankar and P. C. Sabumon

microplastic particulates as a result of exposure to sunlight, temperature fluc-

tuations, and other environmental factors. In addition, the application of plastic-
based fertilizers and the degradation of plastic films and covers used in agriculture
further contribute to the microplastic load in soil. The presence of microplastics
in agricultural land raises questions about their potential impacts on soil health,
the cycle of nutrients, and the transfer of MPs into the food chain.
• Landfills and waste management: Leachate, the liquid that drains from landfills,
can carry microplastics into the surrounding soil and water, creating secondary
sources of contamination. In addition, the incineration of plastic waste releases
airborne microplastics. Effective waste management strategies, such as proper
recycling and waste reduction practises, are crucial for minimising the input of
plastic into landfills.

2.2 Routes of Entry into the Environment

• Surface runoff: Surface runoff, a key pathway for the transport of contami-
nants, including microplastics, from urban areas to water bodies, is a signifi-
cant concern in environmental pollution. Rainfall, irrigation, or snowmelt can
mobilise microplastics deposited on urban surfaces, such as roads, sidewalks, and
parking lots, flushing them into stormwater drainage systems. These microplas-
tics are then carried through stormwater channels, eventually reaching rivers,
lakes, and oceans. Urban areas with high population density and increased plastic
use often experience elevated levels of microplastic runoff. Effective stormwater
management strategies and the implementation of green infrastructure can help
reduce the impact of surface runoff, limiting the input of microplastics into aquatic
ecosystems and safeguarding water quality.
• Wastewater discharge: Wastewater discharge represents a significant route
through which microplastics enter aquatic ecosystems, posing potential risks
to water quality and marine life. Microplastics can be released into wastewater
through various sources, including domestic, industrial, and agricultural activities.
In urban areas, household products containing microplastics, such as personal care
items and synthetic fabrics, contribute to wastewater stream. Industrial processes
can also discharge MPs directly or indirectly through the release of effluents
containing plastic remnants. Once in WWTPs (wastewater treatment plants), the
efficiency of removing MP varies, with some escaping into receiving water bodies.
Treated wastewater, if not adequately filtered, may carry microplastics into rivers,
lakes, and oceans.
• Atmospheric deposition: Atmospheric deposition is a notable pathway through
which microplastics are introduced into ecosystems, including terrestrial and
aquatic environments. MPs can become airborne through processes like the frag-
mentation of larger plastic objects, wear and tear of roadways, and the release of
particles from industrial activities. Once airborne, MPs can be spread across vast
distances via wind currents before beginning to settle onto land and water surfaces
Microplastics in Plant Species: Impacts and Ecological Perspectives 337

through precipitation or atmospheric fallout. This deposition of microplastics can

occur in both populated and rural areas, contributing to the global distribution of
these particles. The atmospheric concentration of MPs deposition raises concerns
about their potential impact on ecosystems, as they can be ingested or accumulate
in soil and water, affecting both terrestrial and aquatic organisms.

3 Uptake and Accumulation in Plant Species

3.1 Mechanisms of Microplastic Uptake

The mechanisms of microplastic uptake in plant species involve complex processes.

One primary route of uptake is through the roots. MPs can attach to the surface of
plant roots, facilitating their entry into the plant tissues. In addition, some studies
suggest that MPs might penetrate plant cells directly through the root epidermis or
through small openings, such as root hairs and apical pores. Another mechanism
involves the adherence of MPs to the plant surface, where they may be ingested by
herbivores, leading to indirect exposure within the food chain.

3.2 Factors Influencing Uptake by Different Plant Species

The uptake of microplastics by different plant species is influenced by a combina-

tion of factors that vary across ecosystems and plant types. One critical factor is
the physicochemical properties of MPs, including size, shape, and surface charac-
teristics. Smaller particles may have increased mobility and accessibility for uptake,
whereas the surface chemistry of MPs can affect their interactions with root surfaces
and cell membranes (Ebere et al., 2019). Plant-specific traits, such as root architec-
ture, surface morphology, and the presence of mycorrhizal associations, play a crucial
role in determining MP uptake. Soil conditions, including moisture content, organic
matter content, and microbial activity, can also impact the availability and mobility
of MPs in the rhizosphere—the soil region influenced by plant roots. Furthermore,
the composition of the surrounding microbial community and their interactions with
MPs may influence plant uptake (Li et al., 2020b).

3.3 Translocation and Accumulation in Various Plant Tissues

Once absorbed by the roots of plants, MPs may undergo translocation via the xylem
and phloem, distributing them to different parts of the plant. Researchers have found
the existence of MPs in plant tissues such as leaves, stems, and roots. The specific
338 U. Umasankar and P. C. Sabumon

Fig. 2 Plants’ entry points and uptake of micro/nano plastics in soil

patterns of translocation vary among plant species. Some research suggests that
smaller particles may translocate more readily within plants. Once within tissues,
MPs may accumulate over time, potentially impacting plant physiology and function.
Figure 2 shows the plants’ entry points and uptake of micro/nano plastics and their
translocation.

4 Impact of MPs on Soil Plants

It has been demonstrated that the presence of MP affects plant morpho-physiological

properties directly or indirectly. The physical and physiological growth of the plant
is believed to be the cause of the direct impacts. Furthermore, incidental impacts
associated with biological and metabolic characteristics. However, the kind of plant
and the characteristics of the plastic have a noteworthy effect on the impacts of micro
Microplastics in Plant Species: Impacts and Ecological Perspectives 339

or nano-plastic exposure. A detailed discussion of MPs’ direct and indirect impact

on plants is described in below sections. Understanding the direct impact of MPs on
plants is essential for assessing the immediate consequences of MP pollution on plant
physiology and ecology. It also informs strategies for mitigating the direct effects
of MPs on plant species. Comprehensive impacts of MPs of varying kinds, dosages,
and sizes on different plant species are compiled in Table 1.

4.1 Direct Impacts

4.1.1 Uptake by the Roots

MPs can be sucked up by the surface of the plant roots from the soil. Once absorbed,
they may translocate within the plant, potentially reaching various plant organs such
as stems of plants, leaves, even fruits. MP have the greatest effect on a plant’s roots,
then its leaves, shoots, and stems. This is due to the fact that MPs are readily absorbed
by plant parts above ground through air deposition and by roots from polluted soils.
MP stress has been reported to cause reduced root growth in several plants (Table 1).
MPs can accumulate in plant roots, decreasing elongation of roots, activities, and
biomass (Boots et al., 2019). Several studies have found that MPs stress reduces root
development in plants. PS MPs, for example, uses onion plant (Allium cepa) (Lian
et al., 2022) and stress of Bio MPs in broad bean plant (Meng et al., 2022). Another
study demonstrates that PS MPs can attach to the root surfaces and physically obstruct
root openings (Gao et al., 2021). According to a prior study, PS MPs can build up
via the endocytosis process in rice’s root (Oryza sativa L.) (Wu et al., 2020). MP
disintegration, increases, the possibility of adsorptive capacity on the root surface.
Moreover, MPs may also start to accumulate in the root due to the endocytosis
process. The detrimental effects of MPs on root growth are also determined by
their surface charge groups; for example, functional groups like –NH2 and –SO3 H
decreased shoot and root biomass and volume (Xu et al., 2022). In a study of Cucuis
sativa (Cucumber) plants, different nanosized particles were incorporated, where the
reduction of root length was observed in less than 300 nm particles but not in greater
than 300 nm particles. Likewise, the diameter of the root was reduced in less than
100 nm particles but had no effect in greater than 100 nm particles (Li et al., 2021a,
2021b).

4.1.2 Effects on Germination and Seedling Growth

Microplastics in soil can influence the germination process and early growth stages
of plants. They may affect seed germination rates, seedling development, and overall
plant establishment (Table 2). By blocking the seed capsule’s pores, MP stress
lowers the rate of germination of seeds (Bosker et al., 2019; Jia et al., 2023).
340 U. Umasankar and P. C. Sabumon

Table 1 Effects of MPs on several types of terrestrial plants based on selected studies
Plant/species MP types Dosage Effects on plant References
growth,
germination, and
other parameters
Allium fistulosum PA, PE, PP 2.0% w/w • Impacts the de Souza Machado
PET overall biomass et al. (2018)
and leaf
characteristics of
the plant
• Plant roots can
change in
response to MPs
Lolium perenne, A. PLA, HDPE 1 mg/g • HDPE reduces Boots et al. (2019)
rosea biomass
• Reduced seedlings
• Branch height
tends to decline
due to PLA
Wheat PS 0.01–10 mg/L • Decreased the Lian et al. (2020)
biomass ratio of
shoots to roots
• Impairment in
micronutrient
content
Onion PS 25–400 mg/L • Significantly Maity et al. (2020)
reduced root
length
• Cytogenetic
toxicity was
triggered
• Increased
generation of ROS
Oryza sativa I. PS 50, 250 and • Decreased shoot Wu et al. (2020)
500 mg/L biomass and
changed
antioxidant
capacity in
hydroponics
• Reduced biomass
output of rice in
soil culture
Arabidopsis PS 0.3, 1.0 g/kg • Reduced fresh Sun et al. (2020)
weight of plants
• Altered gene
expression
Wheat Starch based, 1% • Crop yield Qi et al. (2020)
LDPE dropped
significantly
(continued)
Microplastics in Plant Species: Impacts and Ecological Perspectives 341

Table 1 (continued)
Plant/species MP types Dosage Effects on plant References
growth,
germination, and
other parameters
Utricularia PS 15, 70 and •Significant Yu et al. (2020)
vulgaris 140 mg/L inhibition of the
growth and
functional
characteristics of
leaves observed,
along with oxidative
damage and
substantial
ecotoxicity
Italian lettuce, PS 0.1–10 mg/L • Severely reduced Gong et al. (2021)
radish, wheat, and root dry weight
corn • Decreased the
ratio of roots to
shoots
Rice PS 0.1–10 mg/L • Increased Wu et al. (2021)
oxidative damage
• Triggered
phytotoxicity
Soy bean PS 1 mg/L • Modified gene Xu et al. (2021)
expression
• Induced oxidative
stress
Bean (Phaseolus PLA + 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, • Plant growth Meng et al. (2021)
vulgaris L.) PBAT, LDPE 2.0 and 2.5% dropped
significantly
Soya bean PE, PBAT + 0.1, 0.5 and • A decrease in Li et al. (2021a,
PLA 1% plant biomass 2021b)
Maize PLA, LDPE 75, 150 and • Crop yield Zhao et al. (2021)
300 kg/Ha continued to rise
C. sativus PS 10 mg/L • Uptake of PS by Li et al. (2021a,
(Cucumber) the root and 2021b)
subsequent
passage via the
stem to the leaves,
flowers, and fruit
Lettuce PET and PEF 0.5–2% • Reduced buildup Zhang et al. (2022)
of soluble sugar
and nitrogen
• Reduced growth
of lettuce
• Increased
generation of ROS
(continued)
342 U. Umasankar and P. C. Sabumon

Table 1 (continued)
Plant/species MP types Dosage Effects on plant References
growth,
germination, and
other parameters
White clover, PS 0, 10, 50, 100 • Significantly Guo et al. (2022)
Chinese violet and 500 mg/L reduced rate of
cress, and Balsama germination and
germination
potential
Brassica napus L. PE 0.001, 0.01 • A decrease in the Jia et al. (2022)
and 0.1% (w/ overall amount of
w) chlorophyll
• Increased lead
bioaccumulation
• Modified
metabolism of
sugar
Mung bean Shoe sole 0, 0.1 and 1% • Plant development Lee et al. (2022)
fragments (w/w) was impacted by
MP fragments and
shoe sole
leachates
Sorghum PLA 2.5% (w/w) • Plant growth was Liwarska-Bizukojc
saccharatum, unaffected (2022)
Lepidium sativa
Cucurbita pepo L. PP, PE, PVC, 0.02, 0.1 and • Inhibited Colzi et al. (2022)
PET 0.2% (w/w) development of
roots, especially
shoots
• Significantly
reduced the
pigment amount,
photosynthetic
efficiency, and
leaf size
Oryza sativa L. PS, PTFE 0, 0.25 and • Reduced the Dong et al. (2022)
0.5% Geobacteria
• Starch
accumulation
decreased
• Reduced rice
growth and root
activity
(continued)
Microplastics in Plant Species: Impacts and Ecological Perspectives 343

Table 1 (continued)
Plant/species MP types Dosage Effects on plant References
growth,
germination, and
other parameters
Lepidium sativum PP, PE, PVC, 0.02% •Significant impacts Pignattelli et al.
Commercial on seed germination (2021)
mixture and morphometric
parameters
• Increased
oxidative stress
bioindicators
• Reduction in plant
length of roots,
shoots and
biomass
Lycopersicon HDPE, 17,870–47,130 • MPs at a low Hernández-Arenas
esculentum Mill LDPE, PP, particles/kg dosage increased et al. (2021)
PET plant growth
• Reduction in plant
biomass at high
concentration
Sweet potato PVC 100 and • Reduction in Khan et al. (2023)
200 mg/L height of plant and
biomass
• Lower
concentration of
chlorophyll
• PVC led to a rise
in sweet potato
chromium
accumulation

Orychophragmus violaceus, Impatiens balsamina, and Trifolium repens, three herba-

ceous ornamental plants; exhibited declining germination of seeds and germination
potential after treatment with PS MPs (Guo et al., 2022). The extent to which MP
stress significantly reduces germination of seeds is frequently impacted by the size
of MP particles. PS MPs with a particle size of 100 nm, for example, lessened
tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum L.) seed germination by a larger percentage than
PS MPs contain 5-mm-sized particles (Liao & Chen, 2021). Sorghum (Sorghum
bicolor L.) germination was inhibited by landfill leachate formed during the plastic
decomposition of oxo-degradable polypropylene (Schiavo et al., 2020). Additionally,
MP-induced stimulatory effects on germination of seeds have been reported. While
moderate and low levels of MPs in soil had inhibitory impacts on seed germination,
high dosages of MPs in soil enhance the germination of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.)
seeds (Lian et al., 2020). During exposure to PET MPs, chickpea (Cicer arietinum
L.) seed germination accelerated (Mondal et al., 2022).
344 U. Umasankar and P. C. Sabumon

Table 2 Effects of MPs on several types of aquatic plants based on selected studies
Plant/species MP types Dosage Effects on plant References
growth,
germination, and
other parameters
Lemna minor PE 0, 10, 50 and • The mechanical Kalčíková
100 mg/L blockage greatly et al. (2017)
impeded the root
development
Spirodela PS 102 –106 particles • Multiple grasses’ Dovidat
polyrhiza /mL adsorption of MPs et al. (2020)
S. polyrhiza results in the
MPs’ distribution
to various
herbivorous
species within the
ecosystem
• MPs adhered to
freshwater
vascular plants’
roots, but they did
not hinder their
development
Lemna minor PE 10, 50 and • No effects on the Rozman
100 mg/L photosynthesis et al. (2022)
and plant
parameters
Spirodela Fluorescent 0.1, 0.01% • Reduction in Song et al.
polyrhiza, Salvinia microplastics biomass and (2023)
natans and chlorophyll
Phragmites
australis
Spirodela PVC 0, 1, 100 and • Concentration Wang et al.
polyrhiza, Schleid 100 mg/L effects on (2023)
polyrhiza morphological
and reproductive
traits
• Affected plant
nutrient
metabolism
Lemna minor PET 38.3, 27.2, 19.6, • Negatively affects Cui et al.
4.2 and 10.2% the (2023)
photosynthesis
and plant growth
Lemna minuta Poly 50, 100 mg/L • Affects plant Ceschin
(styrene-co-methyl growth and et al. (2023)
methacrylate) chlorophyll
content
• Induced root
elongation
Microplastics in Plant Species: Impacts and Ecological Perspectives 345

4.1.3 Physiological Effects

Microplastics can induce physiological changes in plants. This includes alterations in

photosynthesis, enzyme activity, nutrient uptake, redox control, ionic homeostasis,
and hormone regulation, leading to potential disruptions in plant metabolism. These
processes are hypersensitive to harsh environments, and any change within these
mechanisms reduces crop development. Photosynthesis is a vital process in plants that
produces O2 and energy in the form of sugar. It is dependent on a variety of elements,
including photosynthetic pigment production, gas exchange between leaves and
chlorophyll, ionic homeostasis, and redox regulation. MPs stress suppresses photo-
synthesis in plants by adversely regulating these variables (Yang & Gao, 2022).
Researchers demonstrated that combining PE with PAN MPs substantially inhib-
ited photosynthesis by lowering carotenoids and chlorophyll levels in an MP dose-
dependent manner (Liu et al., 2021). In another study, PVC and PE MP treatment
caused a dosage-dependent decrease in the amount of chlorophyll and the rate of
photosynthesis in pumpkins (Colzi et al., 2022). Investigators observed that the
percentage of chlorophyll a to b was greater, which is likely a result of the impediment
of chlorophyll ‘b’ synthesis under MPs stress. This indicates that a decrease in photo-
synthesis under MPs stress may be caused by a decrease in chlorophyll b production
(Mondal et al., 2022). Further research has shown that by suppressing the expres-
sion of certain genes encoding light-harvesting binding of chlorophyll a/b (LHCB)
proteins, PBAT-MP stress has a major impact on photosynthesis in Arabidopsis (Liu
et al., 2021). The formation of ROS (O2 – and H2 O2 ) in roots is greatly increased by
MP stress, and the quantity of rootlets is decreased significantly (Li et al., 2021a,
2021b). In C4 plants, the loss in photosynthesis may be mediated by the suppression
of carbon fixation, whereas MP stress may impair photosynthesis in C3 plants by
impeding light usage efficiency (Zhang et al., 2023). It is essential to comprehend
the physiological effects of microplastics on plants to evaluate the wider effects of
plastic pollution in ecosystems.

4.1.4 Translocation Within the Plant

Once absorbed by the roots, microplastics may be translocated within the plant’s
vascular system. This translocation can contribute to the distribution of microplastics
in different plant organs and tissues. Plants may absorb or adsorb NPs/MPs in the form
of aggregation. MPs are drawn into leaves by transpiration and enter the shoot through
xylem channels (Xu et al., 2022). Scientists have recently discovered that wheat
crops absorb and translocate plastic nanoparticles (Li et al., 2020a). Through the
transpiration stream, the vascular system carried plastic particles from root to shoot,
as shown in Fig. 2. Confocal imaging using 3D laser scanning amply demonstrated
that PS NPs are sucked up by the tip of roots; however, the autofluorescence of plant
tissues obscured the fluorescent signal when PS NPs were present in leaves (Lian
et al., 2020). Using confocal microscopy and epifluorescence, some researchers found
clumps of pieces of plastic in the Lepidium sativum leaf and epidermis following 48
346 U. Umasankar and P. C. Sabumon

and 72 h of MPs addition. PS beads were found in the intercellular space of lettuce
leaf veins and on the outside of the stem’s cell walls xylem of wheat, as shown by
SEM observations (Bosker et al., 2019). In another research with cucumbers, the
scientists suggested that MPs and NPs accumulate in flowers and fruits, which was
confirmed through calyx cross section (Li et al., 2021a, 2021b). Comprehending the
movement of microplastics throughout plants is essential for evaluating the possible
hazards linked to their build-up in various plant sections and their consequent effects
on ecosystems.

4.1.5 Impact on Growth and Yield

High dosages of MPs can adversely impact the development and growth of plants.
This may manifest as reduced biomass, altered morphology, and impaired repro-
ductive success. Plant yield describes a plant’s final phase, and it is believed that
generating seeds is crucial to preserving a plant’s ecological roles and to producing
grains that humans can eat (Jia et al., 2023). Microplastic exposure can also alter
plant development and metabolism, which can have an impact on crop nutritional
value and the overall quality of agricultural goods. The tolerance of plant species to
microplastic contamination varies. Some researchers have reported that crop yield
rose after two years of adding PLA to the soil (Zhao et al., 2021). In contrast, intro-
duction of rice to few kinds of MPs, including PAN, PE, and PET, had no delete-
rious impacts on rice production, but rather enhanced rice productivity and nitrogen
content (Chen et al., 2022). Paradoxically, there was a substantial decrease in seed
weight and seed output per plant when PS MPs and Pb were applied separately
or in combination. This was linked to a decrease in the total amino acids, surface
area, root weight, and poor hormonal control (Chen et al., 2023a, 2023b). Tomato
plant growth was enhanced in soils containing sludge containing MPs, whereas fruit
production was delayed and decreased. To validate these results and elucidate the
processes underlying the possible impacts of MPs on plants, scientists noted that more
study is necessary (Hernández-Arenas et al., 2021). When (BMPs) were applied to
soils, evapotranspiration decreased, which in turn caused a fall in agricultural output
(Koskei et al., 2021). Microplastic exposure can also alter plant development and
metabolism, which can have an impact on crop nutritional value and overall quality
of agricultural goods. To sum up, the impacts of MP stress on production vary greatly
depending on the type of plant, cultivar, and kind of MP.

4.1.6 Stress Responses

Exposure to microplastics can trigger stress responses in plants. These responses

may include the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), activation of defence
mechanisms, and changes in gene expression (Jia et al., 2023). A study demonstrated
that, at high concentrations, PE MPs dramatically decreased shoot weight and shoot
height but increased root elongation, indicating responses of distinct tissues to MP
Microplastics in Plant Species: Impacts and Ecological Perspectives 347

stress (Liu et al., 2021). BMPs exhibited an adverse effect on the soy bean plant’s
biomass (Glycine max) (Li et al., 2021a, 2021b). MP stress decreases plant yields
drastically by distorting the development and growth of plants (Khalid et al., 2020).
PE MP stress had little effect on rice grain production in a regular cultivar, but had
a considerable effect on hybrid rice. This might be related to the increased amino
acid concentration generated by MP stress (Yi et al., 2023). Plant stress adaptation
responses are impacted by the downregulation of LHCB proteins, which control
redox homeostasis and stomata’s susceptibility to abscisic acid (Chen et al., 2023a,
2023b). In conclusion, during MP stress, complementary mechanisms such as ROS
metabolism, changed gene expression, poor ionic homeostasis, and hormonal regu-
lation alter plant physical root development. However, these pathways are dose-
dependent, unique to a particular plant species, specific to a certain MP type, and
sensitive to particle size. Knowing the impacts of plastic pollution on plant health
and ecosystem dynamics requires an understanding of the stress responses that plants
experience when exposed to microplastics.

4.2 Indirect Impacts

The indirect impact of MPs on plants involves various pathways and consequences
that are not directly related to the physical presence of MPs within plant tissues.
Plants under MP stress also experience a number of indirect impacts, which impact
the growth of the roots, shoots of different plants. For example, MP stress modifies
the bacterial population in the soil and lowers the bulk density and soil organic matter.

4.2.1 Soil Microbial Community Disruption

MPs can change the soil microbial colonies’ structure and activity. Changes in micro-
bial function and diversity can affect the nutrient cycle and soil health, indirectly
influencing plant growth. MP induced changes in microbial characteristics in soil
may have a wide variety of extra consequences on plant health, further study is
needed to understand the underlying processes (de Souza Machado et al., 2018). The
enzymatic activities of soil are significantly impacted by MPs. Plant development and
nitrogen absorption are also impacted by alterations in soil microbes’ activity brought
on by MP stress. For example, within ninety days, LDPE MP addition altered the
productivity of microbial populations in the soil environment (Wang et al., 2020).
Researchers discovered that wheat died as a result of biodegradable MPs in a 4-
week trial; this finding may have been driven by metabolites created during PHBV
decomposition (Zhou et al., 2021). According to some study, the consequences of
MP films and, fibres on the bacterial population in soil may be greater than those of
varying particle sizes; as a result, under MP stress, several variables influence root
development and activity generally (Kalčíková et al., 2017).
348 U. Umasankar and P. C. Sabumon

4.2.2 Nutrient Availability and Uptake

Microplastics in soil can influence nutrient availability by adsorbing nutrients or

altering soil structure. This can affect nutrient uptake by plants, indirectly impacting
their growth and development. The raised C:N ratio that results in microbe N immo-
bilisation from the introduction of MPs might cause increased plant nutritional stress
(Boots et al., 2019). While biodegradable microplastics have already been hailed as a
sustainable substitute for oil-based plastics, research papers show that it is also critical
to take into account the material’s possible negative effects on plant development and
function. Plant development and nitrogen absorption are also impacted by changes
in soil microbial activity brought on by MP stress. Nutrient availability is a crucial
element in plant growth. Changes in nutrient intake due to microplastic interac-
tions can result in stunted growth, reduced biomass, and compromised physiological
functions in plants.

4.2.3 Changes in Soil Properties

Microplastics can modify soil physical and chemical properties. For example, they
may affect soil water retention, aeration, and porosity, which can indirectly influence
plant health and productivity. The extent of the plant root system and the soil porosity
are related to soil bulk density. It is a significant fertility indicator as well. MP fibre
increases the soil ventilation and significantly reduced the bulk density of the soil
(de Souza Machado et al., 2018). In another study the introduction of PE powder
increased the earthworm mortality which induced lowering the porosity which the
resulted in suppressing the plant growth. In contrast to PE MPs, biodegradable MP
residuals in maize (Zea mays L.) reduced soil bulk density, grain yield and plant
height, indicating the possibility of MPs type-specific impacts on crop production
(Uzamurera et al., 2023). Differences in soil composition and physical characteristics
can account for the observed disparity in the effects of MPs on soil bulk density.
The impacts of MPs on soil bulk density and plant root development need to be
investigated further.

4.2.4 Ecological Interactions

Microplastics can indirectly impact plants by affecting the entire ecosystem. For
instance, changes in soil and water quality due to microplastic pollution can disrupt
the interactions between plants and other organisms, such as pollinators, herbivores,
and predators. The ecological environment is under a great deal of pressure due to
contamination of plant communities by plastic particles, particularly in agricultural
ecosystems (de Souza Machado et al., 2018). The primary way that microplastics
get into agricultural systems is through the use of plastic mulch and the inclusion of
organic wastes such as biosolids and, compost that could be polluted by plastic (Zang
et al., 2020). Plants, or crops, are essential to both ecological health and human life.
Microplastics in Plant Species: Impacts and Ecological Perspectives 349

Nonetheless, a number of biotic and abiotic stressors, such as MPs, reduce edible
plants’ economic returns (Kumari et al., 2022).

4.2.5 Human Health Impact

Indirectly, microplastics in plants can have implications for human health throughout
the food chain. If plants accumulate microplastics, and these plants are consumed
by animals or humans, there could be potential health risks associated with the
ingestion of microplastics. The World Health Organization (WHO) has alerted in
numerous researches that MPs have a negative impact on human health beyond
a certain concentration (Lehner et al., 2019). Vegetables and fruits, also act as a
source of Microplastics in human. An individual may have around 80 grammes of
MPs per day from plant sources alone. Plants typically absorb microplastics (MPs)
through diffusion from heavily contaminated soils (Ebere et al., 2019). It is obvious
how MPs enter the human body through diet and undergo absorption. It has been
demonstrated that the polyester particles can pass through the skin and enter human
inner organs (liver, bladder, intestine). Plastic particles the size of nanoparticles can
pass through cellular membranes. Furthermore, these minuscule particles have the
capability to navigate through the placenta and blood-steam to reach the brain barrier
(Albazoni et al., 2024; Barboza et al., 2018). Deposition of MPs in crops may be
detrimental to health. The food chain’s enrichment and transmission are two major
ways in which microplastics enter the human body (Yu et al., 2021). Under indoor
hydroponic nutrient solution conditions, lettuce has the ability to absorption and
accumulation of polystyrene microspheres (0.2 µm), which can then be transferred
to the stem and leaves for direct human consumption (Li et al., 2020b). Investigators
have suggested that microplastic particles may disintegrate into tiny pieces once they
enter the body, make their way into the circulatory system, and then enter human
organs (Rainieri et al., 2018). Microplastic intake can result in different intensities of
the oxidative stress response in human and biological cells (Kelly & Fussell, 2012).
A limited number of studies have connected oral pathways and microplastic particles
to illnesses like skin problems, respiratory infections, and cancer (Prata et al., 2020).

4.2.6 Alterations in the Water Relations

MPs in the soil may influence the water relations of plants. This can lead to changes
in water uptake, water retention, and overall water balance within plant tissues. MPs
may also alter the way water moves through the soil, increasing evaporation and
causing drought, which will then have an impact on plant development (Zhang et al.,
2023). Table 1 provides an overview of some selected research papers that assessed
the effects of MPs on terrestrial.
350 U. Umasankar and P. C. Sabumon

5 Impacts on Aquatic Plants

Microplastics can enter aquatic ecosystems and impact aquatic plant species. As
these plants are part of the diet of various terrestrial and aquatic organisms, the
indirect effects can cascade through food webs, affecting plant-dependent species.
Several studies demonstrated that the interaction and physical damage of MPs may
be responsible for the toxic effects of MPs on plants (shown in Table 2). Surface
water phytoplankton movement has the potential to absorb and adsorb MPs (Prokin
et al., 2015). Large rooted plants may have shorter main buds as a result of the sorbed
MPs, which also hindered freshwater phytoplankton’s cell viability, photosynthetic
activity, and root development. The phytoplankton duckweed’s surface sorption may
further impede the roots’ ability to develop, causing the roots to become shorter in
length (Kalčíková et al., 2017). In order to adapt to the stress of pollution, marine
phytoplankton actively change the chemical makeup of exo polymeric substances
(EPS). They are particularly susceptible to smaller-sized plastics. By adhering to the
vascular plants’ surface, then congregating to prevent their photosynthesis, MPs can
have an effects on the algae’s process of photosynthesis (Dovidat et al., 2020).
The PE MPs had no negative effects on the Lemna minor in one research where the
long term and short-term test were conducted. This is because the plant is resistant
to MPs’ effects (Rozman et al., 2022). In another investigation, fresh water plant
lemna minuta (duck weed) exposed to varying concentrations of polymethacry-
late MPs showed negative effects on plant development and chlorophyll content,
independent of exposure and concentration (Ceschin et al., 2023). Three separate
free-floating aquatic plants were treated with fluorescent MPs in different phytotoxi-
city research, where Spirodela polyrhiza and Phragmites australis exhibit decreased
biomass and chlorophyll, while Salvinia natans does not (Song et al., 2023).
PVC MPs were added to Spirodela polyrhiza in another study, and concentration-
dependent effects were noted, such as decreases in root elongation and leaf multi-
plication. However in that same study, the PVC MP stress is resisted by the Schleid
polyrhiza (Wang et al., 2023). Size-dependent negative effects were found in a few
investigations. For instance, in Lemna minor (duck weed), the PET MPs had detri-
mental effects that include negative effects on photosynthesis in small-sized MPs
(< 200 µm) and significant negative effects on growth and photosynthetic activity in
MPs 300–500 µm (Cui et al., 2023).
Almost every type of MPs has a deleterious influence on the photosynthetic
process of aquatic plants. The information discussed was derived from a few standard
research that looked at a number of factors, a few of which are listed below (Table 2).
To summarise, microplastics have the ability to infiltrate both aquatic and terrestrial
environments, progressing up the food chain and posing a threat to creatures across
different trophic levels. In order to solve this worldwide environmental concern, it is
crucial to mitigate the sources of MP pollution and investigate its impacts on human
health and the environment. To better understand the potential benefits of permanent
soil cover and crop variety in reducing MP toxicity in plants and soil pollution, more
research is needed.
Microplastics in Plant Species: Impacts and Ecological Perspectives 351

6 Mitigation Strategies and Calls to Action for Addressing

MPs Pollution in Plant Ecosystems

As the infiltration of microplastics into ecosystems poses a growing threat to plant

species, the development of effective mitigation strategies becomes paramount in
safeguarding botanical health and ecosystem integrity. In this chapter, we explore a
range of mitigation approaches aimed at minimising the adverse effects of microplas-
tics on plant life. From proactive measures to remediation techniques, these strategies
offer a foundation for sustainable practices and environmental stewardship.
• Source reduction and waste management: Addressing the root cause of
microplastic pollution involves reducing plastic production and consumption.
Enhanced waste management practises, recycling initiatives, and the promotion
of biodegradable alternatives contribute to diminishing the influx of MPs into
natural habitats.
• Regulatory measures and policy frameworks: The establishment of strin-
gent regulations and policies on plastic production, use, and disposal is crucial
for curbing MPs contamination. Governments and international bodies play a
pivotal role in creating and enforcing standards that prioritise environmental
sustainability.
• Education and public awareness: Raising awareness about the effects of
microplastics on plant species is instrumental in fostering a sense of responsi-
bility among individuals and communities. Educational programmes, outreach
campaigns, and community engagement initiatives contribute to behavioural
changes that reduce plastic pollution.
• Innovations in biodegradable plastics: Research and development in the field
of biodegradable plastics offer promising alternatives to traditional polymers.
The adoption of plant-based, compostable materials can mitigate the lengthy
persistence of MPs in various environments.
• Soil remediation techniques: Targeted efforts to remove MPs from soil involve
innovative remediation techniques. These may include the use of natural sorbents,
microbial degradation, and soil amendments that enhance the degradation or
immobilisation of microplastic particles.
• Water treatment technologies: Implementing advanced water treatment tech-
nologies can help intercept and remove microplastics from aquatic environments
before they reach plant ecosystems. Filtration systems, sediment traps, and water
purification methods contribute to reducing microplastic loads.
• Phytoremediation strategies: Certain plant species exhibit the ability to absorb
and accumulate microplastics. Harnessing this natural phytoremediation potential,
researchers have explored the use of specific plant species to mitigate microplastic
contamination in soil and water.
352 U. Umasankar and P. C. Sabumon

• Research and monitoring programs: Ongoing research and monitoring

programmes are essential for tracking the prevalence of microplastics, under-
standing their behaviour in different ecosystems, and assessing the effective-
ness of mitigation strategies. This iterative process informs adaptive management
approaches.
By integrating these mitigation strategies, we aspire to chart a course towards
a more resilient and sustainable coexistence between MPs and plant species.
Through collaborative efforts spanning scientific research, policy implementation,
and community engagement, we endeavour to prevent the impacts of MPs and
cultivate a future where plants thrive in harmony with the ecosystems they sustain.

7 Future Directions and Research Needs

7.1 Gaps in the Current Understanding

Despite growing awareness of the impacts of MPs on plant species, there are notable
gaps in the current understanding that hinder a comprehensive assessment of the
ecological consequences. One major gap lies in the limited understanding of the
long-term effects of MPs on plant health, growth, and reproduction. Research often
focuses on short-term responses, and there is a need for studies that investigate
the chronic exposure and cumulative impacts over the entire life cycle of plants.
Additionally, the variability in MP types, sizes, and concentrations used in studies
makes it challenging to establish standardised protocols for assessing their effects
consistently. The potential interactive impacts of MPs on other environmental stres-
sors and the role of plant–microbe interactions in mediating these impacts are areas
that require further exploration. Moreover, knowledge of the fate and persistence of
MPs in a variety of soil types and their subsequent bioavailability to plants remains
incomplete.

7.2 Emerging Areas of Research

Emerging areas of research on the impacts of microplastics on plants are expanding

our understanding of this complex ecological issue. One notable avenue is investi-
gating the genetic and molecular responses of plants to MP exposure. Researchers are
exploring how microplastics may trigger specific stress responses, alter gene expres-
sion, and influence the biochemical pathways within plants. Another evolving area
involves assessing the interactive effects of microplastics with climate change factors,
such as altered precipitation patterns and temperature variations, to understand how
these combined stressors affect plant- microplastic interactions. Furthermore, there
is a growing interest in exploring the ecological consequences of MPs impacts at the
Microplastics in Plant Species: Impacts and Ecological Perspectives 353

community and ecosystem levels, investigating how changes in plant-microplastic

interactions may cascade through food webs and influence biodiversity. Developing
innovative technologies for monitoring and detecting microplastics in plant tissues
and elucidating the role of plant-associated microorganisms in influencing MPs fate
and toxicity are also emerging research priorities. These evolving research areas aim
to offer a more expansive understanding of the multifaceted impacts of MPs on plants
and agroecosystem, thus contributing to the development of effective mitigation
strategies.

7.3 Importance of Interdisciplinary Collaboration

The study of the impacts of MPs on plants necessitates interdisciplinary collaboration

to gain a holistic understanding of this complex environmental issue. Collaboration
between ecologists, plant biologists, environmental chemists, materials scientists,
and other experts is crucial for comprehensively assessing the diverse facets of MPs-
plant interactions. Plant physiologists can contribute insights into how microplastics
affect plant growth and metabolism, whereas ecologists can explore the broader
ecological consequences. Environmental chemists play a key role in characterising
the types and concentrations of MPs in various environments. Materials scien-
tists contribute expertise in understanding the physical and chemical properties of
microplastics. Collaborations between these disciplines are essential for developing
standardised methodologies, establishing baseline data, and interpreting the ecolog-
ical relevance of laboratory studies in real-world scenarios. Such interdisciplinary
collaboration enhances the robustness of research outcomes and facilitates the devel-
opment of effective strategies for mitigating the impacts of MPs on plant species and
ecosystems. As the field advances, the integration of diverse perspectives becomes
increasingly important for addressing the multifaceted challenges posed by MPs
pollution in plant ecology.

7.4 Final Thoughts on the Importance of Ecological

Perspectives in Managing MPs

In concluding the exploration of MPs in plant ecosystems, it is crucial to underscore

the significance of adopting ecological perspectives in managing this pervasive envi-
ronmental challenge. Due to their tiny particle size, vast amount, wide dispersion,
plasticiser properties, and ability to transport other pollutants, MPs are a novel class
of pollutants that are readily taken up by plants, easily absorbed by plants, and
can build up in the food chain. Recognizing that MP pollution extends beyond indi-
vidual organisms and impact entire ecosystems is fundamental. Most studies on plant
selection have been conducted on terrestrial plants, with a focus mostly on crops.
354 U. Umasankar and P. C. Sabumon

An ecological approach considers the interconnectedness of various components

within an environment, acknowledging the intricate relationships between plants,
animals, and microorganisms. By understanding these complex ecological dynamics,
we can better assess the wide-ranging consequences of microplastics on biodiver-
sity, ecosystem functions, and the services that ecosystems provide to humanity.
Integrating ecological perspectives into management strategies is essential for devel-
oping holistic and sustainable solutions. This entails not only mitigating the sources
of MPs but also addressing the broader ecological context, including the interactions
between different species and the resilience of ecosystems. Embracing an ecological
lens in the management of microplastics is not only an environmental imperative
but a pathway toward fostering harmony between human activities and the natural
world, ensuring the long-term health and balance of our ecosystems.

8 Conclusion

This chapter has illuminated the multifaceted ways in which microplastics interfere
with plant health and ecosystem dynamics. We examined evidence that demonstrates
how microplastics affect soil structure, alter nutrient cycling, and disrupt the deli-
cate balance of microbial communities, all of which are crucial for plant growth
and development. It has become clear that while microplastics present a modern
challenge to plant species, the full extent of their impact is still unfolding. Chronic
exposure to these contaminants has been shown to have consequences ranging from
inhibited growth to altered root morphology, impacting not only individual plant
health but also overall biodiversity and ecosystem function. Moreover, the potential
for microplastics to serve as vectors for other pollutants, thereby introducing addi-
tional stressors to plant life, underscores the complexity of this environmental issue.
With their ability to influence a wide range of soil and plant parameters, microplas-
tics are a testament to the unintended consequences of human activity on natural
systems. Finally, this chapter emphasize the need to better understand the environ-
mental impacts of microplastics and to develop sustainable practices for managing
microplastic pollution.

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Food Security Challenges
and Microplastics: A Comprehensive
Review

Sweta Sinha

Abstract The Chapter explores the intricate relationship between food security chal-
lenges and the pervasive presence of microplastics. It discusses the multifaceted
factors affecting food security, such as population growth and climate change, high-
lighting their profound impacts on global food production and distribution. Simulta-
neously, the paper delves into the sources, pathways, and potential health hazards of
microplastics in the environment and their infiltration into the food chain. It empha-
sizes the urgent need to understand the impact of microplastics on food safety and
security. The review also examines the direct and indirect consequences of microplas-
tics on food security and discusses mitigation strategies and policy initiatives. In
conclusion, the paper underscores the interconnection of these complex issues and
the importance of holistic approaches, encompassing sustainable agriculture, effec-
tive policies, and ongoing research, to address the multifaceted challenges posed by
food.

Keywords Microplastic · Food security · Food chain · Bioaccumulation ·

Biomagnification

1 Introduction

In an era marked by burgeoning populations, changing climate patterns and unprece-

dented levels of plastic pollution, the intersection of food security challenges and
the omnipresent issue of microplastics have emerged as a focal point of concern
for global sustainability and human well- being (Campbell et al., 2016; Irr, 2021.;
Nelson, 2023 Sinha, 2023, 2024; Trebilco et al., 2021). Food security, defined as
the reliable access to sufficient, safe, and nutritious food for an active and healthy
life, is a fundamental cornerstone of societal well-being. Conversely, microplastics,
those minuscule plastic particles measuring less than 5 mm, have stealthily infiltrated

S. Sinha (B)
Department of Chemistry, Amity University Jharkhand, Ranchi 834001, Jharkhand, India
e-mail: sweta.sinha2203@gmail.com

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 361
J. C. Egbueri et al. (eds.), Microplastics in African and Asian Environments, Emerging
Contaminants and Associated Treatment Technologies,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-64253-1_18
362 S. Sinha

every corner of our environment, from oceans and rivers to soil and air (Sinha, 2023).
Their pervasiveness raises questions about their impact on our food chain, and by
extension, our own health (Campbell et al., 2016).
The nexus between food security and microplastics represents a complex and
multifaceted challenge that transcends disciplinary boundaries (Campbell et al.,
2016). On one hand, the world grapples with an ever-expanding global population,
climate change-induced disruptions to agriculture, water scarcity, and myriad socioe-
conomic disparities that collectively challenge our ability to sustainably produce,
distribute, and access adequate food resources (Nelson, 2023). On the other hand,
microplastics, often imperceptible to the human eye, are increasingly prevalent in the
very ecosystems that support our food production, infiltrating aquatic habitats, agri-
cultural soils, and even the air we breathe (Nadarajan & Sukumaran, 2021). These
microplastics have the potential to enter the food chain, thereby raising concerns
about the safety and security of the very sustenance upon which we rely (Lehel &
Murphy, 2021).
This comprehensive review endeavors to untangle the intricate relationship
between food security challenges and microplastics, offering a panoramic view
of the converging complexities of these two contemporary crises. It will traverse
the landscape of food security, elucidating the multifaceted factors that shape its
contours, while concurrently exploring the world of microplastics, unraveling their
sources, pathways, and the profound implications of their ubiquitous presence.
Through empirical evidence, case studies, and interdisciplinary perspectives, this
review aims to shed light on the potential risks microplastics pose to food safety
and security. Furthermore, it will scrutinize mitigation strategies, policy initiatives,
and the evolving landscape of these issues as we navigate the intricate terrain of
safeguarding our food resources in the twenty-first century.

2 Food Security Challenges

Food security, the reliable access to sufficient, safe, and nutritious food for an
active and healthy life, faces a multitude of challenges in the modern world
(Godfray & Garnett, 2014; Mbow et al., 2020). These challenges are complex and
often intertwined, affecting both global and regional food security.
The following factors contribute significantly to these challenges:
a. Population Growth: The world’s population is projected to reach 9.7 billion by
2050, increasing the demand for food substantially. This demographic expansion
strains resources and necessitates increased food production and distribution.
b. Climate Change: Climate change leads to erratic weather patterns, extreme
events, and shifts in temperature and precipitation. These changes affect crop
yields, livestock health, and the availability of water resources for agriculture.
Food Security Challenges and Microplastics: A Comprehensive Review 363

c. Water Scarcity: Agriculture is a major consumer of freshwater, and water scarcity

due to overuse, pollution, and climate change is a critical challenge. Competition
for water resources can impact food production.
d. Soil Degradation: Soil erosion, deforestation, and urbanization can lead to the
degradation of arable land. This reduces its capacity to produce food and threatens
long- term food security.
e. Crop Pests and Diseases: Pests and diseases can devastate crops and livestock,
leading to significant losses in food production.
f. Limited Market Access: In many regions, particularly in rural areas of low-
income countries, limited access to markets and inadequate infrastructure can
hinder food distribution, leading to food losses and waste.
g. Conflict and Political Instability: Conflicts and political instability can disrupt
food supply chains and lead to food shortages, causing acute food insecurity.
h. Poverty and Income Inequality: Poverty and income inequality can limit people’s
access to nutritious food. Even when food is available, it may be unaffordable
for some.
These challenges are not isolated but interconnected, making the pursuit of global
food security a complex and multifaceted endeavor (Ashley, 2016; Rayfuse & Weis-
felt, 2012). Addressing these issues requires a concerted effort involving sustainable
agricultural practices, climate mitigation and adaptation strategies, improved water
resource management, and policies aimed at reducing poverty and inequality (Ashley,
2016). Regional variations and specific challenges further underscore the need for
tailored solutions to ensure food security for all (Rayfuse & Weisfelt, 2012).
Food security confronts an array of formidable challenges that have profound
global and regional impacts. The world’s population, exceeding 7.8 billion in 2021
and projected to reach 9.7 billion by 2050 (Falcon et al., 2022), amplifies the demand
for food resources, particularly in regions experiencing rapid growth like Africa and
Asia (Erenstein et al., 2022; Falcon et al., 2022). Simultaneously, climate change,
with global temperatures rising by approximately 1.2 °C above pre-industrial levels,
disrupts weather patterns and ecosystems (Erenstein et al., 2022). This contributes
to erratic weather events and threatens crop yields, exemplified in East Africa’s
drought-induced food shortages. Water scarcity, attributed to overuse, pollution, and
climate change, poses another formidable hurdle, particularly for regions heavily
reliant on irrigation. Soil degradation and loss of arable land, as evidenced by urban
expansion in parts of India, diminish agricultural productivity and long-term food
security (Falcon et al., 2022). Crop pests and diseases, such as the fall armyworm
in sub-Saharan Africa, annually devastate 20–40% of global food crops. Limited
market access, often seen in rural areas of low-income countries, impedes food distri-
bution, resulting in waste. Conflict and political instability, as witnessed in Yemen,
disrupt supply chains and lead to acute food insecurity. Moreover, poverty and income
inequality persist, with over 9% of the global population living in extreme poverty in
2020. These challenges intricately intertwine, calling for holistic strategies encom-
passing sustainable agriculture, climate resilience, improved water management, and
364 S. Sinha

poverty alleviation to ensure food security globally while addressing region-specific

disparities (Erenstein et al., 2022; Sinha, 2018, 2022).

3 Microplastic

Microplastics are minuscule plastic particles, typically measuring less than 5 mm in

size, that result from the fragmentation and degradation of larger plastic items or orig-
inate as intentionally manufactured small plastic particles, including microbeads and
microfibers (Felsing et al., 2018). These tiny plastic particles have become pervasive
in the environment, found in oceans, freshwater bodies, soils, and even the atmo-
sphere, posing ecological and potential human health risks as they can accumulate
in ecosystems and enter the food chain (Laskar & Kumar, 2019).
Microplastics can be found in various environmental compartments, including
oceans, freshwater bodies, soils, and even the atmosphere. They are pervasive in the
environment and have raised concerns due to their potential ecological and human
health impacts. Once released into the environment, microplastics can persist for
extended periods, accumulating in ecosystems and entering the food chain, which
can have far-reaching consequences for both marine and terrestrial life.
It’s worth noting that microplastics can absorb and transport chemical contami-
nants, and there are concerns about their potential to transfer these contaminants to
organisms upon ingestion (Khan et al., 2022). As a result, microplastics have become
an important focus of environmental research and policy efforts to mitigate plastic
pollution and its associated risks.

3.1 Microplastics in the Food Chain

Microplastics’ journey from the environment into the food chain is a concerning
aspect of their pervasive presence. Two key processes through which microplastics
become integrated into the food chain are bioaccumulation and biomagnifications
(Felsing et al., 2018; Khan et al., 2022; Laskar & Kumar, 2019).
Bioaccumulation: In aquatic ecosystems, microplastics can be ingested by various
marine organisms, including plankton, filter-feeding shellfish, and small fish. These
organisms may mistake microplastics for food particles or ingest them unintention-
ally while feeding. Once ingested, microplastics can accumulate in the tissues and
organs of these organisms (Alava, 2020). Since microplastics are not easily broken
down or excreted, their concentrations can increase within an individual organism
over time. As larger predatory species consume smaller ones, the microplastics
accumulated in the prey organisms are passed up the food chain, leading to higher
concentrations of microplastics in larger predators.
Food Security Challenges and Microplastics: A Comprehensive Review 365

Biomagnification: Biomagnification is a process that occurs as microplastics move

up the food chain (Alava, 2020). Larger predators that consume smaller prey can
accumulate not only the microplastics contained in their prey but also the chemicals
and contaminants that may have adhered to those microplastics. This results in an
increase in both the concentration of microplastics and potential chemical pollu-
tants in organisms at higher trophic levels. Apex predators, such as larger fish and
marine mammals, can ultimately harbor significant levels of both microplastics and
associated contaminants due to biomagnification.
These processes are of particular concern because they can lead to the introduction
of microplastics and associated pollutants into the human food supply. Seafood, for
example, is a common source of protein for many people globally, and the bioaccu-
mulation and biomagnification of microplastics in aquatic organisms raise questions
about the potential health risks associated with consuming contaminated seafood
(Alava, 2020). While the full extent of these risks is still being studied, it underscores
the importance of addressing plastic pollution and reducing the entry of microplastics
into the environment to safeguard both ecosystems and human health.

3.2 Microplastic Contamination in Food Sources

Seafood: Marine organisms, particularly filter-feeding animals like mussels, clams,

and oysters, are susceptible to microplastic contamination (Barboza et al., 2018;
Rubio-Armendáriz et al., 2022) (Fig. 1). These creatures ingest microplastics from the
surrounding water as they filter feed. Additionally, fish that consume smaller organ-
isms laden with microplastics can accumulate them in their digestive systems. Conse-
quently, microplastics have been detected in various seafood products, including fish,
shellfish, and even in the digestive tracts of larger predatory fish.

Fig. 1 Effect of microplastic on aquatic ecosystem (24)

366 S. Sinha

Agriculture: Microplastics can enter agricultural ecosystems through various means.

Plastic mulches used in farming can degrade into microplastics over time, contami-
nating soils. Moreover, wastewater sludge containing microplastics may be used as
fertilizer, introducing these particles into croplands (Barboza et al., 2018; Rubio-
Armendáriz et al., 2022). As a result, microplastics have been discovered in the soil,
affecting plants and potentially entering the food chain through agricultural produce.
Honey: Recent studies have detected microplastics in honey (Diaz-Basantes et al.,
2020). Bees can inadvertently collect pollen from flowers contaminated with
microplastics, which can then end up in honey. This raises concerns about the
prevalence of microplastics in various honey products.

4 Potential Health Risks Associated with Consuming

Microplastics

The emerging issue of microplastic contamination in food sources has raised legiti-
mate concerns about potential health risks (Barboza et al., 2018). While comprehen-
sive assessments are ongoing, several noteworthy health implications have come to
light. Firstly, the physical harm caused by microplastics cannot be ignored. These
minuscule particles, often abrasive in nature, have the capacity to accumulate in the
gastrointestinal tracts of both marine organisms and humans, potentially leading to
irritation, tissue damage, and intestinal obstructions (Mondal et al., 2024). These
microplastics have a unique ability to adsorb and transport chemical contaminants
from the environment. When ingested, these pollutants may leach into the tissues of
organisms, thereby increasing the risk of bioaccumulation of toxic substances up the
food chain (Ali & Khan, 2018). This phenomenon, referred to as "Trojan horse" trans-
port, is of particular concern, as it could introduce a variety of harmful chemicals,
including persistent organic pollutants (POPs) and endocrine-disrupting chemicals,
into the human diet (Ali & Khan, 2018). Moreover, the presence of microplastics in
the gastrointestinal tract has been associated with the potential triggering of inflam-
matory responses in both animals and humans. Chronic inflammation is known to be
a precursor to various health issues, from gastrointestinal disorders to more systemic
conditions. Lastly, microplastics can act as surfaces for bacterial attachment and
growth, potentially disrupting the balance of the gut microbiome, which plays a
pivotal role in human health. Altered gut microbiota composition has been linked
to a range of health problems, including immune disorders and metabolic diseases.
While the scientific community continues to investigate these potential health risks,
it is essential to recognize that the multifaceted nature of microplastic pollution
demands proactive measures (Ali et al., 2023). These include robust research efforts
to comprehensively assess the health impacts, regulatory actions to limit microplastic
pollution at its source, and sustainable practices that minimize the entry of microplas-
tics into food sources. Safeguarding public health in the face of this evolving chal-
lenge necessitates a multifaceted approach aimed at reducing both the prevalence
Food Security Challenges and Microplastics: A Comprehensive Review 367

of microplastics in the environment and the potential risks associated with their
consumption.

5 Impacts on Food Security

Microplastics exert both direct and indirect impacts on food security, encom-
passing the availability, safety, and sustainability of food sources (Onyeaka et al.,
2024). Directly, microplastics can infiltrate the food chain, potentially contami-
nating seafood, agricultural crops, and livestock. This contamination not only raises
concerns about food safety but also threatens food availability by compromising
the integrity of harvested products (Vågsholm et al., 2020). Indirectly, the ecological
consequences of microplastic pollution can disrupt ecosystems, affecting key compo-
nents of the food web and altering the abundance and distribution of species crucial
for food production. For example, microplastic ingestion by filter-feeding organ-
isms like shellfish may lead to reduced feeding efficiency and population declines,
thereby diminishing the availability of these valuable food resources. Additionally,
microplastic pollution can undermine the sustainability of fisheries and aquaculture
by altering aquatic habitats and nutrient cycling. As microplastics traverse up the
food chain through processes like biomagnification, apex predators, including larger
fish, may accumulate both microplastics and associated contaminants, posing risks
to both seafood safety and the livelihoods of fishing communities (Wootton et al.,
2021). Moreover, the ecological damage caused by microplastics can exacerbate the
broader food security challenges stemming from climate change, habitat degrada-
tion, and overfishing. Hence, addressing the multifaceted impacts of microplastics on
food security demands comprehensive strategies that encompass mitigating pollution
at its source, enhancing food safety regulations, and promoting sustainable resource
management practices (Al Mamun et al., 2023).

6 Research Findings

Numerous case studies and research findings underscore the far-reaching conse-
quences of microplastic contamination on food availability and safety. For instance,
investigations into the presence of microplastics in seafood have revealed alarming
levels of contamination in fish and shellfish, with some studies indicating that
individuals may unknowingly consume thousands of microplastic particles annu-
ally through seafood consumption alone. In agriculture, research has identified
microplastic contamination in soil, potentially impairing crop growth and quality.
Moreover, studies have highlighted the role of microplastics as carriers of harmful
chemicals, raising concerns about the transfer of these contaminants into the food
supply. Various research has shown that microplastics in the marine environment can
adsorb and transport pollutants like polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and polycyclic
368 S. Sinha

aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), which can accumulate in seafood, posing health risks
to consumers (Alava, 2020; Lehel & Murphy, 2021). Additionally, investigations into
the impact of microplastics on aquatic ecosystems have revealed disruptions in food
web dynamics, with potential consequences for fisheries and aquaculture (Alava,
2020).

7 Mitigation and Management Strategies

with an Integrated Approach

Achieving sustainable solutions to the intertwined challenges of food security and

microplastic pollution necessitates a holistic and integrated approach that acknowl-
edges the synergies between these pressing issues (Table 1) (Branca et al., 2011).
Integrated strategies not only mitigate the adverse effects but also harness opportuni-
ties to address both challenges simultaneously, maximizing the efficiency of resource
utilization and environmental protection.
In the realm of sustainable agriculture (Nelson, 2023), the adoption of best
practices such as crop rotation, agro-forestry, and precision farming has demon-
strated their potential to enhance food security while reducing environmental impacts
(Table 1). Concurrently, the pursuit of plastic waste reduction is being advanced
through measures such as single-use plastic bans, circular economy models, and
extended producer responsibility programs. Complementing these efforts, policy

Table 1 Highlights best practices in sustainable agriculture, plastic waste reduction, and policy
initiatives
S. No. Category Best practices
1 Sustainable agriculture • Crop rotation and diversification for soil health
• Integrated pest management to reduce chemical inputs
• Cover cropping and reduced tillage for soil conservation
• Agroforestry to enhance biodiversity and ecosystems
• Efficient water management through drip irrigation
• Organic farming practices for reduced chemical use
2 Plastic waste reduction • Adoption of eco-friendly packaging materials
• Promoting reusable and recyclable products
• Implementation of extended producer responsibility (EPR)
• Public awareness campaigns on plastic reduction
• Encouraging plastic recycling and circular economy
• Plastic-Free initiatives in retail and hospitality
3 Policy initiatives • Implementation of plastic bans and restrictions
• Development of extended producer responsibility (EPR)
• Incentives for businesses adopting sustainable practices|
• Legislation supporting organic and regenerative farming
• Integration of circular economy principles in policies
• Cross-Sectoral collaboration for holistic environmental
• Conservation and plastic waste management
Food Security Challenges and Microplastics: A Comprehensive Review 369

initiatives encompassing plastic pollution regulation and incentives for sustainable

agriculture play pivotal roles in driving change. Nevertheless, the complex and inter-
connected challenges of food security and plastic pollution necessitate ongoing
research and action. Further studies are required to comprehensively assess the
ecological and health impacts of microplastic contamination, explore alternative
materials for plastic substitution, understand and influence consumer behavior toward
sustainability, and promote global cooperation for a harmonized response. Moreover,
research should focus on climate-resilient agricultural practices, innovative circular
economy solutions, and strategies to enhance the circularity of food systems. As this
review paper delves into the integration of these best practices and policy initiatives,
it underscores the imperative for continued research, innovation, and international
collaboration to effectively address these intertwined challenges on a global scale.
In the pursuit of addressing the intertwined challenges of plastic pollution and food
security, several critical areas demand further research and action. These encompass
the comprehensive assessment of microplastic impacts on ecosystems and human
health, the development and evaluation of alternative materials to replace plastics,
strategies to instigate and influence consumer behavior towards sustainability, the
promotion of global cooperation to harmonize policies and combat cross-border
issues, research into climate-resilient agricultural practices, and the advancement of
circular economy innovations. These areas represent the frontiers where interdisci-
plinary research, policy development, and international collaboration are essential
for crafting effective and sustainable solutions to safeguard both environmental and
food security concerns on a global scale.

8 Conclusion and Future Perspective

In the intricate interplay of food security challenges and microplastic pollution, the
chapter has illuminated the multifaceted nature of these issues and highlighted best
practices and policy initiatives that offer hope for a more sustainable future. As we
conclude this exploration, it is evident that the evolving dynamics of climate change,
resource scarcity, and societal transitions will continue to shape these challenges.
However, we stand at the threshold of innovation and transformative change. By
embracing technological advancements, such as precision agriculture and circular
economy solutions, and by fostering international collaboration and responsible
consumer behavior, we can navigate these challenges. The future holds promise
for resilient food systems reduced plastic pollution, and a holistic approach to safe-
guarding both the environment and human well-being. It is our collective respon-
sibility to embark on this journey towards a more sustainable and secure future for
all.
Overall this review underscores the intricate interplay between food security chal-
lenges and the pervasive issue of microplastic contamination. The growing global
population, climate change, water scarcity, and other factors jeopardize the sustain-
able production and distribution of food resources. Simultaneously, microplastics,
370 S. Sinha

ubiquitous in our environment, infiltrate ecosystems, contaminate food sources, and

raise concerns about potential health risks. Impacts on food security range from
ecological disruptions in marine and terrestrial ecosystems to economic conse-
quences in fishing, agriculture, and food industries. Furthermore, public health is
at stake as microplastics infiltrate human diets, raising concerns about food safety
and nutrition. Addressing these challenges requires an integrated approach encom-
passing source reduction, improved waste management, and sustainable agricultural
practices. Scientific research and monitoring are crucial for understanding risks, and
policy innovations are pivotal for shaping the future of these issues. Overall, a global
commitment to collaboration, innovation, and safeguarding both the environment and
the well-being of communities worldwide is imperative as we navigate the intricate
intersection of food security challenges and microplastic contamination.

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Human Health Implications
Environmental Risks and Human Health
Impact of Microplastic Pollution

Ernest Mbamalu Ezeh and Peter Chinedu Agu

Abstract This book chapter delves into the intricate web of environmental risks
and human health impacts stemming from the pervasive issue of microplastic pollu-
tion. Through a comprehensive analysis, the chapter explores the sources, path-
ways, and chances of microplastics in diverse ecosystems, shedding light on their
profound implications for environmental health. Detailed examinations reveal the
adversative effects of microplastics on aquatic life, terrestrial organisms, and even
their presence in the atmospheric environment, stressing the broad consequences
of this pollution. In the realm of human health, the chapter uncovers the path-
ways through which microplastics infiltrate the human diet, contaminating food and
water supplies. It delves into the latent health jeopardies modeled by microplastic
exposure, including toxicity, carcinogenicity, and endocrine disruption. Method-
ologies for detecting and quantifying microplastics are critically evaluated, eluci-
dating the challenges and advancements in the field, and thereby providing valu-
able insights for future research endeavors. The chapter explores existing regulatory
frameworks and policies, assessing their efficacy in mitigating microplastic pollution.
It discusses innovative mitigation strategies, from advanced filtration technologies
to public awareness campaigns, emphasizing the importance of proactive measures.
By synthesizing current knowledge and highlighting gaps in understanding, this
chapter offers a comprehensive perspective on the multifaceted challenges posed by
microplastic pollution, serving as a valuable resource for researchers, policymakers,
and environmentalists striving to address this pressing global issue.

Keywords Microplastics · Environment · Health risk · Pollution

E. M. Ezeh (B)
Department of Chemical Engineering, Federal University, Otuoke, Bayelsa, Nigeria
e-mail: ezehem@fuotuoke.edu.ng
P. C. Agu
Department of Biochemistry, College of Science, Evangel University, Akaeze, Ebonyi State,
Nigeria
e-mail: pc.agu@evangeluniversity.edu.ng

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 375
J. C. Egbueri et al. (eds.), Microplastics in African and Asian Environments, Emerging
Contaminants and Associated Treatment Technologies,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-64253-1_19
376 E. M. Ezeh and P. C. Agu

1 Introduction

Microplastic contamination has become a major environmental problem that affects

ecosystems and human health in profound ways. The term “microplastics” describes
minuscule plastic particles, usually less than five millimeters in size, that come from
a variety of sources, including textile synthetic fibers, microbeads in personal care
products, and fragmentation of larger plastic debris (Deshoulles et al., 2021; Verla
et al., 2018). The ubiquity of microplastics, coupled with their tenacity in the envi-
ronment, has raised concerns worldwide about their potential impacts (Boontip et al.,
2020).
Numerous environments, including soil, freshwater systems, the seas, and even the
atmosphere, have been reported to contain microplastics (Ragusa et al., 2022; Thiviya
et al., 2022). They can come from a variety of places, including industrial processes,
textile fibers, microbeads in personal care items, and the breakdown of bigger plastic
trash (Harumi et al., 2022). Marine ecology, coastal tourism, and human health are all
impacted by microplastic contamination in the oceans (Li et al., 2019; Ragusa et al.,
2022). Because they may build up in the environment and make their way up the
food chain, microplastic particles represent a danger to both terrestrial and aquatic
ecosystems as well as human health (Li et al., 2019). To understand microplastics and
their dispersion and destiny in the environment, one must understand their origins
and routes (Ramanna et al., 2022).
Carelessly, microplastics can enter ecosystems through multiple routes, including
direct discharge from wastewater treatment plants, runoff from land-based sources,
and atmospheric deposition (Mossotti et al., 2022). They may experience chemical,
biological, and physical changes after being released into the wild, which may have
an impact on their persistence and behavior (Frigione et al., 2021). Microplastics,
however, have a broad range of effects on a variety of creatures and ecosystems in the
environment. Numerous marine animals, such as fish, whales, seabirds, and turtles,
have been shown to consume microplastics (Liu et al., 2019). For example, aquatic
species, including freshwater and marine life, are especially susceptible to the nega-
tive consequences of microplastic contamination (Medley et al., 2023). Furthermore,
species at different trophic levels may consume microplastic particles, which might
result in physical injury, decreased feeding efficiency, and disruption of biological
processes (Medley et al., 2023; Pertiwi et al., 2022). Similarly, microplastics can
accumulate in soil and sediments, affecting soil health and terrestrial ecosystems.
Apart from the environmental implications, microplastics provide noteworthy
hazards to human well-being. Through tainted food and water sources, these particles
may find their way into the human diet, exposing people to diseases and dangerous
chemicals linked to microplastics (Verla et al., 2018). Exposure to microplastics
has been linked to toxicity, carcinogenicity, and endocrine disruption, which raises
serious concerns about the long-term effects on human health (Medley et al., 2023).
A multidisciplinary strategy including public awareness campaigns, policy develop-
ment, and scientific research is needed to address the intricate problem of microplastic
contamination. By synthesizing current knowledge and identifying research gaps, we
Environmental Risks and Human Health Impact of Microplastic Pollution 377

can better understand the challenges posed by microplastics and develop effective
strategies for mitigation and prevention.
Therefore, this chapter aims to discuss the intricacies of microplastic pollution,
exploring its environmental and human health influences, methodologies for detec-
tion and quantification, regulatory frameworks, mitigation strategies, and future
research directions. By working together, we can protect human health and the
ecosystem from the ubiquitous danger posed by microplastics.

2 Microplastics Sources and Fate in an Environment

Microplastics, ubiquitous in modern environments, originate from diverse sources

and traverse intricate pathways within ecosystems, ultimately shaping their fate and
impact. Let us discuss the sources, pathways, and fate of microplastics; and shed
light on the complexities of their distribution and persistence in an ecosystem.

2.1 Sources of Microplastics

Microplastics derive from chemical and other sources which can be primary or
secondary (He et al., 2022) contributing to their abundance in the environment
(Osman et al., 2023) (see Fig. 1).
The basic microplastics, as seen in Fig. 1, are purposefully produced at small
sizes for a variety of uses, such as pellets used in plastic production processes, indus-
trial abrasives, and microbeads in personal care products. Conversely, secondary
microplastics come from the physical, chemical, and biological breakdown and
fragmentation of larger plastic objects including bottles, fishing gear, and pack-
aging materials. The cumulative effect of these sources increases the amount of

Microplastics
sources

Chemical sources Other sources

Polyurethane
Polyvinyl chloride
Primary sources Secondary sources
Polyethylene
Polystyrene Personal care consumables Food packaging container
Polyethylene terephthalate Cosmetics Plastic bottles
Polypropylene Detergents Fishing gear
Insecticides Plastic bags
Pharmaceuticals ATM paper/printout

Fig. 1 Source and classes of microplastics

378 E. M. Ezeh and P. C. Agu

Land

Microplastics and its derivatives Water bodies

Air

Fig. 2 Microplastic distribution pathway in an ecosystem

microplastics in the environment by causing an ongoing influx of these particles into

ecosystems.

2.2 Pathways of Microplastic Distribution in Ecosystems

Microplastics are ubiquitously distributed in air, water, and soil. According to Li

et al. (2020), microplastics navigate diverse pathways within ecosystems, facilitated
by natural processes and anthropogenic activities (Fig. 2).
In water bodies, microplastics primarily enter through direct discharge from
wastewater handling plants, runoff from urban zones, and marine litter (Roblin et al.,
2020). Once in water bodies, they can undergo transport by currents, tides, and wind-
driven processes, dispersing over vast distances and accumulating in sediment layers
(Yukioka et al., 2020). Microplastics also infiltrate terrestrial ecosystems via atmo-
spheric deposition, as airborne particles settle on land surfaces, agricultural fields,
and natural habitats (Lwanga et al., 2022). Soil erosion and runoff further contribute
to microplastic transport, facilitating their entry into freshwater systems (de Souza
Machado et al., 2019). To fully comprehend the scope of microplastic pollution and
its possible effects on ecosystems, it is imperative to comprehend these routes.

2.3 Fate of Microplastics

Numerous elements, such as the physical and chemical characteristics of the

microplastics, the surrounding environment, and the biological interactions that allow
them to stay in the environment, all have an impact on the fate of these particles within
ecosystems (Fig. 3).
Environmental Risks and Human Health Impact of Microplastic Pollution 379

Fig. 3 Fates of Accumulation

microplastics

Fate of Microplastics

Degradation Transportation

As given above (Fig. 3), accumulation occurs as microplastics persist in the

environment, accumulating in sediments, soils, and biota over time. While some
microplastics undergo degradation through processes such as photolysis, mechan-
ical abrasion, and microbial degradation, others remain intact for extended periods,
posing long-term environmental risks. Transport mechanisms, including advection,
diffusion, and sedimentation, play a decisive role in the dispersal and redistribution
of microplastics within ecosystems, shaping their spatial distribution and ecological
impacts (Lwanga et al., 2022; Weithmann et al., 2018; Wu et al., 2019).

3 Environmental Impacts of Microplastics

Microplastics, pervasive in various ecosystems, exert profound impacts on envi-

ronmental health, disrupting ecological balance and jeopardizing the well-being of
organisms. Particularly, the adverse consequences of microplastics on aquatic and
terrestrial ecosystems, as well as their presence in the atmospheric environment
constitute an intricate web of ecological consequences.

3.1 Microplastics Versus Aquatic Life

Microplastic smog poses a significant threat to marine organisms, ranging from

microscopic plankton to apex predators (Li et al., 2021). Ingestion of microplas-
tics by marine species can lead to physical harm, internal injuries, and blockages in
digestive systems, impairing feeding behavior, nutrient absorption, and reproductive
success (Qiang et al., 2017; Zouxia et al., 2017). Furthermore, microplastics serve as
trajectories for toxic substances and pathogens, magnifying the risks of bioaccumu-
lation and biomagnification within marine food webs (Haibo et al., 2016). Freshwater
ecosystems are similarly vulnerable to microplastic contamination, with implications
for freshwater species, including fish, amphibians, and invertebrates (Xiaoxia, 2016).
The accumulation of microplastics in sediment layers and riverine habitats further
380 E. M. Ezeh and P. C. Agu

exacerbates ecological disturbances, altering habitat structure, nutrient cycling, and

biodiversity (Zouxia et al., 2017).

3.2 Microplastics Versus Terrestrial Organisms

Microplastics extend their reach into terrestrial ecosystems, influencing soil health,
plant growth, and the vitality of terrestrial organisms (de Souza Machado et al.,
2018). Soil-dwelling organisms, such as earthworms, microarthropods, and nema-
todes, can inadvertently ingest microplastics, potentially disrupting nutrient cycling,
soil structure, and microbial communities (Baho et al., 2021; Kumar et al., 2023).
Microplastic contamination in agricultural soils may also affect crop growth and
yield, posing risks to food security and agricultural sustainability (de Souza Machado
et al., 2018). Moreover, terrestrial animals, including birds, mammals, and insects,
may encounter microplastics in their environments, with potential consequences
for foraging behavior, reproductive success, and overall fitness (Baho et al., 2021;
Logvina et al., 2024).

3.3 Microplastics Versus Atmospheric Environment

Microplastics are not confined to aquatic and terrestrial environments but also pervade
the atmospheric environment through processes such as wind-driven transport, atmo-
spheric deposition, and resuspension of surface particles (Kapp & Miller, 2020;
Logvina et al., 2024). Atmospheric microplastics can settle on land and water
surfaces, contributing to environmental contamination and ecosystem disruption
(O’Brien et al., 2020). Moreover, inhalation of airborne microplastics by humans
and animals raises concerns about respiratory health effects and systemic exposure
to plastic-related pollutants (Abad López et al., 2023). Therefore, the presence of
microplastics in the atmosphere underscores the interconnectedness of environmental
compartments and the need for holistic approaches to address microplastic pollution.

4 Human Health Impacts of Microplastic Pollution

Microplastic pollution not only poses threats to environmental ecosystems but simi-
larly advances concerns about potential risks to human health. These comprise the
infiltration of microplastics into the human diet, the linked health risks, routes of
exposure, and the phenomenon of bioaccumulation in human tissues.
Environmental Risks and Human Health Impact of Microplastic Pollution 381

4.1 Microplastic Infiltration into the Human Diet

Microplastics have been reported to infiltrate the human diet through the contam-
ination of food and water supplies, presenting a significant route of exposure for
individuals worldwide (Fig. 4).
In aquatic environments, microplastics are ingested by marine and freshwater
organisms, accumulating in their tissues and organs (Duis & Coors, 2016). As humans
consume seafood and freshwater fish, they unwittingly ingest microplastics present
in these organisms (Issac & Kandasubramanian, 2021). Additionally, microplastics
have been detected in drinking water sources, such as tap water and bottled water,
raising concerns about direct exposure through water consumption (Gambino et al.,
2022; Koelmans et al., 2019). Moreover, microplastics may contaminate agricultural
soils and crops, further contributing to human exposure through the consumption of
fruits, vegetables, and grains (Kundu et al., 2022; Sa’adu & Farsang, 2023).

Fig. 4 Microplastic infiltration in humans

382 E. M. Ezeh and P. C. Agu

4.2 Potential Health Risks of Microplastics

Exposure to microplastics harbors potential health risks for humans, stemming

from both the physical presence of microplastics and the associated chemicals and
additives absorbed onto their surfaces (Fig. 5).
Microplastics can cause physical damage to gastrointestinal tissues, leading to
inflammation, ulceration, and impaired nutrient absorption (Campanale et al., 2020;
Pereao et al., 2020). Furthermore, microplastics can act as carriers for a variety
of toxic substances, including persistent organic pollutants (POPs), heavy metals,
and plastic additives, which may leach into the surrounding environment or be
released upon ingestion (Lee et al., 2023). These chemicals have been linked to
various adverse health effects, including developmental abnormalities, neurotoxi-
city, carcinogenicity, and endocrine disruption (Alimba & Faggio, 2019). The small
size of microplastics enables them to translocate across biological barriers, poten-
tially accumulating in vital organs and tissues and exerting systemic effects on human
health (Sofi Uddin Mahamud et al., 2022).

Fig. 5 Possible health risks of microplastics in humans

Environmental Risks and Human Health Impact of Microplastic Pollution 383

4.3 Routes of Exposure and Bioaccumulation in Human

Tissues

Human exposure to microplastics occurs through multiple routes, including inges-

tion, inhalation, and dermal contact (Sun & Wang, 2023) (Fig. 6).
Ingestion of contaminated food and water represents the primary route of expo-
sure, with microplastics traversing the digestive tract and potentially accumulating in
gastrointestinal tissues (Kankanige & Babel, 2020; Shruti et al., 2020). Inhalation of
airborne microplastics may also occur, particularly in urban environments with high
levels of atmospheric pollution (Vianello et al., 2019). Additionally, dermal contact
with products containing microplastics, such as personal care items and synthetic
textiles, may contribute to exposure (Zoabi et al., 2021). Once ingested or inhaled,
microplastics can undergo bioaccumulation in human tissues, with the potential for
accumulation over time and the persistence of adverse health effects (Sun & Wang,
2023).

5 Microplastics Detection and Quantification

Methodologies

Detecting and quantifying microplastics in environmental matrices present signifi-

cant challenges due to their small size, diverse shapes, and ubiquitous presence (Kara-
panagioti, 2012). Here, we provide an overview of current methodologies employed
for sampling, analysis, and quantification of microplastics, discuss the challenges
associated with these techniques, and highlight recent advancements and emerging
methodologies aimed at enhancing detection sensitivity and accuracy.

Fig. 6 Routes of
microplastic exposure in
humans
384 E. M. Ezeh and P. C. Agu

5.1 Prevailing Methodologies for Microplastics Assessments

Sampling methodologies for microplastics encompass a range of techniques

designed to collect representative samples from diverse environmental compart-
ments, including water bodies, sediments, soils, and biota (Shruti et al., 2021).
Common sampling methods include surface trawls, sediment coring, grab sampling,
and passive samplers, each offering advantages and limitations depending on the
target matrix and research objectives (Araujo et al., 2018; Kang et al., 2020). Once
collected, samples undergo processing to extract microplastics, typically involving
digestion, filtration, density separation, and visual identification under microscopy.
Analytical methods for microplastic characterization encompass both physical and
chemical techniques, including optical microscopy (Wagner et al., 2017), scanning
electron microscopy (SEM) (Majewsky et al., 2016), Fourier-transform infrared
spectroscopy (FTIR) (Song et al., 2015), and Raman spectroscopy (Araujo et al.,
2018). These methods enable the identification, classification, and quantification of
microplastics based on their morphology, size, and chemical composition, providing
valuable insights into their distribution and abundance in environmental samples
(Karlsson et al., 2020; Sorasan et al., 2021).

5.2 Challenges in Detecting and Quantifying Microplastics

Despite advancements in detection methodologies, several challenges persist in accu-

rately quantifying microplastics in environmental samples. One major challenge is
the lack of standardized protocols and quality assurance measures, leading to vari-
ability in sampling and analysis procedures across studies (Li et al., 2022). Addi-
tionally, the small size and transparency of microplastics make them difficult to
distinguish from natural particles and debris, resulting in potential false positives and
uncertainties in data interpretation (Zhu et al., 2020). Furthermore, the heterogeneity
of microplastic particles, in terms of size, shape, color, and polymer composition,
complicates their identification and classification, requiring specialized expertise and
equipment (Vidal & Pasquini, 2021). Moreover, microplastics may undergo physical
and chemical transformations in the environment, such as degradation, fragmenta-
tion, and biofouling, further complicating their detection and quantification (Serranti
et al., 2018).

5.3 Advancements in Detection Technologies and Emerging

Methodologies

Recent years have witnessed significant advancements in detection technologies

and emerging methodologies aimed at overcoming the challenges associated with
Environmental Risks and Human Health Impact of Microplastic Pollution 385

microplastic analysis. High-throughput imaging techniques, such as automated

microscopy and machine learning algorithms, enable rapid screening and classifica-
tion of microplastics in large sample sets, improving efficiency and accuracy (da Silva
et al., 2020). Also, the development of spectroscopic techniques, including hyper-
spectral imaging and microspectroscopy, offers enhanced chemical characterization
of microplastics, facilitating polymer identification and source attribution (Biermann
et al., 2020; Garcia-Garin et al., 2021). Furthermore, the integration of molecular
techniques, such as polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and DNA metabarcoding,
allows for the identification of microplastics at the molecular level, enabling insights
into microbial colonization and degradation processes (Coons et al., 2021; Valones
et al., 2009). These advancements hold promise for enhancing our understanding of
microplastic pollution and its impacts on environmental health.

6 Regulatory Frameworks and Policies on Microplastics

The management of microplastic pollution requires a comprehensive regulatory

framework that addresses its multifaceted environmental and societal impacts. Let us
discuss the existing regulations and policies aimed at mitigating microplastic pollu-
tion, evaluate their efficacy, strengths, weaknesses, and identify gaps, and provide
recommendations for enhancing regulatory measures and enforcement to effectively
address this global challenge.

6.1 Existing Regulations and Policies to Address

Microplastic Pollution

Governments, international organizations, and regulatory bodies have implemented

various regulations and policies to address microplastic pollution across different
sectors and environmental compartments. These measures encompass a range of
approaches, including bans on microbeads in personal care products, restrictions on
single-use plastics, and mandates for wastewater treatment and plastic waste manage-
ment (Usman et al., 2022; Sorensen et al., 2023). Additionally, international agree-
ments, such as the Basel Convention, the Stockholm Convention, and the United
Nations Environment Assembly resolutions, provide frameworks for addressing
plastic pollution and microplastics at the global level (Environmental Investigation
Agency, 2020). Also, initiatives by industry stakeholders, non-governmental orga-
nizations (NGOs), and advocacy groups play a crucial role in raising awareness,
promoting sustainable practices, and driving innovation in microplastic mitigation
efforts (Sorensen et al., 2023).
386 E. M. Ezeh and P. C. Agu

6.2 Efficacy of Microplastics Regulation and Policies

While existing regulations and policies represent important steps toward addressing
microplastic pollution, their efficacy varies depending on factors such as scope,
enforcement mechanisms, and stakeholder engagement. Strengths of current regu-
latory measures include raising awareness, mobilizing public support, and driving
innovation in alternative materials and waste management practices. However, weak-
nesses and gaps persist, including limited coverage of certain types of microplastics,
inconsistencies in enforcement across jurisdictions, and challenges in monitoring and
compliance. Moreover, the transboundary nature of microplastic pollution necessi-
tates coordinated action at the international level, highlighting the need for enhanced
collaboration and harmonization of regulatory frameworks.

6.3 Recommendations for Enhancing Regulatory Measures

and Enforcement

To strengthen regulatory measures and enforcement mechanisms for addressing

microplastic pollution, several recommendations can be considered:
i. Harmonization of standards and regulations: Establishing consistent stan-
dards and guidelines for microplastic monitoring, assessment, and mitigation
measures across jurisdictions to ensure uniformity and effectiveness.
ii. Expansion of regulatory scope: Broadening the scope of regulations to encom-
pass all sources and pathways of microplastic pollution, including microfibers
from textiles, tire wear particles, and microplastics from industrial processes.
iii. Integration of lifecycle approaches: Adopting lifecycle-based approaches to
address microplastic pollution, from production and use to disposal and recy-
cling, to minimize environmental impacts and promote sustainable practices.
iv. Enhancement of monitoring and enforcement capacity: Strengthening moni-
toring infrastructure, data collection systems, and enforcement mechanisms to
detect and deter violations of microplastic regulations effectively.
v. Engagement of stakeholders: Fostering collaboration and engagement among
governments, industry, academia, NGOs, and communities to develop inclusive
and participatory approaches to microplastic management and governance.
By implementing these recommendations, policymakers and stakeholders can
enhance regulatory frameworks and enforcement mechanisms to effectively mitigate
microplastic pollution and safeguard environmental and human health for present and
future generations.
Environmental Risks and Human Health Impact of Microplastic Pollution 387

7 Mitigation Strategies of Microplastics Pollution

Microplastic pollution poses a complex and pervasive challenge that demands inno-
vative mitigation strategies across multiple fronts. Here, we will explore cutting-
edge approaches to mitigating microplastic pollution, emphasize the importance
of public awareness and behavioral change, and highlight collaborative efforts and
international initiatives aimed at addressing this pressing global issue.

7.1 Adoption of Advanced Filtration Technologies and Waste

Management Practices

Advanced filtration technologies offer promising solutions for capturing microplas-

tics at various stages of their lifecycle, from wastewater treatment plants to
stormwater runoff systems (Alexy et al., 2020; Crichton et al., 2017). Membrane
filtration, microfiltration, and ultrafiltration systems can effectively remove
microplastics from water sources, preventing their release into the environment
(Poerio et al., 2019; Suzuki et al., 2022). Similarly, advanced solid waste management
practices, such as source reduction, recycling, and extended producer responsibility
(EPR) schemes, can help minimize the input of plastics into ecosystems and reduce
the prevalence of microplastic pollution (Okoffo et al., 2023). Innovative techniques,
such as pyrolysis, chemical recycling, and biodegradable polymers, offer alterna-
tive pathways for managing plastic waste and mitigating its environmental impact
(Asgher et al., 2020; Gourmelon, 2015; Zhao et al., 2021).

7.2 Campaign for Public Awareness and Behavioral Change

Public awareness and behavioral change are essential components of effective

microplastic mitigation strategies. Educating individuals about the sources, impacts,
and consequences of microplastic pollution can foster greater environmental
consciousness and encourage sustainable consumption habits. Public engagement
initiatives, such as community clean-up events, citizen science projects, and educa-
tional campaigns, empower individuals to take action and contribute to collective
efforts to reduce plastic waste. Moreover, fostering partnerships between govern-
ments, civil society organizations, academia, and the private sector can amplify
outreach efforts and mobilize stakeholders towards shared goals of microplastic
mitigation.
388 E. M. Ezeh and P. C. Agu

7.3 Establishment of Collaboration and Initiatives

for Microplastic Mitigation

Collaboration and cooperation at the international level are paramount for effec-
tively addressing microplastic pollution, given its transboundary nature and global
impacts. International initiatives, such as the Global Plastics Action Partnership
(GPAP), the Ocean Plastics Charter, and the Clean Seas Campaign, bring together
governments, businesses, and NGOs to develop coordinated strategies and action
plans for reducing plastic pollution. Multilateral agreements, such as the Basel
Convention’s Plastic Waste Amendments and the G7 Alliance on Plastics in the
Environment, provide frameworks for promoting international cooperation, knowl-
edge sharing, and capacity building in microplastic mitigation efforts. Furthermore,
partnerships between researchers, policymakers, and industry stakeholders facilitate
the exchange of expertise, technology transfer, and collaborative research projects
aimed at advancing innovation and best practices in microplastic management.
By leveraging innovative mitigation approaches, raising public awareness, and
fostering collaborative efforts at the local, national, and global levels, we can make
significant strides towards mitigating microplastic pollution and preserving the health
of ecosystems and communities worldwide.

8 Future Directions and Research Needs

While significant progress has been made in elucidating the sources, pathways, and
impacts of microplastic pollution, several key knowledge gaps persist. The general
understanding of the full extent of microplastic contamination in various environ-
mental compartments, including freshwater ecosystems, soils, and atmospheric envi-
ronments, remains incomplete. Moreover, there is limited knowledge of the long-
term ecological and human health impacts of microplastics, particularly regarding
chronic exposure and sublethal effects on organisms. Furthermore, gaps exist in
our understanding of the mechanisms driving the transport, fate, and behavior of
microplastics in different environmental matrices, as well as their interactions with
biota and ecosystem processes. Addressing these gaps will require interdisciplinary
research efforts, collaborative partnerships, and innovative methodologies to advance
our understanding of microplastic pollution.
Future research on microplastic pollution should prioritize interdisciplinary
approaches that integrate expertise from diverse fields, including environmental
science, ecology, toxicology, chemistry, engineering, and social sciences. Interdis-
ciplinary research efforts can provide holistic insights into the complex interactions
between microplastics and the environment, as well as their societal implications.
Long-term monitoring programs are essential for tracking trends in microplastic
contamination over time, assessing the effectiveness of mitigation measures, and
identifying emerging issues and hotspots of pollution. Longitudinal studies can
Environmental Risks and Human Health Impact of Microplastic Pollution 389

provide valuable data on temporal variability, seasonal patterns, and cumulative

impacts of microplastic pollution, informing adaptive management strategies and
policy interventions.
As microplastic pollution continues to evolve and new challenges emerge, it is
crucial to adopt a dynamic and adaptive approach to mitigation strategies. Ongoing
assessment and evaluation of the effectiveness of existing measures are essen-
tial for identifying gaps, refining strategies, and adapting to changing circum-
stances. Flexibility and resilience are key principles for navigating uncertainties and
complexities associated with microplastic pollution, requiring continuous learning,
innovation, and collaboration. Moreover, proactive engagement with stakeholders,
including governments, industry, academia, and civil society, is essential for building
consensus, fostering partnerships, and mobilizing collective action towards shared
goals of environmental sustainability and human well-being.

9 Conclusion

The pervasive threat of microplastic pollution to environmental ecosystems and

human health necessitates urgent collective action and proactive measures. The
intricate nature of microplastic contamination spans various environmental compart-
ments and exerts adverse effects on biodiversity and human well-being. Addressing
this challenge requires collaboration across all sectors, with governments, industry,
academia, and civil society joining forces to implement a multifaceted approach
encompassing regulatory measures, technological innovations, public awareness
campaigns, and international cooperation.

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The Potential Human Impacts
of Environmental Contamination
by Microplastics and Nanoplastics:
A Review

Naorem Nanda Singh, Chingakham Chinglenthoiba, Jose Hernandez Santos,

Suchith Chellappan, K. L. Priya, and Koijam K. K. Mani Bhushan Singh

Abstract In recent years, many studies have focused on the human consequences
of contamination of the environment with micro-or nano-plastics (MNPs). However,
the human health consequences of MNPs in the environment have not been studied
extensively. In this chapter, we look at how plastic waste is broken down into frag-
ments of the size micro-nano-plastics. Next, we look at the possible sources, fate and
occurrence of MNPs in different environmental compartments. Lastly, we summarise
the absorption of MNPs, their metabolism and their bioaccumulation in the human
system, as well as the various health consequences associated with MNPs. We also
look at the toxic effects of the chemical additives released by MNPs, as well as their
role as vectors of other toxic chemicals. In conclusion, we have identified the poten-
tial areas of research that are necessary to understand the potential risks associated
with MNPs pollution, and to lay the groundwork for future management and control.

Keywords Plastics · Pollutions · Degradation · Health impacts · Additives ·

Adsorbents

N. N. Singh · K. K. K. Mani Bhushan Singh

Department of Environmental Science, DM University, Imphal West, Manipur 795001, India
C. Chinglenthoiba (B)
Centre for Research Impact and Outcome (CRIO), Chitkara University, Punjab, India
e-mail: chingakham.chinglenthoiba@chitkara.edu.in
J. H. Santos
Department of Chemistry, Universiti Brunei Darussalam Jalan Tungku Link, Gadong 1410,
Brunei Darussalam
S. Chellappan
Environmental Engineering and Management, UKF College of Engineering and Technology,
Kollam, Kerala, India
K. L. Priya
Department of Civil Engineering, TKM College of Engineering, Kollam, Kerala, India

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 395
J. C. Egbueri et al. (eds.), Microplastics in African and Asian Environments, Emerging
Contaminants and Associated Treatment Technologies,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-64253-1_20
396 N. N. Singh et al.

1 Introduction

Plastics are now used in practically every human activity and utility because they
are so inexpensive and versatile. They have replaced metal and wood for diverse
applications (Guzzetti et al., 2018). Since 1970, after the invention of plastics, there’s
been a huge amount of plastic waste around the world—around 8.3 trillion tons, with
6.3 billion tons of that trash. Unfortunately, only 8.7% of the used plastic is recycled,
and the remainder reaches the various environmental compartments. This amount
will rise to 26 billion tons by 2050 if the current trend continues (Geyer et al., 2017;
Guerranti et al., 2019; Guzzetti et al., 2018). The durability of plastic renders it highly
resilient to deterioration, making their disposal a difficult task (Silva et al., 2018).
European Chemicals Agency (ECHA) defines microplastics as particles
composed of solid polymers, which may have been supplemented by additives or
other materials, and where more than 1% of the particles have dimensions of 1 nm
≤ particles ≤ 5 mm. This definition covers fibers that have a length-to-diameter
ratio of greater than 32 and a length of at least 3 nm ≤ particles ≤ 15 m. This
definition includes all particles found in the environment, including those that may
probably enter the food chain. It also includes nanoplastics and microplastics, which
are predicted to have smaller particle sizes and therefore a higher potential to have
human health impact (Jin et al., 2019).
The majority of unplanned disposal of plastic waste is in landfills, and it remains
there for many years as the rate of decompositions is quite slow. This unplanned
disposal of plastic can lead to plastic entering the aquatic environment, which can
have a detrimental effect on the marine ecosystem (Cole et al., 2011).This is of great
concern as the marine ecosystem has a major impact on global primary produc-
tivity. Once plastic materials enter the environment, they degrade through various
pathways and lose their structural integrity (Guzzetti et al., 2018). A majority of
microplastics found in the environment originate from sources, including car tire
abrasions, synthetic fabrics and breakdown of macroplastics (Bouwmeester et al.,
2015; Cózar et al., 2014; Sharma & Chatterjee, 2017). To date, MNPs are observed
in a variety of marine and land ecosystems: ocean, river, air, fresh water, sediment,
and food. At present, there is a limited understanding of the potential risks associated
with mixtures of various polymers containing additives and contaminants. Gener-
ally, polymers are not subject to assess under reach due to their classification as low
concern. However, there is a particular concern regarding MNPs due to their poten-
tial to be absorbed into the circulatory system of humans as the size decreases (Liu
et al., 2016). Furthermore, a material’s behavior in nature and its effects on biolog-
ical systems can be influenced by its physical attributes, including its shape, surface
texture, and chemical makeup (Amélineau et al., 2016). MNPs interact with and
react with both organic and inorganic pollutants, and can even help transport them to
different parts of the environment. This means that MNPs can act as a building block
and a vector for transporting these contaminants. Above this, studies have found MPs
in human waste, which implies that they are susceptible to exposure to MPs (Yang
et al., 2015).
The Potential Human Impacts of Environmental Contamination … 397

The possibility that MNPs could be absorbed and build up in human tissues, even
at low exposure levels, cannot be ruled out because of the body’s unclear metabolic
and excretion processes. The leaching of dangerous compounds, such as additives,
impurities, or unreacted monomers, from accumulated MNPs may then have long-
term effects. These substances, which are frequently present in plastics, have already
been linked to fish and other marine life, suggesting that plastic materials may have
once released them (Rillig et al., 2017). The so-called Trojan horse effect, which has
the potential to harm human health, also involves contaminants and bacteria from the
environment attaching to plastic surfaces, spreading to animal species, and contam-
inating the food chain. Comprehensive studies of the physiochemical relationships
and physiological settings that might encourage the adsorption of substances into
living cells can be found (Wang et al., 2017a). The food chain plays pivotal role
in transferring MNPs to humans, and this is the subject of a lot of research (Van
Cauwenberghe & Janssen, 2014). Here, the main aim of this chapter is to convey
the reader that MNPs are present in every environmental compartments and it has
impacted most of the metabolic activities of human being.

2 Classification of Plastics

The primary categorization of plastics is determined by their structural durability,

whether they are thermoset or thermoplastic, and their ability to be recycled (see
Fig. 1). Thermoset plastics, including polyurethane and epoxy, which also contain
alkyd, are commonly used as adhesive, insulators, and in plywood. Whereas in ther-
moset plastics, permanent covalent bonds are created through heat, making ther-
mosets stable and resistant to breakdown (Waring et al., 2018). In contrast, thermo-
plastic materials are not chemically altered, making them more suitable for consumer
goods due to their recyclability and remolding capabilities. Thermoplastic mate-
rials can be classified into four types of plastics: polypropylene (PP), polyethylene
(PE), polystyrene (PS), and polyvinyl chloride (PVC). Polyethylene (PE) has two
subtypes, low-density polyethylene (LDPE) and high-density polyethylene (HDPE),
and is used in various cost-effective plastic products like bottles and bags. In scientific
research, the most prevalent microplastic types are polystyrene (PS), polyester (PE),
and polyvinyl chloride (PVC). Polyester (PE) and polystyrene (PS) are the most
widely used plastics for consumer goods, is characterized by a relatively shorter
service life compared to other plastics. It is commonly used for drinking straws,
bottle caps, yogurt containers, foam peanuts, car bumpers, disposable cups, plastic
tableware, plates, cutlery, CD discs, and cassette boxes. Polystyrene (PS) is a primary
component in the manufacturing of plastic pressure pipe systems, including plumbing
pipes, gutters, shower curtains, window frames, and flooring. Polyvinyl Chloride
(PVC) is predominantly used for cable jackets and insulation wires. When cables
reach the end of their life, the metal components are recycled, but the plastic parts
are often discharges into the environment due to their expensive recycling process.
In fact, over 80% of waste PVC are disposed in landfills, some incinerated and a low
398 N. N. Singh et al.

Fig. 1 Summary of potential pathways for plastic degradation in the environment. This diagram is
based on (Lambert & Wagner, 2016) and redrawn

quantum is recycled (Suresh et al., 2017). These plastics are of particular interest in
scientific research as their production is huge, have short life span, and significant
environmental impact.

3 Origins and Fates of MNPs

MNPs can be manufactured for various purposes, called as primary MNPs, or formed
by the decomposition of macroplastics, referred to as secondary MNPs (Booth &
Sørensen, 2022). Primary MNPs are the processed plastic particles used in toiletries
The Potential Human Impacts of Environmental Contamination … 399

(Guzzetti et al., 2018; Toussaint et al., 2019). Primary MNPs are mainly used as phys-
ical stimuli and carriers for cleaning, which is why they are easily released into the
environment PE microbeads find widespread application in detergents and cosmetics.
Additionally, toothpastes contain it as an exfoliant. It serves as a drug carrier and
facial scrub. It is simple to discharge primary MNPs added to consumer goods into
the environment (Priya et al., 2022). Due to primary MNPs, glitters frequently used in
crafts, textiles, and cosmetics have been linked to plastic contamination, according to
a recent study. Macroplastics degrade/disintegrate into MNPs due to photooxidation
upon UV irradiation, physical disintegration and biodegradability in the environ-
ment (Hebner & Maurer-Jones, 2020; Priya et al., 2022). This weakens the plastic
and causes it to become brittle. When it is exposed to wind, waves, or other abrasive
conditions, the plastics undergo structural weakness and its surface is delaminated,
outcoming in the release of MNPs (Lee et al., 2014; Li et al., 2016; Wang et al.,
2019a). Thus, the degradation of single-use plastics leads to the accumulation of
MNPs in the environment (Amesho et al., 2023; Wang et al., 2017b). Based on these
findings, we have summarized where and how MNPs end up in the environment in
Fig. 2.

4 Existence of Micro and Nano Plastics

in the Environments

4.1 Terrestrial Systems

Soil exhibits a higher sensitivity to Micro- and Nanoplastics (MNPs), with annual
inputs of these particles surpassing the total MNPs found in the world’s oceans (Hu
et al., 2020; Wang et al., 2019b; Waring et al., 2018). The introduction of MNPs
into soil occurs through vertical infiltration, agricultural tilling, and unscientific
solid waste dumping (Van Cauwenberghe & Janssen, 2014). Waste Water Treat-
ment Plants which are the major sources of soil MNPs, retaining approximately
95% of Microplastics (MPs) (Auta et al., 2017). Additionally, treated biosolids are
employed as agricultural fertilizers. For instance, a single application of a facial
scrub can release 106 primary NPs into the domestic sewage system. Approximately
306.9 metric tons of microbeads enter the environment each year, with 80% of these
originating from Sewage Treatment Plants (STPs) (Zantis et al., 2023a). In North
America and Europe, biosolids alone contribute between 44,000 and 430,000 metric
tons of MNPs to grasslands annually. Textiles are responsible for 35% of total MNPs,
especially in marine environments (Godoy et al., 2019). According to the IUCN, a
single garment can shed around 1900 microfibers, while a single laundry load can
release roughly 700,000 (Amesho et al., 2023).
Plastics possess lower density than soil, and when they infiltrate through it, they
form aggregates that affect the properties of soil. They indirectly influence soil
propertiessuch as water retention, density, porosity, organic content and can lead
400 N. N. Singh et al.

Fig. 2 Micro- and nanoplastic origins and fates (Wang et al., 2019a)

to surface cracking. Moreover, they directly impact soil nutrient cycling (Andrady,
2017). Nanoplastics of polyethylene (20 nm) and polystyrene (150 nm) play an indi-
rect role in altering soil productivity as they hinder the functioning of microbes and
plant communities (Zhou et al., 2022). Organic fertilizers and compost are involved
in the dissemination of MNPs, with Chinese agricultural land employing substantial
amounts of polyethylene mulch, at 502 kg ha−1 of soil per hectare, across provin-
cial and regional areas (Yang et al., 2019). Agricultural land has shown elevated
MNPs levels, with 62.5 items kg−1 and 78.0 items kg−1 in deep and shallow soils
respectively, while a lesser MNP level of 1.9 items kg−1 observed in garden soil.
In a co-culture ecosystem of rice-fish, soil MP concentrations ranged from 10 to
78 items kg−1 (Maes et al., 2017). A higher MP concentration ranging from 300
to 67,500 items kg−1 has been reported in industrial zones (Zantis et al., 2023b).
The Potential Human Impacts of Environmental Contamination … 401

The MP concentrations in coastal areas, vegetable farms, and riparian forests ranged
between7100 and 42,960 items kg−1 . Furthermore, MPs can act as a vector for toxic
chemicals due to their interactions with Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs), heavy
metals, and antibiotics (Zhang & Xu, 2022). The mixture of MPs and POPs are highly
hazard to the Earth’s biosphere (Zhou et al., 2022). Microplastics have the capacity
to absorb pesticides and prevent the breakdown of residues in PE film, leading to the
accumulation of pesticides. Additionally, the adsorption of antibiotics by MPs has
been observed.

4.2 Air

A large quantum of MNPs reach the atmosphere from wastewater treatment

plant operations and through mechanical processes namely, extreme winds, marine
spraying, wave breaking, etc. which release it into the atmosphere (Shen et al., 2019).
MNPs released by sea-spray from the marine environment are estimated to blow on
shore at an annual rate of 136,000 tones (Zhang & Xu, 2022). The most common
morphologies used in atmospheric deposition are fibers, films, foams and fragments
(Rehse et al., 2016). MPs are much denser than air at sea level, but they drop off as
you get higher up in the atmosphere. With a range of 0.91–0.93 g per cubic meter
(g cm−3 ), HDPE, 0.85–0.83 g per cubic meter (g cm−3 ), and 1.02–1.05 g per cubic
meter (g cm−3 ), are the predominant MPs found in the atmosphere. Polyamide (PA)
comprises 1.37 g of polyester per cubic meter (g cm−3 ), 1.38 g of PVC per cubic
meter (g cm−3 ), 1.2 g of polycarbonate per cubic meter (g cm−3 ) and 1.42 g of
polyformdehyde per cubic meter (g cm−3 ) (Weinstein et al., 2016). Synthetic fibers
that make up MNPs suspended in the atmosphere can irritate respiratory tracts when
inhaled. Every year, 100,000 metric tons of MP are released from car tires and brakes,
which are then transported through the air. They account for between 5 and 10% of
plastic in the ocean and between 3 and 7% of PM2.5 in the atmosphere (Amesho
et al., 2023). A recent study has revealed that each individual in the United States
produces 4.7 kg (1.8 million Mt/yr.) of tire were microplastics annually. In urban
and suburban areas, road dust contribute to a major portion of microplastic particles.
Indoor environments have higher levels of microplastic air deposition, and petro-
chemicals make up about 33% of microfibers. A youngster can consume up to 900
MPs particles annually on average (Guo et al., 2020).

4.3 Aquatic System

Early in the 1970s, a report was published regarding the first instance of microplastics
found in marine systems. Natural erosion and human activity including wastewater
discharge, aquaculture and tourism are the main ways that these microplastics enter
freshwater and marine environments (Wu et al., 2019). The MNPs released into the
402 N. N. Singh et al.

rivers ultimately enter the ocean. Eight Asian rivers (Yangtze River, Yellow River,
Indus River, Hai He River, Ganges River, Mekong River, Amur River, Pearl River)
and two African rivers (Nile and the Niger River) are mostly liable for the majority
of plastic that enters the ocean each year (Lee et al., 2019).
The quantity of plastic waste that rivers and estuaries release into the ocean each
year are of the order of 1–2 million tons (Qi et al., 2018). With concentrations of 4.38–
9104 particles per kilometer square km−2 and 640–42,000 particles per kilometer
square (km−2 ) respectively, the North-West Pacific Ocean and the Arabian Bay are
particularly contaminated by MNPs. About 93–236 thousand metric tons of MNPs
have been detected in the ocean. Plastics, dumped, and other debris eventually reach
estuaries and the coastal seas. Factors such as changing rainfall„ wave action, ocean
currents and wind speeds play pivotal role in the transport of MNPs into the marine
environment (Auta et al., 2017).
MNPs are also transported in marine ecosystems by agricultural runoff, soil
erosion and atmospheric deposits. Studies conducted in the vicinity of the
Ciwalengku River in Indonesia revealed the presence of MNP as primary fibres in
surface water (5.85 particles litre−1 ) and sediment (3.03 particles/100 g) of various
sizes (50–2000 µm). Eight sediment samples collected from the beach sediments
were dominated with microplastic fibers. Throughout the entire coastal region of
southern India, an average of 43 items weighing 50 g−1 was discovered in the dry
sediments. Five million tons of plastic debris was discharged into the Pacific Ocean
as a result of the 2011 tsunami in Japan. This quantity of plastic waste is almost equal
to that which enters the ocean annually (Sundar et al., 2020).

4.4 Wastewater Systems

In wastewater treatment plants, anaerobic digestion is the most common method

of treating sewage sludge, with particulate organic waste being transformed into
soluble substrates as the initial step. According to their physicochemical characteris-
tics, PA, PE, PVC, and PVC containing activated sludge affects anaerobic diges-
tion in different ways (Karthik et al., 2018; Lo & Chan, 2018). MNPs release
harmful substances or additives that burst microbial cells and obstruct important
enzymes involved in fermentation, acidogenesis, and anaerobic sludge digestion.
MNPs also break through the exoplastidic matrix, alter the secondary structures
of proteins, and deteriorate phospholipids. Key enzyme activities (e.g., properease,
cellulases, glucosidesases, acetate kinases, butyrate kinases, coenzyme F420) and
digester performance were found to change after MNPs exposure. Further, after
digesters are exposed to nanoparticles (polystyrene), the effects of various dosages
of PVC and PS on the anaerobes rate and the production of biogas. Lastly, acute
and chronic exposure to MNPs tends to notable changes in pH, fatty acid volatility,
ammonia nitrogen profiles, and microbial community decline.
The Potential Human Impacts of Environmental Contamination … 403

5 Degradation of MNPs

Micro- and nano plastics (MNPs) are produced either through biodegradation,
or through non- biodegradation (Amesho et al., 2023). Extended-chain organic
compounds, or plastics, can vary in size, shape, porosity, surface area, and crys-
tallinity. They can also interact with other contaminants (Schymanski et al., 2018).
Plastic trash undergoes chemical, biological, and environmental transformations after
disposal, converting big fragments of plastic into MNPs. The breakdown of bigger
plastic polymers into MPs is caused by a number of weathering processes, such as
hydrolysis, sand friction, thermo-oxidative degradation, photodegradation, thermal
degradation, and physical deterioration (Wright & Kelly, 2017). At a moderate
temperature of 30 °C, MPs can produce NPs through photodegradation on exposure
to visible light. Natural chemical processes called hydrolysis and photodegradation
can dissolve polymers and transform into monomeric forms. Within a weathering
chamber, polystyrene was broken down to the nanoscale in four weeks (Kiran et al.,
2022). The backbone of plastic polymers contains atoms of O, N, and S. These
spotsare utilized by enzymatic and hydrolytic processes to degrade the polymer into
small, easily absorbed fragments by microbes. Chain scission, crosslinking, and the
addition of functional groups containing oxygen (esters, ketones, and alcohols) to
the plastics reduce the hydrophobicity of the polymers by altering their molecular
structure mechanical properties and expanding their surface area, which leads to a
rise in physico-chemical reactions and microbe connections (Tournier et al., 2020).
Extracellular enzymes are secreted by eukaryotic colonizers, which also facilitate
biodegradation. The extracellular polymeric substance matrix in hetero-aggregates,
which is where MNPs become sticky, is also encouraged by the formation of biofilms.
Because marine environments have a high salinity content and naturally occurring
microbes, artificially induced plastic disintegration happens more quickly there (Au
et al., 2017). The subsequent interactions of the plastics under natural environmental
conditions can further weaken their structural integrity.

6 Transfer of MNPs to the Food Chain

The escalating occurrence of (MNPs) in the food chain has raised significant health
concerns for humans (Au et al., 2017; Chae et al., 2019; Wang et al., 2017a). MNPs
are detected in both terrestrial and aquatic environments, making it highly likely that
they can be detected in various food products. Numerous studies indicate that MNPs
can infiltrate the human food chain through multiple avenues, including that from
contaminated food, leachate from packaging etc. To date, MNP fragments have been
identified in items such as honey, fish, salt, sugar, beer, bivalves and shrimp (Au
et al., 2017; Chae et al., 2019; Cole, 2016; Deng et al., 2018; Wang et al., 2017a).
404 N. N. Singh et al.

Further evidence comes from the examination of tap, bottled, and spring waters,
where MNPs were found in all three types through Fourier-transform infrared spec-
troscopy (FTIR) experiments. After analyzing 159 water sources worldwide, it was
revealed that 81% of tested tap water samples contained MPs (Coffin et al., 2018).
Additionally, 93% of individual water bottles from various brands tested were found
to contain MPs. Statistical data shows the average concentrations of MPs in various
food and liquid categories, including alcohol (> 30%), bottled water (> 94%), tap
water (> 4 items L−1 ), seafood (> 1 item g−1 ), sugar (> 0.4 items g−1 ), honey (>
0.1 items g−1 ), salt (> 0.1 items g−1 ), and air (> 9 items m−3 ). This indicate that the
annual consumption of microplastic particles by an average individual ranges from
39,000 to 52,000, with variations based on age and gender. The number of inhaled
MPs increase to approximately 74,000–121,000 items per year. Furthermore, exclu-
sive consumption of bottled water can result in up to 90,000 times more particle
ingestion than drinking tap water alone, which would contribute only extra 4000
particles (Anderson et al., 2017). This finding underlines the fact that the primary
pathway of MPs for human is through ingestion.
As microplastic waste continues to degrade, it gives rise to nanoplastics. Exper-
iments on drinking cup lids composed of polystyrene have shown that nanoplastics
are generated as the material breaks down over time (Iñiguez et al., 2017). More-
over, research indicates that oceans will experience microbial degradation of plastics
through microorganisms that have the potential to degrade hydrocarbons, thriving on
plastic waste and forming ecosystems known as “plastispheres.” Given the substantial
plastic waste entering the oceans, it is apparent that MNPs will get accumulated with
time (Su et al., 2018). Commercially produced nanoplastics are used in various prod-
ucts, contributing to their eventual entry into the food chain as well as in terrestrial
and aquatic bodies (Lambert & Wagner, 2016).

7 Bioaccumulation and Uptake of MNPs in the Human

Body

Micro and nanoplastics (MNPs) find their path into human body primarily through
ingestion, skin contact, and inhalation (Fig. 3) (Prata et al., 2020). Urban dust that can
be inhaled contains MNPs, as examples include rubber tires and synthetic fabrics.
As the MNPs are widely available in the food chain as well as water supplies, they
reach human through ingestion (Capolupo et al., 2018). Even though MNPs couldn’t
fit through the thin skin membrane, they could still get in through hair follicles,
sweat glands, or wounds. While the human body contains MNPs through all three
pathways, those available in seafood pose the ultimate risk of exposure in absolute
terms, this is because of the leachate of chemical additives as the polymers undergo
weathering, subsequently releasing monomers and their interactions with pathogenic
microorganisms (Bigalke et al., 2018; Deng et al., 2018).
The Potential Human Impacts of Environmental Contamination … 405

Fig. 3 Summary of the human exposure to MNPs and their potential effects on human health (Prata
et al., 2020)

7.1 Inhalation

Inhalation stands out as the most prevalent route through which humans are exposed
to nanoplastics. Plastic particles suspended in indoor air, predominantly originating
from synthetic textiles, can lead to occupational exposure or inadvertent inhalation
(Besseling et al., 2017). Exposures can also occur outdoors when individuals inhale
contaminated aerosols from airborne particles from desiccated wastewater treatment
plants. The lungs have a large surface area of alveoli, about 150 m2 , which is protected
by a very thin tissue barrier, less than 1 µm in thickness. Because of this small barrier,
nanoparticles can more easily diffuse throughout the body and enter the capillary
blood stream. (Diamanti-Kandarakis et al., 2009).
Consuming plastic particles, particularly micro and nanoplastic particles (MNPs),
carries a range of detrimental health consequences, including chemical and particle
toxicity, as well as the introduction of pathogens and parasite vectors (Seal et al.,
2022). Because of their size, these particles have the ability to become lodged in the
lungs, where they may stay on the alveolar surface or spread to other areas of the body.
Particulate matter that is inhaled has the potential to harm the lungs. MNP absorption
and expulsion in the lungs are influenced by a number of variables, including surface
functionalization, hydrophobicity, protein coronas, particle size, and surface charge.
Furthermore, research on animal absorption rates shows that occupational exposures
are linked to an increased risk of cancer and lung inflammation (Carman et al., 2014).
Studies on the in vitro absorption rates of particles of polystyrene (PS) in alveolar
epithelial cells show that the size of the plastic particles affects the absorption rates
(Plee & Pomory, 2020; Zantis et al., 2021).
Recent studies on human exposure to plastic particles suggest that urban air pollu-
tion is a major contributor to micronuclei. In most of the urban and suburban areas,
the main source of air microplastic fallout is synthetic fiber particles, of which 29%
406 N. N. Singh et al.

contain petrochemicals. When accounting for the typical air flux of total fibers,
their diameters, and densities, atmospheric fallout is expected to deposit 3–10 tons
of microplastics annually. Rainfall has a considerable impact on observed deposi-
tions, and urban regions exhibit approximately twice the average atmospheric inlet
compared to sub urban locations (Cózar et al., 2014). In 2017, researchers measured
microplastic particle concentrations in indoor and outdoor air within two private resi-
dences and one office. Indoor samples exhibited concentrations ranging from 1 to 60
fibers m−3 , considerably higher than the outdoor samples, which ranged from 0.3 to
1.5 fibers m−3 . Polypropylene constituted the majority of indoor samples, originating
from petrochemical sources (Cella et al., 2022). The remaining samples consisted
of cellulose. There is not much available data regarding the amount or nanoplastics
concentration in the air.

7.2 Dermal

Another major source of nanoplastics is beauty and health products, especially those
that are skin care which can potentially be exposed to nanoplastics through topical
applications such as body and facial scrubs. Additionally, nanocarriers used for
dermal drug delivery can facilitate nanoparticle penetration, although comprehensive
data on their effects remain limited. To date, no specific research has investigated
the extent to which nanoplastics can breach the skin’s surface. The skin’s outer-
most layer, known as the stratum corneum, functions as a protective barrier against
germs, chemicals, and physical damage. Ceramides, cholesterol, and long-chain free
fatty acids are examples of the hydrophilic lipid lamellae that surround corneocytes
in the stratum corneum. Skin contact with tainted water or through cosmetics and
health products can introduce plastic particles into the body. Micro and nanoplastics
are hydrophobic, which makes it unlikely that they will pass through the stratum
corneum to be absorbed. In the unlikely event that plastic particles manage to pass
through contaminated water and pass through the stratum corneum, they are unlikely
to do so through skin injury, sweat glands, and hair follicle.
A study examined at how plastic particles entered the body and spread throughout
the skin. The study used 20–200 nm fluorescing polystyrene particle diameters and
pig skin tissues. Skin Confocal Laser Scanning Micrograph revealed that 20 nm
Polystyrene Nanoforms Concentrate in Hair Follicles More Concentration in Hair
follicles Compared to 200 nm Nanoforms. Neither particle size was able to penetrate
the stratospheric corneum to penetrate deeper skin layers. Similar findings were also
reported by other similar studies, indicating that polystyrene particles with diameters
of 20–200 nm could only penetrate the skin’s outermost layers (Al-Jaibachi et al.,
2018). Perifollicular follicular skin tissue from skin explants after cyanoacrylic follic-
ular stripping showed the presence of 40 nm diameter fluorescing polystyrene nano
particles. This study showed that transcutaneously administered particles are subse-
quently absorbed by langerhans cell. Microbeads are also more likely to break down
into more hazardous nanoplastics due to the mechanical manufacturing process used
The Potential Human Impacts of Environmental Contamination … 407

in cosmetic and health products, such as scrubs for the face and body. In a study,
nanoplastics were quantified using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and facial
scrubs containing 200 µm Polyethylene Microbeads. The nanoparticle sizes were
determined to be 24 ± 6 nm and 52 ± 14 nm. Subsequent analysis using Fourier
transform infrared spectroscopy and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy revealed
that these nanoparticles were composed of polyethylene (Sussarellu et al., 2016).
These earlier studies’ data suggests that nanoplastics could potentially permeate
the stratum corneum. UV radiation exposure weakens the skin’s protective layer
(Rillig et al., 2017). In a study on UV irradiation in mouse skin, the penetration
of carboxylated quantum dots further penetrated the skin. In irradiated skin the
expression of tight junction-related proteins (e.g., clavulin-1, zinc occludense-1,
occludine) was impaired, which affected intercellular adherence. This disruption
increased the nanoparticles’ ability to cross the skin barrier (Bigalke et al., 2018). To
facilitate the penetration of medications and formulations through the skin barrier,
various substances such as fatty acids, glycols, pyrrolidones, sulphoxides, surfac-
tants, terpenes, cyclic amides, and short- and long-chain alcohols are commonly
used Ingredients frequently found in body lotions, such as urea, glycerol, and alpha-
hydroxy acids, were also found to enhance the ability of nanoparticles to penetrate
the skin barrier (Kubowicz & Booth, 2017). A study developed a three-layer “sand-
wich model” through a crystalline structure investigation of different lipid lamellae
compositions in stratum corneum samples from human and porcine sources. This
model may help prevent large nanoparticles from entering healthy skin. In summary,
in vitro and in vivo research has shown that MNPs can breach the skin barrier and
enter the human body. In these studies, however, the majority of the models were
based on polystyrene particles. To get a better understanding of the permeation prop-
erties of MNPs, additional studies using environmental samples with different plastic
particle properties will be beneficial (Kuo et al. )@@@.

7.3 Ingestion

Recent studies on micro- and nanoplastics suggest that humans predominantly ingest
plastic particles. While there’s limited research on the toxicity of nanoplastics in
humans, there is evidence of plastic particles being expelled in human stool samples,
supporting the idea that people regularly consume microplastics and nanoplastics, as
seen in environmental models. However, the fate of these particles after entering the
gastrointestinal (GI) tract remains poorly understood. It’s crucial to explore the path
these particles take within the GI tract, whether they cross the gut epithelia or remain
in the gut lumen. The maximum functional pore diameter of the tight junction chan-
nels is approximately 1.5 nm. Therefore, microplastics are unlikely to pass through
the tight junction channels. Instead, they enter the lymphatic tissue. Microplastics
may also pass through the phagocytic (phagocytic) or endocytic (endocytic) cells in
408 N. N. Singh et al.

the peyer’s patches. Studies have shown peritoneal macrophages in mice phagocy-
tosing 1, 5, and 12 µm polymethacrylate and polystyrene particles after intraperi-
toneal injections. Nevertheless, in rodent models, absorption through the intestinal
tract is low, ranging from 0.04 to 0.3%.
A significant concern is that nanoplastics may penetrate the intestinal epithe-
lium and enter the human systemic circulation. Previous research using polystyrene
nanoparticles on various animals in vivo and in vitro indicates that 50 nm polystyrene
(PS) nanoparticles may exhibit 10–100 times higher oral bioavailability than
microplastics (2–7%). It’s important to note that the relationship between nanoplas-
tics absorption, size, and structure is not clear-cut, as various in vitro intestinal
models have reported varying absorption rates (1.5–10%) based on nanoparticle
size, composition, and the specific model used.
One challenge in studying nanoplastics absorption is the dynamic environment of
the GI tract. Nanoparticles undergo changes upon ingestion, affecting their absorp-
tion rates and capacity. They interact with a variety of molecules in the GI tract,
such as water, ions, proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, and nucleic acids, ultimately
forming a protein “corona” around the nanoparticles. Changes in this protein corona,
as demonstrated in in vitro human digestion models, can lead to increased nanopar-
ticle translocation. Interactions between organic matter and metal (oxide) nanoparti-
cles play a crucial role in agglomeration and deposition. It’s worth noting that many
published studies focused on polystyrene nanoparticles and did not include samples
from marine or terrestrial environments. Yet, the primary polymeric materials in
these environments are other plastics like polypropylene (PP), polyethylene (PE),
and polyethylene terephthalate (PET). Therefore, any conclusions drawn from studies
using only polystyrene should be qualified. Future research should consider these
alternative plastic materials, such as PP, PE, and PET, to gain a more comprehensive
understanding.

8 MNPs and Their Cellular Uptake Routes

and Intracellular Fates

Numerous mechanisms, such as passive diffusion via cell membranes (sometimes

referred to as adhesive contact) and channel or transport-protein-mediated uptake,
are available for cells to absorb nanoparticles. The main process of nanoparticle
uptake by cells is endocytotic uptake, which has been referred to by several names,
including phagocytic, macropinogenic, clathrinogenic, and caveologenic endocy-
toses (Dehghani et al., 2017; Rist et al., 2017; Wang et al., 2019b). Though not all of
the research provided here has involved intestinal cells, it is meant to give an overview
of what is currently known about the interactions between polystyrenic nanoparticles
and human cell membranes. Usually, the exterior cell membrane mediates the first
The Potential Human Impacts of Environmental Contamination … 409

interaction between nanoparticles and cells. Using coarse-grain molecular simula-

tions, Rossi et al.’s study examined the interaction of nano-sized polystyrenic parti-
cles with biologic membranes. The results showed that the nanosized particles could
readily penetrate lipid bilayer membranes, alter the membrane’s structure, and reduce
molecular diffusion, all of which could have an impact on possible cell functions. To
better understand how RBCs function and how transport inhibitors play a role in cell
uptake of various nanoparticles, Fiorentino et al. conducted uptake inhibition studies
where it revealed that polystyrene (PS) particles are mainly internalized through
clathrin-independent uptake mechanisms. The results of the studies were based on
human cervical HeLa cell lines (40 and 200 nm) and Bovine Oviductal Elethelial
cell lines (GLIA 1321N1 and A549 cell lines). It is possible that one cell line may
use multiple uptake pathways simultaneously, as RBCs do not have a cell nucleus or
endocytosis (Godoy et al., 2019; Wang et al., 2017a). In a study, Rothen-Rutishauser
et al. showed that RBCs could take in nanoseconds of polystyrene (200 nm). This
revealed neither actin-related uptake nor endocytosis, suggesting that this kind of
cell uses a passive diffusion approach. However, it’s crucial to keep in mind that
the absorption mechanisms are cell type-specific as well as connected to size and
surface chemistry. Different materials may absorb differently by cells. Rat alveolar
monolayers, for instance, uptake a polystyrene particle with a diameter of 120 nm
and a surface containing amidine groups, but not through endocytosis. On the other
hand, MDCK II cells showed that particle uptake was energy-dependent (Paço et al.,
2017). Kuhn’s et al.@@@ demonstrated that macrophages, epithelial cells, and other
macrophages use a combination of distinct endocytotoxic pathways to uptake 40 nm
carbonylated polystyrenic nanoparticles. Using specific inhibitors of endocytostic
pathways, it was discovered that human A549 (alveolar) epithelial cells require
uptake to occur through Caveolin and Clathrin mediated endocytose pathways,
whereas J774A.1 macrophages use macropinocytes, phagocytes, and Clathrin medi-
ated endocytoses. The nano-plastic particles may be able to attach themselves directly
to internal microbes or carry their payload—which may include persistent organic
pollutants (POPs)—straight into the cell membrane by nonvesicular transmission
through the membrane. This could result in the accumulation of persistent organic
pollutants in the cell as well as potential toxicological consequences for the human
body (Chae & An, 2017). Plastic particles will be endocytosed intracellularly through
extrinsic (early and late) endosomes before lysosomal fusion. A murine A549 cell
was used to demonstrate intracellular localisation of 40–50 nm polystyrene nanopar-
ticles. This finding is consistent with earlier published research that demonstrates
the buildup of polystyrenic particles produced at the nanoscale within the lysosome.
In acidic environments, lysosomes are unable to break free or break down particles.
The physicochemical properties of mesoporous silica and polystyrene nanoparticles
were further studied in a later study; the findings showed that the absorption methods
of ovarian cancer cells differ significantly (Teuten et al., 2009). It was shown that
there is no difference in the endocotopic uptake pathways of the two nanoparticles.
Mesophosphate Silica particles are able to enter the cell through caveolain mediated
exocytosis. The particle size ranges from 50 to 10 nm. Polystyrene nanoparticles
were also able to enter the cell through a caveolaine-dependent exocytosis process.
410 N. N. Singh et al.

While 30 nm carboxyl-modified particulates did not follow the traditional acidic

exocytosis pathway and were non-toxic, 50 nm polystyrene particles that had been
amino-modified were discovered to be localized within lysosomes and showed toxi-
city after 4–8 h. The literature generally agrees that while negatively charged particles
can obstruct endocototoxic effects through repellent interactions, positively charged
nanoparticles can increase cytotoxic effects and cellular uptake through non-specific
binding of negatively charged sugar molecules on cell surfaces. Plastic nanoparti-
cles interact differently with smaller than with bigger human cells, indicating that
size plays a role in this interaction. Particle charge, however, also affects the uptake
of these nanoparticles and may have an impact on the behavior of the cell culture
medium. Further study into other plastics is highly encouraged, as most in vitro exper-
iments have been conducted with polystyrene particulates, and the results cannot be
extended to other types of plastic particles (Booth & Sørensen, 2022).

9 The Pathways of MNPs in Human Toxicity

Microplastics are now recognized as possibly hazardous to organisms after previously

being thought of as harmless particles based on sensitivity and exposure. Microplas-
tics have a large surface area, which can cause oxidative stress and oxidative toxicity,
as well as tissue displacement. Due to the fact that microplastics are hard to remove,
they can also lead to chronic inflammation, which can increase the risk of cancer.
However, as part of particulate matter, microplastics may also contribute to the rising
prevalence of immunological or neurological disorders. Moreover, chemicals that are
absorbed from the environment or released from microplastics matrixes may, act as
vectors for dangerous microorganisms (Kim & An, 2019).

9.1 Oxidative Stress and Cytotoxicity

A surplus of antioxidant response may be the cause of the oxidative stress. Owing to
their large surface area, microplastics have the potential to release reactive oxygen
species during an inflammatory response or oxidizing species that have been adsorbed
onto their surface, such as metals (Mintenig et al., 2019). For example, zebrafish
exposed to microplastics have been shown to experience oxidative damage and also
mice (Lu et al., 2018). once a polypropylene (PP) prosthesis is implanted, an early
inflammatory response leads to the production of oxidants (like hydrogen peroxide
and hypochlorous acid), which degrade, hydrolyze, crack, and leach the polymer
additively. In addition to releasing free radicals, this creates a positive feedback
loop that may reveal how the body gets rid of plastic. Cytotoxicity is a result of
inflammation, oxidative stress, and particle toxicity. Internalization of microplastic
by macrophages, erythrocytes, and rat alveolar epithelial cells has been captured
for PS in cell cultures (Qi et al., 2018). Microplastics may interact with intercellular
The Potential Human Impacts of Environmental Contamination … 411

structures because they are not membrane-bound inside the cell. In vitro experiments
have demonstrated the cytotoxicity of plastic particles that have been collected from
the environment (Cheung & Fok, 2016). However, low L−1 exposure (0.05–10 mg)
of PS and PE does not induce cytolysis of human brain or epithelial cells; however,
it does increase the amount of reactive oxygen species, thereby exacerbating the
cytotoxicity. In addition, lung epithelial cell cultures and macrophages exposed to PS
at a concentration of 60 m experienced ROS and endoplasmic reticulum stress, which
is brought on by the accumulation of misfolded proteins and results in autophagic
cell death (Jan Kole et al., 2017; Kundu et al., 2021). Therefore, oxidative stress and
cytotoxicity could be significant pathways of microplastic damage.

9.2 Energy Homeostasis and Metabolic Disorders

Energy homeostasis is impacted by the equilibrium of between energy expendi-

ture and energy available from intake and reserves. Microplastics may affect energy
homeostasis, according to a number of studies. One reason why microplastics may
lower calorie intake is that they might cause: (a) feeding activity decrease (in marine
worms, crabs, and clams) (Lo & Chan, 2018; Wang et al., 2017a; Wright & Kelly,
2017); (b) decreased predatory efficiency, potentially due to neurotoxicity (in fish, for
example); (c) a reduction in nutritional intake due to a deficiency in digestive capaci-
ties caused by the regulation of digestive enzyme activities (e.g., rise in amylase and
decrease in trypsin activities in fish. Conversely, microplastics could have the reverse
impact, as shown in mice (Deng et al., 2018), raising food intake in response to rising
energy demands or falling absorption efficiency. Additionally, because microplastics
require more energy, there may be a negative energy balance. Increased in energy
consumption has been seen in vivo research on microplastics due to: (a) inflamma-
tory reactions that require energy; and (b) longer gut residency times that require
more energy; (c) enhanced excretion processes, like the generation of fecal pellets or
pseudofeces or the expulsion of ammonia (Barboza et al., 2018; Priya et al., 2022).
In fact, exposure to microplastics has been linked to the 50% depletion of energy
reserves in marine worms and a striking drop in liver weight in mice. In addition,
microplastics may directly or indirectly result in metabolic abnormalities including
the negative energy balance. For example, the anaerobic enzyme lactate dehydro-
genase (LDH) increased in fish and mice exposed to microplastics (Deng et al.,
2018). 45 nm polymethylmethacrylate particles were shown to modulate the RNA of
peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors associated with lipid metabolism in fish
(Dicentrarchuslabrax), potentially disrupting the mobilization of energy stores. It also
led to decreased ATP levels and fat metabolism in the mice’s livers. Similar effects on
humans could be caused by microplastics if they change metabolism, raise energy
expenditure, or reduce dietary intake. However, detection of these effects may be
limited due to humans’ higher energy requirements and low exposure concentrations
compared to the investigated creatures (Deng et al., 2017) (Table 1).
412 N. N. Singh et al.

Table 1 Summary of the harmful impacts that micro- and nanoplastics may have on human health
Toxic effects Characteristics Particle Details References
of plastic size
particles
Polystyrene 202 nm Immune Responses to (Diamanti-Kandarakis
particles and IL-8 Expression et al., 2009)
535 nm Upregulation in Human
A549 Lung Cells
Unaltered/ 20 nm, Increased expression of (Jin et al., 2019)
Carboxylated 44 nm, interleukin 6 (IL-6) and
polystyrene 500 nm, interleukin 8 (IL-8).
nanoparticles and Enhanced Inflammation
1000 nm in Multiple Human
Malignancies
Inflammation Carboxylated 120 nm M2 cells increase the (Karwacka et al.,
and production of IL-10. 2019)
amino-modified Scavenger receptor
polystyrene expression is altered
particles
Unaltered 0.3 µm, Fatty Glucose (TGF1) (Diamanti-Kandarakis
polyethylene 10 µm and Metabolism (M2) et al., 2009)
particles Intracellular IL-6 (IL-6),
IL-1 (IL-1) and TNF
(TNF) secretion in murine
Polyethylene 0.2 µm Periprosthetic Bone (Liu et al., 2019)
particles from and Resorption TNF-IL-1
plastic prosthetic 1 µm expression and RANK
implants
Polystyrene 5 µm There is an inflammatory (Deng et al., 2017)
microplastics and reaction in the implant
particles 20 µm area. An inflammation is
induced in the liver. a
negative impact on
neurotransmission is
brought about
Amine-modified 60 nm Aggregation and robust (Diamanti-Kandarakis
polystyrene interaction with mucin et al., 2009)
nanoparticle cause all intestinal
epithelial cells to undergo
induced apoptosis
Cationic 60 nm It causes ER stress and (Yee et al., 2021)
polystyrene the production of ROS.
nanoparticles Lung epithelial cells and
mouse macrophages both
undergo autophagic cell
death
(continued)
The Potential Human Impacts of Environmental Contamination … 413

Table 1 (continued)
Toxic effects Characteristics Particle Details References
of plastic size
particles
Oxidative Unaltered or 20 nm, Apoptosis of several (Park & Kim, 2019)
stress and functionalized and human cell types is
apoptosis polystyrene 100 nm induced
40 nm,
50 nm,
Polyvinyl 120 nm, Decreased cell viability (Pitt et al., 2018)
chloride (PVC) 140 nm accompanied by an
and poly (methyl increase in ROS
methacrylate) concentrations and a
(PMMA) decrease in ATP
Pristine and 5 µm Modifications to bile acid (Llorca & Farré, 2021)
fluorescent and amino acid
polystyrene metabolism. Dysbiosis of
microplastics the gut microbiota and
disruption of the intestinal
barrier are caused
Anionic 20 nm Ionic homeostasis and ion (Booth & Sørensen,
carboxylated channel function are 2022)
polystyrene changed. basolateral K +
nanoplastics channels that are active
Metabolic Polystyrene 30 nm HCO3− and Cl− ion (Alimi et al., 2018)
homeostasis nanoparticles efflux is induced
Cationic 50 nm Transport of vesicles (Wang et al., 2019b)
polystyrene and blocked and the
nanoparticles 200 nm distribution of proteins
linked to cytokinesis
Pristine 5 µm Disruption of cellular (Deng et al., 2018;
polystyrene and absorption and intestinal Llorca & Farré, 2021)
microparticles 20 µm iron transport. Hepatic
ATP production
decreased. Impaired
metabolism of energy
Microplastics 0.5 µm The risk of metabolic (Adawi et al., 2018)
and disorders in the offspring
1 µm is increased by the
metabolic disorders
linked to intestinal barrier
dysfunction and dysbiosis
of the gut microbiota
414 N. N. Singh et al.

9.3 Microplastics Translocation to the Circulatory System

and Distant Tissues

Microplastics can expose surrounding tissues by acting locally or by translocating

after exposure. Inflammation increases the permeability of epithelial barriers, which
makes translocation more likely to happen. The gastrointestinal mucosa may become
more permeable as a result of altered intestinal flora brought on by malnutrition and
diets heavy in fructose and saturated fats. Microplastics have been shown to translo-
cate in rats upon ingestion and inhalation, entering the bloodstream and distant organs
such the spleen or liver. 240 nm Polystyrene (PS) can pass through the placental
barrier in humans, according to a placenta perfusion model (Magara et al., 2018).
Studies in cell cultures have shown that negatively charged PS nano-spheres up to
1 µm in size can be internalized. Circulating microplastics may lead to arterial occlu-
sions, pulmonary hypertension, enhanced coagulation, and blood cell cytotoxicity
(Mattsson et al., 2015). In fact, in vitro, red blood cell aggregation and endothe-
lial adhesion were induced by PS (≤ 243 nm), while hemolysis was enhanced and
histamine was released by PP (20 µm and 25–200 µm) (Avio et al., 2017; Wu et al.,
2019). Circulating microplastics may also make their way to the liver and kidney,
which are in charge of metabolizing and eliminating foreign substances. Following
oral administration of fluorescent 5 and 20 µm PS at concentrations between 106
and 104, respectively, mice’s tissue distribution showed accumulation in the stomach,
liver, and kidney, along with signs of neurotoxicity, disruption of energy balance, and
oxidative stress.While bigger particles (20 µm) accumulated consistently throughout
organs, smaller particles (5 µm) collected mostly in the stomach. PS (44 nm) were
internalized by both endocytosis and diffusion in human renal cortical epithelial
cells; they had no effect on cell survival, metabolism, or cell cycle progression, but
they accumulated in the perinuclear region and showed no symptoms of removal for
up to 90 min (Munier & Bendell, 2018). Continuous particle buildup in renal cells
beyond a certain point may seriously compromise renal function. The mechanisms
outlined in the preceding sections also apply to distant tissues, where they can result
in unfavorable outcomes, inflammation, and an elevated risk of neoplastic tumors.
For example, PE and PS particles may cause bone loss when they enter the bone
because they stimulate osteoclasts, the cell that reabsorbs bone, more than usual
(Tallec et al., 2018). Bioaccumulation is expected to be higher in the liver. Based
on toxicokinetic modelling in rats with 5 µm PS and 20 µm PS, for the larger and
smaller sizes respectively, human threshold concentrations are estimated at 53.3 g−1
and 5.1 g−1 body weight. (Magara et al., 2018).
The Potential Human Impacts of Environmental Contamination … 415

9.4 Immune Function Disruption

Particles may cause either localized or systemic immunological responses following

exposure, depending on how widely the MNPs are distributed. But under some condi-
tions (genetic predisposition, for example), immune function can be compromised
by environmental exposure, which favors autoimmune diseases or immune suppres-
sion. Inhaling particulate matter can cause autoimmune diseases through mechanisms
like immune cell activation, oxidative stress, immunological modulator release, and
particle translocation. This may lead to the production of autoantibodies and immune
system exposure to selfantigens (Jan Kole et al., 2017). For example, systemic lupus
erythematosus and systemic autoimmune rheumatic illness appear to be associated
with particulate matter exposure. However, exposure to combustion-derived parti-
cles early in life in mice has been associated with temporary immunosuppression
(Cella et al., 2022). This comes on by a decrease in the activation of dendritic cells,
an increase in the production of the anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10, decrease in
the suppression of the T-helper type 2 response with the transfer of T-effector cell
production. Even though no human symptoms have been reported to date, microplas-
tics, which are particulate matter in the atmosphere, may also be contributing to
this disruption of the immune system. Nonetheless, mussels (Mytilus spp.) exposed
to microplastics display both immunosuppression and tissue-dependent immune
response regulation (Chae & An, 2017). Therefore, more research needs to be done
on the immune response to microplastics.

9.5 Neurotoxicity and Neurodegenerative Diseases

MNPs Pollution can lead to neurotoxicity, a condition that is associated with neurode-
generative diseases. Neurotoxicity in vivo following particulate matter exposure has
been reported. There are several possible causes of this neuronal damage: oxida-
tive stress, direct contact with translocated particles that activates brain microglia
(immune cells), or pro-inflammatory cytokines that circulate from other inflamma-
tion sites and damage neurons (Von Moos et al., 2012). In fact, traffic pollution,
particularly particulate, has been associated with mild cognitive impairment in the
elderly and an increased risk of developing Alzheimer’s disease (Kumar et al., 2021),
and a higher incidence of dementia (Yu et al., 2018). Based on individual vulnera-
bility, microplastics may raise the risk of neurodegenerative disorders through similar
mechanisms. Indeed, research on the toxicity of microplastics in vivo has demon-
strated their influence on behavior and brain activity. Microplastics have been shown
to inhibit acetylcholinesterase (AChE), induce oxidative stress with elevated levels
of lipid peroxidation, and improve the anaerobic energy production pathway in the
brain of the European seabass (Dicentrarchus labrax). (Kumar et al., 2021). It has
been demonstrated that swimming performance, a behavioral indicator, is impacted
by microplastic exposure in the same species (Kokalj et al., 2018). Adverse effects
416 N. N. Singh et al.

on neurotransmission, including altered blood neurotransmitter levels and elevated

AChE activity, have also been linked to PS exposure in mice. Depending on the type
and concentration of the cells, 40–70 nm polystyrene nanoplastics were also found
to cause toxicity and alterations in metabolic activity in vitro (Coffin et al., 2018).
The inclusion of bioactive chemicals and increasing aggregation of polystyrene
nanoplastics led to a rise in their toxicity over time. It is important to understand
how microplastics can worsen human neurotoxicity and increase neurodegenerative
disease risk based on neurotoxicity testing of microplastics in microorganisms or
cells and human exposure to particulates, including microplastics.

9.6 Microplastics as Carrier of Microorganisms

and Potentially Toxic Chemicals

Microplastics may be dangerous for cells, the environment, and particles in addi-
tion to the former. The microplastics matrix of the organism may contain monomers
and additives that can leach into the tissues, exposing them to endocrine disrupters
(substances which interact with endogenous hormones, even in very low concentra-
tions), including phthalates, bisphenol (Gore et al., 2015). In addition to the compo-
nents, the large surface area of microplastics also increases their potential to act
as carriers of chemical substances or microorganisms in contact with them. For
example, POPs such as PAHs and PCBs are found in microplastics collected from
the environment (Rudyak et al., 2019; Su et al., 2018). Microplastics, when ingested,
can cause organisms to be exposed to higher levels of these toxic substances or
render them more toxic. Nevertheless, the contribution of microplastics to POPs
exposure seems to be negligible when compared to food and drink consumption.
To find out, more research is needed into the effects of plastic monomers, plastic
additives, and plastic microplastic breakdown products on human health. (Lwanga
et al., 2017). Vibrio spp. are among the microorganisms that can colonize the surface
of microplastics (Dehghani et al., 2017). Here, microplastics may act as vectors for
bacteria, allowing bacteria to enter tissues, hide from the immune system, and cause
tissue damage that could increase the risk of infection. Microplastics may also alter
soil organisms. (Folsomia candida) gut microbiome and made it more diverse. The
effects of a large number of human microplastics may be similar. Alterations in gut
microbiomes may lead to the spread of pathogens, an elevation of endotoxemia, and a
decrease in intestinal permeability (Bouwmeester et al., 2015). The adverse effects of
adsorbed chemicals and microorganisms on microplastics, however, will vary signif-
icantly depending on the types of particles ingested, the time and range of vector
microplastic clearance and displacement, the release rate and range of contaminants,
and the translocation and adverse effects of contaminants in human tissues.
The Potential Human Impacts of Environmental Contamination … 417

9.7 Trojan-Horse Effects and Its Microbiome Effect

Due to the unique surface properties of micro- and nanoplastics (MNPs) are prone
to accumulating various pollutants from the surrounding environment, which may
then be transferred to living organisms, including humans. Studies in Spain have
examined 18 perfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) in both freshwater and saltwater
environments and assessed their adsorption and desorption onto MNPs composed
of different polymers, such as PS, PE, and PS-COOH (polystyrene carboxylate).
Comparable studies also looked into the possibility of PCBs—a type of persistent
organic pollutants—migrating to the surfaces of PE, PS, and PET MPs in sediment
and water systems. According to Freundlich isotherms, both investigations verified
the adsorption and subsequent desorption of extra contaminants onto MNP surfaces.
Medium-polar molecules exhibited increased adsorption and desorption, whereas
highly non-polar substances were more likely to be trapped on the surfaces of MNPs.
It’s essential to consider the potential impact of these contaminant/MNP interac-
tions on the overall bioavailability of these pollutants when transferred to biota.
Several studies have provided information regarding the possibility of environmental
contaminants accumulating on MP surfaces. However, less attention has been given
to whether specific physiological conditions and tissue temperatures can enhance
the likelihood of additional pollutants being transferred to humans. In this regard,
research has explored the possibility of POPs (DDT, PFOA, and DEHP) desorbing
from MPLs made of PVC and PE in a physiologically simulated environment. Under
conditions mimicking the physiological characteristics of warm-blooded animals,
desorption rates were considerably higher compared to seawater at a pH of 4 and a
temperature of 38 °C. This exposure pathway must be addressed.
Furthermore, in vivo studies have been conducted to assess the toxicological inter-
actions between MNPs and other pollutants, mainly examining the impact of single
or multi-chemical exposure on model organisms. These studies often lacked dose–
response curves and a comprehensive assessment of these interactions. The modu-
lation of MNPs toxicity and other contaminants toxicity are affected by a number
of factors, including MNPs physicochemical properties, the behavior of adsorption/
desorption, the characteristics of model organisms, the size and shape of MNPs,
and even their color for certain test organisms. Microorganisms can colonize MNP
surfaces, forming biofilms in natural environments in a short period. Therefore, the
potential for disease transmission through the inhalation or ingestion of microplastics
deserves investigation.
Lastly, the ability of MNPs to disrupt human microbiota is another critical conse-
quence that warrants further research. Long-term consumption of MNPs may affect
the composition and abundance of the gut microbiota, leading to dysbiosis. Dysbiosis
can be triggered by materials adhering to or comprising MNPs, mechanical disrup-
tion within the gastrointestinal system, or the introduction of foreign and potentially
harmful microbes. These impacts on the microbiome have the potential to alter gut
flora, cause infections, trigger chronic conditions, and impact the immune system. For
418 N. N. Singh et al.

instance, changes in lipopolysaccharides (LPS) can impact gut microbiota compo-

sition. While some recent studies have examined responses in mice and aquatic
organisms, there is much more to learn about the implications of these findings for
human health.

10 Outlook into the Future Research

While there is presently no conclusive evidence of excessive risks to human health

posed by microplastics, particularly those smaller than 10 µm, it is crucial to consider
human exposure patterns, as indicated by Coffin et al. (2018). Human threshold
concentrations, estimated to range from 5.1 to 53.3 mg per gram of body weight,
suggest that a considerable amount of microplastics would be needed to cause effects
in the most sensitive biomarkers. For instance, this would translate to more than 7.7 g
when considering the average human liver or 357 g when considering the average
adult (70 kg), making significant exposure highly unlikely.
Further research findings link microplastic consumption to other, more common
additives and contaminants and highlight the need for further research (Coffin et al.,
2018). This demonstrates the intricacy of microplastic toxicology and the factors
that can make risk assessment more difficult, such as interactions with other pollu-
tants (like metals), the incorporation of health effects with other contaminant cate-
gories (like particulate matter), and differences in the surface properties, weathering,
and adsorbed chemicals and organisms of plastics used in toxicological experi-
ments compared to their environmental counterparts. Therefore, more research is
needed to determine the threats that microplastics pose to public health (Coffin et al.,
2018). This research should encompass testing for ecologically relevant microplastic
characteristics and concentrations.

11 Conclusions

This comprehensive chapter underscores the widespread presence of MNPs across

various environmental compartments and their interactions with these surroundings.
With the growing consumption of plastics and their persistence in the environment,
human exposure to microplastics is on the rise. Microplastics can interact with bodily
tissues, potentially leading to inflammatory conditions, particularly when concen-
trations are high or in cases of individual susceptibility. This increased exposure to
environmental pollutants, such as microplastics, might have contributed to the rise
in the prevalence of diseases like cancer, autoimmune conditions, and neurological
conditions. Despite adhering to the precautionary principle, the lack of concrete
evidence regarding the impacts of environmental microplastic exposure on human
health results in significant uncertainty. In order to fully understand the potential
risks of microplastics for human health, more research is needed, especially as the
The Potential Human Impacts of Environmental Contamination … 419

use of microplastics increases in our environment. Such research should delve into
aspects like human exposure, pathophysiology, and the specific consequences of
microplastic exposure.

Author Contributions NN & CC conceived the chapter and share the equal first authorship. JHS,
SC, PR and KKK edited the manuscript for the submission. CC and reviewed the chapter for the
submission as the corresponding author.

Conflict of Interest Statement The authors declare no known competing financial interest or
personal relationship that could have appeared to interfere with the work reported here.

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Toxicological Effects of Ingested
Microplastics on Human Health

Daniel A. Ayejoto , Johnbosco C. Egbueri , Leonard N. Onuba ,

Johnson C. Agbasi , and Nchekwube D. Nweke

Abstract Microplastics, ubiquitous in the environment due to their extensive use and
persistence, pose emerging concerns for human health. This chapter explores the toxi-
cological effects of ingested microplastics on human health within the specific socio-
economic and environmental contexts of Asia and Africa. Emphasizing the unique
challenges and vulnerabilities of these regions, this chapter navigates the complex
pathways through which microplastics interact with the human body, addressing
ingestion routes, including the consumption of seafood and contaminated drinking
water, as well as the inhalation of airborne particles. Drawing upon a synthesis of
international and region-specific studies, this comprehensive review aims to eluci-
date the complex dynamics of microplastic-induced toxicity in the Asia and Africa,
addressing the urgency of understanding the immediate and long-term health conse-
quences while proposing future research directions and effective mitigation strate-
gies tailored to these regions. Through this contextual review, this chapter seeks to
contribute to a holistic understanding of the interaction between microplastics and
human physiology, taking into account the diverse characteristics and challenges
present in the twenty-first century Asia and Africa.

Keywords Microplastics · Human health · Ingestion pathways · Environmental

exposure · Toxicological effects

D. A. Ayejoto (B)
Department of Environmental and Sustainability Sciences, Texas Christian University, Fort
Worth, TX, USA
e-mail: daniel.ayejoto@tcu.edu
J. C. Egbueri · L. N. Onuba · J. C. Agbasi
Department of Geology, Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu University, Uli, Nigeria
N. D. Nweke
Department of Earth, Environmental and Geographic Sciences, The University of British
Columbia, Kelowna, Canada

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 427
J. C. Egbueri et al. (eds.), Microplastics in African and Asian Environments, Emerging
Contaminants and Associated Treatment Technologies,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-64253-1_21
428 D. A. Ayejoto et al.

1 Introduction

In recent decades, the escalating global production and consumption of plastics has
led to a pervasive environmental crisis, with microplastics emerging as a particularly
insidious component of this unfolding dilemma (Chaukura et al., 2021; Sharif et al.,
2023). Microplastics, defined as plastic particles measuring less than 5 mm in size,
are either the result of the gradual breakdown of larger plastic items or are intention-
ally manufactured for various industrial and consumer applications (Filella, 2015;
Koelmans et al., 2022; Loganathan & Kizhakedathil, 2023). As these minuscule frag-
ments permeate terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems, their ubiquitous presence raises
serious concerns about their potential impact on environmental and human health
(Ali et al., 2023; Musa et al., 2024). While macroplastics have long been recognized
as a source of pollution, the realization of the extent and impact of microplastics on
ecosystems has propelled them to the forefront of environmental discourse (Cowan &
Tiller, 2021; Seuront et al., 2022).
The origins of microplastics are multifaceted, stemming from the fragmentation
of larger plastic items through weathering, degradation, and mechanical processes
(Johannessen & Shetranjiwalla, 2021). Additionally, microplastics are intentionally
manufactured for various industrial applications, such as abrasives in personal care
products and additives in textiles and paints (Ghosh et al., 2023). These micro-
scopic particles exhibit unique characteristics that enable them to disperse widely
across terrestrial and aquatic environments, infiltrating ecosystems from remote
polar regions to densely populated urban centers, including those in Africa and Asia
(Hale et al., 2020; John et al., 2023; Sau et al., 2023). The widespread distribution
of microplastics underscores their pervasive presence in environmental matrices,
including soil, freshwater bodies, oceans, and even the atmosphere, making them a
global concern that transcends geographic boundaries (Rangel-Buitrago et al., 2024).
In Africa and Asia, where diverse ecosystems coexist with rapidly growing urban
areas and industrial activities, the impact of microplastics on local environments
and communities is of paramount significance (Alimi et al., 2021). These regions
boast a rich tapestry of ecosystems, from lush rainforests to arid savannas, each
harboring unique biodiversity and supporting countless livelihoods (Pereao et al.,
2020). However, alongside the natural splendor, the burgeoning urbanization and
industrialization in many parts of Africa and Asia have introduced new environmental
challenges, including the proliferation of microplastic pollution (MP) (Phuong et al.,
2022). The small size and buoyancy of microplastics make them particularly adept at
traversing vast distances through air and water currents, transcending geographical
boundaries and accumulating in ecosystems far from their point of origin (Li et al.,
2023a, 2023b; Olatunji, 2022). In regions where waste management infrastructure
may be lacking or inadequate, microplastics pose a formidable threat to environ-
mental integrity. The accumulation of these particles in diverse habitats, ranging
from pristine rivers to bustling urban centers, underscores the pervasive nature of
their impact on the local environment (Wong et al., 2020).
Toxicological Effects of Ingested Microplastics on Human Health 429

Moreover, the ecological repercussions of microplastic contamination extend

beyond mere accumulation in environmental matrices. Microplastics have been
detected in a myriad of organisms in African and Asian regions, ranging from
zooplankton and fish to terrestrial invertebrates and birds (Rafique et al., 2020).
This widespread distribution highlights the complex web of interactions between
microplastics and the diverse biota that inhabit these ecosystems. For example, in
coastal areas reliant on fishing and aquaculture for sustenance and livelihoods, the
presence of microplastics in marine organisms raises concerns about food safety and
economic viability (Xu et al., 2020). Similarly, in terrestrial ecosystems where agri-
culture and forestry are central to local economies, the implications of microplastic
contamination for soil health and crop productivity are a growing cause for concern
(Kumar et al., 2021).
Furthermore, the socioeconomic dimensions of MP cannot be overlooked. Many
communities in Africa and Asia rely directly on the natural environment for their
livelihoods, whether through agriculture, fishing, or ecotourism (Okafor-Yarwood
et al., 2020). The disruption of ecosystems and the depletion of natural resources
due to microplastic contamination can have profound implications for these commu-
nities, exacerbating existing vulnerabilities and perpetuating cycles of poverty and
environmental degradation (Singgalen, 2020). Thus, addressing the issue of MP in
African and Asian contexts requires not only scientific understanding but also a
holistic approach that considers the socio-economic dynamics and cultural nuances
of these regions.
Microplastics, as they journey through ecosystems, tend to accumulate within
various environmental matrices and organisms, eventually permeating the human
diet (Prinz & Korez, 2020). This transition from environmental exposure to human
ingestion is a complex process involving various intermediaries, such as marine
organisms and terrestrial fauna (Atugoda et al., 2022). The subsequent focus on
the toxicological effects on human health seeks to unravel the complex interactions
between microplastics and the human body (Thornton Hampton et al., 2022). Several
critical questions arise during this transition, including the mechanisms through
which microplastics are absorbed in the gastrointestinal tract, their potential for
translocation to other organs and tissues, and the subsequent physiological responses
(Alqahtani et al., 2023). Understanding these aspects is essential for evaluating the
short-term and long-term health consequences associated with ingested microplas-
tics (Prinz & Korez, 2020). This transition also highlights the need for an interdisci-
plinary approach, bringing together experts from toxicology, environmental science,
medicine, and public health (Ma et al., 2020). Collaborative efforts are crucial to
comprehensively investigate the potential risks posed by microplastics to human
health and to develop effective strategies for mitigation and prevention.
In the subsequent sections of this chapter, we will discuss the complex land-
scape of microplastic-induced toxicity, drawing upon a diverse body of research to
examine the current state of knowledge regarding the routes of exposure, mecha-
nisms of interaction within the human body, and potential health outcomes. While
much of the existing literature originates from Western nations, it is imperative to
enrich our exploration by incorporating insights from studies conducted in Africa
430 D. A. Ayejoto et al.

and Asia, where unique environmental, social, and economic contexts may influence
the dynamics of microplastic exposure and its consequences.

2 Methods

A systematic approach was undertaken to comprehensively review the toxicolog-

ical implications of microplastics on human health in Africa and Asia, utilizing
VOSviewer software for data analysis. The process commenced with an extensive
search of scientific databases, including Google Scholar, Scopus and Web of Science,
employing keywords such as “microplastics,” “human health,” “Africa,” and “Asia.”
This search targeted peer-reviewed journal articles published within a specified time-
frame to ensure the inclusion of recent and relevant studies. Out of 846 articles
retrieved, 202 were carefully chosen for inclusion in the study (Fig. 2). The system-
atic process, depicted in Fig. 2, illustrates the methodical approach used to identify
and select literature review papers, ensuring a thorough and evidence-based synthesis
of the toxicological effects of microplastics on human health in the regions. Following
paper identification, VOSviewer facilitated data analysis, allowing for the identifica-
tion of impactful studies, citation patterns, and key research clusters. This analysis
enabled the categorization of studies based on their primary focus, including gastroin-
testinal effects, respiratory implications, neurotoxicity, and impacts on vulnerable
populations. Through this systematic process, a comprehensive list of review papers
offering valuable insights into the subject matter was compiled, with selected papers
rigorously assessed for relevance and quality (Fig. 1).

3 Human Exposure to Microplastics

3.1 Ingestion Pathways

3.1.1 Microplastics in Seafood

The complex relationship between marine pollution and human health is underscored
by the significant exposure to microplastics through the consumption of seafood, a
critical concern for regions like Africa and Asia (Akindele & Alimba, 2021; Emenike
et al., 2023). In the context of these continents, where diverse coastal communities
heavily rely on seafood for sustenance, understanding the dynamics of microplastic
contamination in marine environments becomes paramount.
Seafood species commonly consumed by humans, such as fish, shellfish, and
crustaceans, play a pivotal role in this exposure pathway (Luvonga et al., 2020).
These organisms, often engaging in filter feeding, inadvertently ingest microplas-
tics present in their surroundings, resulting in the incorporation of these particles
Toxicological Effects of Ingested Microplastics on Human Health 431

Fig. 1 Flowchart illustrating the literature selection process

Fig. 2 A model showing how anthropogenic activity cause microplastics to enter the food web,
make a path to our food and, ultimately, into our organs (Alberghini et al., 2022)

into their tissues, including the parts consumed by humans (Kumar et al., 2020;
Noman et al., 2022). Notably, studies by Coppola (2020) and Sharma et al. (2022)
have detected microplastics in various seafood products, including fish fillets, shell-
fish, and table salt, emphasizing the widespread nature of this exposure pathway.
432 D. A. Ayejoto et al.

The widespread distribution of microplastics in seafood suggests that these particles

may be entering marine ecosystems at multiple points, potentially originating from
sources such as plastic pollution in oceans, rivers, and coastal areas. The fragmenta-
tion of larger plastic items into smaller particles, known as microplastics, has become
a global environmental concern. The implications of these studies extend beyond
human health, encompassing ecological consequences. Marine life, including fish
and shellfish, may face detrimental effects due to the ingestion of microplastics. The
potential bioaccumulation of these particles in aquatic organisms raises questions
about the overall impact on marine ecosystems and biodiversity.
Kibria et al. (2022) reported that microplastics were found in over 80% of the
sampled seafood products in Asia, with an average of 0.3 particles per gram of tissue,
highlighting the pervasive contamination of seafood with microplastics. Similarly,
Alimi et al. (2021) identified microplastics in shellfish samples collected from coastal
areas, indicating the widespread distribution of these particles in marine organisms
consumed by humans. In a parallel study, Alimi et al. (2021) conducted an extensive
review into the occurrence of microplastics in various seafood products commonly
consumed by humans. Their research encompassed an analysis of shellfish, revealing
the pervasive presence of microplastics in these marine organisms. The study high-
lighted that the accumulation of microplastics in edible tissues of seafood poses a
tangible risk of human ingestion and emphasized the need for further research on the
potential health consequences.
The size and composition of microplastics contribute significantly to their interac-
tions with marine organisms and subsequent transfer to humans (Carbery et al., 2018).
Smaller microplastic particles, including microfibers, are particularly concerning due
to their ease of ingestion by filter-feeding organisms. These microscopic particles can
be readily consumed by organisms such as mussels, oysters, and other filter-feeding
species that play vital roles in maintaining water quality (Lucas, 2008). As these
organisms take in microplastics, there is the potential for these particles to accumu-
late in their tissues, initiating the entry of microplastics into the food chain at lower
trophic levels (Prinz & Korez, 2020). Conversely, larger microplastic fragments may
be ingested by predators higher up in the food chain (Kangas et al., 2023; Lehtiniemi
et al., 2018). Fish, for example, may consume these larger particles directly or ingest
smaller organisms that have already accumulated microplastics (Egbeocha et al.,
2018; Huang et al., 2021). This process of bioaccumulation and biomagnification
can result in an increased concentration of microplastics in species at higher trophic
levels, ultimately reaching seafood consumed by humans (Walkinshaw et al., 2020).
Beyond the physical impact of microplastics, the additives present on these parti-
cles further contribute to the complexity of the issue (Campanale et al., 2020;
Koelmans et al., 2022). Chemical substances such as plasticizers and flame retar-
dants, which are commonly used in the production of plastics, can leach into the
surrounding environment. Additionally, the presence of additives on microplastics,
such as plasticizers and flame retardants, introduces additional chemical contami-
nants into seafood, amplifying the potential risks associated with consumption (Sana
et al., 2020).
Toxicological Effects of Ingested Microplastics on Human Health 433

In their study, Alberghini et al. (2022) expounded on the significant role of

fishery products as a noteworthy source of microplastics in the human diet. The
consumption of contaminated fishery products, if prevalent, poses a potential threat
to human health, as illustrated in Fig. 2. The implications of microplastics in
seafood extend beyond the immediate exposure to human consumers. Serving as
integral components of marine ecosystems, seafood organisms play a vital role as
essential food sources for diverse marine predators, encompassing birds, marine
mammals, and humans (Lusher & Covernton, 2022). Consequently, the transmis-
sion of microplastics through marine food webs carries extensive ecological and
public health ramifications (Huang et al., 2021).

3.1.2 Contaminated Drinking Water

The contamination of drinking water with microplastics presents a significant concern

for countries across Africa and Asia, where access to clean water is already a
challenge for many communities (Angnunavuri et al., 2023; Ouda et al., 2021).
Akhbarizadeh et al. (2020) have highlighted the widespread presence of microplas-
tics in drinking water supplies through their comprehensive analysis, encompassing
various water sources such as tap water, bottled water, and well water. This indicates
that the issue of microplastic contamination is not confined to developed regions but
extends globally, including regions with high populations in Africa and Asia.
One notable study conducted by Oceng et al. (2023) extensively analyzed the
presence of microplastics in different water sources, encompassing tap water, bottled
water, and well water. Their research revealed alarming findings, indicating that
microplastic particles were detected in over 90% of the water samples examined
in urban beaches in east Africa. Moreover, the average concentration exceeded 10
particles per liter, underscoring the widespread contamination of microplastics in
drinking water. These results highlight the urgent need for comprehensive strategies
to address the sources and consequences of MP in freshwater systems, particularly
in regions where access to clean drinking water is already a critical concern.
In a related study, Kye et al. (2023) investigated the diverse sources of microplas-
tics in freshwater environments. Their research emphasized the complex origins
of microplastics, which include the breakdown of plastic products, shedding of
microfibers from textiles, and atmospheric deposition. The breakdown of plastic
products stands out as a primary source of microplastics, wherein larger plastic
items fragment over time into smaller particles (Alao et al., 2023b; Shafi et al.,
2024). This process not only occurs in aquatic environments but also in terrestrial
settings, contributing to the widespread distribution of microplastics. The shedding
of microfibers from textiles during activities like laundry emerged as another signif-
icant source, as these tiny fibers enter wastewater and subsequently contaminate
freshwater bodies. Furthermore, the study drew attention to the impact of atmo-
spheric deposition, whereby microplastics from the air settle into bodies of water.
This suggests that microplastics, once airborne, can be transported over considerable
distances before settling into freshwater sources. This atmospheric contribution adds
434 D. A. Ayejoto et al.

an additional layer of complexity to the overall contamination landscape, making it

challenging to pinpoint specific sources and devise targeted mitigation strategies.
The pathways through which microplastics contaminate drinking water in these
regions are multifaceted and complex (Sharma et al., 2022). In urban areas, where
rapid industrialization and urbanization are occurring, runoff from streets and indus-
trial sites can introduce microplastics into freshwater sources (Alao, Abdo et al.,
2023a; Alfonso et al., 2021). Moreover, the prevalence of inadequate waste manage-
ment practices in many areas of Africa and Asia exacerbates the issue. Improper
disposal of plastic waste leads to its accumulation in waterways, further adding to the
burden of microplastic contamination (Zeng, 2023). The breakdown of plastic prod-
ucts over time also contributes significantly to the presence of microplastics in water
sources (Shaaban et al., 2024). Large plastic items degrade into smaller particles due
to various environmental factors, perpetuating the cycle of contamination (Napper &
Thompson, 2023). Additionally, the shedding of microfibers from textiles during
laundering represents another noteworthy source of MP in these regions (Rangel-
Buitrago & Gracia, 2024). Synthetic fabrics common in clothing release microfibers
during washing, which then enter wastewater systems and ultimately find their way
into freshwater bodies (Das et al., 2023). This continuous influx of microplastics
from multiple sources underscores the complexity of the contamination pathways
and highlights the urgent need for comprehensive strategies to address this pressing
environmental issue (Thacharodi et al., 2024).
The sources of microplastic contamination in drinking water are diverse and
complex, reflecting the widespread use and improper disposal of plastic products
in these regions (Tian et al., 2023). Microplastics enter freshwater sources through
multiple pathways, including the breakdown of larger plastic debris, runoff from
urban areas, and the disintegration of synthetic textiles (Angnunavuri et al., 2023).
In regions with inadequate waste management systems, plastic pollution in water
bodies can be exacerbated, leading to higher levels of microplastic contamination
in drinking water supplies (Adegoke et al., 2023). Furthermore, the presence of
microplastics in drinking water is not limited to surface water sources. Ground-
water, which serves as a vital source of drinking water for many communities in
Africa and Asia, is also susceptible to contamination (Angnunavuri et al., 2023).
The infiltration of microplastics into groundwater can occur through various mech-
anisms, including leaching from landfills and seepage from contaminated surface
water bodies (Sangkham et al., 2023).
The implications of microplastic contamination in drinking water extend beyond
human health concerns. Aquatic ecosystems in Africa and Asia, already under pres-
sure from various environmental stressors, face further degradation due to MP. The
ingestion of microplastics by aquatic organisms can disrupt ecological balance and
threaten biodiversity, with potential ripple effects throughout the food web.
Toxicological Effects of Ingested Microplastics on Human Health 435

3.2 Inhalation of Airborne Particles

Beyond the concerns associated with microplastic ingestion through seafood and
drinking water, recent attention has been directed towards the inhalation of airborne
microplastic particles as a significant route of human exposure to these pervasive
contaminants (López et al., 2023; Sun & Wang, 2023; Yang et al., 2023). Microplas-
tics, defined as plastic particles smaller than 5 mm, have been identified in various
environmental matrices, including the atmosphere, indicating their potential for
atmospheric transport and subsequent inhalation by humans (Eberhard et al., 2024).
Studies conducted by Ahmad et al. (2023) have significantly contributed to our
understanding of the presence and characteristics of microplastics in airborne partic-
ulate matter. Their research revealed the detection of microplastic fibers and frag-
ments in atmospheric samples collected from both urban and rural areas, suggesting
a widespread distribution and atmospheric transport mechanisms. These findings
underscore the potential for humans to inhale microplastic particles suspended in the
air, particularly in urban environments where plastic pollution levels are elevated.
The sources of airborne microplastics are indeed diverse and complex, encom-
passing both primary and secondary emissions (Wang et al., 2024; Zeng, 2023).
Primary emissions involve the direct release of microplastics into the atmosphere
from a variety of sources (Ghosh et al., 2023; Sharma et al., 2023). These sources
include industrial activities, such as manufacturing processes and plastic product
production, where microplastics may be emitted as particulate matter or through
the release of plastic pellets and powders (Ghosh et al., 2023; Sharma et al., 2023).
Transportation also contributes to primary emissions, with vehicle tire wear and road
abrasion releasing microplastic particles into the air (Giechaskiel et al., 2024). Addi-
tionally, the wind erosion of plastic debris, such as littered plastic bags and packaging
materials, further adds to primary emissions of airborne microplastics (Ayejoto et al.,
2023; Gehrke et al., 2023). In contrast, secondary emissions of airborne microplas-
tics arise from the fragmentation and re-suspension of larger plastic items already
present in the environment, as well as the breakdown of synthetic textiles during
various activities (Gupta et al., 2023a, 2023b). These activities include outdoor recre-
ation, such as hiking and camping, where plastic items may degrade over time due
to exposure to environmental conditions like sunlight and weathering (Cao et al.,
2023a, 2023b). Moreover, the laundering of synthetic clothing releases microfibers
into wastewater, which can ultimately enter the atmosphere through the discharge of
treated effluent from wastewater treatment plants (Chan et al., 2023). Both primary
and secondary emissions contribute to the overall burden of airborne microplastics,
with each pathway presenting its own challenges and implications for human health
and environmental quality.
The inhalation of airborne microplastics presents unique challenges compared to
ingestion pathways, as these particles can bypass the gastrointestinal tract and enter
the respiratory system directly. Once inhaled, microplastics may deposit in the lungs
and airways, potentially leading to respiratory health effects and systemic distribution
to other organs (López et al., 2023; Yang et al., 2023). Moreover, microplastics may
436 D. A. Ayejoto et al.

serve as carriers for adsorbed pollutants and pathogens, further amplifying the poten-
tial health risks associated with inhalation exposure (Prata, 2023). This underscores
the need for continued research and regulatory measures to address the multifaceted
risks associated with airborne microplastic exposure and to develop strategies for
minimizing its impact on human health. By elucidating the sources, transport mech-
anisms, and health implications of airborne microplastic exposure, we can develop
effective mitigation strategies to minimize human exposure and protect public health.
Furthermore, addressing the root causes of plastic pollution and promoting sustain-
able practices are essential for reducing the emissions of microplastics into the
atmosphere and safeguarding air quality for current and future generations.
In summary, microplastics disperse across various environmental niches, as illus-
trated in Fig. 3, forming an interconnected network. This interconnected network
results in human exposure to plastic microparticles through diverse pathways.

Fig. 3 Interconnection network through which microplastics (MNPLs) are distributed throughout
all environmental niches, reaching humans through different exposure routes (Domenech & Marcos,
2021)
Toxicological Effects of Ingested Microplastics on Human Health 437

4 Routes of Microplastics in the Human Body

4.1 Gastrointestinal Absorption and Distribution

Yee et al. (2021) delineate three primary routes through which microplastics can
enter the human body: inhalation, ingestion, and skin contact, as depicted in Fig. 4.
Within the human body, microplastics have the potential to interact with various
biomolecules such as proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, nucleic acids, ions, and water,
thereby facilitating the formation of coronated nanoplastic particles that can be
absorbed. These plastic particles may enter the human body via the consumption
of contaminated food and water sources, or through the inhalation of airborne plastic
particles originating from synthetic textiles and polluted outdoor air. Although the
skin membrane typically presents a barrier to microplastic penetration, microplastics
may still infiltrate through wounds or compromised skin barriers, either directly or
indirectly. Understanding the pathway of microplastics within the human body is
paramount for grasping the potential health implications linked to their ingestion.
Once microplastics are ingested, they navigate through the complex terrain of the
gastrointestinal tract, encountering various physiological barriers and processes that
dictate their fate (Enyoh et al., 2023; Wu et al., 2024). Upon entering the gastroin-
testinal system, microplastics interact with the mucosal lining, where their physico-
chemical properties play a pivotal role in determining their potential for absorption
(Prata, 2023). Studies, such as those conducted by Stollberg et al. (2021) and Li et al.
(2021), have significantly contributed to our understanding of the gastrointestinal
absorption of microplastics. For instance, Stollberg et al. (2021) observed microplas-
tics in the digestive tissues of marine mussels, indicating their potential for absorption
by organisms in aquatic environments. Similarly, Li et al. (2021) reported the pres-
ence of microplastics in human gastrointestinal tissues, highlighting the reality of
human exposure to these contaminants.
However, the journey of microplastics does not end with absorption in the gastroin-
testinal tract. These particles have the potential to translocate through the gastroin-
testinal mucosa and enter systemic circulation, thereby reaching distant organs and
tissues via the bloodstream (Newell & Zhan, 2023). This systemic distribution of
microplastics within the body underscores the need for a comprehensive under-
standing of their fate beyond the digestive system (Wang et al., 2021a, 2021b).
Furthermore, several factors can significantly influence the gastrointestinal absorp-
tion and distribution of microplastics, contributing to the complexity of their inter-
actions within the human body (Wu et al., 2022). The chemical composition of
microplastic particles serves as a pivotal determinant in their fate within the gastroin-
testinal tract. Different polymers exhibit varying degrees of biodegradability and
bioavailability, impacting their potential for absorption (Jana et al., 2021). For
instance, persistent polymers like polyethylene and polypropylene may have different
absorption patterns compared to more degradable polymers, influencing the extent
to which they traverse the gastrointestinal mucosa (Paul et al., 2020).
438 D. A. Ayejoto et al.

Fig. 4 Routes of plastic particles entry into human body (Yee et al., 2021)

The presence of additives or adsorbed contaminants on microplastic surfaces

introduces another layer of complexity. Microplastics can act as carriers for various
chemicals, including plasticizers, flame retardants, and other persistent organic pollu-
tants (Menéndez-Pedriza & Jaumot, 2020). The interaction between these additives
and the gastrointestinal environment can influence the bioavailability of microplas-
tics and potentially modulate their absorption characteristics (Campanale et al., 2020;
Menéndez-Pedriza & Jaumot, 2020). Understanding these chemical interactions is
crucial for assessing the holistic impact of ingested microplastics on human health.
Individual physiological characteristics further contribute to the variability in the
absorption and systemic transport of microplastics. Factors such as age, health status,
and genetic predispositions may influence an individual’s gastrointestinal physiology
and, consequently, their susceptibility to microplastic absorption (Villareal & Xue,
Toxicological Effects of Ingested Microplastics on Human Health 439

2024). For instance, infants and children, whose gastrointestinal systems are still
developing, might exhibit different absorption patterns compared to adults (Gorecki
et al., 2021). Moreover, individuals with pre-existing gastrointestinal conditions may
experience altered rates of absorption and distribution (Jha et al., 2023).
Research in this area is continuously evolving as scientists strive to unravel
the complex interaction of these factors. Ongoing efforts are vital for elucidating
the underlying mechanisms governing the absorption and systemic distribution
of microplastics in the human body (Wu et al., 2022). This includes not only
identifying the pathways through which microplastics move within the gastroin-
testinal system but also discerning how their interactions with various physiological
factors shape their fate (Campanale et al., 2020). The interdisciplinary nature of
this research, encompassing toxicology, environmental science, and human physi-
ology, underscores the need for collaborative endeavors to comprehensively under-
stand the impact of microplastics on human health. As technology advances and
methodologies become more refined, further insights into the complex dynamics of
microplastic absorption and distribution will emerge, contributing to a more nuanced
understanding of their potential health implications.

4.2 Translocation to Other Organs and Tissues

Translocation pathways of microplastics involve their migration across biological

barriers, such as the intestinal epithelium, and subsequent circulation in the blood-
stream (Ma et al., 2021; Persiani et al., 2023). Studies have demonstrated the presence
of microplastics in extraintestinal tissues, including the liver, spleen, kidneys, and
even the brain, suggesting their ability to migrate beyond the gastrointestinal tract
(Bianchi et al., 2024; Sidor, 2024). The translocation of microplastics to distant organs
raises concerns about their potential to exert adverse effects on organ function and
systemic health (Wu et al., 2022). The mechanisms underlying the translocation of
microplastics to other organs and tissues are still being elucidated (Du et al., 2020).
One proposed mechanism involves the uptake of microplastics by immune cells,
such as macrophages, within the intestinal mucosa (Merkley et al., 2022). These
cells can then transport microplastics through the lymphatic system or bloodstream
to various organs (Jia et al., 2023). Additionally, microplastics may translocate via
paracellular or transcellular routes across epithelial barriers, facilitated by factors
such as particle size, surface properties, and interactions with biological molecules
(Ramsperger et al., 2023).
The translocation of microplastics to organs and tissues beyond the gastrointestinal
tract represents a concerning aspect with potential far-reaching health implications
(da Silva Brito et al., 2022). The migration of these pervasive particles from the
initial site of absorption raises alarms due to their potential to induce adverse effects
on vital organs, contributing to the development or exacerbation of chronic diseases
(Ganie et al., 2024). Accumulation of microplastics in vital organs, such as the
liver, spleen, and kidneys, may lead to localized inflammation and oxidative stress
440 D. A. Ayejoto et al.

(Meng et al., 2022; Yang et al., 2023). Studies, including research by Das (2023),
have highlighted the potential for microplastics to trigger inflammatory responses
and generate reactive oxygen species upon contact with tissues. This inflammatory
milieu, coupled with oxidative stress, poses a risk of tissue damage and dysfunction,
which could contribute to the progression of chronic diseases. Understanding the
molecular and cellular mechanisms behind these responses is crucial for evaluating
the long-term health consequences of microplastic exposure.
Moreover, the presence of microplastics in the brain has raised significant concerns
about potential neurotoxicity and cognitive impairment (Jin et al., 2022; Prüst et al.,
2020). Research by Shan et al. (2022) has indicated the ability of microplastics to
translocate to the brain, potentially crossing the blood–brain barrier. This raises ques-
tions about the impact of microplastics on neural tissues and the potential for adverse
effects on cognitive function. The complex relationship between microplastics and
the central nervous system necessitates a thorough exploration of the mechanisms
underlying neurotoxicity, synaptic dysfunction, and potential long-term neurological
consequences.
The potential for microplastics to elicit inflammation, oxidative stress, and tissue
damage in vital organs not only underscores the complexity of their interactions
within the human body but also emphasizes the need for targeted research to eluci-
date the specific pathways and molecular events involved. Additionally, addressing
the potential neurotoxic effects of microplastics on the brain requires a nuanced
exploration of their interactions with neural tissues and the potential for cognitive
consequences.

5 Health Risks Associated with Ingested Microplastics

5.1 Short-Term Health Effects

The ingestion of microplastics poses immediate and short-term health risks, raising
concerns about potential adverse effects on various physiological systems. While
research in this field is ongoing, several key short-term health effects have been
identified, shedding light on the urgency of addressing the impact of microplastic
exposure on human well-being.

5.1.1 Gastrointestinal Distress

Microplastics, owing to their small size and varied shapes, present a potential risk for
inducing gastrointestinal distress through complex interactions within the digestive
system (Fournier et al., 2021; Yin et al., 2021). The abrasive nature of microplastics
becomes particularly relevant when these particles come into contact with the deli-
cate mucosal lining of the gastrointestinal tract (Peters et al., 2022; Ziani et al., 2023).
Toxicological Effects of Ingested Microplastics on Human Health 441

Short-term exposure to microplastics may lead to irritation, discomfort, and mechan-

ical damage, primarily in the stomach and intestines, where the particles may accu-
mulate (Vazquez & Rahman, 2021). Studies conducted by García-Mayagoitia et al.
(2023) has underscored the propensity of microplastics to accumulate in the gastroin-
testinal (GI) tract, illuminating the potential for short-term adverse effects on diges-
tive health (Wang et al., 2023). The abrasive nature of microplastics, combined with
their ability to interact with GI tissues, introduces a spectrum of short-term conse-
quences that individuals exposed to elevated levels of microplastics may experience
(Bilal et al., 2020; Khan, 2023).
The abrasive quality of microplastics within the GI tract can result in a range
of sensations, including abdominal discomfort, bloating, and nausea (Bilal et al.,
2020; Garcês, 2020). This immediate impact reflects the physical irritation caused
by the presence of microplastics in the stomach and intestines (Blackburn & Green,
2022; Ghosh et al., 2023). The potential for these abrasive particles to induce tran-
sient gastrointestinal symptoms highlights the need for a nuanced understanding of
their interactions with the delicate mucosal lining of the digestive system (Chate-
laine, 2021). Furthermore, the introduction of microplastics into the GI tract has the
potential to disrupt normal digestive processes (Fournier et al., 2021). The complex
interaction between ingested microplastics and digestive enzymes may interfere with
the efficient breakdown of food, a process critical for nutrient absorption (Kaseke
et al., 2023). This disruption could manifest as short-term consequences, including
feelings of indigestion and discomfort during or after meals (Ma et al., 2020). The
potential interference with digestive processes raises questions about the immediate
impact of microplastics on nutrient absorption and overall gastrointestinal function
(Yin et al., 2021).
The disruption of nutrient absorption, a key consequence of the interaction
between microplastics and digestive processes, is of particular concern (Fournier
et al., 2021). The interference with the breakdown of food particles by digestive
enzymes may lead to suboptimal absorption of essential nutrients, with poten-
tial implications for short-term health. Individuals exposed to elevated levels of
microplastics may thus experience discomfort and digestive irregularities as a direct
result of the immediate impact of these particles on the complex processes within
the GI tract (de Souza Machado et al., 2020; Santos et al., 2024).
In an urban Asian setting, Wibowo et al. (2021) conducted a significant study that
brought attention to the potential risks associated with microplastic exposure and
its impact on gastrointestinal health. The research specifically highlighted the abra-
sive nature of microplastics, underscoring the likelihood of inducing gastrointestinal
distress upon short-term exposure. This distress manifested as irritation and discom-
fort, predominantly within the stomach and intestines, emphasizing the immediate
consequences that individuals exposed to elevated levels of microplastics may expe-
rience. The study contributed crucial insights into the complex interactions between
microplastics and the digestive system in the unique context of urban Asian environ-
ments, shedding light on the importance of understanding the immediate implications
for digestive health. Similarly, in the coastal regions of Africa, Emenike et al. (2023)
conducted a noteworthy study that delved into the accumulation of microplastics in
442 D. A. Ayejoto et al.

the gastrointestinal (GI) tract and its potential short-term adverse effects on digestive
health. The research brought attention to the propensity of microplastics to accu-
mulate within the GI tract, raising concerns about the immediate consequences for
individuals residing in coastal regions. By emphasizing the need to consider regional
variations in microplastic exposure, this study provided valuable insights into the
complex dynamics of microplastics and their impact on gastrointestinal well-being in
the distinct environmental context of African coastal areas. Collectively, these studies
contribute significantly to our understanding of the regional nuances in microplastic
exposure and its consequences on digestive health, highlighting the need for tailored
approaches to address these concerns in different geographical settings.
As research progresses, the development of targeted strategies to mitigate short-
term gastrointestinal distress becomes imperative. This may involve exploring mate-
rials with reduced abrasive properties, assessing the role of particle size and shape
in inducing discomfort, and understanding how individual variability may influence
susceptibility to these effects. By delving deeper into these interactions, we can
not only enhance our understanding of the short-term consequences but also devise
measures to alleviate potential adverse effects, ultimately contributing to informed
public health initiatives and regulatory considerations.

5.1.2 Inflammatory Responses

In addition to the physical effects of microplastics within the gastrointestinal tract,

their presence has been associated with the initiation of inflammatory responses,
contributing to short-term health concerns (Solomando et al., 2020; Xie et al., 2022).
Microplastics can induce localized inflammation at the site of contact within the
mucosal lining of the digestive system (Fournier et al., 2023; Hirt & Body-Malapel,
2020). This inflammatory reaction is a complex interaction involving immune cells,
signaling molecules, and tissue responses.
Cao et al., (2023a, 2023b) revealed the potential of microplastics to induce inflam-
matory responses, particularly in gill tissues, following exposure to water contam-
inated with these particles. Employing a polyethylene (PE) microplastics exposure
model, the study demonstrated through H&E staining the adverse effects, including
gill inflammation, vascular remodeling, mucous cell proliferation, and severe tissue
damage. Further examinations indicated that polyethylene microplastics intensi-
fied oxidative stress, leading to cell apoptosis as evidenced by the TUNEL assay.
RNA analysis via RT-PCR revealed upregulated expression of components in the
nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) pathway and apoptosis biomarkers. Notably, overac-
tive nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain-like receptor protein 3 (NLRP3)
inflammasomes and alterations in pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory factors
were observed, suggesting that oxidative stress serves as a trigger for apoptosis via
the NF-κB pathway and activates NLRP3 inflammasomes, promoting inflammatory
immune responses.
The release of pro-inflammatory mediators, such as cytokines and chemokines, in
response to microplastic exposure further amplifies the inflammatory cascade (Del
Toxicological Effects of Ingested Microplastics on Human Health 443

Piano et al., 2023; Ma et al., 2021). These signaling molecules play a pivotal role in
the regulation of immune responses and can contribute to the sensations of discomfort
associated with short-term exposure (Casares et al., 2024; Vallese et al., 2023). The
localized inflammation induced by microplastics underscores the immediate impact
on the delicate balance of immune activity within the gastrointestinal environment
(Wu et al., 2024). Additionally, the potential for immune activation and inflammatory
responses raises broader questions about the systemic consequences of short-term
exposure to microplastics (Enyoh et al., 2023). While localized inflammation in the
gastrointestinal tract is a clear manifestation, understanding the broader implications
for systemic inflammation and its potential contribution to other health conditions
requires further investigation (Zheng et al., 2023).

5.2 Long-Term Health Consequences

5.2.1 Chronic Inflammation and Immune System Effects

The ingestion of microplastics not only poses immediate health risks but also raises
concerns about potential long-term consequences, particularly regarding chronic
inflammation and immune system dysregulation (Das, 2023; Hong et al., 2023).
Chronic exposure to microplastics can lead to persistent inflammatory responses
and immune system effects, with implications for overall health and well-being
(Krishnan, 2023).
Chronic inflammation is a hallmark of many chronic diseases, including cardio-
vascular disease, diabetes, and certain cancers (Leuti et al., 2020; Wang et al., 2021a,
2021b). Prolonged exposure to microplastics can perpetuate inflammation within the
gastrointestinal tract and beyond, contributing to the development and progression
of these conditions (Villareal & Xue, 2024). Studies have shown that microplas-
tics can induce inflammatory responses in gastrointestinal tissues, leading to the
release of pro-inflammatory cytokines and the recruitment of immune cells (Cocci
et al., 2022; Jia et al., 2023; Solomando et al., 2020). Over time, sustained acti-
vation of the immune system can lead to tissue damage and dysfunction, exacer-
bating inflammatory processes and increasing the risk of chronic disease (Bachmann
et al., 2020; Raziyeva et al., 2021). Furthermore, microplastics have the potential to
disrupt immune system function, further exacerbating inflammatory responses and
increasing susceptibility to infections and autoimmune disorders (Chen et al., 2024;
Prata et al., 2020). The presence of microplastics within the gastrointestinal tract
may interfere with immune cell function, altering immune signaling pathways and
impairing the body’s ability to mount an effective immune response (Hirt & Body-
Malapel, 2020; Zhang et al., 2022). Dysregulated immune responses associated with
chronic exposure to microplastics can contribute to a state of immune system dysreg-
ulation, characterized by an imbalance in immune cell populations and heightened
inflammatory activity (Liu et al., 2024; Medriano & Bae, 2022).
444 D. A. Ayejoto et al.

The long-term consequences of chronic inflammation and immune system dysreg-

ulation extend beyond the gastrointestinal tract, impacting systemic health and
overall well-being (Tavakoli et al., 2021). Chronic inflammation, a fundamental
driver in the pathogenesis of numerous diseases, extends its detrimental influence
across various physiological systems, encompassing neurodegenerative disorders,
cardiovascular diseases, metabolic disorders, and autoimmune conditions (Potrykus
et al., 2021; Torun et al., 2021). Neurodegenerative disorders, such as Alzheimer’s
and Parkinson’s diseases, are characterized by progressive neuronal degeneration
and cognitive decline (Ayeni et al., 2022; Kim et al., 2023). Chronic inflamma-
tion, fueled by microglial activation and neuroinflammatory processes, contributes
to the pathological cascade underlying these conditions (Anjum et al., 2023).
Microplastic-induced inflammation within the central nervous system exacerbates
neuronal damage and impairs synaptic function, accelerating the progression of
neurodegenerative diseases and compromising cognitive function over time (Yin
et al., 2022).
Similarly, cardiovascular diseases, including atherosclerosis, coronary artery
disease, and hypertension, are complexly linked to chronic inflammation within the
vascular system (Evans et al., 2021; Muhammad et al., 2021). Endothelial dysfunc-
tion, a hallmark of vascular inflammation, predisposes individuals to atheroscle-
rotic plaque formation and thrombotic events (Balta, 2021; Pacinella et al., 2022).
Microplastic-induced inflammation further exacerbates endothelial dysfunction,
promoting the development of cardiovascular pathologies and increasing the risk of
adverse cardiovascular events (Chowdhury et al., 2023). Metabolic disorders, such
as obesity, type 2 diabetes, and metabolic syndrome, are characterized by dysregu-
lated energy metabolism and insulin resistance (Han & Weiss, 2021). Chronic low-
grade inflammation, originating from adipose tissue and systemic immune activa-
tion, plays a pivotal role in the pathogenesis of these conditions (Kawai et al., 2021).
Microplastic-induced immune system dysregulation amplifies systemic inflamma-
tion, exacerbating insulin resistance and promoting adipose tissue dysfunction,
thereby contributing to the development and progression of metabolic disorders
(Panneerselvam & Murugesan, 2023).
Furthermore, microplastic-induced immune system effects heighten the suscep-
tibility to autoimmune conditions, where the immune system mistakenly attacks the
body’s own tissues (Yan et al., 2023). Dysregulated immune responses triggered by
chronic microplastic exposure may disrupt immune tolerance mechanisms, leading
to aberrant immune activation and autoantibody production (Choi et al., 2023; Zhao
et al., 2021). This immune dysregulation increases the risk of autoimmune diseases,
such as rheumatoid arthritis, systemic lupus erythematosus, and inflammatory bowel
disease, by fostering chronic inflammation and tissue damage (Long et al., 2023).

5.2.2 Implications for Metabolic and Reproductive Health

The ingestion of microplastics raises complex questions about long-term conse-

quences, particularly in the realms of metabolic and reproductive health (Ding et al.,
Toxicological Effects of Ingested Microplastics on Human Health 445

2023; Lehel & Murphy, 2021). Emerging research suggests that chronic exposure
to microplastics may exert profound effects on metabolic homeostasis and repro-
ductive function, warranting a closer examination of these critical aspects of human
well-being (Li et al., 2023a, 2023b; López de Las Hazas et al., 2022). Chronic expo-
sure to microplastics has been implicated in metabolic dysregulation, contributing to
the pathogenesis of metabolic disorders such as obesity and insulin resistance (Shi
et al., 2022; Sun et al., 2022). Microplastics, through mechanisms that are still being
elucidated, may influence adipose tissue function, disrupt insulin signaling pathways,
and contribute to the development of insulin resistance (Auguet et al., 2022; Saraceni
et al., 2022). The pro-inflammatory milieu induced by microplastic exposure further
exacerbates metabolic dysfunction, linking chronic ingestion of these particles to an
increased risk of metabolic disorders (Jia et al., 2023).
Microplastics, minute particles originating from the breakdown of larger plastic
debris, have been found to infiltrate reproductive organs, casting a shadow of
growing concern over their potential implications for reproductive health (Enyoh
et al., 2023; Issac & Kandasubramanian, 2021). The complex interaction between
microplastic exposure and reproductive physiology encompasses various facets, and
ongoing research suggests a range of effects that extend beyond mere presence in
reproductive tissues (Eder et al., 2021; Saraceni et al., 2022). Studies exploring
the impact of microplastic exposure on reproductive health have unveiled poten-
tial disruptions in hormonal signaling and reproductive organ function (P. Gupta
et al., 2023a, 2023b). These disruptions, which are still under thorough investiga-
tion, raise concerns about the adverse effects of microplastics on fertility (Hong et al.,
2023). The endocrine-disrupting potential associated with specific chemicals found
in microplastics adds complexity to the picture, as these substances may interfere with
the delicate balance of reproductive hormones and processes, possibly contributing
to reproductive challenges (Amereh et al., 2020; Solleiro-Villavicencio et al., 2020).
Moreover, the ability of microplastics to translocate to the placenta during preg-
nancy introduces an additional layer of complexity and concern (Medley et al., 2023).
The placenta, a crucial interface between the maternal and fetal circulations, is a
potential route through which microplastics may reach developing fetuses (Fournier
et al., 2020; Ragusa et al., 2021). This raises questions about the potential impli-
cations for fetal development and the prospect of long-term effects on reproductive
outcomes (Aghael, 2022; Enyoh et al., 2023). The notion that microplastics, often
pervasive in the environment, can breach reproductive organs and interfere with the
complex processes underlying fertility is a topic that warrants continued scrutiny
(Ahn & Juraev, 2023; Enyoh et al., 2023). The complex dance between microplas-
tics and reproductive health involves not only direct interactions with reproductive
tissues but also the potential to influence hormonal regulation, organ function, and,
ultimately, the ability to conceive and maintain a healthy pregnancy (Marcelino et al.,
2022) (Table 1).
446 D. A. Ayejoto et al.

Table 1 Summary of potential toxic effects of microplastics on human health

Toxic effects Characteristics of Health impacts References
particles
Gastrointestinal Microplastics Irritation, discomfort, and de Souza Machado
Distress (typically smaller than potential mechanical et al. (2020); Santos
5 mm), microfibers. damage in the stomach et al. (2024)
Various types, and intestines; disruption
including microfibers of digestive processes
and particles of
polystyrene,
polyethylene, etc.
Inflammation Microplastics Localized inflammation at Cocci et al. (2022);
(variable sizes, often the mucosal lining of the Jia et al. (2023);
in nanometers). digestive system; release Solomando et al.
Diverse range, of pro-inflammatory (2020)
including particles of mediators leading to
polystyrene, discomfort and potential
polypropylene, and short-term health concerns
other synthetic
polymers
Disruption of Microplastics Suboptimal absorption of Amereh et al. (2020);
nutrient absorption (variable sizes). essential nutrients; Solleiro-Villavicencio
Composition may potential implications for et al. (2020)
include microplastics short-term health
of different materials,
such as polyethylene,
polyvinyl chloride,
etc.
Skin penetration Microplastics Penetration through Enyoh et al. (2023);
(variable sizes). wounds or weakened skin Wu et al. (2024)
Different types, barriers, either directly or
including microbeads indirectly
and particles of
various polymers
Respiratory effects Airborne Inhalation-related impacts López et al. (2023);
microplastics on respiratory system, Yang et al. (2023)
(variable sizes, often potential for respiratory
in micrometers). distress and inflammation
Particles from sources
like synthetic textiles,
plastic debris, and
industrial activities
(continued)
Toxicological Effects of Ingested Microplastics on Human Health 447

Table 1 (continued)
Toxic effects Characteristics of Health impacts References
particles
Immunological Microplastics Activation of immune Ayeni et al. (2022);
effects (variable sizes, often responses and potential Kim et al. (2023)
in nanometers). systemic inflammation,
Different broader implications for
compositions, overall health
including particles of
polyethylene,
polypropylene, and
other plastic polymers
Reproductive Microplastics Potential disruptions to Amereh et al. (2020);
impacts (variable sizes). reproductive health, Solleiro-Villavicencio
Various types, including effects on et al. (2020)
including particles of fertility and development
polystyrene,
polyethylene, and
other synthetic
polymers

6 Mitigation Strategies and Policy Implications

6.1 Regulatory Measures to Limit MP

In response to the growing recognition of the environmental and health risks posed
by microplastics, regulatory measures are being developed and implemented to limit
MP. These measures aim to mitigate the sources of MP, reduce its entry into the
environment, and minimize its adverse effects on ecosystems and human health.
One key aspect of regulatory efforts involves the restriction or prohibition of certain
sources of MP. This includes measures to limit the use of microplastics in consumer
products such as personal care products, cosmetics, and cleaning agents (Anagnosti
et al., 2021; Sun et al., 2020). Bans or restrictions on the manufacture, sale, and
use of products containing microbeads and other unnecessary microplastic additives
have been implemented in various jurisdictions (Conti et al., 2021; Miraj et al., 2021;
Singh & Mishra, 2023). By targeting the sources of MP at the source, these regulatory
measures aim to prevent the release of microplastics into the environment in the first
place.
Additionally, regulations are being implemented to improve waste management
practices and reduce the release of microplastics from plastic waste (Amesho et al.,
2023; Hettiarachchi & Meegoda, 2023). This includes measures to promote recy-
cling, reduce plastic consumption, and enhance waste treatment and disposal methods
(Calero et al., 2021). By implementing stricter regulations on plastic production,
consumption, and waste management, policymakers seek to minimize the amount
of plastic entering the environment and reduce the potential for MP. Furthermore,
448 D. A. Ayejoto et al.

regulatory measures are being developed to address specific sources of MP, such
as microfibers from textiles and tire wear from road surfaces (Munhoz et al., 2022;
Sridharan et al., 2021). This includes measures to encourage the use of alternative
materials in textiles and tires, as well as measures to improve wastewater treatment
processes to capture and remove microplastics before they are released into the
environment.
Beyond the direct regulatory measures aimed at curbing MP, policy interven-
tions are actively being explored to foster research, innovation, and comprehensive
solutions in the realm of MP prevention and mitigation. Recognizing the multi-
faceted nature of the microplastic issue, these policy initiatives extend their reach
to promote a deeper understanding of the sources, fate, and effects of microplastics
while simultaneously supporting the development of innovative technologies and
strategies. One key aspect of these policy interventions involves allocating funding
for scientific research focused on microplastics (Klingelhöfer et al., 2020; Li et al.,
2022). This funding facilitates comprehensive investigations into the diverse sources
of microplastics, tracking their pathways through ecosystems, and discerning their
wide-ranging effects on environmental and human health. By supporting robust scien-
tific inquiry, policymakers aim to bolster our knowledge base, providing a foundation
for evidence-based decision-making and effective long-term strategies.
Moreover, policy initiatives are geared towards nurturing innovation in technolo-
gies and solutions dedicated to reducing MP (Akande, 2023; Tiwari, 2023). This
involves supporting research and development efforts that explore alternative mate-
rials, manufacturing processes, and waste management techniques aimed at mini-
mizing the generation and release of microplastics into the environment (Kelly,
2023). By incentivizing the creation of sustainable and eco-friendly alternatives, poli-
cymakers aim to facilitate a shift towards a more circular and responsible approach
to plastic use. Policy frameworks that encourage collaboration between academia,
industry, and government entities are instrumental in promoting a holistic and multi-
disciplinary approach to addressing microplastic challenges. By fostering partner-
ships and knowledge exchange, policymakers seek to leverage expertise from various
sectors to accelerate the development and implementation of effective mitigation
strategies.

7 Limitations

The study is subject to several limitations that warrant consideration. Firstly, the
availability of scientific literature on the toxicological effects of microplastics in
Africa and Asia varies across regions, potentially introducing biases and limiting
the generalizability of findings. A language bias is acknowledged, as the inclusion
criteria favored studies published in English, potentially excluding valuable contri-
butions from non-English-speaking regions within the continents. The review relies
on published articles, leading to a potential publication bias where studies reporting
significant findings are more likely to be included. There is a temporal bias towards
Toxicological Effects of Ingested Microplastics on Human Health 449

recent studies, potentially neglecting earlier research and historical perspectives on

microplastics’ impact on human health. The limited availability of studies addressing
specific aspects and subpopulations may result in gaps in our understanding. Method-
ological heterogeneity, stemming from variations in sampling techniques, detection
methods, and analytical approaches, may impact the comparability of findings. The
interdisciplinary nature of microplastics research poses a challenge in comprehen-
sively covering all relevant disciplines, potentially influencing the depth of analysis
in specific areas. Lastly, the evolving nature of research in the field may influence the
comprehensiveness of the study’s findings over time. Despite these limitations, the
study aims to provide valuable insights into the toxicological effects of microplastics
on human health in Africa and Asia, serving as a foundation for future research and
decision-making.

8 Future Research Perspectives and Recommendations

In contemplating future research directions and guidelines, several key areas emerge
to enhance our understanding of the impact of microplastics on human health
in Africa and Asia. Standardizing methodologies across studies, encompassing
sampling, detection, and analysis techniques, stands out as a critical initiative to
ensure the comparability and reliability of research findings. The need for longi-
tudinal studies becomes apparent, as these could provide insights into the long-
term effects of microplastic exposure on diverse populations across these continents,
shedding light on cumulative risks and potential health outcomes.
Establishing comprehensive risk assessment frameworks tailored to the unique
socio-economic and environmental contexts of African and Asian regions is essential.
Such frameworks would be instrumental in evaluating the potential health risks asso-
ciated with microplastic exposure and formulating evidence-based policies. Interdis-
ciplinary collaboration emerges as a key strategy, encouraging researchers, policy-
makers, healthcare professionals, and environmental stakeholders to work together in
addressing the complex challenges posed by microplastics on human health. Commu-
nity engagement and awareness programs can play a pivotal role in empowering local
populations with knowledge about the health implications of MP. These initiatives,
through educational programs and outreach efforts, aim to encourage sustainable
practices and foster advocacy for policy interventions. Implementing targeted moni-
toring programs to assess microplastic contamination levels in seafood, drinking
water sources, and other potential exposure pathways in African and Asian regions
would yield crucial data for risk assessment and management strategies.
Prioritizing research efforts to assess the vulnerability of specific population
groups, such as children, pregnant women, and marginalized communities, to the
health effects of microplastics is crucial. This targeted approach enables the devel-
opment of interventions and protective measures where they are most needed. Inno-
vation in waste management strategies, including recycling, waste reduction, and the
exploration of alternative packaging materials, is imperative to mitigate the influx
450 D. A. Ayejoto et al.

of microplastics into the environment and reduce human exposure pathways. Advo-
cacy for the development and implementation of stringent policies and regulations
to control the production, use, and disposal of plastic products is a crucial aspect of
addressing MP. Such measures are essential to safeguard human health in Africa and
Asia. Lastly, fostering international collaboration and knowledge-sharing initiatives
among researchers, institutions, and governmental organizations is vital. This collab-
orative approach facilitates the exchange of best practices and accelerates progress
towards addressing the global challenge of MP.
Additionally, establishing continuous monitoring and surveillance programs for
microplastic contamination in key sources, such as seafood and drinking water, will
facilitate early detection and timely intervention. Involving local communities in
research endeavors, ensuring their active participation in data collection, and incorpo-
rating indigenous knowledge can provide a more nuanced understanding of the local
dynamics of MP. Building the capacity of local researchers, healthcare professionals,
and environmental experts through training programs and collaborative initiatives
will enhance the region’s ability to address the challenges posed by microplastics
effectively. Lastly, fostering collaboration at the international level for knowledge
exchange, sharing best practices, and coordinating efforts to address the global nature
of MP will amplify the impact of regional initiatives. Together, these future research
and recommendations aim to address the complex issue of MP comprehensively and
collaboratively, involving communities, industries, policymakers, and the scientific
community.
Declarations Ethical Approval Not applicable.

Consent to Participate Not applicable.

Consent to Publish Not applicable.

Availability of Data and Materials Not applicable. All the data used in this paper are provided
herein.

Competing Interests There are no competing interests regarding this work.

Funding No funding was received from any organization for this work.

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An Overview of the Detrimental Effect
of Microplastics on Humans

Subhankar Das and Manjula Ishwara Kalyani

Abstract Microplastics (MPs) have become a worldwide environmental concern

that pose a threat to human health. An enormous increase in the manufacture and use
of fossil-based plastics worldwide, coupled with improper waste management, causes
plastic waste to deteriorate and produce MPs. MPs pose a severe health risk since
they can infiltrate the body through a number of routes, including dermal contact,
inhalation, and ingestion, eventually resulting in toxicity and a variety of disorders
in humans. The presence of MPs has permeated the food chain, consequently inten-
sifying the potential risk to human health. Moreover, the chemical components from
the MPs can leach into the body, expanding their negative effects to trigger an immune
response and induce oxidative stress reactions, genotoxicity, cancer, etc. Therefore,
understanding the chemical composition of various synthetic plastics, which even-
tually transform into MPs and contribute to the onset of human disorders, is crucial.
This chapter will also address the harmful impacts of MPs on several human organs
and organ systems.

Keywords Synthetic plastic · Microplastics · Health risk · Food chain · Oxidative

stress · Genotoxicity · Organs

Abbreviation

MPs Microplastics
PE Polyethylene

S. Das (B)
Biotechnology Unit, Mangalore University, Mangalagangotri, Mangalore, Karnataka 574199,
India
e-mail: subhankardas.sunny.92@gmail.com
M. I. Kalyani
Department of Microbiology, Mangalore University, Jnana Kaveri Campus, Chikka Aluvara
Kodagu, Mangalore, Karnataka 571232, India
e-mail: manjuganesh7176@gmail.com

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 463
J. C. Egbueri et al. (eds.), Microplastics in African and Asian Environments, Emerging
Contaminants and Associated Treatment Technologies,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-64253-1_22
464 S. Das and M. I. Kalyani

PET Polyethylene terephthalate

HDPE High density polyethylene
LDPE Low density polyethylene
LLDPE Linear low-density polyethylene
PB Polybutylene
PP Polypropylene
PA Polyamide
PS Polystyrene
PVC Polyvinyl chloride
VC Vinyl chloride
PUR Polyurethane
PLGA Poly (lactic-co-glycolic acid)
PBT Polybutylene terephthalate
ROS Reactive oxygen species
UV Ultraviolet
PAEs Phthalate esters
DMP Dimethyl phthalate
DBP Dibutyl phthalate
DEP Diethyl phthalate
DEHP Di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate
PBAT Poly (butylene adipate-co-terephthalate)
PHAs Polyhydroxyalkanoates
IBS Irritable bowel syndrome.
EDC Endocrine disrupting chemical
NAFLD Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease

1 Introduction

Plastics have become an essential component of human existence due to their unique
properties, which have propelled them into nearly every aspect of modern life. The
name “plastic” originated from the Latin word “plasticus” and the Greek word
“plastikos,” which both refer to materials that can be moulded into a variety of
shapes. Since the invention of the first synthetic plastic, “Bakelite”, in 1907, the
use of synthetic plastics has been steadily increasing. Synthetic polymers have
supplanted conventional raw materials such as wood, metal, and paper in the manu-
facturing of a wide range of products. The distinctive qualities of synthetic plastics,
such as their low density, low thermal and electric conductivity, anti-corrosiveness,
chemical and weather resistance, electrical non-conduction, etc., have made them
invaluable in many products, including telephones, lamps, kitchenware, tableware,
food packaging, etc. (Das & Kalyani, 2023; Ncube et al., 2021; Punyauppa-path &
Punyauppa-path, 2020; Venkatesan et al., 2022). Synthetic plastics encompass a
variety of synthetic polymers, including polyvinyl chloride (PVC), polyethylene
An Overview of the Detrimental Effect of Microplastics on Humans 465

terephthalate (PET), polypropylene (PP), polybutylene (PB), polyethylene (PE),

high density polyethylene (HDPE), low density polyethylene (LDPE), polyurethane
(PUR), polystyrene (PS), polybutylene terephthalate (PBT), etc., which, due to their
recalcitrant nature, persist in the environment for a longer period of time (Alshehrei,
2017; Sruthy & Ramasamy, 2017).
The extensive use of synthetic polymers has resulted in a projected annual produc-
tion of plastic materials exceeding 320 million tonnes worldwide, with 40% of this
quantity being attributed to disposable single use packaging. Furthermore, due to
the low biodegradability of synthetic plastics and the disorganised disposal of such
plastics, which eventually end up in landfills, oceans, waterways, etc., they have
become an increasing threat to the environment (Thompson et al., 2009; Wright &
Kelly, 2017). However, the effects of photo-oxidation from sunlight break down
larger pieces of plastic into smaller particles, causing the plastic to become brittle.
Additionally, when wind, waves, etc. operate on them, they generate small plastic
debris that pollutes the environment. Plastic pollutants may be categorised based on
their particle size, such as macroplastics, which have a diameter of 5 mm or more;
mesoplastics, which range from 5 mm to 2 cm; MPs, which have a diameter > 5 mm,
and nanoparticles, which represent plastic debris with a size of < 1 μm (Waring et al.,
2018; Díaz-Mendoza et al., 2020; Sa’adu & Farsang et al., 2023). However, in certain
cases, MPs are deliberately introduced for several purposes, such as microbeads in
personal care items, toothpaste, soaps, detergents, industrial abrasives for blasting,
and fertilisers (Hrustic, 2022; Napper et al., 2015).
The term “microplastic particles” was first used by Thompson et al. in 2004 to
characterise the buildup of microsized plastic particles in marine sediments and the
water column in European waters. These microscopic-sized plastic particles, are
ubiquitous and most prevalent in various natural environments, including the Arctic
and Antarctic regions, waterways, seas, deep sea sediments, seafood, commercially
accessible foods, salt, air, etc. Eventually, they even become part of food webs.
Moreover, these MPs pose a potential risk to human health since they may readily
enter the human body through numerous routes and lead to severe health conse-
quences (Frias & Nash, 2019; Courtene-Jones et al., 2017; Shim & Thomposon,
2015; Thompson et al., 2004; Zhang et al., 2020a). Humans are exposed to MPs
through multiple routes, particularly ingestion, inhalation, and contact through the
skin (dermal contact), which eventually result in chronic health complications. Addi-
tionally, there have been reports indicating the existence of MPs in the placenta,
human breast milk, spleen, lungs, bones, liver, blood, etc., which significantly ampli-
fies the potential future risk of developing health conditions (Domenech & Marcos,
2021; Sun et al., 2021b; Wang et al., 2022).
Thus, this chapter focuses on the different synthetic plastics and their associ-
ated toxicity to humans, particularly in the form of MPs. Furthermore, it is crucial
to comprehend the dissemination of these MPs in various ecosystems and their
transmission to humans via various pathways.
466 S. Das and M. I. Kalyani

2 A Brief Account on MPs and Their Chemical

Composition

Plastic has become an integral component of human existence ever since the first
synthetic plastic “Bakelite” was created by Leo Hendrik Baekeland in 1907, a North
American scientist of Belgian descent. Leo Hendrik Baekeland, a North American
scientist of Belgian descent, created the first plastic entirely from synthetic compo-
nents. This was accomplished by a condensation reaction between formaldehyde and
phenol. However, it was not until after World War II that plastics were employed in
large amounts outside of the military, marking the onset of the bulk production of plas-
tics, with the yearly output of plastics reaching around 5 million tonnes. The demand
for plastic has increased significantly due to its versatile characteristics, such as being
lightweight, strong, cheap, resilient, and anti-corrosive. This can be witnessed in the
annual production of plastic, which has significantly increased throughout the years,
attaining a total of 30 million tonnes in 1988, followed by 359 million tonnes in
2018. Furthermore, projections indicate a substantial increase in the need for plastic
manufacturing by 2050, contributing to 20% of global oil consumption and 15% of
the global carbon budget. Single-use packaging applications dominate the European
plastic market, accounting for almost 40% of total output and over 10% of munic-
ipal solid waste. Reports state that between 1990 and 2017, the African continent
imported an estimated 172 million metric tonnes of plastics, of which 126 million
were in basic form and 46 million were in product form. By 2030, it is anticipated
that this number will have doubled (Abdellatif et al., 2021; Callapez, 2021; Napper &
Thompson, 2020; Suaria et al., 2016). Among a variety of synthetic plastics, PET, PE,
PUR, PS, PP, and PVC have been widely used in many industrial and home applica-
tions. Remarkably, global plastic production in 2019 reached a staggering 368 million
tonnes, with 90% of these plastics being generated from petroleum and manufactured
on a global scale. As the majority of this output falls under the following categories:
HDPE, LDPE, PP, PVC, PS, and PET. However polyamide, acrylonitrile butadiene
styrene, and polycarbonate are some of the other industrially significant polymers
that account for around twenty percent of the total plastic production. Synthetic
plastics have been categorised into two distinct categories based on their breakdown
routes: plastics with a carbon–carbon backbone and plastics containing heteroatoms
in the main chain., PVC, PP, PE and PS polymers possess a carbon-based backbone,
whereas PET and PUR include heteroatoms inside their primary molecular structures
(Kosuth et al., 2018; Lens-Pechakova, 2021; Mohanan et al., 2020; Oberbeckmann &
Labrenz, 2020).
PE is a widely used synthetic polymer, ranking as the fifth biggest in global
production. It is used for different purposes, including packaging for food and
medicinal items, pipes, electrical components, industrial wrapping, mulching mate-
rial, cable applications, etc. PE is a partially crystalline substance that exhibits
favourable physio-chemical resistance, such as resistance to organic solvents, elec-
trolysis, enhanced mechanical strength, and improved wear resistance, among other
qualities. The characteristics of polythene vary significantly due to variations in
An Overview of the Detrimental Effect of Microplastics on Humans 467

the length of the polymer chain. The most common kinds of polythene are linear
low-density polyethylene (LLDPE), HDPE, and LDPE. Nevertheless, PE has a high
susceptibility to environmental stress and displays inadequate resistance to thermal
ageing (Achilias et al., 2007; Antypas, 2020; Zhong et al., 2017). Moreover, in
such circumstances, PE also contributes to the production of MPs. PE-MPs have the
potential to induce health consequences like pulmonary inflammation and damage
the male reproductive system (Julienne et al., 2019; Lee et al., 2022).
PS is a very significant and extensively utilised material due to its affordability
and durability, which have led to its global annual usage of around 11 million metric
tonnes. PS is a synthetic polymer made from styrene monomers. PS is a transparent
material with excellent rigidity, strength, low weight, and a relatively high glass tran-
sition temperature. PS is widely used in many applications, including toy production,
computers, household appliances, etc. While the PS variety may be recycled, there
is a persistent risk of MPs generation when it is disposed of in the environment. This
is because PS is resistant to breakdown by microbes in the soil and by the action
of sunlight. Additionally, the land fill has not been able to resolve the recalcitrant
PS, and burning it produces hazardous gases. However, when polystyrene (PS) is
subjected to ultraviolet (UV) radiation from sunlight or other environmental causes,
it undergoes fragmentation, resulting in the formation of MPs. And finally, these
particles can then be transferred to humans through numerous pathways (Maafa,
2021; Gausepohl et al., 2000; Dewangga et al., 2019; Hwang et al., 2020; Yen et al.,
2022).
PP is the second-biggest polymer in the global market and is produced by catalytic
process using propylene. PP accounts for more than 25% of worldwide polymer
consumption, with an average yearly growth rate of 5.2%. It is a saturated polymer
with a linear hydrocarbon chain. PP has several properties, including thermal resis-
tance and chemical resistance, with a melting temperature of 160 °C, which makes
the PP suitable for the production of pails, furniture, bottles, trays, funnels, jars, car
parts, storage boxes, etc. (Harussani et al., 2022; Maddah, 2016; Modekwe et al.,
2021). Research has further indicated that polypropylene microplastics (PP-MPs)
might potentially lead to health issues by stimulating the generation of cytokines
from immune cells, instead of causing direct cell damage (Hwang et al., 2019).
Furthermore, in another study, it was discovered that PP, encouraged metastatic
growth among cancer cells (Park et al., 2023).
The origins of PVC can be traced back to 1835, when the monomer was discov-
ered by Liebig and his student Regnault. However, it took around 80 years for the
polymer to attract industrial interest, undergoing several modifications over the years.
PVC exhibits a range of durability, rigidity, and flexibility, with lifetime service that
may be measured in decades or even longer. PVC is used across multiple applica-
tions, such as building applications, including pipe and fittings, frames for windows,
flexible roofing membranes, covering of wire and cable, etc. (Braun, 2005; Daniels,
2009). Nevertheless, PVC has been utilised in an array of temporary, short-life,
and disposal items, including packaging materials used in food, cleaning supplies,
textiles, beverage containers, etc. (Sadat-Shojai & Bakhshandeh, 2011). It may be
inferred that PVC, one of the six primary kinds of plastics, accounts for 12% of
468 S. Das and M. I. Kalyani

the overall demand. In 2013, the worldwide capacity for producing PVC plastics
was around 61 million tonnes. Approximately 98% of vinyl chloride (VC) is used
in the manufacturing process of PVC, a widely-used synthetic material known as a
carcinogen for both animals and humans. VC is linked to an increased risk of liver
cancer, known as angiosarcoma, a rare kind of liver cancer resulting in a malignant
tumour that affects the endothelial cells of the liver. Along with it, VC exposure has
also been associated with the development of malignancies in other organs, such
as the lung and brain. The escalating PVC waste, along with its improper disposal
and the polymer’s enduring longevity, exacerbate the likelihood of MPs contamina-
tion in the environment. MPs from PVC have further been reported to leach toxic
compounds into the environment (Yu et al., 2016; Henkel et al., 2022; Brandt-Rauf
et al., 2012). Additional research studies have looked at the detrimental effects of
PVC-MPs on the growth and degrees of oxidative stress in fish larvae of the Cyprinus
carpio var species. Based on histological study, it has been validated that PVC MPs
exposure can lead to cytoplasmic vacuolation, inflammatory cell infiltration, and the
loss of nuclear material in the liver (Xia et al., 2020). Additional research indicates
that PVC exposure has a deleterious effect on the liver and increases the risk of cancer
(Zarus et al., 2023).
PET is a thermoplastic polymer that consists of repeated units of terephthalic
acid and ethylene glycol monomers arranged in a linear configuration. PET is a
semi-crystalline, hygroscopic, and colourless resin known for its outstanding dura-
bility, food compatibility, high tensile strength, resilience to impacts, and resistance
to water, gas, and moisture. These materials have been utilised in many applica-
tions, including as storage containers, thermoformed products, fabrics for apparel,
and bottles (Koshti et al., 2018; Sarda et al., 2022). Nevertheless, the widespread
use of PET and its haphazard disposal have sparked apprehension over the toxicity
of the surrounding environment and water resources via leachate compounds orig-
inating from PET plastic. Additionally, it has been established in various studies
that human exposure to polyethylene terephthalate microplastics (PET-MPs) could
prove hazardous (Dhaka et al., 2022; Tamargo et al., 2022). PUR, which is one of
the most common synthetic polymers and represents 7.9% (359 million tonnes) of
the world’s overall plastic end-user market, making it the 6th most commonly used
plastic globally. The PUR is used to synthesise commercial products for the manu-
facture of textiles and textile coatings. PUR is manufactured by a catalytic reaction
between various isocyanates and polyols. PUR is often used in the production of
many commercial products, including building and construction goods, automobile
components, medical equipment, textiles, textile coatings, etc. (Liu et al., 2021a;
Russell et al., 2011). As it is widely known fact that synthetic plastic takes around
100–1000 years to degrade effectively. Moreover, the addition of various antioxi-
dants and stabilisers that are intended to extend the lifespan of plastics can further
slowdown the environmental breakdown of such plastic materials in the environment
(Chamas et al., 2020; Dey et al., 2023; Kale et al., 2015). On the other hand, there have
been several conventional and fundamental practices, like recycling, dumping plastic
waste in landfills, incineration, microbial degradation, and conversion or recycling
into other plastic products. The application of such techniques also has unintended
An Overview of the Detrimental Effect of Microplastics on Humans 469

consequences (Ilyas et al., 2018). For instance, burning plastic waste causes air pollu-
tion, despite of that the unplanned dumping and burning of plastic waste is seen as
a way to address the issue of plastic waste buildup in the environment. As a result
of this, the air is filled with hazardous chemicals like carbon dioxide, and dioxins.
According to studies, around 4.8 billion tonnes of plastic waste are being dumped
in inadequately maintained landfills. Moreover, the existence of such plastic waste
in landfills results in the creation of hazardous compounds, such as phthalate acid,
which is then leached into the ground, and the release of additional gases into the
environment. Phthalates are commonly included as plasticizers in the production of
PET and are also present in PVC. Phthalates are a group of emerging pollutants
that tend to build up in fatty tissues (lipophilic) and have adverse effects on many
organs, including the reproductive system, kidneys, and liver. On the other hand, a
significant number of disposal methods result in the production of MPs. For instance,
when plastics are disposed of in an unplanned manner, that causes them to degrade
chemically, photo induced degradation, and biologically (as shown in Fig. 1). All
these degradation processes lead to the transformation of plastic waste into barely
noticeable MPs that are more difficult to address and have the ability to negatively
impact the environment. It is further projected that the leakage of MPs would grow
by 1.3–2.5 times by 2040 under a business-as-usual scenario, amounting to roughly 3
million trillion pieces (Asiandu et al., 2021; Jayaweeraet al., 2020; Lear et al., 2021;
Tiso et al., 2022; Wojnowska-Baryła et al., 2022).

Fig. 1 Diagrammatical illustration of primary and secondary sources of microplastics

470 S. Das and M. I. Kalyani

Bioplastics are biodegradable polymers derived from renewable materials such

as corn, cassava, sweet potatoes, sugarcane, soy, and banana peels. It is expected
that bioplastic production and use will continue to expand globally in the years
to come, given the mounting concerns about the negative impact associated with
fossil fuel-based polymers and the discharge of MPs into the environment. However,
new research findings have shown that even biodegradable polymers, such as poly
(butylene adipate-co-terephthalate) (PBAT), polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs), etc.,
which are used for the manufacture of biodegradable plastics, have the potential
to produce MPs that interact in a manner that is more or less comparable to that
of MPs produced from synthetic polymers. It is because, in order for bioplastics
to degrade, certain conditions such as humidity, microbes, and temperature must be
met. These conditions are necessary to initiate the biodegradation process and ensure
complete disintegration (Arikan & Ozsoy, 2015; Das & Kalyani, 2023; Shruti &
Kutralam-Muniasamy, 2019; Zhou et al., 2021).
MPs are made up of tiny pieces of plastic waste, ranging in size from 1 to 5 mm.
Their extensive distribution and persistent presence in the environment provide an
increasing threat owing to their toxicity and ability to adversely impact human health
(Everaert et al., 2020). The minuscule dimensions of MPs provide substantial hazards
since they can easily be transmitted by inhalation, ingestion, and skin absorption from
a variety of sources. The particles possess the capacity to traverse the epithelial cell
barrier of the lungs and intestines, making them likely to possibly induce health
consequences in other vital organs such as the liver, kidneys, and brain. This is
apparent from the detection of MPs in many human organs, such as the placenta,
faeces, lungs, and gut (Donkers et al., 2022; Jia et al., 2023). Additionally, research
has demonstrated that several metals like chromium, copper, arsenic, lead, barium,
and tin are released by MPs. It has been discovered that the broad-spectrum fungicide
propyconazole, which is often used as a preventative or curative agent for crop
diseases, increases the release of adsorbed metals when MPs degrade. There have
been reports of the mobilisation of cadmium from MPs upon their degradation. In
addition, MPs, which act as carriers and are capable of causing gene exchange among
microorganisms, can lead to the uncontrollable transfer of genes that are resistant to
antibiotics and the widespread breakout of drug-resistant infections (Li et al., 2020a,
2020b; Liu et al., 2021b; Martin & Turner, 2019). In addition, MPs, due to their small
size, have the ability to acquire and transfer both organic and inorganic contaminants
from water or soil solutions onto their exterior surfaces. This therefore increases the
potential health concerns when they are ingested or inhaled (Dehghani et al., 2017).
Recent research has shown that when a plastic teabag is steeped during brewing
at 95 °C, it further releases a staggering amount of MPs, estimated to be around
11.6 billion. Paper cups with plastic linings emit MPs and hazardous substances
such as fluoride, chloride, sulphate, and nitrate, as well as heavy metals including
lead, chromium, and cadmium, when exposed to hot water (85–90 °C) (Hernandez
et al., 2019; Ranjan et al., 2021). Therefore, it is of the utmost importance to have a
comprehensive understanding of the pathways of transmission and the ways in which
these MPs may pose a threat to human health by encouraging a variety of diseases
(Table 1).
An Overview of the Detrimental Effect of Microplastics on Humans 471

Table 1 MPs and their health impacts on human organs and systems
Organs/organ Impact on organs and References
systems organ systems (in vitro/
in vivo studies)
Gastric system – Modify intestinal Horvatits et al. (2022), Sun et al. (2021a),
microflora Qiao et al. (2019), Deng et al. (2020), Tong
– Inflammation et al. (2022), Liu et al. (2022), and Tan et al.
– Intestinal epithelial (2020)
cells
– Imbalance in the redox
system
– Activation of the
TLR4/NF-κB
inflammatory signal
pathway
– Oxidative stress
– Genotoxicity
– Apoptosis
– Reduction in lipid
digestion
Respiratory system – Inflammation in lungs Vianello et al. (2019), Lu et al. (2021),
– Cytotoxicity Baeza-Martínez et al. (2022), Goodman
– Genotoxicity et al. (2021), Huang et al. (2022), Jeon et al.
– Generation of ROS (2023), Din et al. (2024), Bengalli et al.
– Bronchoalveolar (2022), Shi et al. (2021), and
macrophage Palacios-Arreola et al. (2022)
aggregation
– Increase level of IL-8
and TNF-α and TGF-β
– ER stress proteins
expression
– Impact on cell
proliferation
– Increases in lung
metastasis
Dermal exposure – Induce cutaneous Aristizabal et al. (2024), Schmidt et al.
alterations (2023), and Wang et al. (2023b)
– Inflammation
– Influence homeostasis
– Induce elevated ROS
levels in mitochondria
in skin cancer cells
– Elevate the
proliferation of skin
cancer cells
– Damage to normal
cells of the skin
– Cytoskeletal
modification of the
skin
(continued)
472 S. Das and M. I. Kalyani

Table 1 (continued)
Organs/organ Impact on organs and References
systems organ systems (in vitro/
in vivo studies)
Reproductive system – Inflammation Chen et al. (2024), Hou et al. (2021), Hu
(male and female) – Decrease in et al. (2021), Stapleton and Hai (2023),
anti-inflammatory Wang et al. (2023a), Wei et al. (2022), Zhang
molecule (Nrf2/HO-1) et al. (2022a), and Zhao et al. (2023)
– Decrease in sex
hormones
– Induce reproductive
endocrine disorder
– Apoptosis in sperm
cells
– Decrease sperm quality
– Decrease in male
fertility
– Spermatogenesis
dysfunction
– Negatively impact
testis development
– Damage to ovaries and
oxidative stress leading
to apoptosis
– Influence immune
system in pregnancy
– Decrease in the
number and diameter
of uterine arterioles
– Decrease blood supply
to the uterine
– Induce stress to
Endoplasmic
Reticulum (ER)
Liver – Inhibit liver lipid Yang et al. (2022b), Yin et al. (2022),
synthesis Auguet et al. (2022), and Shen et al. (2024)
– Suppress fatty acid
biosynthesis
– Increase biotin level
– Enlargement of the
liver
– Hepatocyte necrosis
– Inflammation
– Enhance liver fibrosis
– Development of
non-alcoholic fatty
liver disease
(continued)
An Overview of the Detrimental Effect of Microplastics on Humans 473

Table 1 (continued)
Organs/organ Impact on organs and References
systems organ systems (in vitro/
in vivo studies)
Kidney – Increase level of ROS Goodman et al. (2022), and Xiong et al.
– Renal Fibrosis (2023)
– Inflammation
– Mesangial matrix
expansion
– Glomerular
endocapillary
proliferation
– Infiltration of
macrophages
Cardiovascular – Cardiovascular toxicity Zhou et al. (2023), and Zhu et al. (2023b)
system – Oxidative stress
– Inflammation
– Apoptosis
– Pyroptosis
– Hemolysis
– Thrombosis
– Coagulation of blood
– Vascular endothelial
damage
– Accumulation of
collagen
Brain – Alter neural stem cells Gaspar et al. (2023), Hua et al. (2022), Jeong
– Functional defcets et al. (2022), Jin et al. (2022), Santos et al.
neural stem (2022), and Zaheer et al. (2022)
– Neural cell
compositions
– Abnormality in brain
development
– Change in the
behaviour
– Development of autism
spectrum disorder
(ASD)-like trait

3 Routes of MPs Transmission to the Human Body

The ubiquitous presence of MPs in ecosystems, including water, air, and land, poses
a greater threat to human health. Under the impact of abiotic and biotic elements,
such as photodegradation, the plastic components undergo degradation and break-
down into fragments that are smaller in size. MPs are dispersed by the impact of
environmental elements, such as storms, human activities, tidal cycles, etc., and can
readily enter the food chain. Also, MPs have the ability to release numerous toxic
chemicals, leading to health issues. MPs have been classified on the basis of their
474 S. Das and M. I. Kalyani

sources of origin (as shown in Fig. 1): The main sources of MPs include direct envi-
ronmental releases from the cosmetics industry, toothpaste, exfoliating cleansers,
unregulated solid waste disposal, laundry, etc. The secondary release of MPs occurs
when they are inadvertently released into the environment, where waste breakdown
processes take place through wind currents, UV radiation, and microbial activity
(Amrutha & Warrier, 2020; Gasperi et al., 2018; Pironti et al., 2021; Vazquez &
Rahman, 2021; Wong et al., 2020). The most prominent route for the entry of MPs
into the human body is through three routes: inhalation, ingestion, and dermal absorp-
tion (as shown in Fig. 2). Moreover, a variety of environmental sources, including
contaminated crops, animal products, plastic implants, playground equipment, pack-
aged food, cutting boards, and children’s toys, can introduce MPs into the human
body (Koutnik et al., 2023; Luo et al., 2022; Zarus et al., 2021).
Studies have revealed that individuals consume between 39,000 and 52,000 MPs
particles annually via the food they consume. However, when inhalation is consid-
ered, the predicted value increases to 74,000 and 121,000 MPs. Individuals who
solely consume water from bottles may end up consuming an additional 90,000 MPs
annually, whereas those who exclusively use tap water absorb 4000 MPs per year. In
another study, it was reported that children have an average consumption rate of 553
particles of MPs per person per day, whereas adults consume an average of 883 parti-
cles per person per day. The absorption efficiency of MPs across the gastrointestinal,
alveolar, and dermal epithelium is influenced by their size. After being consumed,
more than 90% of MPs have been found to be eliminated through faeces, particu-
larly larger particles measuring over 150 μm. In an investigation, researchers found
the presence of MPs in the basic foods of the Indonesian farming communities,
which include tempeh (soybean cake), table salts, and toothpaste, at dangerously

Fig. 2 Schematic representation of the human exposure pathways to microplastics

An Overview of the Detrimental Effect of Microplastics on Humans 475

high levels. And based on the findings, it was shown that 63.64 percent of individ-
uals had MPs, especially HDPE and PP, in their gastrointestinal tracts. MPs with
particle sizes between 0.1 and 10 μm have the ability to cross across the blood–brain
barrier as well as the placenta. Particles < 150 μm are able to penetrate the gastroin-
testinal epithelium, while particles < 2.5 μm can reach the systemic circulation via
endocytosis (Mohamed et al., 2021; Cox et al., 2019; Kannan & Vimalkumar, 2021;
Wibowo et al., 2021).
Regarding the skin exposure of MPs, there are several aspects that influence the
extent of exposure, such as the geographic location, the corresponding environment,
such as indoor and outdoor settings, isolated or metropolitan areas, etc. Based on
studies, the deposition ratio varies significantly between 36 and 1008 p/m2 /day,
with an average value of 366.87 p/m2 /day. Upon contact with the skin, MPs are
able to permeate by passing through skin pores; therefore, it greatly depends on the
skin pore size of the exposed individual. Research has demonstrated that synthetic
fibres measuring less than 25 μm in size are capable of entering through the skin
pores, which typically have a diameter of 40–80 μm. However, these fibres are
able to circumvent the outermost layer of the skin, known as the stratum corneum
(Domenech & Marcos, 2021; Ageel et al., 2022; Enyoh et al., 2020). Microplastic
particles (MPs), when ingested or inhaled, can accumulate in the body and elicit an
immune response or cause localised toxicity. Prolonged exposure might also lead to
further complications due to the concentration of MPs in the human body. Several
investigations have documented that MPs can penetrate the deep lung or alveoli by
inhalation and have similar aerodynamic characteristics as PM 2.5 particles. The
majority of MPs particles found in PM 2.5 were less than 1 μm in size, amplifying
the risk to human health. Moreover, contact with the PM 2.5 component is linked to
elevated death rates along with cardiovascular and respiratory diseases. In a study
conducted in London and UK, whereby the researchers collected PM10 samples
from an urban roadside location. The study revealed that 52% of the detected MPs
had a size ranging from 5 to 10 μm. It can therefore be attributed to an estimate of
9,367–14,988 MPs being inhaled every day. Other studies have reported that the dust
exposure in homes ranges from 13,731 to 68,415 particles per capita. Both PM2.5
and PM10 are linked to higher death rates from several causes, like lung cancer,
cardiovascular disorders, and respiratory diseases. Exposure to MPs has been found to
cause oxidative stress in the respiratory system, specifically in the airways and lungs.
This can result in symptoms such as coughing, sneezing, and shortness of breath due
to inflammation and lung damage. Additionally, it can lead to dizziness and fatigue
due to a decrease in blood oxygen concentration (Barceló et al., 2023; Lee et al., 2023;
Vaid et al., 2021; Wright & Borm, 2022). MPs have been shown to exhibit electrostatic
forces that enable them to interact and serve as carriers for pollutants. These pollutants
then further result in various health risks via MPs contamination (Yang et al., 2022a).
In addition, the foetus, baby, and newborns are particularly vulnerable to the exposure
of MPs due to their underdeveloped metabolic enzymes, which lead to less removal of
MPs, and heightened sensitivity of target organs (Mišľanová et al., 2024). Therefore,
it is evident that exposure to MPs has negative effects on humans. And thus, it is
476 S. Das and M. I. Kalyani

important to further investigate the impact of MPs on the various organs and organ
systems of an individual.

4 The Detrimental Effects of MPs on Different Organs

and Their Accompanying Health Consequences

In order to have a better grasp of the detrimental effects that are connected with
exposure to MPs, it is necessary to have an understanding of MPs and their influence
on different organs and organ systems of humans (as shown in Fig. 3). There have been
studies that have proven the existence of MPs and the diseases that are connected with
their exposure. However, these studies have used both animal models and numerous
human samples that have been examined to validate the presence and detrimental
impact of MPs (Blackburn & green, 2022; Prokić et al., 2021). In the following
sections, we will discuss various research studies that have proven the impact of MPs
exposure on numerous human organs, as well as the likelihood of the development
of a variety of disorders related to this exposure.

Fig. 3 Illustration of detrimental impact of microplastics on human organ and organ system
An Overview of the Detrimental Effect of Microplastics on Humans 477

4.1 MPs Exposure to Human Gastric System and Its

Detrimental Impact

Multiple studies have reported the transfer of MPs to humans through ingestion,
resulting in various negative consequences. MPs can be transmitted from a variety
of sources, such as tap water, bottled drinking water, seafood, salt, honey, milk, soft
drinks, beer, etc.. The release of MPs into food and water can be triggered under the
influence of factors, like temperature and sunlight exposure to various consumables.
Water is a crucial ingredient in the production of many products, including packaged
drinking water, beverages, etc. Unfortunately, water is also the most common source
of MPs contamination. Studies have shown a significant quantity of MPs pollution
in nearshore seawater, indicating a strong correlation between pollution sources on
land and the amount of marine MPs that ultimately enter the food chain (Danopoulos
et al., 2020; Dris et al., 2015; Luo et al., 2019; Zhang et al., 2020a).
According to reports, Peyer’s patches, or lymphoid follicles in the ileum, are
important locations for the intake of MPs which are transported throughout the
gastrointestinal system via phagocytosis or endocytosis. Investigations have shown
that, mice given intraperitoneal injections have demonstrated the ability of peritoneal
macrophages to engulf larger PS particles (Yee et al., 2021; Horvatits et al., 2022;
Tomazic-Jezic et al., 2001). Research has also found that high levels of polyethylene
microplastics (PE-MPs) consumed by mice resulted in inflammation in the small
intestine (like the colon and duodenum) and high expression of TLR4, AP-1, and
IRF5. PE-MPs also have a negative impact on the gut microbiome. Exposure to
PE-MPs caused a drop in Firmicutes and an increase in Bacteroides in mice. They
enhanced the micrroflora metabolism for amino acids in the mouse colon by altering
the makeup of the colon microflora. Also, it has been found that PE-MPs reduce
colon mucin expression and cause a mild immunological response (Li et al., 2020a,
2020b; Sun et al., 2021a). Ingestion of PP-MPs can also lead to inflammatory damage,
structural alteration in intestinal cells, disruption of the redox system, and colon infla-
mation, along with a significant increase in the rate of cell death in the colon. The
PP-MPs were responsible for a significant increase in the levels of pro-inflammatory
and pro-apoptotic proteins in the tissue of the colon. Where the expression of anti-
inflammatory and anti-apoptotic proteins decreased dramatically. Apart from that, in
a study conducted with zebrafish, it was shown that when they were exposed to PS
fragments or PP fibres for a period of 21 days, there was a notable rise in the levels
of interleukin-1a α (IL-1 α) in the gut. This resulted in the manifestation of intestinal
toxicity and inflammation (Jia et al., 2023; Qiao et al., 2019).
Given that plastics are known to come into contact with a range of elements in the
digestive system, including enzymes and digestive acids, this might affect the prop-
erties and composition of MPs as well as result in the release of various chemicals
after consumption. According to research, MPs have the ability to adsorb phthalate
esters (PAEs), such as dimethyl phthalate (DMP), dibutyl phthalate (DBP), diethyl
phthalate (DEP), and di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP), which may then be trans-
ported into the gut. Inflammation and metabolic diseases of the gut are characterised
478 S. Das and M. I. Kalyani

by modified microbiota in the gut, higher permeability of the intestines, and elevated
inflammation, as well as differently regulated genes. MPs pose a possible health risk
not only because of their chemical components but also because they offer stable envi-
ronments for the colonisation and survival of pathogenic bacteria on to their surfaces.
The study found that PE-MPs allow Helicobacter pylori to adhere to their surfaces,
thus forming biofilm. Further, the study revealed that the mice stomach tissues,
when treated with a combination of PE-MPs and H. pylori, showed a faster devel-
opment of H. pylori infection compared to those infected with H. pylori alone. The
interaction between PE-MPs and H. pylori facilitated fast bacterial colonisation of
gastric mucosal epithelial cells, enhanced PE-MPs entrance into tissues, and induced
stomach damage as well as inflammation in mice. Another study demonstrates that
the human colon microbiota can attach itself to ingested PET-MPs. Reports indi-
cate that PET-MPs undergo biotransformation throughout the gastrointestinal tract
and colon, displaying structural changes from their initial form. Moreover, it has
been noted that MPs derived from synthetic polymers such as PS, PET, PE, PVC,
and poly (lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) notably decreased lipid digestion in the
in-vitro gastrointestinal tract. As PS-MPs reduced the availability of lipid droplets
by creating large lipid-MPs heteroaggregates that resulted from the hydrophobicity
of the MPs. Also, MPs fibres presumably exhibit a potent inhibitory effect on lipid
digestion due to their ability to create honeycomb-like structures that trap oil droplets.
Additionally, PS-MPs absorbed lipase, leading to a decrease in its activity by altering
the secondary structure and disrupting the necessary open conformation (Deng et al.,
2020; Krasucka et al., 2022; Liu et al., 2022; Tamargo et al., 2022; Tan et al., 2020;
Tong et al., 2022; Zhang et al., 2022b). Given the significant impact of MPs on the gut
microbiota, it has been discovered that helpful bacteria like Christensenellaceae and
Akkermansiaceae have decreased in number, while potentially detrimental patho-
bionts like Desulfovibrionaceae and Enterobacteriaceae increased under the MPs
influence. When considering the microbiome of the stomach, an increasing amount
of research highlights the gut microbiota as a key player in GI disorders, especially
irritable bowel syndrome (IBS). Moreover, an imbalance in the gut flora can result
in dysbiosis, which can be caused by the depletion or excessive development of
a specific organism, a decrease in microbial diversity, or genetic abnormalities or
mutations (Fournier et al., 2023; Shaikh et al., 2023).

4.2 MPs Exposure to Respiratory System and Its Detrimental

Impact

One of the most fundamental and vital physiological functions in humans is respi-
ration, which supplies oxygen to the body and eliminates carbon dioxide as waste.
The respiratory system can be divided into two zones based on how it functions:
the conducting component and the respiratory portion. The conducting portion of
the respiratory system forms the region for conduction of the inhaled gases and the
An Overview of the Detrimental Effect of Microplastics on Humans 479

respiratory zone. The trachea, larynx, nose, nasopharynx, and many progressively
narrower bronchi and bronchiole segments make up the conducting section of the
respiratory system. The terminal bronchiole is where the conducting part ends. The
respiratory portion starts at the respiratory bronchiole, moves through the alveolar
sacs and ducts, and terminates at the alveoli, where the major gas exchange occurs
(Bastir et al., 2022; Patwa & Shah, 2015). Airborne MPs are an emerging category of
environmental contaminants that are harmful to human health, particularly the respi-
ratory system. When airborne contaminants (both indoor and outdoor) are inhaled
through the mouth and nose, they make their way into the respiratory tract and reach
the lungs’ alveolar gas exchange units, which are the primary site of exposure and
immune system interaction. Studies have indicated that indoor concentrations (3–15
particles/m3 ) of MPs can be higher than outdoor concentrations (0.2–0.8 particles/
m3 ). It seems that rain has a function in washing outdoor air pollutants from the
atmosphere. The MPs pollutants include additives like unreacted monomers from
plastic production, plasticizers, and dyes that increase the risk of toxicity, cancer,
and mutagenicity to human health. Also, airborne MPs have been shown to transport
other environmental micropollutants attached to their hydrophobic surface, partic-
ularly in metropolitan areas where polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and
metals are generated from multiple sources (Gasperi et al., 2018; Shahzadi et al.,
2023; Sridharan et al., 2021; Vianello et al., 2019). Studies have demonstrated that
exposure to MPs in mice can lead to the infiltration of inflammatory cells in the
lungs, the clustering of bronchoalveolar macrophages, increased levels of TNF-α in
bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF), and higher production of plasma IgG1. Hence,
the exposure to MPs had an impact on asthma-related symptoms due to the conse-
quences it caused, such as mucus development and the infiltration of inflammatory
cells, including the aggregation of macrophages (Han et al., 2023; Lu et al., 2021).
Multiple studies have indeed confirmed the existence of MPs in the lower airways
of humans. A recent study conducted by Baeza-Martínez et al. (2022) discovered
the existence of MPs in the lower airways of adult Europeans. The average concen-
tration of MPs in these items is 9.18 ± 2.45 items/100 mL BALF, with 97.06% of
the MPs being microfibres and 5.88% being particulate MPs (Baeza-Martínez et al.,
2022). MPs have been found to have a profound impact on cell proliferation and
trigger changes in the morphology of human alveolar A549 cells (Goodman et al.,
2021). Studies investigating the influence of MPs on lung health, especially in those
with respiratory conditions, are still in an infancy phase of development. However,
previous studies have indicated that allergies and respiratory diseases can worsen
when exposed to MPs and allergens (Lu et al., 2022). A study revealed that individ-
uals with respiratory disorders had a maximum of 565 particles per 10 ml of sputum.
The examination also detected 21 distinct forms of MPs in the sputum, including
chlorinated polyethylene, alkyd varnish, polyester, and polyurethane. These four
categories alone made up 78.36% of the total MPs. The highest level of MPs was
established in lung tissue, with an average of 14.19 ± 14.57 particles/g (Huang
et al., 2022; Zhu et al., 2024). Furthermore, multiple factors impact the absorption
and expulsion of MPs in the lungs, including hydrophobicity, surface charge, surface
functionalization, surrounding protein coronas, particle size, and the various reactive
480 S. Das and M. I. Kalyani

groups present on the surface of MPs (Laganà et al., 2023; Yee et al., 2021). A study
conducted by Jeong et al. (2022) used BEAS-2B human bronchial epithelial cells
to assess the adverse impacts of PS-MPs. The study demonstrated that positively
charged polystyrene microplastics (PS-MPs) exhibited cytotoxicity, enhanced ROS
formation in BEAS-2B cells, and induced the expression as well as secretion of the
pro-inflammatory cytokine IL-β in the animal model. The positively charged PS-
MPs are able to trigger autophagic cell death in bronchial epithelial cells, resulting
in inflammatory reactions in the lungs (Jeon et al., 2023).
MPs have also been identified in indoor environments. Research using a thermal
mannequin to simulate human breathing revealed significantly higher levels of MP
contamination in indoor air, measuring 272 MPs per day of inhaled MPs. Similarly
In another study that revealed the quality of indoor air, the highest average MPs
amount was reported in the, corridor area (1.5 × 103 MPs/m2 /d), office space (1.8 ×
103 MPs/m2 /d), and dormitory area (9.9 × 103 MPs/m2 /d). According to the findings
of the study, seven different types of synthetic or semi-synthetic polymers have been
discovered. These polymers include polyester, rayon, acrylic, cellophane, PP, PS, and
polyamide (PA), all of which are extremely important contributors to the pollution
caused by MPs found in the indoor environment (Vianello et al., 2019; Zhang et al.,
2020b). In addition, it was demonstrated that an average of 195 MPs per g of dust
was found in settled indoor composite dust samples taken from 28 schools in the
Shiraz area of Iran. Among all MPs, PET-MPs and PP-MPs were the most prevalent
ones (Nematollahi et al., 2022). Another study revealed that MPs were discovered in
both indoor and outdoor air samples, with interior air samples containing 4.34 ± 1.93
items/m3 of MPs. Indoor air samples, which contained an average of 0.93 ± 0.32
items/m3 , have been found to be significantly more polluted compared to outdoor
air samples. Polymers like PET, PE, PP, and PS are the most commonly encountered
polymer types in both indoor and outdoor environments (Din et al., 2024). However,
prolonged MPs exposure may cause inflammation and genotoxicity, affecting biolog-
ical responses (Bengalli et al., 2022). As instance, additives found in plastics, such
as bisphenols and phthalates, are known to include endocrine-disrupting chemicals
with estrogenic qualities and can even lead to lung cancer. Studies have indicated that
BPA can cause a high risk of metastasis to the lungs, linked to increased production of
IL-1b, IL-6, IFN-g, TNF-a, and VEGF inside the tumour. Furthermore, studies have
demonstrated the harmful effects of phthalate esters (PAEs) such as dibutyl phtha-
late (DBP) and di-(2-ethyl hexyl) phthalate (DEHP), along with PS nanoplastics, on
human lung epithelial A549 cells. A study conducted by Roth et al. (1988) discov-
ered that pre-term infants using PVC respiratory tubing developed hyaline membrane
disease due to exposure to DEHP released from the tubing walls (Palacios-Arreola
et al., 2022; Roth et al., 1988; Shi et al., 2021).
An Overview of the Detrimental Effect of Microplastics on Humans 481

4.3 Dermal Exposure of MPs and Its Detrimental Impact

Skin, which represents the largest organ in humans, plays a significant role in
sustaining essential processes that aid in homeostasis. The skin, consisting of several
cell types, acts as a strong barrier against harmful environmental elements such as
sunlight, chemicals, pathogens, and physical injuries. Moreover, the skin also serves
as a contact point with the widespread existence of MPs in the environment, which
leads to the potential absorption of MPs through penetration into the skin, causing
human health risks (Bai & Graham, 2020; Sun & Wang, 2023).
Although dermal exposure to MPs is low, it takes place when individuals come
into contact with water or soil polluted with MPs or through interaction with prod-
ucts containing plastics or MPs. Due to differences in human skin pores, skin contact
occurs through the entry of sweat glands, hair follicles, and skin pores, and this influ-
ences individual sensitivity towards MPs. Ultrafine synthetic fibres (< 25 μm) can
enter skin pores as narrow as 40–80 μm. Since small-size MPs are effective enough
at penetrating the cutaneous barrier, there are increasing concerns about extended
exposure. MPs can cause changes in the skin, trigger inflammatory reactions, and
disrupt the skin’s normal functioning. Research by Abbasi and Turner (2021) has
examined MPs exposure in several Iranian sites and shown that after a 24-h expo-
sure period, head hair accumulates over 7000 MPs, averaging more than 3.5 MPs
per human per day along with facial and hand skin tests indicating over 4000 MPs
particles (Abbasi & Turner, 2021; Amran et al., 2022; Aristizabal et al., 2024; Enyoh
et al., 2020). Moreover, MPs can trigger skin irritation and allergic responses in
individuals. While it has been found that PS-MPs particles do not induce a rise in
histamine release, they can nevertheless provoke inflammation. Additionally, MPs
in the small intestine were shown to activate cell-mediated defence mechanisms in
animal experiments after being absorbed via the skin and cells and transferred to
various bodily regions by blood vessels. Researchers have also observed an increase
in reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels within skin cells upon exposure to MPs.
MPs also alter the skin cell structure by influencing the distribution and expression
of molecules involved in adhesive integrin complexes, the regulation of structural
proteins, collagen fibres, and the cytoskeletal framework. Moreover, the antioxidant
defence responses in skin cells get triggered by Nrf2, which is subsequently followed
by alterations in the signalling of β-catenin (Hwang et al., 2020; Schmidt et al., 2023).
Cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma is the second most prevalent nonmelanoma
skin cancer, mostly occurring among adults. Research has indicated that exposure
to MPs ultimately results in increased amounts of mitochondrial ROS in skin cancer
cells. This leads to alterations in mitochondrial membrane potential, triggering the
opening of mPTP, which causes the release of mt-DNA from mitochondria into
the cytoplasm and consequently activates NLRP3 and ultimately promotes the skin
cancer cells poliferation. MPs exacerbate harm to healthy skin cells by inducing
NLRP3-mediated inflammation and pyroptotic cell death (Wang et al., 2023b).
482 S. Das and M. I. Kalyani

4.4 MPs Exposure to Reproductive System and Its

Detrimental Impact

Reproductive toxicity refers to negative reproductive health effects in both males

and females resulting from exposure to certain substances. Reproductive toxicity
can lead to alterations in reproductive systems, fertility, and a negative pregnancy
outcome (Park, 2020). The increasing pollution levels pose a serious risk to human
reproductive health due to the heightened exposure to environmental contaminants.
There are around 80 million people across the world who are struggling with infer-
tility. Both the male and female human reproductive systems are highly susceptible
to the adverse effects of MPs. In males, the reproductive system includes the testes,
the penis, the prostate, the epididymis, the vas deferens, and the ejaculatory ducts,
etc., whereas in females, the reproductive system includes the ovaries, the fallopian
tubes, the uterus, the cervix, the vagina, the vulva, and associated glands, etc. (Ma
et al., 2019; Evans and Ganjam 2017). Studies that have confirmed the existence
of MPs in human sperm have shown that these particles, with sizes ranging from
2 to 6 μm, This size range makes it possible for the particles to enter the sperm
through the epididymis and also from the seminal vesicles, which are known to
cause inflammation. Additional studies have shown that the blood-testicular barrier
may have a role in facilitating the passage of MPs. The presence of MPs reported
having the most common polymers that are seen in everyday uses, like PP, PS, PET,
PE, polyoxymethylene, PVC, and polycarbonate, were among the most commonly
encountered polymers detected in the human sperm. Furthermore, it is evident from
the literature that exposure to PS-MPs during pregnancy contributes to the develop-
ment of toxicity in the postnatal phase. Evidence suggests that exposure to PS-MPs
begins to impair testicular development on postnatal day (PND) 35 and continues to
alter spermatogenesis on postnatal day (PND) 70. An elevated rate of sperm defor-
mities in mice has also been documented through the Nrf2/HO-1/NF-κB pathway,
and disruption of the blood-testis barrier is due to an imbalance between mTORC1
and mTORC2 driven by ROS. Exposure to PS-MPs further reduces the hormones
testosterone and inhibin B, indicating impairment in the function of Leydig cells and
Sertoli cells. Furthermore, studies indicate that exposure to PS-MPs led to an increase
in blood FSH levels and a delay in the beginning of puberty. Moreover, there have
been research studies indicating a decrease in sperm viability when exposed to PS-
MPs. The negative effects of PS-MPs also include reducing the expression of LHR,
steroidogenic enzymes, and StAR in testicular tissues via blocking the activation of
the AC/cAMP/PKA pathway (Montano et al., 2023; Wei et al., 2021; Zhao et al.,
2023). Exposure to MPs and their harmful chemicals significantly harms the female
reproductive system, the foetus, and its functioning. Moreover, MPs toxicity can be
encountered in work-related as well as surrounding environments. Exposure to plastic
may result in harmful effects on the female reproductive system, leading to perma-
nent infertility or cancer in offspring. Studies have indicated a greater accumulation
of PS-MPs in the ovaries compared to the testes. The use of period-related items may
cause exposure to MPs in the vagina and reproductive system. Further investigation
An Overview of the Detrimental Effect of Microplastics on Humans 483

has demonstrated that elevated concentrations of MPs cause cell toxicity in vaginal
keratinocytes, leading to an increase in the expression of genes for oxidative stress
signalling pathways. Additionally, exposure to MPs has been observed to change the
expression of adhesion and junctional proteins as well as the actin cortex’s structure.
It has been shown that MPs further induce changes in the expression of DNA methyl-
transferase and DNA demethylase that might have an effect on processes related to
epigenetic control, potentially causing accelerated ageing and inflammation of cells
as well as the emergence of malignancy (Park, 2020; Pontecorvi et al., 2023; Wei
et al., 2022; Yang et al., 2023).
PS-MPs exposure has been shown to disrupt the immunological balance between
maternal and foetus, leading to reproductive toxicity and foetal losses in an allo-
geneic mating murine model. Moreover, the investigation further revealed a decreased
quantity and size of uterine arterioles, a drop in decidual NK cells, an altered
ratio of M1/M2 cells, and a shift in the release of proinflammatory and anti-
inflammatory cytokines. Additionally, oxidative stress and the PERK-eIF2α-ATF4-
CHOP signalling pathway get activated when exposed to PS-MPs, resulting in ovarian
apoptosis. Also, PS-MPs clearly induce ovarian damage, probably by triggering
oxidative stress and activating the PERK-eIF2α-ATF4 signalling pathway associ-
ated with endoplasmic reticulum stress. Moreover, PS-MPs significantly raised the
ratio of atretic follicle in the ovary and greatly decreased the levels of oestrogen and
progesterone in the serum. Oxidative stress is believed to be a significant factor in
causing female infertility. This may be due to the ovary’s susceptibility to oxida-
tive damage caused by the abundance of unsaturated lipids, which can further have
adverse effects on follicle development, ovulation, and oocyte maturation (Hu et al.,
2021; Wang et al., 2023a). Research has shown that MPs absorb various contaminants
on their surface. A study conducted by Feng et al. in 2022 investigated the simulta-
neous exposure to PS-MPs and lead resulted in the accumulation of PS-MPs along
with lead in the ovaries, and induced damage to the ovaries and uterus. Additionally,
PS-MPs and lead together induce endoplasmic reticulum stress in female mice via
activating the PERK/eIF2α signalling pathway (Feng et al., 2022; Stapleton & Hai,
2023).
BPA, a plasticizer classed as an endocrine disrupting chemical (EDC), has been
linked to neurological and reproductive toxicity. BPA has a deleterious influence
on the female reproductive system (Hafezi & Abdel-Rahman, 2019; Jewett et al.,
2022). MPs, due to their small size, can reach the surface of the maternal placenta.
Like other external compounds, they can penetrate the tissue deeply through several
transport modes, including both active and passive. The study conducted by Ragusa
et al. (2021) has observed MPs in many areas of the human placenta, including
the foetal side, maternal side, and chorioamniotic membranes. In addition, MPs are
likely to influence various placental cellular regulatory pathways, including immune
mechanisms during pregnancy, growth factor signalling before and after implanta-
tion, the normal trafficking of uterine dendritic cells, natural killer cells, T cells, and
macrophages etc. Further MPs can induce harmful pregnancy consequences, like
hypertension and foetal development limitations (Ilekis et al., 2016; Ragusa et al.,
2021). MPs have big effects on metabolic and immune health, and they also raise
484 S. Das and M. I. Kalyani

the risk of neurodegenerative diseases and miscarriage. This is shown by changes in

the transcriptome functions of the maternal blood, the placenta, and the mammary
gland. Reports indicate that the release of MPs from disposable paper cups when
hot water is consumed has adverse effects on accumulation and reproductive toxicity
in a pregnant mouse model. Furthermore, the study has found that MPs are able to
accumulate in various tissues, including foetuses and placentas (Chen et al., 2024).

4.5 MPs Exposure to Other Vital Organs of Human and Its

Detrimental Impact

MPs have further been responsible for accumulating and imparting negative impacts
on other critical organs like the heart, liver, spleen, lung, kidney, brain, blood, etc.
The liver, a vital organ and the largest gland, is located in the right upper quadrant of
the abdomen. It is protected by the thoracic cage and diaphragm. The primary tasks
of the liver include detoxifying the blood, assisting in digestion, regulating blood
sugar, and performing hemostatic duties via the synthesis of prothrombin, fibrinogen,
and clotting factors. The liver also plays important functions like metabolism of fats,
proteins, and carbohydrates (Bilal et al., 2023; Ozougwu, 2017). Studies have demon-
strated the gender-specific impact of aged MPs on activating the AMPK pathway
in the liver, potentially inhibiting hepatic lipid production, specifically in females.
However, additional investigations have also shown that liver damage occurs in indi-
viduals when exposed to PVC. Although there have been few investigations into the
effects of MPs on the human liver. However, it is uncertain if MPs may accumulate in
human peripheral organ tissues, namely in the liver. However, literature indicates that
MPs/NPs can enter the organism through the digestive system and respiratory tract,
reaching the liver via intestinal absorption, epidermal infiltration, or blood circula-
tion. Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is a metabolic disease characterised
by an accumulation of liver lipids, stress caused by oxidation, and inflammation,
mostly due to insulin resistance and other causes. MPs and their additives may act as
“obesogens” and contribute to the development of NAFLD by altering gut microbiota
composition or exacerbating liver fibrosis, cirrhosis, and cancer. There are around
883 MPs particles that are consumed by each individual on a daily basis. When the
excretion of bile fails to remove MPs from the body, it is anticipated that the concen-
tration of MPs will reach 0.0025 μg/L by the end of an individual’s life. However,
the MPs impacts reduced the Nrf2 and Pparα pathways, which are responsible for
regulating fatty acid β oxidation and antioxidative stress, respectively. Further inves-
tigation revealed that even at low concentrations, 0.1 μm MPs can enter hepatocytes
from circulation and cause damage to the liver. Moreover, MPs can break DNA in the
nucleus as well as in mitochondria, which causes the dsDNA fragment to migrate into
the cytoplasm and eventually activate the DNA-detecting adaptor STING. In addi-
tion, MPs activate the cGAS/STING pathway, which initiates a downstream cascade
An Overview of the Detrimental Effect of Microplastics on Humans 485

response. NFκB then translocates into the nucleus and increases the release of pro-
inflammatory cytokines, ultimately aiding in liver fibrosis (Auguet et al., 2022; Shen
et al., 2022, 2024; Yang et al., 2022b; Yin et al., 2022; Zarus et al., 2023).
The spleen is the largest secondary lymphoid organ in the body, and is involved
in several immunological processes. Furthermore, the spleen performs activities like
hematopoiesis and the clearing of red blood cells. The spleen is responsible for
filtering the blood for infections and abnormal cells, as well as facilitating contacts
between antigen-presenting cells (APCs) and cognate lymphocytes, which have a
low likelihood of occurring (Lewis et al., 2019). Once consumed, MPs accumulate
in the spleen, as reported in a study that revealed MPs have the capacity to cause
structural damage, including cell disorganisation and vacuolation, which indicated
inflammation and oxidative stress in the spleen. In addition, the research that was
carried out demonstrated that the fluorescent PS microspheres that were given to the
mice through the nasal passage were subsequently found to be present in the spleen
ten days after the administration (Zhang et al., 2024; Han et al., 2020; Eyles et al.,
2001).
The kidney is a crucial organ in the human body responsible for maintaining
homeostasis by regulating acid–base balance, electrolytes, blood pressure, nutrition
reabsorption, and hormone release. Each kidney has around 1 million functional
units called nephrons, which are made up of many specialised cells. The kidneys
discharge around 1.5 L of urine every day (Eckardt et al., 2013; Duann and Lin, 2017).
Studies have shown that exposure of human embryonic kidney (HEK 293) cells to
PS-MPs leads to increased levels of ROS. Moreover, the decreased gene expression
levels of the glycolytic enzyme GAPDH, and the antioxidant enzymes SOD2 and
CAT, reduced the ability of SOD2 and CAT to neutralise ROS when exposed to
polystyrene MPs (Goodman et al., 2022). Furthermore, in vivo experiments have
shown that PS-MPs exposure, causes histopathological lesions in the kidneys and
increases levels of ER stress, inflammatory markers, and autophagy-related proteins
(Wang et al., 2021). It was further discovered that MPs of various sizes can cause
kidney dysfunction and histological alterations through elevated oxidative stress,
inflammation, and kidney fibrosis via circadian rhythms. The persistent exposure
to 80 nm MPs mostly activates immune-related signalling pathways that have been
reported in the transcriptome analysis (179) (Xiong et al., 2023). According to the
literature, transmission electron microscopy revealed the presence of MPs with a
diameter of 4 μm in the intercellular space and renal tubule. However, fewer 4 μm
particles entered the tissue compared to 600 nm particles (Meng et al., 2022).
Blood, which is an essential component of the human body, participates in deliv-
ering oxygen and other nutrients to the living cells and removing the products of
metabolism, including carbon dioxide, from the body (Collins et al., 2015). Research
has demonstrated that the clearance rate of MPs that individuals encounter through
routes such as the biliary system, kidney, or transfer to and deposition in organs is
slower than the absorption rate into the bloodstream (Leslie et al., 2022). MPs have
the ability to discharge toxic chemicals into the blood upon contact. For instance,
PVC MPs are able to release di(2- ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) when they come
486 S. Das and M. I. Kalyani

into contact with blood. In addition, BPA has also been detected in the blood. Further-
more, studies have shown that even at lower concentrations of MPs, elevated levels of
genomic instability as observed in human peripheral lymphocytes. Exposure to MP
in vitro has revealed elevated levels of micronucleation (MN), nucleoplasmic bridge
formation (NPB), and nuclear bud development (NBUD) in human peripheral blood
cells (Çobanoğlu et al., 2021; Han et al., 2020). Plastic infusion bottles, bags, and
syringes used in intravenous infusion therapy can introduce plastic particles into the
blood. Studies reveal that infusion treatment could serve as a direct route for MPs to
reach the flow of blood, causing several diseases (Zhu et al., 2023a). Moreover, MPs
were discovered in human blood thrombi. As the thrombus develops and expands, it
can capture vascular contents and serve as a reservoir for MPs (Wu et al., 2023).
When MPs are released into the bloodstream, they can accumulate over time and
travel to vital organs such as the brain and heart, potentially leading to serious health
conditions like cerebral thrombosis and cardiovascular disease (Li et al., 2023).
The heart is a sophisticated organ consisting of four structurally and function-
ally unique chambers that provide effective contraction and relaxation to pump
deoxygenated blood from the low-pressure right atrium and ventricle into the lungs.
Oxygenated blood flows into the left atrium and ventricle, which then circulate blood
throughout the body under systemic pressure (Litviňuková et al., 2020). Exposure
to MPs in the blood circulation facilitates their transportation to distant organs, such
as the heart. The internalisation of MPs into cardiomyocytes, which subsequently
increases oxidative stress, leads to a change in metabolic parameters along with
myocardial damage, fibrosis, and impaired electrophysiological values. Therefore,
the MPs provide a risk that might accelerate the onset of cardiovascular diseases in
individuals, including adults and newborns (Li et al., 2023; Persiani et al., 2023).
Numerous studies have been conducted with a range of animal models, including
mice, zebrafish, mussels, etc., in an attempt to better understand the detrimental
influence of MPs on human cardiovascular issues. In light of the fact that studies
have demonstrated that the bioaccumulation of MPs takes place in the heart, this
contributes to the beginning of cardiovascular toxicity and cardiovascular diseases
in people. MPs are recognised for causing cardiac damage, by inducing an irregular
heartbeat, apoptosis in heart muscle cells, an alteration in the membrane potential of
mitochondria, and increased production of fibrin. The elevation of overall m6A levels
by METTL3 induces a significant factor in the myocardial damage caused by MPs.
Furthermore, the expression of 392 lncRNAs and 302 circRNAs was shown to change
in the mouse myocardium treated with MPs. These changed lncRNAs and circRNAs
are linked to endocytosis, cellular senescence, and cell cycle signalling pathways,
potentially contributing to cardiotoxicity. A study showed that upon exposure to the
MPs, the cardiac organoid (CO) model displayed elevated levels of oxidative stress,
inflammatory response, apoptosis, and collagen formation. Moreover, in vivo studies
have shown an increase in interventricular septal thickness, suggesting that PS may
produce cardiac hypertrophy both in vivo and in vitro (Zhang et al., 2023; Zhou et al.,
2023; Zhu et al., 2023b).
One of the most intricate organs in the human body is the brain. The functions
of the body are controlled by the brain, which also analyses sensory information
An Overview of the Detrimental Effect of Microplastics on Humans 487

(Chédotal & Richards, 2010). In the past several years, using novel animal models
has been gaining greater footing in understanding the impact of MPs, even in the
case of the brain impact produced by MPs. The impact of MPs varies depending
on their nature. In the case of PE-MPs, they have been found to cause anxiety and
locomotor impairment in mice (Jeong et al., 2022). Research has also shown that
fluorescently-labelled pristine PS-MPs induce behavioural changes and modifica-
tions in immunological markers in the liver and brain tissues of both young and
elderly C57BL/6 J mice and have an age dependent impact (Gaspar et al., 2023).
Additionally, PS-MPs have a negative impact on the development of embryonic
brain-like tissue in forebrain cerebral spheroids (Hua et al., 2022). Recent research
has shown that exposure to MPs such as polyethylene during prenatal and postnatal
periods increases the incidence of autism spectrum conditions (Zaheer et al., 2022).
According to the findings of the study, prolonged exposure to PS-MPs neurotoxicity
in BALB/c mice causes disruption of the blood–brain barrier, a reduced level of
dendritic spine density, an inflammatory response in the hippocampus, and memory
deficits (Jin et al., 2022). MPs are also susceptible to transmitting other pollutants
along with them. According to a study that showed that MPs and copper have been
discovered to induce apoptosis, disrupt neurocircuits, and cause behavioural abnor-
malities in the brains of zebrafish (Danio rerio). Furthermore, exposure to MPs
increases the expression of genes associated with apoptosis, like casp8, casp9, and
casp3 (Santos et al., 2022).

5 Conclusion and Further Outlook

MPs have become more common in land, air, and aquatic environments due to the
increased use of synthetic polymers in our day to day life. The ability of MPs to
go unnoticed by the human eye allows them to enter the body either directly or
indirectly through contaminated food, drink, medical equipment, etc. Significantly,
MPs have the capability to transport additional toxic compounds, which might either
be leaching emanating from them or compounds attaching to their surfaces, adding
a further potential threat. Although there have been studies carried out on a number
of different animal models in order to gain an understanding of the impact that
MPs have on the human body. However, further study is still needed on human-
specific evidence about the impact of microplastics on humans. As there has also
been an extensive amount of evidence to support the existence of MPs inside human
organs and organ systems. However, research on MPs pollution is marked by several
unresolved concerns, gaps in research, and information. Therefore, by taking into
account the intricacy of MPs and their detrimental effects on the environment and
organisms, especially humans, we may gain a more comprehensive understanding of
the hazards associated with MPs, including their pathways of dispersion. As a result
of the ever-increasing danger that MPs pose to human health, it is now absolutely
necessary to put into effect laws and procedures that can assist in mitigating the
potentially harmful effects that MPs will have in the future.
488 S. Das and M. I. Kalyani

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Microplastics in Animals – A Global
Concern to Food Safety and Human
Health

Md Abdul Karim, Md Leion Hassan, Uddin Md Saif, Minhaz Uddin,

Md Iqram Uddin Al Amran, Shahrear Hemal, Md Abu Kawsar,
Md. Akibul Hasan Bakky, Mahabuba Akther Charly,
Christopher J. Martyniuk, Som Niyogi, Douglas P. Chivers,
and A K M Munzurul Hasan

Abstract Throughout history, animals have been a vital source of protein and energy
and have been utilized in agriculture to produce food for human consumption. The

Md Abdul Karim, Md Leion Hassan: Equal contribution.

M. A. Karim
Key Laboratory of Tropical Marine Bio-Resources and Ecology, South China Sea Institute of
Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510301, China
University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
M. L. Hassan
Department of Oceanography, Faculty of Marine Sciences and Fisheries, University of
Chittagong, Chattogram 4331, Bangladesh
U. M. Saif · M. Uddin · M. I. U. Al Amran
Department of Science and Environmental Studies, The Education University of Hong Kong, Tai
Po, New Territories, Hong Kong 999077, China
S. Hemal
Department of Aquaculture, Faculty of Fisheries, Aquaculture and Marine Science, Sher-e-Bangla
Agricultural University, Dhaka 1207, Bangladesh
M. A. Kawsar
Department of Aquaculture, Faculty of Fisheries, Sylhet Agricultural University, Sylhet 3100,
Bangladesh
Md. A. H. Bakky
Institute of Marine Sciences, Shantou University, Shantou 515063, Guangdong, China
M. A. Charly
Department of Agricultural Extension and Rural Development, Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur
Rahman Agricultural University, Gazipur 1706, Bangladesh
C. J. Martyniuk
Center for Environmental and Human Toxicology, Department of Physiological Sciences, College
of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 499
J. C. Egbueri et al. (eds.), Microplastics in African and Asian Environments, Emerging
Contaminants and Associated Treatment Technologies,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-64253-1_23
500 M. A. Karim et al.

increasing global demands for protein are being met through the increased production
of meat, milk, eggs, and other food items, and is facilitated by the rapid pace of
industrialization. However, the increase in food production and new technologies
has led to the release of novel environmental pollutants, including microplastics
(MPs). Currently, MPs are found in diverse ecosystems, exerting adverse effects in
both terrestrial and aquatic organisms. While scientific evidence supports that MPs
can harm aquatic organisms, recent studies have also begun to investigate the effects
of MPs on terrestrial ecosystems, marking a significant shift from the traditional
focus on aquatic environments. This chapter aims to synthesize current knowledge
on the occurrence and distribution of MPs in food and their presence in aquatic and
terrestrial animals, in addition to discussing the potential consequences for human
health. Evidence supports that plastic mulching and compost are prominent sources
of MPs in agricultural fields, whereas irrigation channels act as vital sources of MP
contamination in aquaculture systems. A high abundance of MPs has been found in
soil-dwelling worms, livestock, companion animals, and wild animals. In Africa, the
north Tunisian lagoons of Bizerte, Ghar El Mehl and Lake Victoria are prominent
areas of MP contamination. In Asia, China contributes the highest abundance of
MPs to the environment. Exposure to MPs cause oxidative stress, immunotoxicity,
neurotoxicity, reproductive impairment, and endocrine disruption in both terrestrial
and aquatic animals. Current evidence suggests the need for further investigation into
the specific sources of MP exposure in animals and the routes through which it enters
the human body. Legislators need to implement programs and collective actions to
modify public behaviour and reduce MPs pollution in the natural environment.

Keywords Microplastic · Fish · Livestock · Human · Food chain · Ecological

effect

1 Introduction

Plastic has become a global pollution concern due to its widespread availability and
ability to induce toxic effects in living organisms. As evidenced by Plastics Europe
(2023), worldwide plastic production has reached a staggering 400 million tons (MT)
per year. The pervasive utilization of plastic has rendered it omnipresent, spanning
across both terrestrial and aquatic domains (Kumar et al., 2021). Insufficient waste
management infrastructure in some Asian and African countries contributes signifi-
cantly to marine plastic pollution, as noted by Jambeck et al. (2015) and Browning

S. Niyogi · D. P. Chivers · A. K. M. M. Hasan (B)

Department of Biology, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK S7N 5E2, Canada
e-mail: munzurul.hasan@usask.ca
S. Niyogi
Toxicology Centre, University of Saskatchewan, 44 Campus Drive, Saskatoon, SK S7N 5B3,
Canada
Microplastics in Animals – A Global Concern to Food Safety … 501

et al. (2021). One challenge is that recycling of plastic is not yet a common practice
worldwide, with only 14% of total plastic being recycled annually (Ali et al., 2021).
Microplastics (MPs) are tiny plastic particles typically smaller than 5 mm in
size (Cole et al., 2011), and includes nanoplastics. MP particles are classified into
two distinct types: primary MPs, which are intentionally manufactured for specific
purposes, such as microbeads in cosmetics, or pellets used in industrial processes
(Wang et al., 2019a, 2019b) and secondary MPs, which arise from the decomposition
of primary MPs through abiotic elements (e.g. light, waves, and temperature) and
biotic factors involving organisms reviewed in Cole et al. (2011).
The primary causes of plastic pollution in the environment are irresponsible
disposal of waste and illegal dumping, particularly on land (Paletta et al., 2019).
Moreover, MPs can bind, sequester, and carry different organic and inorganic pollu-
tants and pathogens, which can lead to synergistic toxicity to organisms (Godoy
et al., 2019; Lai et al., 2022; Yang & Guo, 2023). Irresponsible plastic dumping
poses a significant issue to biological systems and to public health (Ferronato &
Torretta, 2019). Additionally, MPs can contaminate groundwater, which is the
primary drinking water source for 33% of the global population (Katsanou & Kara-
panagioti, 2019). MPs are present in both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems, and
their occurrence can be attributed to various sources such as agricultural practices,
plastic mulching, and household usage. These contaminants enter aquatic environ-
ments via land-based activities and subsequently find their way into marine systems
through processes like run-off, drainage channels, and river transport (Huang et al.,
2020a, 2020b, 2020c). MPs in the terrestrial environment are more abundant than
in aquatic ecosystems, with estimates suggesting they are 4–23 times more preva-
lent than in marine environments (Horton et al., 2017). When MPs enter terrestrial
and aquatic ecosystems, animals are unintentionally exposed (Enyoh et al., 2020).
Several studies have noted that nearly all collected fish samples contained MPs in
their gastrointestinal tract (GIT). For instance, Similatan et al. (2023) reported that
96.7% of Milkfish (Chanos chanos) collected from the Butuan Bay in the Philip-
pines contained MPs in their GIT. Another investigation involving 284 individual fish
from five different species, Atlantic Menhaden (Brevoortia tyrannus), Bay Anchovy
(Anchoa mitchilli), Spotted seatrout (Cynoscion nebulosus), Flathead grey mullet
(Mugil cephalus), and Spot (Leiostomus xanthurus) reported that 99% of the collected
individuals were contaminated with MPs (Parker et al., 2020). These samples were
collected from an estuary, the Charleston Harbor, on the Southeastern Atlantic coast.
While there is available information about MPs pollution in aquatic animals, there is
a dearth of information on the MPs occurrence in terrestrial animals (Prata & Dias-
Pereira, 2023). Limited studies have primarily focused on soil-dwelling organisms,
neglecting domestic and large animals such as goats, sheep, and cattle (Corte Pause
et al., 2024). Nevertheless, a study carried out in China found MPs in the manure
of terrestrial domestic animals, such as pigs, chickens, and cows (Wu et al., 2021),
posing a potential threat to food security via impacts on animal behaviour, immune
systems, gastrointestinal and skin microbiomes, and reproductive functions.
This chapter aims to provide an understanding of the origin, occurrence, and
bioavailability of MP in terrestrial and aquatic animals, focusing primarily on the
502 M. A. Karim et al.

Asian and African regions. This chapter also highlights reproductive, immune, neuro-
toxicity, and endocrine disruption mediated by the toxic effect of MPs in both animals
and humans.

2 Origins of MPs Pollution in the Environment

MPs are present everywhere, both in land and water ecosystems, and they originate
from various sources. These tiny plastic elements have the potential to infiltrate into
the food chain and disrupt ecological stability as they interact with living organisms
and environmental components in both soil and water systems (Mateos-Cárdenas
et al., 2019; Qu et al., 2020). To fully comprehend MP contamination and their
effects on the biosphere, it is important to acknowledge their origins and how they
are dispersing through different environmental matrices. With the increasing global
demand for food associated with human population growth, agricultural practices
have intensified, making such practices a significant source of land-based MP pollu-
tion (Du et al., 2021). MPs can enter agricultural fields through organic fertilizers,
packaging materials, and irrigation. To improve the soil quality, organic fertilizers are
commonly used to enhance aggregate stability and reduce soil bulk density (Fig. 1)
(Chirinda et al., 2010). However, MPs are present in untreated organic fertilizers
obtained from the fermentation of biowaste and composting and are commonly
utilized in gardening and agriculture practices (Weithmann et al., 2018).
The high abundance of MPs in compost has been reported, indicating that compost
contributes to MPs contamination in agricultural fields (Scopetani et al., 2022).

Fig. 1 Sources of MPs in environments. Figure was prepared using BioRender.com

Microplastics in Animals – A Global Concern to Food Safety … 503

During the composting process, high temperatures and microbial activity break down
larger plastics into MPs, increasing their concentration in agricultural lands (Braun
et al., 2021). Another substantial source of MPs in agricultural stems from plastic
mulching, a prevalent technique employed to manage pests, weeds, and regulate soil
and air temperatures (Sintim & Flury, 2017). However, completely removing plastic
from the field is labour-intensive and time-consuming (Huang et al., 2020a, 2020b,
2020c). Therefore, this plastic becomes a great source of MPs in agriculture fields.
Furthermore, improper disposal or discarding of agricultural fertilisers, bags and
bottles used for agrochemical and agricultural packaging film utilized in farming
activities, could potentially add to the accumulation of MPs in farmland soils (Zhou
et al., 2020). Subsequently, through irrigation channels and the accumulation of rain-
water in nearby drainage systems, MPs can be transported and mixed with the aquatic
ecosystem.
Aquaculture practices are intensifying worldwide, with some of the highest
activity in the mariculture sectors to meet the protein demand for the growing world
population (Campbell & Pauly, 2013; Oyinlola et al., 2022). Commonly used equip-
ment and fishing gear like fishing nets, ropes, culture nets, plastic bottles, and plastic
culture cages are sources of expanded polystyrene (EPS) and low-density polyethy-
lene (LDPE). The presence of EPS and/or LDPE in marine life indicates that coastal
aquaculture is one of the prominent sources of MPs (Tang et al., 2021). Several studies
on MP pollution in seawater from different aquaculture regions in China reported that
they detected several types of MPs, such as polystyrene (PS), polypropylene (PP),
and polyethylene (PE) (Chen et al., 2018, 2020, 2022; Feng et al., 2020; Zhu et al.,
2019). The tourism industry also significantly accelerates MP pollution in coastal and
marine environments (Yin et al., 2020). Travellers often carry and discard a variety
of plastic products in and around rivers, lakes, beaches, and oceans, including items
like plastic water bottles and plastic bags/containers for food packaging (Wang et al.,
2018). In addition to that, the prominent sources of MPs contamination in freshwater
systems are sewage discharges into rivers that pass-through cities and towns and
wastewater from plastic manufacturing facilities (Kumar et al., 2024). Wastewater
treatment facilities are considered a key contributor to MPs pollution because of the
substantial plastic content in their municipal and industrial effluents (Koelmans et al.,
2019).
Atmospheric deposition can also serve as a significant source of MPs in both
terrestrial and aquatic environments, facilitated by wind movement, which transports
particulates, aerosols, and chemicals from the atmosphere to the Earth’s surface.
Atmospheric deposition serves as a significant source of MPs in both terrestrial
and aquatic environments and is facilitated by wind movement (Österlund et al.,
2022), which transports aerosols and particulates, from the Earth’s surface atmo-
sphere (Akanyange et al., 2021). Reports describe three different types of atmo-
spheric deposition measurements: wet, dry, and bulk which encompasses the first
two (Beaurepaire et al., 2021). The term “wet atmospheric deposition” describes the
deposit left behind as raindrops and snowflakes scavenge chemicals, aerosols, and
particles from the atmosphere as they fall (Österlund et al., 2022). The amount of
504 M. A. Karim et al.

anthropogenic activity and the size of the specific area determine how quickly MP
deposition occurs (Dris et al., 2017).

3 Occurrence and Bioavailability of MPs in Animals

3.1 MPs in Terrestrial Animals

Terrestrial animals are exposed to MPs via the air and contaminated soil, as well
as in their food. Although there are limited studies on terrestrial animals, MPs have
been measured in soil dwelling worms (earthworms), livestock animals (e.g., pig,
chicken, cows), companion animals (e.g., cat, dogs) and wild animals (e.g., Elk, wild
ass) (Habib et al., 2022; Liu et al., 2023; Lwanga et al., 2017; Zhang et al., 2023).
Furthermore, although MPs have been detected in animals, specific exposure and
uptake routes are ambiguous (Banerjee & Shelver, 2021).
Terrestrial invertebrates (e.g., snail, earthworms etc.) are viable environmental
monitoring agents due to tolerance, abundance, and contribution to the soil ecosystem
(Prata & Dias-Pereira, 2023; Wang et al., 2022). There is, however, a significant
knowledge gap regarding these animals and impacts of MPs. There are but a few
studies in Asian and African regions which have investigate MP occurrences in soil
doweling animals (Boughattas et al., 2021). Given that soil dwelling organisms often
form the foundation of many food chains and are integral to nutrient cycles and decay
of organic material, this knowledge gap significantly impedes our understanding of
MP pollution.
Studies have also detected MPs in livestock which is concerning for human health.
Li et al. (2023) collected tissue samples from the lungs of pigs to evaluate the presence
of MPs and found that domestic pigs contained higher amounts of MPs in their lungs
compared to the fetal pigs, as the domestic pigs were raised in proximity to a sludge
treatment area. Thus, adjacent contaminated areas may affect the concentration of
MPs in livestock animals. MPs identified from faeces and intestines of domestic black
pigs were also residents of a slurry dump location (Hua et al., 2021). MPs have been
isolated from the egg (Liu et al., 2022a, 2022b), intestine (Leon et al., 2022) and faeces
(Wu et al., 2021) of chickens. Given that China ranks among the largest producers
and consumers of eggs worldwide, the presence of MPs in eggs may be considered
alarming for public health. However, the specific pathway of contamination is not
yet clear, but it is proposed to be related to ingestion of MPs by the chicken. Wu et al.
(2021) also identified MPs in all livestock investigated, including chickens, pigs, and
cows. The study also examined the animal manure, feed, and feed packaging bags
samples. As MPs were identified in feed, the researchers speculated that the feed
could be a possible route of MP ingestion in farm animals. In most of the cases,
fibers and fragment-shaped MPs were found to dominate in livestock. Other popular
foods have been noted to contain MPs, further heightening concern for public health.
For example, duck meat is popular in different countries throughout Asia (Biswas
Microplastics in Animals – A Global Concern to Food Safety … 505

et al., 2019). A recent investigation from Indonesia reported the presence of MPs
in duck intestine (Susanti et al., 2021). Raw fish is given to farmed ducks as a fed
enhancement, and it is one possible origin of MPs found in their intestines.
Both domestic and companion animals are important considerations for MP expo-
sure since these animals come into close contact with human populations and often
share common living environments (Schmidt, 2009). Although studies are lacking
that examine relationships between MPs and companion animals and human expo-
sure, one recent study from Portugal documented MP presence in lungs, kidneys,
and livers of cats and dogs (Prata et al., 2022). Moreover, polyethylene terephtha-
late (PET) and polycarbonate (PC) particles were measured in the commercial cat
and dog pet food (Zhang et al., 2019). This is evidence that companion animals
are potentially exposed to MPs from their diet. However, the MPs may also come
from airborne exposure, and further studies should be conducted to determine major
exposure pathways.
Wild animals are also susceptible to MP exposure. The Kiang (Equus kiang), a
distinct species of wild ass native to the Tibetan Plateau, was classified as threatened
on the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List (Shah et al.,
2015). A recent investigation identified MPs from the faeces of this wild animal, and
the concentration (9.09–804 items/g d.w.) was higher than those identified from that
in the topsoil (0.38–13.33 items/g d.w.) (Liu et al., 2023). It is not yet clear to what
extent MPs may affect several wild animal populations.

3.2 MPs in Aquatic Organisms

The occurrence of MPs in aquatic organisms is outlined in Table 1. The widespread

existence of MPs in aquatic environments is a significant concern because they have
been linked to an array of adverse effects in aquatic organisms and overall, can
disrupt food webs and ecosystems (Franzellitti et al., 2019). MPs are created when
larger plastic materials degrade through various processes like photolysis, hydrolysis,
thermal reactions, abrasions, and microbial activity. MPs enter water bodies through
sewage discharge, land runoff, river runoff, dumping, and leaching, making water
bodies the primary accumulation site for MPs (Andrady, 2011; Ivleva et al., 2017).
Eventually, the marine environment becomes the ultimate sink for these tiny particles.

Various aquatic organisms, including fishes, bivalves, crustaceans, and plankton,

regularly consume MPs, subsequently incorporating them into the food chain via
biomagnification (Miller et al., 2020). MPs can accumulate into the tissues of aquatic
animals via ingestion and transport across membranes (Cox et al., 2019; Smith et al.,
2018). As fishes account for approximately 19% and 23% of the animal protein
consumed in Africa and Asia, the increasing amounts of MP ingested by fishes
raises concerns about possible negative health outcomes (Raju et al., 2022). Fishes
incorporate MPs into their tissues via dietary exposure to aquatic environments.
Notably, MPs are not only found in the GIT and gills but are also present in significant
Table 1 Presence of MPs in African and Asian aquatic organisms
506

Country Organisms Organs Polymers Size (mm) Colour Shape Concentrations (items/ Citations
individual)
Tunisia Golden grey mullet GIT PP and PE 0.2 to 5.0 Black, blue, Fibers, 22.40 to 66.40 Abidli et al.
(Liza aurata), red, and fragments, (2021)
Dreamfish yellow films
(Sarpa salpa)
Tanzania Nile perch GIT PE, PU, <0.5 – – 77–11 Biginagwa
(Lates niloticus), PS, PE/PP et al. (2016)
Nile tilapia (Oreochromis copolymer,
niloticus) and
Silicone
rubber
Ghana Bagrid Catfish GIT – 0.14–3.2 and – – 2.88 ± 2.11 and 2.38 ± Blankson et al.
(Chrysichthys 0.10–2.22 1.66 (2022)
nigrodigitatus),
Black-chinned Tilapia
(Sarotherodon
melanotheron)
(continued)
M. A. Karim et al.
Table 1 (continued)
Country Organisms Organs Polymers Size (mm) Colour Shape Concentrations (items/ Citations
individual)
Libya Gilt-head bream Gills and – ≥0.1, <0.1 – Fibers, 61 Hamid et al.
(Sparus aurata), GIT films, (2022)
Flathead grey mullet fragments,
(Mugil cephalus), foams, and
Yellowbelly grouper pellets
(Epinephelus marginatus),
Greater amberjack
(Seriola dumerili),
Yellowstripe barracuda
(Sphyraena chrysotaenia),
Saddled seabream
(Oblada melanura)
South Cape horse mackerel GIT – 0.5–1.0 Black, Fibers 2.8 to 4.6 Sparks and
Africa (Trachurus capensis), transparent, Immelman
Cape hake red, green, (2020)
(Merluccius capensis), pink
Round herring
Microplastics in Animals – A Global Concern to Food Safety …

(Etrumeus whiteheadi),
Southern hake
(Merluccius paradoxus),
Cape gurnard
(Chelidonichthys
capensis),
Pacific mackerel
(Scomber japonicus)
Silver kob
(Argyrozona argyrozona)
(continued)
507
Table 1 (continued)
508

Country Organisms Organs Polymers Size (mm) Colour Shape Concentrations (items/ Citations
individual)
Morocco Horse mackerel Stomach PA, Acrylic – – Fibers, 0.46 ± 1.29 Maaghloud
(Trachurus trachurus) and PS fragments et al. (2021)
South South African mullet Stomach – – – Orange, 70 McGregor and
Africa (Chelon richardsonii) green, Strydom, 2020)
black,
blue,
transparent
Algeria Spanish sardine GIT Blue, red Fibers 8.45 ± 14.69 Zeghdani et al.
(Sardinella aurita), (2023)
Atlantic sardine
(Sardina pilchardus),
Horse mackerel
(Trachurus trachurus),
Axillary sea bream
(Pagellus acarne),
The bogue
(Boops boops),
Gilt-head bream
(Sparus aurata)
(continued)
M. A. Karim et al.
Table 1 (continued)
Country Organisms Organs Polymers Size (mm) Colour Shape Concentrations (items/ Citations
individual)
Nigeria Redbelly tilapia Stomach – 0.124 and 1.53 White and – 1–34 Adeogun et al.
(Coptodon zillii), clear (2020)
Nile tilapia
(Oreochromis niloticus),
Blackchin tilapia
(Sarotheron
melanotheron), Bagrid
catfish
(Chrysicthys
nigrodigitatus), Nile perch
(Lates niloticus),
African catfish
(Paranchanna obscura),
Banded jewelfish
(Hemichromis fasiatus),
African pike
(Hepsetus odoe)
Microplastics in Animals – A Global Concern to Food Safety …

South Mozambique tilapia Guts Rayon, PS, 0.1–4.8 Blue Fibers and 0.79 ± 1.00 Naidoo et al.
Africa (Oreochromis Nylon, and Fragments (2020)
mossambicus), Crescent PVC
bass
(Terapon jarbua),
Silver perch
(Ambassis dussumieri),
Mullets (Mugil sp.)
(continued)
509
Table 1 (continued)
510

Country Organisms Organs Polymers Size (mm) Colour Shape Concentrations (items/ Citations
individual)
Egypt Rivulated Rabbitfish – PVA, 0.025–1.0 – Filaments, 28–7527 Shabaka et al.
(Siganus rivulatus), LDPE, foam, (2020)
Spanish sardine HDPE, fragments
(Sardinella aurita), PET, and
White seabream SPP
(Diplodus sargus),
European barracuda
(Sphyraena viridensis),
Sand smelt
(Atherina boyeri)
Botswana Asian clam – – 1–2, 2–3 and Translucent Fibers 1.5–4.2 Ditlhakanyane
(Corbicula fluminea), 3–4 and black et al. (2023)
Nile tilapia
(Oreochromis niloticus),
Kiyi
(Coregonus kiyi)
Nigeria Freshwater snail Tissue PE – Black Fiber and 1.70 ± 0.42–3.80 ± 0.83 Akindele et al.
(Lanistes varicus), film (2019)
Red-rimmed melania
(Melanoides tuberculate),
The river nerite
(Theodoxus fluviatilis)
India Croaker fish GIT and PE, PA, PS <0.1 Black and Fragments, 6.6 ± 1.7 and 6.2 ± 1.7 Debbarma et al.
(Johnius dussumieri) Gills blue films, (2022)
fibers, and
pellets/
beads
(continued)
M. A. Karim et al.
Table 1 (continued)
Country Organisms Organs Polymers Size (mm) Colour Shape Concentrations (items/ Citations
individual)
India The Pirapitinga Guts PP, PE, 0.89 to 4.85 Pink, red, Fibers, 69 Devi et al.
(Piaractus brachypomus) PET, PBT, blue foam, and (2020)
and Nylon fragments
6
Bangladesh Bigeye seaperch – PE, PP, PS, 0.5 Green, blue, Fibers, 1.0 − 3.8 and 2.2 ± 0.89 Ghosh et al.
(Priacanthus hamrur), PU, black, films, (2021)
Fat sleeper EPDM, and transparent, fragments,
(Sciades sona), Styrene red, white, foams, and
Longnose trevally butadiene violet, granules
(Carangoides rubber yellow,
chrysophrys), orange
Bombay duck
(Harpadon nehereus),
Pama croaker
(Otolithoides pama),
Featherback anchovy
(Setipinna tenuifilis),
Microplastics in Animals – A Global Concern to Food Safety …

Ganges River anchovy

(Coilia neglecta),
Indian river shad
(Anodontostoma
chacunda),
Indian oil sardine
(Sardinella brachysoma),
Torpedo scad
(Megalaspis cordyla)
(continued)
511
Table 1 (continued)
512

Country Organisms Organs Polymers Size (mm) Colour Shape Concentrations (items/ Citations
individual)
Kuwait Yellowfin seabream Guts PE 0.96–1.57 Yellowish Fragments 3 Al-Salem et al.
(Acanthopagrus latus), (2020)
Fourfinger threadfin
(Eleutheronemaa
tetradactylum), Five-lined
snapper
(Lutjanus quinquelineatus)
South Snakehead Intestines, PE, 0.1–5 – Fragments, 4 to 48 Park et al.
Korea (Channa argus) gills, flesh Silicone, fibers (2020)
Crucian carp and PS
(Carassius cuvieri),
Common carp
(Cyrinus carpio),
Bass
(Micropterus salmoides),
Bluegill
(Lepomis marcochirus),
Catfish
(Silurus asotus)
Indonesia Sandfish – PE, PP, PU, 0.3–1.0 – Fragments, 2.01 ± 1.59 Riani &
(Holothuria scabra) and PET fibers, Cordova, 2022)
granules,
foam
(continued)
M. A. Karim et al.
Table 1 (continued)
Country Organisms Organs Polymers Size (mm) Colour Shape Concentrations (items/ Citations
individual)
Thailand Estuarine catfish Gills, PP, PET, >1 Blue and 1.29 ± 0.17 (gills), 1.77 Jitkaew et al.
(Arius maculatus) stomach, Rayon, and black ± 0.25(stomach), and (2023)
and tissue copolymers 1.97 ± 0.19 (tissue)
(PP
combined
with PE)
Iran Asian horn snail Whole PE, PET 0.001–0.025, Fibers, 3.7 to 17.7 Naji et al.
(Cerithidea cingulate), body and Nylon 0.025–0.25 and fragments, (2018)
Japanese horned turban 0.25–5.0 and film
(Thais mutabilis),
Atlantic mud-piddock
(Amiantis umbonella),
Purple venus clam
(Amiantis purpuratus),
Atlantic pearl oyster
(Pinctada radiata)
China Mediterranean mussel Digestive PVC and 0.007–5.0 Microfiber 0.5 and 3.3 Ding et al.
Microplastics in Animals – A Global Concern to Food Safety …

(Mytilus systems Rayon (2021)

galloprovincialis),
Chinese scallop
(Chlamys farreri),
Manila clam
(Ruditapes philippinarum)
Pacific oyster
(Crassostrea gigas)
(continued)
513
Table 1 (continued)
514

Country Organisms Organs Polymers Size (mm) Colour Shape Concentrations (items/ Citations
individual)
Japan Common Asian hard-shell Digestive – – – Threads 3.0 Yamamoto
clam tract of et al. (2021)
(Meretrix lusoria), the body
Manila clam
(Ruditapes philippinarum),
Pacific oyster
(Crassostrea gigas)
China Pacific oyster – CP, PE, < 1500 Fibers 2.93 Teng et al.
(Crassostrea gigas), PET, PP, (2019)
Portuguese oyster PA, PS, PC,
(Crassostrea angulate), and PVC
Hong Kong oyster
(Crassostrea
hongkongensis),
Kumamoto oyster
(Crassostrea sikamea)
Malaysia Sea Cucumber GIT – 0.0005–0.001 Blue, pink, Fibers, 1652 item/20 samples Mazlan et al.
(Acaudina molpadioides) and black, blue, fragments (2023)
0.001–0.002 orange,
brown, red,
white, and
yellow
(continued)
M. A. Karim et al.
Table 1 (continued)
Country Organisms Organs Polymers Size (mm) Colour Shape Concentrations (items/ Citations
individual)
Vietnam Asian Green Mussel PET and 0.05 and Fragments 25.05 ± 5.36 Le and
(Perna viridis) PA 0.001–0.15 Nguyen, 2024)
India Asiatic clam Soft tissue PP, PE, PA, >0.5 Fibers 1–54 Abisha et al.
(Villorita cyprinoides), and PS (2024)
Malabar blood clam
(Paphia malabarica),
Indian rock oyster
(Crassostrea
madrasensis),
Brown mussel
(Perna perna),
Spotted babylon
(Babylonia spirata)
Microplastics in Animals – A Global Concern to Food Safety …
515
516 M. A. Karim et al.

amounts in their muscle and flesh (0.018 items/g tissue) (Gao et al., 2023; Grigorakis
et al., 2017; Makhdoumi et al., 2023).

3.2.1 Studies from African Regions

Several studies highlight the alarming levels of MPs contamination in commercial

fish across various African regions. For instance, MPs are found in the commercial
fishes of the northern Tunisian lagoons of Bizerte and Ghar El Melh. In golden
grey mullet (Liza aurata) and sea bream (Sarpa salpa), MPs ranged from 22.40 ±
3.97–65.33 ± 6.50 and 42.00 ± 6.08–66.40 ± 5.12 items/individual, respectively,
whereas fibers, fragments, and films of PPE and PEP polymers were most common,
ranging between 0.2 and 5 mm in size (Abidli et al., 2021). Notably, MPs films,
fibers, and fragments (61 items/individual) were observed in the gills and GIT of
Tobruk coastal fishes like flathead grey mullet (Mugil cephalus), gilthead sea bream
(Sparus aurata), yellow belly grouper (Epinephelus marginatus), greater amberjack
(Seriola dumerili), yellow stripe barracuda (Sphyraena chrysotaenia), and saddled
seabream (Oblad melanura) of eastern Libya (Hamid et al., 2022).
MP contamination was also evident in fish populations from Lake Victoria, one
of the most prominent lakes in Africa. In these fishes, 20% of the GIT of Nile
tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) and Nile perch (Lates niloticus) contained MPs
at levels ranging from 7 to 11 items/individual. Identified polymers include PE,
polyurethane, PS, PP copolymer, and silicone all exhibiting a size structure of less
than 0.5 mm. This suggests that these fragments initiate from the degradation or
breakdown of urban plastic waste and enter the lake through urban drainage ditches
(Biginagwa et al., 2016). In addition, MPs have also been reported in the Densu river
of Ghana, at levels of 2.88 ± 2.11, 2.38 ± 1.66 items/individuals in the black-chinned
tilapia (Sarotherodon melanotheron) and bagrid catfish (Chrysichthys nigrodigitatus)
respectively (Blankson et al., 2022).
In parallel, marine fishes are also highly contaminated with MPs, notably
demersal, pelagic, and benthopelagic fishes. MPs have been measured in several
marine fishes. The relationship between the occurrence of MPs in the tissue of fish
species and the respective feeding behaviour exhibited by each species has been
shown in Fig. 2. Also noteworthy, MP have been detected in fish larvae, including
early developmental stages of Mozambique tilapia (Oreochromis mossambicus),
malabar glassy perchlet (Ambassis dussumieri), tiger perch (Terapon jarbua), mullet
(Mugil sp.) ranging 0.15–0.80 (items/individual) and is often dominated by blue and
black coloured fibers, fragments of PP, polyesters (PEs), nylon, rayon (Kosore et al.,
2018; Naidoo et al., 2020).
In addition to fish, marine invertebrates can also be contaminated with plastic
debris, as in the case of molluscs and polychaetes. Relatively high concentrations
of MPs have been found in the tissue of Tunisian molluscs: Mediterranean Mussel
(Mytilus galloprovincialis), chequered carpet shell (Ruditapes decussatus), pacific
oyster (Crassostrea gigas), banded dye-murex (Hexaplex trunculus), purple dye
murex (Bolinus brandaris), common cuttlefish (Sepia officinalis) ranging 703.95
Microplastics in Animals – A Global Concern to Food Safety … 517

Fig. 2 Proportion of fish species for which MPs have been detected in the tissue and the type of
feeding behaviour exhibited by the species

± 109.80 to 1482.82 ± 19.20 items/kg w/w. Fibers, fragments, and films are most
dominating in tissue, with a 0.1–1.0 mm size structure (Abidli et al., 2019). Blue
and black coloured PET, PP, and PE (0.92–1.88 MPs/g ww−1 ) are found in the gills
and digestive glands of Morocco and Tunisian muscle (Mytilus galloprovincialis)
(Abelouah et al., 2023). MPs have also been found in 98% of mussels (Mediterranean
mussel, Black mussel, (Choromytilus meridionalis), Magellan mussel, (Aulacomya
ater) of the South African’s Cape Town coasts (4.27 ± 0.5 MP items/individual)
where black-grey filaments were abundant (Sparks, 2020). In the tissue of Nige-
rian gastropods apple snails (Lanistes varicus), and Red-Rim Melania (Melanoides
tuberculata), 1.70 ± 0.42–3.80 ± 0.83 items/individuals of black polythene fiber
and films were recorded (Akindele et al., 2019). In clams of the Gaborone Dam
of Batswana, there was 1.5–4.2 items/individual fibres detected, having size ranges
of 1–2, 2–3, and 3–4 mm that were prevalent, having translucent and black colour
(Ditlhakanyane et al., 2023). Moreover, a notable concentration of MPs was found
in the South African polychaete (Gunnarea gaimardi) which contained 0.056 and
1.113 MPs particles g–1 (dwt) (Nel & Froneman, 2018).

3.2.2 Studies from Asian Region

The amount and density of the population of the Asian countries is much higher
than the other continents, thus the economic growth and anthropogenic activities
are also higher relative to other global regions (Guilmoto & Oliveau, 2018). Since
Asian nations are accountable for approximately half of the overall production and
consumption of plastics, it is expected that the presence of MPs in aquatic ecosystems
in Asia may be higher that other regions. Notably, China, Indonesia, Philippines,
Vietnam, India, and Bangladesh, among other countries, are significantly contributing
to MP pollution in Asian waters, ultimately impacting water systems on a global
scale (Sin et al., 2023; Stevenson, 2023; Talukdar et al., 2023). Like Africa, MPs
are detected in both freshwater and marine species of phytoplankton, zooplankton,
fish, molluscs, bivalves, and gastropods. Lim et al. (2023) recently reported that the
occurrence of MPs is largely influenced by water depths and habitat rather than the
feeding habits of aquatic organisms.
518 M. A. Karim et al.

Several studies have revealed the consequences of MP exposure in Asian fishes.

In terms of number of publications on topics related to MPs, China has the highest
volume and a considerable number of studies on aquatic organisms have been
conducted on the adjacent waters (Zhang et al., 2020a, 2020b). China is fortunate to
have significant aquatic resources and seafood, one of the most popular foods among
the people of the country (Li et al., 2015). Under these circumstances, bivalves
containing MPs may pose a health risk to the citizens (Teng et al., 2019). Qingdao is
a port city of northern China and is known for its mariculture industry (Wang et al.,
2014). Ding et al. (2021) targeted locally cultivated bivalve species from the region to
investigate MP presence in soft muscle. Species included in the study were Chinese
scallop (Chlamys farreri), Mediterranean mussel, Pacific oyster, and Manila clam
(Tapes philippinarum). MPs within a size range of 7 to 5000 μm were identified, with
microfibers being the most dominant type. Further analysis revealed that polyvinyl
chloride (PVC) and rayon were the primary polymer types present in the ingested
MPs. An intensive study on popular and commercially cultured oyster species such
as, Portuguese oyster (Crassostrea angulate), pacific oyster, kumamoto oyster (Cras-
sostrea sikamea) and the Hong Kong oyster (Crassostrea hongkongensis) identified
a predominant presence (in 84% of collected samples) of MPs in these species (Teng
et al., 2019).
Elevated levels of MPs are also detected in wild molluscs inhabiting the coastal
waters of China. In blue mussels (Mytilus edulis) and bivalves (Chinese scallop,
Mediterranean mussel) MPs range from 1.5–7.6, 5.2–19.4, 1.9–9.6 items/individuals
respectively. The predominant MPs observed were fibers, with fragments, granules,
spheres, and flakes also present, all falling within the size range of 1–1000 μm, as
documented by Li et al. (2016) and Jin-Feng et al. (2018).
Researchers have recorded a concerning accumulation of MPs in gastropods and
bivalves living in the coastal area of the Persian Gulf in Iran. The recorded concen-
trations of MPs varied from 3.7 to 17.7 items per individual. This finding highlights
the presence of MPs in molluscan shellfish from the Persian Gulf, with particularly
high levels found in a predatory species. This suggests that MPs may be transmitted
along the marine food chain within the local ecosystem, raising the possibility that
humans could be exposed to MPs by consuming edible species such as gastropods
and bivalves (Naji et al., 2018).
The presence of MPs in invertebrates inhabiting the shores of Hong Kong has
sparked notable concerns. Researchers discovered MPs in 38 species of gastropods,
crabs, bivalves, with concentrations ranging from 0 to 18.4 items per individual.
About 26% of these MPs were identified as synthetic polymers like cellophane (CP),
PET, and polyamide (PA). MP fibers were the most common, followed by pellets.
Interestingly, gastropods showed significantly higher levels of suspected MPs, and
there was variability in particle presence among species (Xu et al., 2020). Apart from
the invertebrates, MPs have also been detected in vertebrates throughout the China
and adjacent regions. In addition to coastal and marine environments, studies have
also discovered the presence of MPs in fish from both rivers (Liu et al., 2021; Wang
et al., 2020; Zhang et al., 2021a, 2021b) and lakes (Mao et al., 2020; Xu et al., 2021).
Microplastics in Animals – A Global Concern to Food Safety … 519

There has been little investigation into the occurrence of MPs in aquatic organisms
in Bangladesh, but work has focussed primarily on commercial fish species rather
than invertebrates. Studies have examined major rivers such as the Padma River,
Meghna River, Jamuna River, Pasur River, Turag River, and Buriganga River, as well
as estuaries like the Meghna River estuary (Haque et al., 2023; Khan et al., 2023;
Sultana et al., 2023). Bangladesh has made significant progress in the aquaculture
industry, primarily producing finfish for local consumption. Investigation has shown
that wild fishes have greater levels of MPs contamination compared to cultured fishes
(Sultana et al., 2023).
Along the Mumbai coast in India, croaker fish (Johnius dussumieri) were found
to have high concentrations of MPs (6.6 ± 1.7 and 6.2 ± 1.7 items per indi-
vidual). The dominant MPs in these fish were blue and black coloured polymers
like PE, PA, PE, and PS, with sizes smaller than 100 μm (Debbarma et al., 2022).
In South Korea, the ingestion of MPs by riverine fishes is a concerning issue,
with their tributaries serving as a significant source of contamination. Han River
fishes, such as common carp (Cyprinus carpio), crucian carp (Carassius caras-
sius), bluegill (Lepomis marcochirus), bass (Micropterus salmoides), and snakehead
(Channa argus), were found to have 4–48 MP items per individual. The prevalent MPs
found in the intestines, gills, and flesh of these fishes included fragments and fibers of
silicone, PE, and PS polymers, with sizes ranging from 0.1 to 5 mm (Park et al., 2020).
The presence of MPs in tropical sharks raises concerns, as they have been detected
in all species. In the GIT and gills of white cheek sharks (Carcharhinus dussum-
ieri), spot-tail sharks (Carcharhinus sorrah), Hasselt’s bamboosharks (Chiloscyllium
hasseltii), brownbanded bamboo sharks (Chiloscyllium punctatum), and Spadenose
sharks (Scoliodon laticaudus), an average of 29.88 ± 2.34 MP items per individual
were found, with black-coloured polyester being the most prevalent type. The inges-
tion of MPs in shark species exhibited a positive correlation with their body size,
and higher concentrations were observed in male sharks (Matupang et al., 2023).
Similarly, moderate to high levels of MPs have been discovered in the GIT, gills, and
tissues of sandfish (Scincus scincus), riverine, estuarine, and coastal fishes across
Malaysia, Indonesia, and Thailand (Cordova et al., 2020; Buwono et al., 2021;
Riani & Cordova, 2022; Jitkaew et al., 2023; Srisiri et al., 2024).
The increasing production of plastic waste in India has led to a higher presence of
MPs along the coastal ecosystem. Among the bivalves that were tested, clams from
the Periyar River had the highest abundance of MPs. Concentrations of MPs were
found to be 22.8 g−1 in the digestive gland and 29.6 g−1 in the gill of these clams. On
the other hand, mussels from the Vembanad estuary had the lowest abundance, with
values of 5.6 g−1 in the digestive gland and 8.5 g−1 in the gill. Intriguingly, no notable
correlation was found between the size of the shell, tissue weight, and the abundance
of MPs. Nonetheless, a robust positive correlation emerged between the presence
of MPs in the water and their presence in the tissues of the bivalves. This research
underscores the significance of employing sedentary bivalves as dependable indica-
tors for evaluating water pollution. Additionally, regional disparities were observed
in the extent of MP contamination among the bivalves (Joshy et al., 2022). MPs have
been found in the clam species Cuneate Wedge shell, (Donax cuneatus) in the Gulf of
520 M. A. Karim et al.

Mannar, with concentrations ranging from 0.6 to 1.3 items per gram of wet weight.
The prevalent MPs found in these clams are PE fibers, with sizes ranging from 100 to
250 μm. Interestingly, smaller clams have higher concentrations of MPs, indicating
a potential relationship between body size and MP concentration. The relationship
may be affected by the surface area-to-volume ratio. MP abundance in clam bodies
is significantly and positively associated with MP abundance in sediment, but not
with MP concentration in surrounding water. This underscores the importance of
sedimentary environment in MP accumulation in clams (Sathish et al., 2020). Addi-
tionally, there is a direct correlation between the quantity of MPs in mollusc soft
tissue (measured per gram) and mollusc size. Furthermore, MPs abundance varies
notably across different ecosystems (Abisha et al., 2024).
In the molluscan communities of Japan and South Korea, specifically the Common
Asian hard-shell clam (Meretrix lusoria), short-neck clam (Ruditapes philip-
pinarum), pacific oyster, brackishwater clam (Corbicula japonica), blue mussel,
scallop (Patinopecten yessoensis), Manila clam, have comparatively lower concen-
trations of MPs than those from coastal regions. Significant differences in polymer
compositions were noted, influenced by the species’ cultivation methods and habitat
traits. Oysters and mussels cultured in the upper water column predominantly
contained PS. Conversely, Manila clams and scallops cultured in intertidal sediments
or in the middle and lower layers of the water column exhibited reduced proportions
of PS and increased proportions of polyester. These findings highlight the widespread
problem of MP pollution in commercially important bivalve species. It suggests that
there is a complex relationship between the methods of cultivation, characteristics
of the habitat, and patterns of MP accumulation (Cho et al., 2019; Yamamoto et al.,
2021). Among all mollusc species, fibers are the most dominant type of MPs and
they have a size range of 1–1000 μm (Joshy et al., 2022). Asian molluscs are most
found to have black-coloured MPs and polymers such as PP, PE, and polyester PS.
Notably, the highest (82 items/ species) concentrations of MPs were noted in the sea
cucumber (Pulau langkawi) in Malaysia (Mazlan et al., 2023).

4 Toxic Effects of MPs on Animals

Once inside the body, MPs can disrupt or alter the biological systems, including
reproduction and immunity. Although numerous studies have addressed MPs expo-
sure and its consequences for freshwater and marine organisms, there is a scarcity of
research on the impacts of MP exposure on terrestrial animals and mammals, despite
their significance as a primary source of human exposure to MPs. Some studies have
examined the effects of MPs on model organisms, as summarized in Table 2 (Prata &
Dias-Pereira, 2023; Sun et al., 2021; Xie et al., 2020).
Table 2 Impacts of MPs on various organisms
Type of Model Exposure route Dose Exposure Accumulation/ Toxicity findings References
plastic duration uptake
PET Striped red mullet Ingestion Wild Liver Fish livers showed no oxidative Alomar et al.
(Mullus stress or cellular damage. (2017)
surmuletus)
Virgin PE + Medaka Dietary 3 mg diet, 60 days Liver Necrosis, glycogen depletion., Rochman et al.
chemical (Oryzias latipes) exposure 0.3 mg of which (2014)
pollutants is plastic
MPs + Common Goby – MPs (0, 18.4 96 h Head and gall Delayed pyrene-induced fish Oliveira et al.
Pyrene (Pomatoschistus and 184 g/L); bladder bile mortality and bile pyrene (2013)
microps) Pyrene (20 and metabolites concentration
200 g/L) increased.
Decreased AChE activity.
Reduced IDH activity.
PS-NP Fathead minnow – PS-NP and – – Increased primary granule Greven et al.
(41.0 nm) (Pimephales PC-NP at 0.025 degranulation and neutrophil (2016)
and PC-NP promelas) ug/uL, 0.05 ug/ extracellular trap release.
(158.7 nm) uL, 0.1ug/uL, Oxidative stress
and 0.2ug/uL Up-regulation of OXR, HSP70,
Microplastics in Animals – A Global Concern to Food Safety …

P62, IL-1beta and TLR8.

PS-MPs Nile tilapia Ingestion – 14 days Gut, Gills, Liver, Inhibited AChE activity in fish Ding et al.
(0.1 mm) (Oreochromis Brain brain. (2018)
niloticus) Induced SOD
CYP enzymes decreased.
HDPE Blue mussel – – 96 h Gills and Histopathological alteration on Von Moos et al.
(0–80 μm) (Mytilus edulis) digestive gland tissues. (2012)
Inflammatory response.
(continued)
521
Table 2 (continued)
522

Type of Model Exposure route Dose Exposure Accumulation/ Toxicity findings References
plastic duration uptake
MPs + Common goby Ingestion MPs (0.184 mg/ 96 h – Elevated temperature enhanced Fonte et al.
cefalexin (Pomatoschistus l) the toxicity of MPs and (2016)
microps) Cefalexin cefalexin to P. microps juveniles
(1.3–10 mg/l) alone and in combination.
Effects on predatory
performance.
Increased of AChE and LPO in
fish.
PS-MPs Marine mussels Ingestion (0, 10, 104, 106 14 days Mussel Alterations in tyrosine, Huang et al.
(Mytilus particles/L) hemolymph phenylalanine, histidine, (2021)
coruscus) beta-alanine, and vitamin B6
metabolism in mussel
hemolymph.
Antioxidant and immune
parameters interfered.
PS Freshwater clam Ingestion PS microbeads 48 h Gills and Impaired digestive gland redox, Nunes et al.
microbeads (Limnoperna (4 and 40 μg/L); digestive glands reducing antioxidant capability. (2023)
and As fortunei) As (50 μg/L) Reduced antioxidant activity.
Increased GSH levels in gills.
PS-MPs Common carp Ingestion 1000 ng/L 21 days Hepatopancreas Tissue damage, abnormal Cui et al.
(Cyprinus carpio) tissue hepatopancreas function. (2023a, 2023b)
Induced oxidative stress.
Activated TLR2 signaling
pathway.
Damage in hepatopancreas.
Effects on the inflammatory
response.
(continued)
M. A. Karim et al.
Table 2 (continued)
Type of Model Exposure route Dose Exposure Accumulation/ Toxicity findings References
plastic duration uptake
PS-MPs Wistar rats Oral (0.1 mg/day) 24–26 days Duodenum and Reduced ovarian weights. Haddadi et al.
(5 μm) (Rattus ovarian tissue Altered folliculogenesis and (2022)
norvegicus) estrous cycle duration.
Decreased serum concentration
of estradiol.
Increased MDA concentrations.
Reduced PSH level in the ovary.
Decrease in the cytoskeletal
proteins.
PS-NPs Mice Oral uptake 5 mg/kg and 0, 10 min, 1, Viscera and Morphological abnormalities. Fan et al. (2022)
15 mg/kg body 2.5, 4.5, and tissues Induced hepatic steatosis, renal
weight dose 24 h tubular epithelial cell dropsy,
and glomerular shrinkage.
Hepatic injury and abnormal
plasma glucose metabolism.
Increased plasma glucose and
ROS level.
Microplastics in Animals – A Global Concern to Food Safety …

Increase ROS, hepatic

triglycerides, and cholesterol
accumulation.
Induced insulin resistance and
increased plasma glucose.
(continued)
523
Table 2 (continued)
524

Type of Model Exposure route Dose Exposure Accumulation/ Toxicity findings References
plastic duration uptake
PS-NP C57BL/6 Mice Oral uptake Low-dose 5 weeks Accumulate and Affect cell and organ functions. Nikolic et al.
(0.01 mg/day); aggregate in Reduction in testosterone (2022)
High-dose different organs levels.
(0.1 mg/day) Male mice showed enhanced
secretion of interleukins
(IL-12p35 and IL-23) by
splenocytes.
Impaired cell viability and
increased DNA damage in
spleen tissue.
PS Mice Ingestion (0.1 and 1 μg/ 12 weeks Body fat increased. Zhao et al.
microbeads ml) Increased fasting plasma (2022)
(0.5 and glucose.
5 μm) Increased plasma insulin and
higher HOMA-IR scores.
Gut microbiota alterations.
Enhanced adipogenesis-related
gene expression contributes to a
CVD phenotype reflects an
unrecognized risk factor for
pre-clinical CVD.
PP-MPs Sprague–Dawley Gavage 25 mg/kg 4 Weeks – Inflammation, histopathological Kim et al.
85.2 μm (SD) rats alteration of tissues. (2021)
The 3D recreated human skin
and corneal culture model
showed no skin or eye irritation
from PP-MPs.
(continued)
M. A. Karim et al.
Table 2 (continued)
Type of Model Exposure route Dose Exposure Accumulation/ Toxicity findings References
plastic duration uptake
PS-NP Primary cells – 0–200 mg/L 2 days Mouse brain Effect on neuronal cells. Jung et al.
100 nm originating from Significant reduction in the (2020)
mouse brains/ viability of mixed neuronal
CD-1 (ICR) mice cells.
Apoptosis
Neuronal death.
PS-MPs + Female mice; – 100 mg/L 35 days Ovarian cell line Follicular fragmentation and Wu et al. (2023)
DEHP GRM02 mouse PS-MPs atresia.
ovarian granulosa and Increased oxidative stress.
cell line 200 mg/kg Induced DNA oxidative
DEHP damage.
Feed Induced ovarian injury, leading
100 mg/L to cell cycle arrest and
PS-MPs necroptosis of ovarian
(particle size: granulosa.
5–10 um)
drinking water
Microplastics in Animals – A Global Concern to Food Safety …

5 μm ICR Mice Intranasal 10 μL MPs/NP 5 Weeks Nasal and lung The lung tissue exhibited Zha et al.
PS-MPs and administration suspension tissue hemorrhage and exudates. (2023)
99 nm (containing Induced lung and nasal
PS-NP 100 μg MP or microbial dysbiosis.
NP) Induced nasal microbial
dysbiosis.
(continued)
525
Table 2 (continued)
526

Type of Model Exposure route Dose Exposure Accumulation/ Toxicity findings References
plastic duration uptake
Pristine and Male ICR mice Gavage 0.01 and 1 mg/ 1 week Gut, Liver, Structural damage in the Cui et al.
Ultraviolet day Spleen, and stomach, liver, spleen, and testis (2023a, 2023b)
aged Testis of mice.
PS-MPs Inflammatory infiltration.
(4–5 μm) Elevated levels of serum
alanine aminotransferase and
immunoglobulin A.
Increased hepatic triglyceride
and total cholesterol levels.
Decreased GSH and SOD
levels.
Impaired antioxidant capacity.
Increase Nrf2 and HO-1
levels in liver and testis.
Metabolic disorder.
PS-NP Pregnant female Oral (0.5–1000 μg/ From Brain tissues Affect neural cells, and brain Jeong et al.
(50 nm) C57BL/6 J mice administration day) embryonic histology. (2022)
day 8 (E8)
until 2 weeks
after birth
M. A. Karim et al.
Microplastics in Animals – A Global Concern to Food Safety … 527

4.1 Reproductive Toxicity of MPs

The reproductive function of organisms is highly vulnerable to the effects of MPs,

which can reduce their reproductive output by altering energy allocation and food
consumption (Sussarellu et al., 2016). Presently, there is a lack of research exploring
the effects of MPs exposure on terrestrial animals. In contrast, most reports on MPs
exposure concern the marine environment and marine life (Xie et al., 2020).
Zooplankton, serving as primary consumers and a vital food source for higher
trophic levels, hold pivotal importance in aquatic ecosystems, thus making their
exposure to MPs a matter of significant concern due to potential ecosystem-wide
impacts (Jeong et al., 2017). Copepods, among zooplankton, are commonly used as
models for studying the effects of environmental stressors, including MPs, due to their
importance in aquatic ecosystems and susceptibility to such stressors. They also have
a short life cycle, small body size, and rapid reproduction rate (Raisuddin et al., 2007).
Marine copepods (Tigriopus japonicus) exposed to MPs or nanoplastics (NPs) (0.05,
0.5, and 6 μm) via PS-beads for 96 h experience adverse effects, including decreased
fecundity, developmental retardation, and a significant number of unfertilized egg
sacs (Lee et al., 2013). Exposure of pelagic copepods (Calanus helgolandicus) to 20
μm PS-beads for 24 h can significantly alter their feeding capacity, and long-term
exposure results in a gradual decline in energy levels and a significant reduction in
reproductive capacity (Cole et al., 2015). The marine copepod (Paracyclopina nana)
shows detrimental impacts on growth rate, fecundity, and oxidative stress after 24 h
of ingestion and egestion of PS microbeads of various sizes (0.05, 0.5, and 6 μm)
(Jeong et al., 2017).
Exposure to PS-MPs of 2 and 6 μm in diameter at a concentration of 0.023
mg/L significantly reduces gamete and oocyte quality in pacific oysters, leading
to decreased fecundity, offspring yield, and developmental performance (Sussarellu
et al., 2016). Exposure to PS-NPs for varying durations and concentrations increased
the number of spermatozoa and oocytes relative to cell size and complexity in
pacific oysters. The impact on spermatozoa was greater than on oocytes, with
increased production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) observed after exposure
to PS-NPs coated with carboxylic and amine groups (Gonzalez-Fernandez et al.,
2018). Different sizes of NPs (plain 2-mm, 500-nm, and 50-nm; COOH-50 nm and
NH2-50 nm) exposure on pacific oysters resulted in reduced fertilization success,
embryo-larval malformations, and developmental arrest (Tallec et al., 2018). Pacific
mole crabs (Emerita analoga) exposed to MPs experienced increased adult mortality
and reduced egg clutch retention, leading to variability in embryonic development
rate (Horn et al., 2020). Acute exposure to PS-MPs decreased oriental river prawn
(Macrobrachium nipponense) larvae survival and heart rate, while chronic exposure
caused oxidative stress, damaged testicular germ cells, altered sex hormones, and
reduced larval hatching and survival (Sun et al., 2022).
Nematodes (Caenorhabditis elegans) and zebrafish (Danio rerio) were used as
model species to investigate MPs exposure mediated toxicity. In zebrafish, expo-
sure to MPs at various concentrations induced molecular reactions and histological
528 M. A. Karim et al.

changes in the gonads, suggesting potential adverse effects on reproductive organs

(Qiang & Cheng, 2021). Zebrafish exhibited damage to the intestine enterocytes with
minimal mortality, while nematodes showed intestinal damage, oxidative stress, and
decreased survival, body length, and reproduction (Lei et al., 2018). Exposure of
marine medaka (Oryzias melastigma) to MPs resulted in histological alterations in
gills, intestines, liver, and gonads, and caused oxidative stress. Exposure disrupted
sex hormone balance, delayed gonad maturation, and affected offspring develop-
ment, impacting reproduction performance (Wang et al., 2019a, 2019b). Exposure
of freshwater cnidarian (Hydra attenuata) to MPs resulted in morphological changes
and reduced feeding rate, but there was no mortality or impact on reproduction
(Murphy & Quinn, 2018). Freshwater amphipods (Hyalella Azteca) showed signif-
icant growth, death, and decreased reproduction after acute and chronic MP intake
(Au et al., 2015). The reproductive output of three Cladoceran species (Ceriodaphnia
dubia, Daphnia pulex, Daphnia magna) decreased in a dose-dependent manner when
exposed to various types of MPs (Jaikumar et al., 2019).
Mice are commonly used as mammalian models in research, particularly for
studying the effects of MPs. Various categories of polymers (e.g., PS, PE, PP, PET,
PVC, etc.) and sizes of MPs have been tested to evaluate how they may affect mice.
These investigations have observed that MPs can negatively impact the immune
system, reproductive system, nutrient metabolism, gut microbiota balance, and more
(Liu et al., 2022a, 2022b; Sun et al., 2021; Wei et al., 2021).
The effects of MPs on the reproductive systems of animals, particularly in
mammals, are still uncertain and poorly understood. Male mice (Balb/c) exposed to
PS-MPs experienced significant reductions in sperm count and motility, decreased
testosterone levels in their serum, and a notable increase in sperm deformities
(Xie et al., 2020). PS-MPs exposure in male Balb/c mice at various concentrations
and particle sizes led to oxidative stress, testicular inflammation, alterations in the
blood-testis barrier (BTB), and ultimately hindered spermatogenesis, affecting the
reproductive process (Jin et al., 2021; Wei et al., 2021).
PS-MPs treatment in mice showed dose-dependent effects on reducing blood
levels of testosterone, Luteinizing Hormone (LH), and Follicle-Stimulating Hormone
(FSH), indicating their potential to disrupt the hypothalamic-pituitary–gonadal
(HPG) axis and hormone balance. This imbalance in male mice led to reproductive
toxicity due to the downregulation of steroidogenic enzymes and the steroidogenic
acute regulatory protein (StAR) (Jin et al., 2022). Similarly, exposure to MPs in
male rats decreased serum testosterone, LH, and FSH levels. Additionally, expo-
sure to MPs caused DNA degradation and alterations in sperm morphology (Amereh
et al., 2020).
Exposure to PS-MPs significantly reduced the amount of viable epididymis sperm
in ICR male mice. PS-MPS exposure increased sperm deformities, shrinkage, shed-
ding, and apoptosis at all testicular levels (Hou et al., 2021). Male Wistar rats exposed
to PS-MPs caused seminiferous tubule damage, oxidative stress, spermatogenic cell
apoptosis, increased sperm abnormalities, and decreased sperm motility and concen-
tration, indicating BTB impairment (Li et al., 2021). Wei et al. (2022) found that MPs
(0.1 mg/d for 30 or 44 days) treatment on male and female mammalian reproductive
Microplastics in Animals – A Global Concern to Food Safety … 529

systems caused higher ovary accumulation and oxidative stress than that in testis.
MPs impaired the testes and ovaries, specifically by decreasing ovarian follicles,
slowing weight increase, causing oxidative stress, affecting blood hormone levels,
and disrupting reproduction and fertility. MPs it was noted affected reproduction and
fertility more in female than in male mice.

4.2 Immunotoxicity of MPs

At present, the effects of MPs pollution on the immune systems of marine organ-
isms are poorly understood, and further investigation is necessary to improve our
understanding of the threats posed to aquatic life. Lysosomes have been recognized
as sensitive organelles and the principal locations for xenobiotic detoxification and
intracellular sequestration in response to MPs (Avio et al., 2015; Pittura et al., 2018).
Several invertebrate species can be negatively affected with MP exposure.
Mediterranean mussels treated with PE and PS-MPs < 100 μm for 7 days showed MPs
localization in hemolymph, gills, and digestive tissues, with significant pyrene accu-
mulation. Immunological responses of hemocytes showed that phagocytosis activity
remained relatively constant, although the proportion of granulocytes to hyalinocytes
type cells were reduced and lysosomal membrane stability decreased (Avio et al.,
2015). In another study, immune system modification was observed after 18 days
of MPs-microbead exposure in Mediterranean mussels. The impacts were largely
caused by the interruption of mussel global homeostasis, which produced stress and
immune-related proteins and reduced growth (Détrée & Gallardo-Escárate, 2018).
Further, MPs combined with benzopyrene impaired antioxidant defenses, peroxi-
somal proliferation, immune system, oxidative stress, neurotoxicity, and genotox-
icity in Mediterranean mussels. The lysosomal membrane stability, phagocytosis,
and granulocyte-to-hyalinocyte ratio of hemocytes were all significantly affected.
Different treatments caused slight fluctuations in antioxidant defenses, resulting
in only a slightly elevated oxidative pressure. Acetylcholinesterase (AChE) levels
showed a slight increase in gills and a slight decrease in hemolymph (Pittura et al.,
2018).
PS-MPs and sertraline (Ser) exposure significantly suppressed the immune
responses in a bivalve mollusk Blood clam (Tegillarca granosa). Significant
decreases in total haemocyte count, viability, phagocytosis, pyruvate kinase activity,
and adenosine triphosphate content were observed upon exposure to the Ser, MPs,
and their combination. In contrast, a substantial increase was observed in the
concentration of plasma cortisol and intracellular ROS content in haemocytes. Tran-
scriptome analysis showed eight significantly enhanced pathways, including fatty
acid metabolism, lysosome, phagosome, and peroxisome in combined exposures
involving MPs and Ser (Shi et al., 2020).
In another study, Blood clam exposed to MPs, benzopyrene, or 17ß estradiol alone
or in combination at all sizes and doses exhibited significantly reduced total hemocyte
counts, red granulocyte proportions, phagocytic activity, lysozyme activity, while
530 M. A. Karim et al.

inducing an increase in intracellular ROS. In addition, considerable interruption in

the expression of six immunological, Ca2+ signalling, and apoptosis-related genes
was observed (Tang et al., 2020).
Dietary PVC-MPs exposure to gilthead seabream did not change humoral and
cellular immunity but caused cellular and oxidative stress and damage in the liver and
kidney, suggesting that MPs could function as stressors or pro-inflammatory agents
in fish. In another study, gilthead seabream and European sea bass (Dicentrarchus
labrax) Head-Kidney Leucocyte (HKLs) were only moderately influenced by virgin
PVC or PE-MPs (40–150 μm, 1- or 24-h exposure). MPs exposure did not influence
HKLs viability but modulated innate immune parameters such as phagocytosis and
respiratory burst. PVC and PE-MPs decreased phagocytosis and increased respiratory
bursts but did not change peroxidase activity. MPs exposure may induce oxidative
damage in seabream by activating Nuclear Factor Erythroid 2-Related Factor 2 (Nrf2)
(Espinosa et al., 2018).
Other aquatic species can also exhibit immune dysfunction in relation to MP
exposure. Chinese mitten crab (Eriocheir sinensis) exposed to MPs decreased the
activities of most immune-related factors in the hepatopancreas and haemolymph.
However, prolonged chronic exposure to MPs negatively impacts several innate
immune components. The hepatopancreas responded more than the hemolymph or
haemocytes (Liu et al., 2019).
PS-MPs accumulation in the mouse intestine can cause damage to the intestinal
barrier and disrupt the immune system’s balance. Histological alterations in colonic
mucosa and disrupted colonic microbial community and metabolism were observed
(Liu et al., 2022a, 2022b). Studies have shown that PE-MPs comprise a significant
portion of ecologically recognized MPs. Exposure to PE-MPs (0.96 g/cm3 ) can result
in an abnormal diversity of gut microbiota, which can also impact the intestinal
immune system (Sun et al., 2021). The secretion of mouse serum interleukin-1a (IL-
1a) can increase in response to exposure to PE-MPs at different concentrations. Each
concentration of MPs can influence the secretion of specific cytokines. While the
proportion of Th17/Treg cells remains unchanged, MPs can reduce the proportion of
Treg and Th17 cells among CD4 + cells. MPs can stimulate the Toll-like Receptor
4 (TLR4) signalling pathway at high concentrations, potentially leading to intestinal
inflammation (Li et al., 2020).

4.3 Neurotoxicity of MPs

Studies report an array of adverse effects of MP’s on neurotoxicity in different aquatic

species. For instance, exposure to PA led to decreased acetylcholinesterase (AChE)
activity in crucian carp. This was accompanied by increased cortisol and heat shock
protein 70 (HSP70) levels, indicating a stress response. Moreover, a decreased in
lysozyme and immunoglobulin M (IgM) indicate an impaired immune responses.
Taken together, these results highlight the detrimental effects of MPs exposure on
neurotoxicity, immune responses, and oxidative stress in this fish (Choi et al., 2023).
Microplastics in Animals – A Global Concern to Food Safety … 531

Microfibers (MFs) or NPs exposure in discuss fish (Symphysodon aequifasciatus)

stimulated AChE and inhibited butyrylcholinesterase. Seven upregulated and four
downregulated neural-activity genes were found as altered in the brin using tran-
scriptomics. Both NPs and MFs enriched pathways related to serotonergic synapses
and neuroactive ligand-receptor interaction, while only MFs enriched dopamin-
ergic synapses, indicating a potential mechanism for behavioural toxicities via the
brain-gut-microbiota axis (Huang et al., 2022).
Exposure to PVC-MPs negatively affects the health of African catfish (Clarias
gariepinus) by inducing lipid peroxidation, neurotoxicity, and oxidative stress. The
severity of these conditions increases with longer exposure (Iheanacho & Odo, 2020).
In freshwater red tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus), exposure to PS-MPs inhibits AChE
activity in the brain, indicating neurotoxic effects (Ding et al., 2018).
In zebrafish embryos, PS-MPs accumulate in neuromasts, brain, and digestive
systems, inhibiting AChE and altering gene expression related to the thyroid and
glucocorticoid axes. These disruptions in hormone levels affect the central nervous
system and sensory organs, leading to symptoms such as lethargy and anxiety (Torres-
Ruiz et al., 2023). In zebrafish exposure to MPs alone or in combination with copper,
modulates the antioxidant system, resulting in increased activity of superoxide dismu-
tase (SOD) and glutathione reductase (GR) and inhibition of glutathione peroxi-
dase (GPx). Zebrafish brains showed signs of apoptosis, decreased neuronal growth,
increased AChE activity, and changes in the dopaminergic system. These toxico-
logical changes disrupt swimming and social behaviour, indicating neurotoxicity
(Santos et al., 2022).
Non-aquatic species are also susceptible to MP exposure. The buildup of PS-MPs
in the brains of mice disrupts both brain development and behaviour. Downreg-
ulation of gene expression related to embryonic brain development and reduced
Gamma-Aminobutyric Acid Receptor Subunit Alpha-2 (Gabra2) expression in both
embryonic and adult mice were observed. It was reported that PS-MPs exposure
induces anxiety and depression-like behaviours and diminishes social behaviour, but
does not impact cognitive or memory functions in the animals (Shin et al., 2023).
Behavioural changes in mice were observed upon exposure to PS particles. PS-MPs
occurrence disrupts brain metabolism and gene expression, resulting in autism-like
symptoms such as reduced social interaction and repetitive behaviour (Zaheer et al.,
2022).
Exposure to PS-MPs in the hippocampus affects gene expression related to
neuronal activity and synaptic proteins, leading to increased neuroinflammation.
These effects result in behavioural changes in mice, specifically through the vagus
nerve-dependent pathway, and cause cognitive impairment after eight weeks of expo-
sure (Lee et al., 2022). PS-MPs exposure increased proliferation and apoptosis in
the primary cortical neurons of mice. PS-MPs accumulate in organs related to excre-
tion and digestion but not in brain tissue. Interestingly, the gene expression levels
of brain cell markers and synaptic organization in the offspring exposed to PS-MPs
showed no significant differences. However, chronic exposure to PS-MPs did impact
social novelty choices, suggesting neurotoxic effects. On the other hand, emotional,
compulsive, and cognitive behaviours remained unaffected (So et al., 2023).
532 M. A. Karim et al.

When administered to mice in vivo at different doses (0.5–50 mg/kg.bw for 7

days), PS-NPs accumulated in the brain, triggering microglia activation, and causing
neuronal damage. In vitro studies utilizing immortalized human cerebral microvas-
cular endothelial cells (hCMEC/D3) revealed that PS-NPs were internalized by these
cells, leading to ROS production, tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α) secretion, nuclear
factor kappa-B (NF-κB) activation, and necroptosis induction. PS-NP exposure also
disrupted the tight junction (TJ) formation of hCMEC/D3, resulting in decreased
transendothelial electrical resistance (TEER) and occludin expression. These find-
ings indicate that PS-NPs can penetrate the blood–brain barrier (BBB) and elicit
neurotoxic effects in mammals by activating microglia (Shan et al., 2022).

4.4 Endocrine-Disrupting Effects of MPs

MPs and their associated compounds have been identified as prominent disrup-
tors of estrogenic function and reproduction in aquatic organisms. Female marine
medaka exposed to PS-MPs experienced significant negative effects on regulating the
hypothalamus-pituitary–gonadal (HPG) axis. Exposure decreased the concentration
of 17β-estradiol (E2) and testosterone (T), as well as a reduction of the expres-
sion of the steroidogenesis gene, which indicated delayed gonad maturation and
reduced fertility (Wang et al., 2019a, 2019b). Combined microcystin and PS-MPs
induced reproductive toxicity in zebrafish, resulting in abnormal increases in E2
and T levels. The changes in mRNA levels of Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone
2 (gnrh2), Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone 3 (gnrh3), cytochrome (cyp19a1b,
cyp11a), and Luteinizing hormone receptor (LHR) in the HPG axis further confirmed
the disturbance of reproductive endocrine system, including damage to the gonads
and imbalance in sex hormones in zebrafish (Lin et al., 2023).
Studies indicate that exposure to MPs can decrease the secretion of gonadotropin-
releasing hormone (GnRH) in the hypothalamus of African catfish, as well as reduce
the levels of vitellogenin (Vtg) and choriogenin (Chg) in the liver of Japanese medaka
(Oryzias latipes) (Karami et al., 2016; Rochman et al., 2014). This decrease in the
expression of GnRH, Vtg, and Chg genes suggests that MPs have the potential to
disrupt reproduction (Sun et al., 2015).
PE-MPs exposure has been found to increase the levels of sex hormones (T, 11-
ketotestosterone, and E2) in Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua). The genes involved in the
brain-pituitary-gonad (BPG) axis and plasma steroid analysis showed normal devel-
opment across different sexes and diets. However, there were significant effects on the
expression of gonadal 20β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (20β-hsd) and liver vitel-
logenin1 (vtg1). These enzymes, which interfere with the production of maturation-
inducing steroids, may serve as indicators of exposure to contaminants that hinder
sexual maturation (Fernandez-Míguez et al., 2023).
Male rats exposed to the environmental endocrine disruptor di-2-ethylhexyl phtha-
late (DEHP) showed increased levels of gene expression for steroidogenic acute
regulatory protein (StAR) and 3β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (3β-HSD), as well
Microplastics in Animals – A Global Concern to Food Safety … 533

as heightened expression of 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (17β-HSD). On the

other hand, reduced expression levels of GnRH were observed, causing endocrine
disruptions that impeded the synthesis of male hormones, resulting in dysfunction
within the male reproductive system (Qin et al., 2018). MPs exposure to mice reduced
blood levels of testosterone, LH, and FSH, indicating potential disruption of the
HPG axis and hormone balance. Additionally, the downregulation of steroidogenic
enzymes and StAR contributed to observed male reproductive toxicity (Amereh et al.,
2020; Jin et al., 2022).
DEHP and its main metabolite, monoethylhexyl phthalate (MEHP), exert their
effects by interacting with specific receptors in quail (Coturnix japonica). This
interaction inhibits the production of 17β-estradiol, disrupts the regulation of the
hypothalamic-pituitary-ovarian axis (HPOA), suppresses sex hormone synthesis, and
leads to disorders in the secretion of these hormones. As a result, severe toxicity is
observed in the reproductive system of quail (Li et al., 2020).

5 Transfer and Effects of MPs on Human Health

Given the widespread use of plastics in modern society, there has been an increased
concerns related to human health (Blackburn & Green, 2022; Thacharodi et al., 2024;
Zhang et al., 2021a, 2021b). The interaction between MPs and human physiology is
of particular concern, as MPs have the potential to enter the body via dermal contact,
ingestion, and inhalation (Bhuyan, 2022; Blackburn & Green, 2022; Revel et al.,
2018). Current investigations have focussed on potential inflammatory responses
and immune system reactions (Prata et al., 2020). There are also worries about the
possibility of MPs causing endocrine disruption and genotoxicity, which refers to
damage to genetic material (Alonso et al., 2010; Paget et al., 2015). Figure 3 illustrates
the general pathway and impacts of MPs on the human body.
Currently, there is insufficient information on the shape, size, characteristics, and
distribution of MPs in the air (Gasperi et al., 2018). Several studies have shown that
MPs in the air can readily be inhaled by humans (Blackburn & Green, 2022; Huang
et al., 2020a, 2020b, 2020c; Zhang et al., 2020a). Ongoing research is being conducted
to estimate how widespread airborne MPs are worldwide. A study in the UK found
that the deposition of atmospheric MPs was 20 times higher compared to a distant
and less populated area (Wright et al., 2020). Many investigations have identified
that most atmospheric MPs come from synthetic textiles, with daytime collections
being twice as much as night-time collections (Blackburn & Green, 2022; Cai et al.,
2017; Liu et al., 2019).
The health impacts of inhaling fibrous MPs have not been thoroughly studied.
While most fibers can be expelled from the respiratory system, some may induce
inflammatory responses (Prata, 2018) and respiratory issues, especially in individ-
uals with compromised mechanisms for clearing mucus and pollutants from the
lungs (Gasperi et al., 2018). Previous research has suggested a connection between
exposure to inhaled fibers among factory workers and cancer. For instance, in one
534 M. A. Karim et al.

Fig. 3 Effects of inhaling MPs and the pathway of inhalation in the human body

study workers with exposure to nylon, have a higher prevalence of respiratory irrita-
tion and other respiratory problems, but no conclusive evidence of increased cancer
(Gallagher et al., 2015; Wright & Kelly, 2017). Regular or daily exposure of the
lungs to air pollutants and smoke can result in oxidative stress, inflammation, and
potentially cancer development (Valavanidis et al., 2013). Higher rates of respiratory
diseases and lung cancers are linked to exposure to small quantities of breathable
fibers (Valavanidis et al., 2013).
While extensive studies have been initiated on the ingestion of MPs by aquatic and
wildlife species, limited attention has been given to human ingestion until recent years
(Barboza et al., 2018; Possatto et al., 2011; Ribeiro et al., 2019; Romeo et al., 2015).
However, evidence now supports the idea that humans do consume MPs. This confir-
mation is supported by the identification of MPs in human stool samples, with PET
and PP being the most frequently detected types (Schwabl et al., 2019). The inges-
tion pathway includes seafood, water, salt, beer, fruits, and vegetables, contributing to
an estimated annual consumption of MPs ranging from 39,000 to 52,000 particles,
potentially reaching higher levels when considering inhalation (Cox et al., 2019).
Infant feeding bottles, a significant source of exposure, release MPs at levels that
exceed the total MPs consumption of adults from various sources (Li et al., 2020).
The potential transmission of MPs to humans via the consumption of marine species
such as fish and bivalves underscores the necessity for a thorough comprehension
of the health consequences of MP ingestion, considering both environmental and
human health concerns (Barboza et al., 2018; Nelms et al., 2016).
MPs and antibiotics share common pathways for transportation, resulting in their
coexistence in water environments (Zheng et al., 2023). The ecological and environ-
mental impacts of MPs and antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) have gained increasing
attention worldwide. MPs in aquatic environments have been linked to their role
Microplastics in Animals – A Global Concern to Food Safety … 535

as carriers for pathogens and antibiotic-resistant bacteria (McCormick et al., 2014;

Revel et al., 2018). Research has shown that MPs can serve as a substrate for bacteria,
including those harbouring antibiotic resistance genes (Dong et al., 2021), raising
concerns about their potential role in promoting the spread of antibiotic resistance
in aquatic ecosystems (Dong et al., 2021). The presence of mobile genetic elements
(MGEs) and ARG-carrying plasmids on low-density polyethylene (LDPE) suggests
that LDPE facilitates horizontal transfer of antibiotic resistance, posing a direct risk
to human health (Luo et al., 2023). LDPE contributes to increased cell membrane
permeability, oxidative stress, and cell cohesion, all of which facilitate horizontal
transfer of antibiotic resistance genes and may adversely affect human health (Luo
et al., 2023). Moreover, MPs can attract and retain harmful substances such as antibi-
otics and heavy metals, known contributors to the development of antibiotic resis-
tance (Marathe & Bank, 2022). The capability of MPs to concentrate and trans-
port pathogens and antibiotic-resistant bacteria underscores the necessity for further
research to comprehend the implications of this interaction on both environmental
and human health.

6 Conclusion and Recommendation for Future Studies

MPs pose a substantial threat to the environment and human health. People who
encounter MPs may experience respiratory and digestive issues, insomnia, increased
risk of overweightness, and diabetes. Farm animals, which are a source of food such
as milk, eggs, and meat, are also at risk of accumulating MPs, potentially exacerbating
the problem throughout the food chain. Despite observing negative effects on human
and animal tissues, the long-term consequences of MPs are still not fully known.
To address this issue, a comprehensive approach is needed. This includes the appli-
cation of 3Rs (Reduce, Reuse and Recycle) initiatives, raising public awareness,
and implementing effective regulations. Further research is necessary to compre-
hend how MPs enter the food chain and their potential transmission to humans.
Conducting ecological risk assessments is crucial for reducing pollution and estab-
lishing control measures. Future efforts should prioritize innovative technologies for
removing MPs from the environment. Moreover, further research is necessary to
evaluate the magnitude of MPs contamination in various terrestrial environments.
Collaboration between governments and regulatory agencies is essential to establish
and enforce effective regulations and policies to mitigate MPs pollution. In summary,
this chapter underscores the immediate necessity for unified efforts to tackle MP
pollution. By confronting this menace to food security and human well-being, we
can aspire to a sustainable and resilient future for both ourselves and our planet.
536 M. A. Karim et al.

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Analytical Techniques and Methodologies
Modeling of Microplastic Contamination
Using Soft Computational Methods:
Advances, Challenges, and Opportunities

Johnbosco C. Egbueri , Daniel A. Ayejoto , Johnson C. Agbasi ,

Nchekwube D. Nweke , and Leonard N. Onuba

Abstract Microplastic (MP) pollution has become a global concern due to its impact
on ecosystems, wildlife, and potentially human health. Inferential and predictive
modelling of this phenomenon using soft computational methods adds a valuable
dimension to its research. This chapter contributes to the understanding of MPs
contamination and provides valuable insights into the application of soft compu-
tational modelling in their study, with emphasis on Africa and Asia. Through a
robust review, key findings were synthesized, emerging themes identified, and chal-
lenges in using soft computing methods for MP modelling discussed. The global
perspectives contributed by research in Africa and Asia are emphasized. The chapter
covers cutting-edge developments in MP contamination modelling, spanning from
statistical models to advanced machine learning (artificial intelligence) algorithms.
However, it highlights a significant imbalance in reported studies, with Asia leading
over Africa in computational methods application to MPs. This discrepancy reveals
crucial gaps demanding attention and further research. The identified challenges
include data limitations, uncertainties in model parameters, the dynamic nature of
environmental systems, and regional factors, etc. The review provides insights into
the state-of-the-art and the immense potential and opportunities that soft computa-
tional methods offer in unraveling the complexities of MP pollution. By offering key
perspectives, addressing challenges, and guiding future research and collaborations,
this study serves as a valuable resource for researchers and policymakers navigating

J. C. Egbueri (B) · J. C. Agbasi · L. N. Onuba

Department of Geology, Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu University, Uli, Nigeria
e-mail: jc.egbueri@coou.edu.ng
J. C. Egbueri
Research Management Office (RMO), Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu University, Anambra,
Nigeria
D. A. Ayejoto
Department of Environmental and Sustainability Sciences, Texas Christian University, Fort
Worth, TX, USA
N. D. Nweke
Department of Earth, Environmental and Geographic Sciences, The University of British
Columbia, Kelowna, Canada

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 553
J. C. Egbueri et al. (eds.), Microplastics in African and Asian Environments, Emerging
Contaminants and Associated Treatment Technologies,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-64253-1_24
554 J. C. Egbueri et al.

the intersection of soft computational methods and MP studies, towards achieving

sustainable development goals.

Keywords Artificial intelligence · Machine learning · Microplastic pollution ·

Numerical and conceptual models · Statistical models · Sustainable development
goals (SDGs)

1 Introduction

Microplastics (MPs), defined as plastic particles with dimensions less than 5 mm, are
pervasive in both aquatic and soil environments, posing a substantial threat to global
ecosystems (Campanale et al., 2022; da Costa et al., 2018; Horton et al., 2017; Sajjad
et al., 2022). Originating from diverse sources such as discarded bottles, synthetic
clothing, and tire wear, these particles are distributed in different environmental
compartments by the facilitated actions of currents and winds. Carried by various
vectors and ingested by organisms, MPs infiltrate ecosystems, reaching from marine
environments to terrestrial landscapes (Lwanga et al., 2022; Sridharan et al., 2021;
Zhang et al., 2019). The consequences of MP pollution are profound and extensive.
Across the food web, organisms are threatened. Mistaken for prey by the organisms
that ingest them, MPs induce internal blockages, reduced feeding efficiency, and
mortality in the organisms (Egbeocha et al., 2018). Microorganisms ingest MPs
leading to starvation and population decline (Egbeocha et al., 2018; Guzzetti et al.,
2018; Mallik et al., 2021). Additionally, concerns arise about their potential role as
vectors for harmful substances and pathogens, potentially posing threats to ecosystem
and human health (Loiseau & Sorci, 2022; Prata et al., 2021; Tumwesigye et al.,
2023). The foundational fabric of ecosystems, spanning from microorganisms to
large predators, faces the dangers attributed to plastic pollution. This represents a
critical environmental challenge with potentially far-reaching consequences.
Given the ubiquitous nature of MP contamination, comprehending its complex
transport within different environmental compartments, especially soil and water,
becomes crucial. Enhanced understanding of the fate and transport of MPs, from
origin to impact, is crucial for addressing the environmental pollution crisis. Conven-
tional tracking methods often prove inadequate, making modelling a powerful tool
to study various interplays of physical, chemical, and biological factors governing
MP transport and fate (Baalousha et al., 2016; Ivleva, 2021; Wang et al., 2023). Inter-
estingly, soft computational modelling techniques, including statistical models and
machine learning algorithms, offer potent tools to unravel the complexities of MP
contamination (Koutnik et al., 2021; Sheela et al., 2022; Uzun et al., 2022). By effi-
ciently analyzing the complex interactions between the several physical, chemical,
and biological factors governing the transport and effects of MPs, the sophisticated
computational modelling tools illuminate the path towards achieving a future with
effective control of MP pollution and associated health concerns. These models are
robust tools for scenario testing and prediction. They can be used to simulate MP
Modeling of Microplastic Contamination Using Soft Computational … 555

movement across water and soil, and other systems like plant and air, by incorporating
data on currents, winds, turbulence, soil composition, topography, water chemistry,
organism behavior, biological activity, and climate conditions.
Predicting how the MPs interact with various environmental conditions, the soft
computational models provide invaluable insights into their spatial distribution,
persistence, and the potential ecological impacts. Furthermore, by altering the input
variables of the models, researchers can explore possible mitigation strategies, predict
the potential impact of changing environmental conditions, and predict the future of
MP contamination. Thus, the predictive capability of computational models allows
for proactive MP pollution crisis management (Koutnik et al., 2021; Sheela et al.,
2022; Zhu et al., 2022; Uzun et al., 2022), which can inform targeted remediation
efforts, effective formulation of regulations, and public health protection. However,
the vast spectrum of environments presents a formidable challenge in modelling and
understanding the normally non-uniform behavior of MPs. Hence, customization of
models to individual ecosystems could enable the identification of vulnerable areas,
prediction of accumulation hotspots (Besseling et al., 2014), and analysis of risks
to local species and inhabitants. This approach is crucial for understanding the true
impact of MP contamination across local, regional, and global scales.
In comparison to traditional deterministic models, the soft computational methods
offer unique advantages tailored to address the multifaceted nature of MP contam-
ination challenge. Firstly, computational methods perform better at handling the
inherent disorderliness of real-world data. Unlike pristine laboratory settings, our
environments present diverse, often complicated, incomplete, or uncertain datasets.
Statistical models leverage probabilistic approaches to handle these uncertainties
and extract meaningful insights from such data (Aggarwal & Philip, 2008; Egbueri
et al., 2023). Machine learning algorithms sift through the vast datasets, identifying
hidden patterns and relationships that traditional methods might miss (Egbueri &
Agbasi, 2022a, 2022b, 2022c; Gautam et al., 2023; Zhang et al., 2021a). This ability
to embrace complexity is crucial for accurate prediction of the dynamic and unpre-
dictable patterns in MP transport/fate. Secondly, these methods are highly adaptable
and capable of continuous learning, which is highly valuable in a rapidly evolving
field like MP contamination modelling. Unlike rigid/fixed models, computational
methods can be readily updated and refined as new data becomes available. This adap-
tivity ensures that these models evolve alongside the understanding of MP behavior,
incorporating new factors and improving predictions.
However, these methods are not without challenges. Their flexibility also poses
challenges. As there can be model uncertainty, different models potentially generate
different predictions from the same data. As such, careful validation and sensitivity
analysis are crucial to ensure robust and reliable model outputs. The “black box”
nature of some machine learning algorithms can additionally pose challenges in
interpreting their inner workings and understanding the reasoning behind their predic-
tions (Guidotti et al., 2018; Hassija et al., 2023). This affects their transparency and
explainability, both of which remain crucial areas of model development to ensure
trust and acceptability within the scientific community. Despite these limitations,
556 J. C. Egbueri et al.

the advantages of computational methods in tackling the problems of environmental

contamination are far numerous and undeniable.
This chapter reviews and discusses the applications, advances, challenges, and
opportunities related to the modelling of MP contamination using soft computing
methods. The chapter’s objectives are to (a) review recent applications of soft compu-
tational methods in MP studies, with an emphasis on Africa and Asia; (b) highlight
the recent advances in modelling MP contamination through the application of soft
computing models, exploring several techniques from statistical models to machine
learning algorithms; (c) describe the challenges inherent in the utilization of soft
computing methods; and (d) discuss the present landscape and directions towards
future opportunities that soft computational methods hold in this critical field. This
review not only stands as a comprehensive resource for scientists, scholars and poli-
cymakers but also serves as a compelling call to action. It will impart readers with a
better understanding of both the progress and limitations of soft computing methods
applied to MP studies. Finally, its content targets to stimulate further research, foster
collaboration, and expedite the development of effective solutions to the global
challenge of MP contamination.

2 Methodology of Review

In this review study, a comprehensive search of relevant articles was conducted to

gather insights into the modelling of MP contamination using soft computational
methods. The search aimed to retrieve studies from reputable databases, ensuring a
robust foundation for synthesizing the current state of knowledge in this field. To iden-
tify pertinent literature, a systematic search strategy was devised using a combination
of relevant keywords. The following keywords and their variations were considered:
“Artificial intelligence”, “Machine learning”, “Microplastic pollution”, “Artificial
neural networks”, “Numerical and conceptual models”, “Statistical analysis”, “Water
and soil contamination”, “Microplastic contamination”, “Fuzzy logic”, “Soft compu-
tational methods”, “Microplastic modelling in Africa”, “Microplastic modelling in
Asia”, “MP modeling”, “Genetic algorithms”, “Statistical methods for microplastic
analysis”, “Pollution assessment”, “Statistical computing”, “Multivariate statistics”,
“Environmental impact”, and “Ecological modelling”. The keywords were used
to search for scholarly materials in several databases. The reputable databases,
which included, but were not limited to Google Scholar, PubMed, IEEE Xplore,
ScienceDirect, SpringerLink, and Scopus, were accessed to retrieve peer-reviewed
articles, conference proceedings, and relevant book chapters. The initial search results
underwent a two-step screening process. In the first step, titles and abstracts were
reviewed to assess relevance. In the second step, full texts of potentially relevant arti-
cles were examined for inclusion in the review. Data extraction involved recording
key information from selected articles, including authors, publication year, method-
ology, computational techniques employed, and major findings. The synthesized
Modeling of Microplastic Contamination Using Soft Computational … 557

Fig. 1 An illustration of the review methodology

information was then organized to provide a structured overview of the applica-

tions, advancements, challenges, and opportunities in modelling MP contamination
using soft computational methods. Figure 1 shows a typical illustration of the review
methodology.

3 Soft Computational Methods for Analyzing

and Predicting MP Contamination

3.1 Overview of Existing Methods

Phan and Luscombe (2023) spotted the surging global demand for plastics, espe-
cially amid the pandemic, raising concerns about future plastic waste pollution and
MPs. They stressed the essential role of numerical models in studying MP transport,
predicting sinking velocities, improving understanding, and estimating pathways in
marine environments. Before delving into the applications of soft computation, it is
imperative to acknowledge the foundations laid by traditional MP testing methods.
While these conventional methods exhibit sophistication, they often face the inherent
uncertainties and complexities pervasive in aquatic and terrestrial environments.
One such example is the application of Lagrangian and Eulerian transport models,
known for their ability to trace particle movement (Mountford and Morales Maqueda,
2019; Guerrini et al., 2021; Bigdeli et al., 2022; Pilechi et al., 2022; Simantiris et al.,
2022). However, these models demand detailed data on certain parameters, which
558 J. C. Egbueri et al.

may not always be readily available. Recognizing the strengths and weaknesses of
the traditional methods allows for the exploration of more advanced methods.
The menace of MP contamination demands innovative solutions across the globe,
and the field of soft computational modelling is actively rising to the challenge.
Despite limited data on MP parameters, the use of machine learning and computer-
vision tools to enhance model accuracy, verification, and reliability is advocated for
(Phan & Luscombe, 2023). Synergizing numerical modelling and machine learning
to advance the understanding of MP transport, optimize monitoring, and inspire inter-
disciplinary studies is also advocated (Phan & Luscombe, 2023). The present survey
of current methodologies employed in modelling MP pollution reveals a spectrum of
approaches. Previous studies have employed a diverse array of techniques ranging
from traditional statistical models to advanced computational methods. Referring
to previous studies, an overarching evaluation of the effectiveness of computational
tools in modelling MPs is conducted.

3.2 Specific Soft Computational Methods

Understanding and predicting this complex environmental issue, MP contamination,

necessitates a diverse toolbox of computational approaches, each addressing unique
challenges. While there are many models in existence, only a few of them have
been adopted in modelling the dynamics of MPs (Fig. 2). Application of compu-
tational modelling in MP studies was observed to be in its early stages. Neverthe-
less, it was also observed that reliable predictions have been performed using some
computational methods. Below, some specific models that have been applied in MP
studies are discussed. Drawing insights from diverse research, this discussion illumi-
nates the advantages and challenges associated with employing these computational
techniques. Emphasis is placed on the ability of these methods to handle complex,
dynamic, and uncertain data inherent in MP studies.

3.2.1 Statistical Methods

Within the field of MP contamination modelling, regression models emerge as a

valuable tool for estimating the relationships between MPs abundance and various
influencing factors. Noteworthy examples include scholars who employed multiple
regression to identify correlations between MPs and several environmental factors in
coastal sediments (Gao et al., 2022; Kim et al., 2015; Zhang et al., 2021a). Similarly,
Garcia et al. (2020), de Carvalho et al. (2021) and Parker et al. (2022) utilized
generalized linear mixed models to assess the urban impact on MPs in freshwater
ecosystems. Other studies (He et al., 2023; Qiu et al., 2023; Upadhyay & Bajpai,
2024) applied regression analysis to pinpoint MP hotspots near rivers with high
industrial activity, contributing insights for targeted cleanup efforts.
Modeling of Microplastic Contamination Using Soft Computational … 559

Fig. 2 Illustration of the specific computational methods applied in MP studies

Time series analysis is also a key approach employed to forecast future trends
in MP contamination based on historical data, accounting for seasonal fluctuations
and potential intervention effects. It can be very useful in the prediction of seasonal
fluctuations in MP abundance, enabling proactive measures during peak pollution
periods. The utilization of time series analysis enhances the capacity to anticipate and
mitigate the temporal dynamics of MP pollution (Zhou et al., 2023). For instance,
ARIMA models can be utilized to predict short-term variations in MPs in a river
system (Sudriani et al., 2023; Wu et al., 2021), facilitating targeted pollution control.
In a similar vein, SARIMA models are applied to forecast long-term MP accumu-
lation in coastal bays (Khakipoor, 2020; Liu et al., 2023), informing sustainable
management strategy.
Bayesian framework proves invaluable in providing robust predictions amidst
varying data complexities and uncertainties. The Bayesian inference stands out as
a robust method adept at handling data uncertainties, such as measurement errors
and incomplete datasets (Carlin & Louis, 2008). Additionally, it incorporates prior
knowledge from lab experiments and historical records to enhance predictive accu-
racy. In relation to MP contamination study, a number of studies have employed
Bayesian models. Recent studies have utilized Bayesian hierarchical models to esti-
mate the MP ingestion rates in marine organisms and populations, accounting for
uncertainties in both MPs and feeding behavior (Saeed et al., 2022, 2023). Bayesian
networks could help in integrating data from multiple sources for comprehensive
560 J. C. Egbueri et al.

spatial mapping of MP pollution in a large marine area (Granado et al., 2019; Liu
et al., 2024; Peng et al., 2022). In Brazil, Bayesian network was employed to study
the intake of MPs by fishes (Nunes et al., 2021). The ecological risk assessment of
tire wear particles in the San Francisco Bay has been conducted via the application
of a Bayesian network relative risk model (Sharpe, 2022).
Multivariate statistical techniques offer a sophisticated analytical approach for
unraveling the complexities of MP dynamics influenced by multiple interacting vari-
ables. These techniques offer a holistic perspective, allowing researchers to disen-
tangle the web of factors impacting MP behavior in diverse environmental settings.
Some studies have adopted these techniques to investigate MP contamination. For
instance, Peng et al. (2022), Ni’am et al. (2022), Pellegrini et al. (2023), and Erkan
et al. (2023) employed PCA and cluster analysis to identify distinct patterns and
sources of MP accumulation, revealing the combined influence of various factors.
Literature has also reported the use of canonical correlation (correspondence) anal-
ysis to investigate relationships between MP characteristics and environmental vari-
ables (Fu et al., 2024; McCall, 2023), shedding light on transport and fate pathways
(Zhu et al., 2023).
Multicriteria statistical methods have also been applied in studying MPs in the
environment. For example, evaluating the ecological risks posed by marine MPs, a
recent study by Zhang et al. (2022) used the analytic hierarchy process methodology
to analyze the potential environmental impacts in the dynamic ecosystem of the
Yangtze River Estuary and its adjacent marine areas.

3.2.2 Advanced Computational Methods

In soft computational modelling, Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs) stand out as

webs of interconnected neurons, mirroring the human brain’s prowess in pattern
recognition (Egbueri, 2022, 2023). Functioning as dynamic learning systems, ANNs
exhibit the ability to predict MP accumulation hotspots, estimate transport pathways,
and evaluate the impact of MPs on specific marine organisms (Guo et al., 2021;
Kooi et al., 2018; Mohsen et al., 2023; Phan & Luscombe, 2023). Their capacity
to discern complex patterns from vast datasets makes them very invaluable tools in
the comprehensive modelling of MP contamination. This literature review suggests
that it is one of the most commonly used machine learning tools for modelling the
complex MP contamination processes.
Fuzzy logic, as another soft computational method (Gentile et al., 2003), embraces
the inherent ambiguity present in real-world data, departing from rigid binary clas-
sifications. It introduces a better approach that allows models to account for the
“gray areas” in data, accommodating variations in MP sizes and addressing incom-
plete information about environmental contamination factors (Azizi et al., 2023;
Muthusamy et al., 2022). This adaptive capability enhances the robustness and
generalizability of fuzzy logic models, offering a more realistic representation of
the complexities involved in MP contamination. Addressing plastic pollution from a
consumer-centric perspective, a study by Ali et al. (2022) utilized innovative fuzzy
Modeling of Microplastic Contamination Using Soft Computational … 561

total interpretive structural modelling to explore and recommend strategies for mini-
mizing plastic pollutants, emphasizing the active role of consumers in this critical
environmental issue.
Genetic algorithms, inspired by the principles of natural selection, represent a
unique computational approach for optimizing models. Operating through an itera-
tive process of refining solutions based on performance, these algorithms simulate
an evolutionary mechanism to adapt and improve. This quality makes them partic-
ularly well-suited for optimizing existing models or addressing complex scenarios
where traditional methods may encounter challenges for tracking MP contamination.
Genetic algorithms, have been applied in MP studies (Ferreiro et al., 2023; Qiu et al.,
2023; Wei et al., 2024). Additionally, extreme gradient boosting, Gaussian process
regression, support vector machine, random forest, and decision tree have also been
utilized in MP modelling studies (Enyoh et al., 2023; Kida et al., 2024; Qiu et al.,
2023).
Machine learning ensemble methods present a collaborative strategy by amal-
gamating the strengths of multiple algorithms. This synergistic approach harnesses
the unique insights of each individual method, resulting in more accurate and robust
predictions. The collaborative nature of ensemble methods proves very advantageous
when modelling complex environmental systems influenced by numerous interacting
factors. This comprehensive exploration of various soft computational methods illus-
trates their diverse applications and strengths in addressing the challenges posed
by MP contamination. Some ensembles that have been applied in MP studies are
the genetic algorithm-support vector machine and genetic algorithm-artificial neural
network models, etc. (Qiu et al., 2023; Yan et al., 2022, 2023; Zhen et al., 2023).

3.2.3 Comparison of Statistical Methods with Other Approaches

In comparing statistical methods to ANNs, both computational approaches offer

distinct advantages and face unique limitations. Statistical models, characterized by
interpretability and the ability to handle limited data, establish relationships between
model parameters and outcomes (Latimer et al., 2006). On the other hand, ANNs
are good in handling non-linear relationships and learning complex patterns from
large datasets (Agbasi & Egbueri, 2022, 2023; Egbueri, 2021). However, statistical
methods may experience difficulty when faced with highly complex non-linear rela-
tionships, necessitating some specific data transformations. In contrast, ANNs, while
proficient in complex pattern recognition, are challenging to interpret with respect to
pollution exploration, requirement of extensive training data, and proneness to over-
fitting. Comparison between statistical methods and fuzzy logic arises. Statistical
models often provide statistical confidence intervals and are usually based on a well-
established theoretical framework. Fuzzy logic, on the other hand, can incorporate
qualitative information and uncertainties, making it suitable for dealing with incom-
plete data. Nevertheless, statistical methods could be challenged when dealing with
imprecise or qualitative data. However, fuzzy logic, while versatile, is considered
562 J. C. Egbueri et al.

less rigorous than statistical models and may require specific expertise for successful
implementation.
Overall, the effectiveness of the soft computational methods in modelling MP
contamination is intricately tied to the environmental context and the quality of
available data. Various factors, such as the type of water body, pollution levels, and the
presence of biological organisms, exert significant influence on the efficacy of these
modelling methods. For example, a model optimized for predicting MP movement in
a calm estuary might encounter challenges when applied to the turbulent conditions of
the open ocean. This underscores the importance of tailoring modelling approaches
to specific environmental contexts to ensure their relevance and accuracy. Moreover,
data quality emerges as a critical determinant of modelling success. Robust models
thrive on accurate and comprehensive data, utilizing reliable information to generate
meaningful predictions. On the contrary, models built on incomplete or uncertain data
may offer unreliable predictions, compromising the overall efficacy of the chosen
modelling approach. This highlights the need for meticulous data collection and
validation processes to enhance the robustness of soft computational methods in MP
modelling.

3.3 Case Studies and Applications in Africa and Asia

The application of soft computational methods in modelling MP contamination has

witnessed significant success, with studies in Africa and Asia contributing valuable
insights into regional state-of-the-art views, challenges and solutions. In other words,
computational methods have been applied in MP studies in Africa and Asia, high-
lighting the advances and opportunities in using them for MP analysis. Some of
the previous applications of soft computing methods in both regions have been high-
lighted in above sections. However, this section explores more exemplary cases from
both continents, emphasizing the real-world applications of the various modelling
techniques.

3.3.1 Applications in Africa

Microplastic contamination poses significant challenges to African ecosystems

(Nuamah et al., 2023; Okeke et al., 2022), yet research utilizing soft computational
methods is still in its early stages. Most of the existing studies showcase the poten-
tial of statistical approaches in addressing regional concerns. MPs in Africa have
been analyzed using statistical analysis (Ebere et al., 2019; Kundu et al., 2022;
Oceng et al., 2023), targeted at understanding their distribution and impact in the
aquatic and terrestrial systems. Multivariate statistical methods have been used to
analyze MPs in South Africa (Bakir et al., 2020; Dahms et al., 2022; Mutshekwa
et al., 2023; Ramaremisa et al., 2022; Sparks et al., 2023). The studies focused on
different aspects of MP pollution in various aquatic ecosystems, highlighting the
Modeling of Microplastic Contamination Using Soft Computational … 563

density and occurrence of MPs in sediments, water, and organisms, as well as the
types of polymers present. The results have shown that MPs are widespread and
abundant in these environments, with variations observed between different loca-
tions and seasons. The studies have also highlighted the potential sources of MPs,
such as urban run-off, wastewater effluent, and recreational activities. La Daana
et al. (2017) studied MP abundance in the Atlantic Ocean, specifically focusing on
South Africa. They employed correlation analysis and PCA to identify potential
correlations existing between environmental variables and MP abundance, particu-
larly within upwelling ecosystems. Additionally, they utilized a generalized addi-
tive model (GAM) to discern the impact of the environmental parameters on MP
abundance.
Merga et al. (2020) utilized a range of statistical tests: The Wilcoxon test for
comparing plastic particles and fish ingestion rates between seasons, the Chi-Square
test for plastics fish species and lake zone frequencies, an analysis of covariance for
size distribution regressions, and a Mann–Whitney test for fish condition indices.
Mbedzi et al. (2020) examined the impact of MP treatments on fish lengths using
Poisson generalized linear models. Their analysis revealed a significant negative
correlation between the proportion of MP consumed and the initial experimental
particle density (GLM: p < 0.001, z = 19.55, linear coefficient = 0.0009). Bakir
et al. (2020) conducted research focused on examining the abundance of MPs within
three commercially significant South African fish species. They utilized a Poisson
log-linear model that aided the analysis of the relationships between the number
of items per individual fish, species, stomach weights, and geographic range. A
study conducted in Anambra, Nigeria (Chukwuma et al., 2021), contributed valuable
insights into the spatial risk assessment of plastic pollution using fuzzy logic and
geographic information system (GIS) techniques.
Unfortunately, a careful literature search showed that, in the context of MP
contamination studies in Africa, there is a notable scarcity of research utilizing soft
computational methods. Despite the promising potential of these methods, Africa is
still faced with unique challenges in developing and deploying soft computing models
for analyzing MPs. The dearth of literature applying Bayesian inference, fuzzy logic,
ANNs, and other machine learning algorithms in modelling MP pollution stands
out, revealing a significant research gap. This scarcity of research underscores the
limited exploration of these advanced computational tools in analyzing and under-
standing the complexities of MP pollution in African ecosystems. Thus, highlighting
the urgent need for further research and adoption of soft computational methods in
Africa. It is imperative to mention that Africa’s diverse ecosystems, from expansive
lakes to arid regions, pose distinct challenges. Limited data availability, especially
in remote areas, necessitates innovative approaches for efficient model development.
Moreso, the interaction between MPs and unique African species requires tailored
models, and addressing the varied sources of contamination, including both local and
transboundary, remains very crucial. The lack of infrastructure and limited research
funding pose unique challenges for soft computing model development in Africa.
Despite these hurdles, the existing studies demonstrate the potential of these methods
564 J. C. Egbueri et al.

to inform regional environmental and policy decisions and subsequently lead to

advancements needed in this field.

3.3.2 Applications in Asia

Asia, with its diverse and densely populated coastlines, also faces significant chal-
lenges related to MP pollution. Soft computational methods have found broader
utilization in Asia than in Africa, contributing valuable insights and informing effec-
tive mitigation strategies. In a recent study investigating the presence and types of
MPs ingested by fish in coastal waters of the East China Sea, Zhang et al. (2021b)
performed correlation analysis. Le et al. (2023) conducted a one-way analysis of vari-
ance (ANOVA) to determine the variation in MP abundance within the marine sand
sample collected from the Quang Ngai Province, Vietnam. The work conducted by
Nguyen et al. (2022) utilized one-way ANOVA and PCA to examine the distribution
and sources of MPs in Vietnam.
Asian scholars have also applied other advanced methods to detect and clas-
sify MPs in liquids using a liquid–solid triboelectric nanogenerator (LS-TENG)
combined with a deep learning model (Huang et al., 2023). Additionally, Raman
spectroscopy technology coupled with sparse autoencoder (SAE) and SoftMax clas-
sifier framework has been employed for the rapid identification and classification
of MPs in various water environments (Fang et al., 2023). Reflective substrates and
machine learning algorithms, e.g., random forests, have been utilized to accurately
identify and distinguish nanoplastics from other environmental particles, showcasing
potential for effective plastic particle detection, monitoring, and analytical strategies
(Luo et al., 2022).
Weber et al. (2023) conducted a study comparing two deep learning methods
(one using a single model and the other employing one model per class) with the
Rectified Linear Unit function (ReLU) as the hidden layer’s activation function and
the sigmoid function for the output layer. The evaluation aimed to assess the efficacy
of these methods in analyzing MPs in environmental samples. Another study by
Tian et al. (2023) compared multiple machine learning models for detecting MPs
using Laser Directed Infrared (LDIR) imaging, and found that an ensemble ML
model achieved the best performance with a high classification accuracy of 99.5%.
Additionally, Bryant and Ma (2023) used RF and ANN algorithms to predict the
adsorption affinity of xenobiotics on MPs, demonstrating the potential of machine
learning in predicting the adsorption of a wide range of xenobiotics on MPs.
A study conducted by Huda et al. (2022) focused on modelling MP contamination
in soils along the Damai Beach, Sarawak (Malaysia), employing polynomial regres-
sion, principal component analysis (PCA), and machine learning-based regression.
The research successfully predicted the spatio-temporal distribution of MPs, consid-
ering various factors. In Hossain et al. (2023)’s MP study focusing on Sansha Bay,
a Bayesian Structural Time Series (BSTS) model and a decision tree classifier were
employed to predict potential sources and the near-future state of MPs in a sediment
Modeling of Microplastic Contamination Using Soft Computational … 565

core and surface sediments, respectively. The decision tree classifier identified mari-
culture as the main source of MPs. The BSTS model indicated a downward trend in
MPs, suggesting the effectiveness of national and regional strategies in mitigating
MP pollution in the region.
Tran et al. (2023) conducted a study aiming to predict MP quantities in peat-
land sediment samples using easily measurable parameters. Using correlation,
Bayesian network analysis, and three machine learning models (RF, Least-Square
Support Vector Machines (LS-SVM), and Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM)), these
researchers explored associations between physicochemical variables and MP quan-
tities in the Long An Province, Vietnam. Their results revealed significant influences
of pH, TOC, and salinity on the MP quantities and characteristics. Interestingly, the
proposed models exhibited high accuracies in predicting the MP pollution, providing
a foundation for utilizing basic physicochemical variables for effective MP modelling
in peatland sediments.
In the research conducted in Phuket, Thailand, Akkajit et al. (2023) delved into
utilizing transfer learning classification and five convolutional neural networks for
analyzing MPs in wastewater treatment plants. Remarkably, the proposed approach
demonstrated high accuracies ranging from 92 to 96% for classifying the orig-
inal datasets and 94% to 98% for the augmented datasets, emphasizing its effec-
tiveness in analysis of MP morphologies. In Songkhla Province, Thailand, Tham-
masanya et al. (2024) conducted a pioneering study focused on introducing a novel
approach to classify the polymer type of MPs. The study leveraged Faster-RCNN-
FPN and spectroscopic imagery under ultraviolet light, showcasing an automated,
low-cost, innovative, and reliable method employing artificial intelligence for the
MPs detection and classification. Utilizing MP images captured in the field under
UV light for model training/validation, the classification model exhibited a remark-
able precision ranging from 85.5 to 87.8%, offering a high-accuracy, time-efficient,
and cost-effective automated solution for MPs identification and quantification.
The extensive application of soft computational methods in Asia, compared
to Africa, underscores their exceptional ability to address region-specific chal-
lenges effectively. From navigating complex and densely populated coastal zones,
these methods have yielded unique insights, empowering proactive solutions and
suggesting ways to improve waste management practices, implement plastic reduc-
tion initiatives, and formulate more effective environmental policies across the conti-
nent. Asia poses distinctive challenges owing to its diverse ecosystems, industrial
activities, and high population density. Modelling MP pollution in such densely
populated coastal areas necessitates addressing the interactions among urbanization,
waste management practices, and environmental factors. Furthermore, the diverse
riverine systems in the region demand adaptable modelling approaches to effectively
capture the characteristics of MP transport in various hydrological systems.
566 J. C. Egbueri et al.

4 Advances in MP Contamination Modelling Techniques

In recent years, the field of MP contamination modelling has witnessed significant

advancements, with a particular focus on leveraging soft computational methods.
These techniques gradually revolutionize the understanding of MP pollution. Recent
advancements in these methods are driving a deeper understanding of MP dynamics,
paving the way for more effective mitigation strategies and environmental protection.
Recent advancements in soft computational methods applied in the field of MP pollu-
tion modelling have statistical models and machine learning algorithms taking the
lead. Notably, regression and tree-based models, ANNs, fuzzy logic, genetic algo-
rithms, and ensemble methods have demonstrated effectiveness in the field. Apart
from contributing to an enhanced understanding of the fate and distribution of MPs,
these computational tools contribute to the continuous refinement of predictive capa-
bilities for future trends. Undoubtedly, the recent advancements show the field’s
evolution towards more sophisticated, accurate, and dynamic approaches.
Techniques such as ensemble learning and deep learning models enable the inte-
gration of diverse data sources and environmental factors, resulting in more accurate
and robust identifications, classifications, and predictions (Withana et al., 2024; Yan
et al., 2022; Yu & Hu, 2022; Zhen et al., 2023). Addressing the imperative need
for real-time monitoring, advances in data assimilation techniques (Mukonza &
Chiang, 2022) facilitate the seamless integration of observations from sensors, satel-
lites, and field studies into existing models. This integration allows for contin-
uous updates based on the latest information, bridging the gap between real-time
data and model outputs. Advancements in personalized risk assessments signify a
shift from global models to localized assessments that consider specific environ-
mental conditions, vulnerable ecosystems, and populations at risk. The personalized
approach has the potential to empower many local communities and policymakers
with targeted insights that could facilitate more effective interventions and mitigation
strategies. Furthermore, to enhance the trust and adoption of complex algorithms,
recent progress in Explainable AI (XAI) approaches is making models more trans-
parent and interpretable (Başağaoğlu et al., 2022; Yan et al., 2023). Overcoming
the “black box” challenge, these advancements allow researchers to comprehend the
reasoning behind model predictions, with the ability to instill confidence in their
validity and promoting wider acceptance.
Transfer learning, utilizing pre-trained algorithms and past knowledge, accelerates
model development for specific regions or datasets, reducing the need for extensive
training data. In soft computational and MP modelling fields, citizen science integra-
tion (Barrows et al., 2018; Cook et al., 2021; de Haan et al., 2022; Jones et al., 2022),
incorporating data collected by citizens through apps and online platforms, enhances
the accuracy and granularity of predictions, especially in data-scarce regions. These
advancements highlight the dynamic nature of soft computational methods in MP
pollution modelling. Embracing these innovations across disciplines and borders is
crucial for unlocking more of the potentials of these methods to build a comprehensive
understanding and inform effective solutions for a cleaner, healthier environment.
Modeling of Microplastic Contamination Using Soft Computational … 567

5 Challenges in MP Contamination Modelling

Modelling MP contamination with intelligent computational methods poses several

challenges (Fig. 3), reflecting the intricacies of this environmental concern. Despite
the incredible potential of soft computing methods, addressing these challenges
is critical, demanding continuous refinement to confront data limitations, param-
eter uncertainties, and the inherent dynamism of environmental systems. Globally,
data limitations pose a pervasive challenge in MP contamination modelling. Inad-
equate information on MP distribution, characteristics, and environmental parame-
ters hinders accurate/reliable model development, compounded by uncertainties in
key model parameters. This challenge necessitates a clearer understanding of MP
behavior, urging interdisciplinary and standardized data collection procedures. Data
availability across the globe is uneven, particularly affecting regions like Africa
and parts of Asia, where limited research infrastructure and resources lead to gaps
about MP sources, transport pathways, and fate. This scarcity impedes robust model
development and restricts their applicability to diverse global contexts.

Fig. 3 Illustration of the major challenges in soft computational modelling of MPs

568 J. C. Egbueri et al.

Soft computational methods relying on numerous parameters encounter chal-

lenges in determining precise values due to limited data, model simplifications,
and inherent natural variability. This uncertainty impacts their predictions, empha-
sizing the need for careful consideration of confidence intervals. Microplastic data
heterogeneity, ranging from physical counts to polymer types (Ivleva, 2021; Miller
et al., 2021), introduces inconsistencies due to evolving standardized protocols for
collection and analysis. This variability complicates model development and reduces
accuracy in cross-study comparisons. No doubts, calibrating models against real-
world data is quite crucial for accuracy, yet accurately measuring MP concentra-
tions remains challenging. This introduces uncertainties into the validation process,
limiting the reliability of model predictions.
The dynamic nature of environmental systems, influenced by climate variability,
anthropogenic activities, and ecological dynamics, poses a significant challenge in
MP contamination modelling. It is expected that intelligent computational methods
must adapt to accurately reflect real-world scenarios, capturing temporal and spatial
variations, seasonal fluctuations, migration patterns, and changing environmental
conditions. Capturing the dynamicity of MP movement demands real-time data on
ocean currents, weather patterns, and environmental factors. However, the availability
and accessibility of such data vary widely, hindering the development of models for
accurate short-term predictions and immediate mitigation strategies. Factually, envi-
ronmental systems undergo constant changes, driven by factors like climate change,
ocean acidification, and human activities (He & Silliman, 2019), impacting MP trans-
port and fate (Cai et al., 2022). Thus, models for analyzing MP contamination need
flexibility and adaptability to account for these dynamic changes. This poses a signif-
icant challenge for long-term predictions and the models needs continuous updates
and refinements.
The challenges in MP contamination modelling are magnified in regions like
Africa and Asia, where diverse environmental conditions, alongside other factors, add
complexity. Socio-economic and cultural factors influencing plastic use and disposal
practices further contribute to the complexity of these challenges. As stated earlier,
the unique environmental/ecosystem characteristics of Africa and Asia amplify the
challenges faced in MP contamination modelling and scarcity of research focusing
on these regions contributes to data gaps. The diverse sources of MP pollution
complicate the novel modelling process. Thus, integrating local knowledge and
traditional practices into data collection and model development becomes crucial
for overcoming these hurdles and creating impactful, regionally relevant models.

6 Opportunities for Improvement and Future Research

While challenges persist in MP contamination modelling, the future offers oppor-

tunities for improvement through global collaborative research, data sharing, and
standardized procedures. Delving into MP research in Africa and Asia unveiled a
Modeling of Microplastic Contamination Using Soft Computational … 569

critical gap in our understanding, particularly in regards to air pollution. While exten-
sive studies have enriched our knowledge of MPs in soil, water, and aquatic lives,
the atmosphere remains a largely uncharted environmental compartment. Opportu-
nities lie in pioneering investigations and modelling to comprehend the dynamics
of airborne MPs, their sources, transport mechanisms, and potential ecological and
human health impacts. This significant gap in our knowledge hints the need for
tailored soft computational modelling advancements, providing the tools necessary
to unravel the complexities of MP dispersion in the air and offering valuable insights
to mitigate the growing threat of airborne MP pollution in these regions. Embracing
innovation in data collection and model development can illuminate the true extent
of this global challenge, too. Generally, the field presents exciting opportunities
for refining models, promoting interdisciplinary collaboration, predicting trends,
and addressing region-specific challenges, requiring a collective effort to fulfill the
potential of soft computational methods in mitigating MP pollution globally.
Several emerging technologies like remote sensing, satellite imagery, and
advanced sensors promise high-resolution data on MP distribution, which could
lead to more accurate models. Also, advanced machine learning algorithms adept at
handling big data can further refine the predictive capabilities, paving the way for
sophisticated simulations of physical, biological and chemical processes. Collabora-
tion holds the key to unlocking this potential. Standardizing data collection methods
and fostering global data sharing will enable the creation of comprehensive and
reliable models. Citizen science initiatives can play a crucial role, expanding data
coverage in data-scarce regions like parts of Africa and Asia. Additionally, incor-
porating socio-economic and cultural data into models can enhance their predictive
power; thus, acknowledging the significant influence of human behavior on MP
pollution.
Interdisciplinary collaboration cannot be overemphasized. It stands as a basis of
progress in MP modelling. Adoption of interdisciplinary approach is key to tackling
the multifaceted challenges of MP pollution. Further, bridging the gap between envi-
ronmental scientists, computer scientists, engineers, data analysts, specialists, and
policymakers is very essential for building impactful models. Blending the knowl-
edge from the diverse fields would foster more holistic and accurate models. The
robust collaboration would also unlock more funding opportunities and critical func-
tionalities for effective model development and implementation, and empowering
action plans.
Evolving machine learning algorithms may lead to the development of hybrid
models that combine diverse strengths. XAI, an emerging trend, will further
enhance model interpretability, addressing concerns related to the “black box”
nature of certain algorithms. Additionally, there are opportunities in integrating real-
time monitoring systems and utilizing Internet of Things (IoT) devices that can
contribute to the development of dynamic and responsive models that adapt to the
evolving nature of MP contamination. More advancements in computing power will
allow high-resolution modelling, offering a finer understanding of MP transport,
accumulation patterns, and effects on ecosystems and human health.
570 J. C. Egbueri et al.

Future studies can advance probabilistic and Bayesian approaches, to incorporate

uncertainty quantification and enhance MP model robustness and reliability. Future
research in MP modelling should also focus on developing context-specific models,
considering ecosystem variability and pollution sources. Exploring the interactions
between MPs and emerging pollutants is crucial, as is understanding their long-term
effects on ecosystems and human health to inform effective decision-making and
mitigation. Microplastic degradation and transformation models are also essential
for unraveling their long-term fate in diverse environments. Integrating toxicolog-
ical data into models will further enhance the understanding of MP interactions with
organisms and man. This would reveal the potential risks to human and ecosystem
health. Finally, there are opportunities in modelling the effectiveness of remediation
technologies and policy interventions to better inform future development of solu-
tions for MP reduction and removal from the environment. Visually summarized
in Fig. 4 are the opportunities that could be explored in future soft computational
modelling of MPs in the environment.

Fig. 4 Visual representation of the opportunities in soft computational modelling of MPs

Modeling of Microplastic Contamination Using Soft Computational … 571

7 Towards Achieving the Sustainable Development Goals

Unraveling the complexities of MP contamination is crucial, but the true value

lies in actionable knowledge. This chapter serves as a bridge between scientific
insights and actionable solutions, aligning directly with sustainable development
goals (SDGs) and their targets, contributing significantly to their achievement.
Firstly, it aligns directly with SDG 6, which focuses on “clean water and sanita-
tion”. The chapter addresses concerns related to MP contamination in water environ-
ments, with emphasis on the modelling techniques to understand the fate and trans-
port of MPs. This understanding contributes valuable insights for targeted cleanup
efforts, ultimately ensuring the cleanliness of water bodies. In the context of SDG 9,
“industry, innovation, and infrastructure”, the chapter introduces advanced compu-
tational modelling techniques such as statistical models, machine learning and deep
learning algorithms. By doing so, it promotes technological innovation in environ-
mental monitoring and data analysis, aligning with the goal of fostering sustainable
infrastructure and technological advancements.
Furthermore, the chapter contributes to SDG 12, “responsible consumption and
production”. It delves into the modelling of sources and pathways of MP contami-
nation, identifying critical intervention points for reducing plastic waste at its source
and advocating for responsible production practices. This aligns with SDG 12’s aim
of promoting sustainable consumption and production patterns. Considering SDG
14, “life below water”, the review chapter addresses the profound effects of MP
contamination on marine life. By analyzing predictions of MP impacts on diverse
marine organisms and providing insights for conservation strategies, the chapter
directly supports the goal of conserving and sustainably using marine resources.
The advocation for collaborative nature of MP modelling research, involving scien-
tists, policymakers, and industry stakeholders, emphasizes partnerships for the goals.
This aligns with SDG 17, which focuses on “strengthening global partnerships for
sustainable development”. The chapter underscores the importance of collaboration
for achieving broader sustainability goals and fosters knowledge sharing among
diverse stakeholders.
Microplastic contamination is not solely an ecological concern; it poses potential
threats to food security, water security, human health, and the economic viability
of communities. Beyond the specific SDGs, the study highlights the intercon-
nectedness of environmental health, human well-being, water security, food secu-
rity, and economic viability. This chapter represents not just scientific exploration
but a commitment to a cleaner, healthier planet. By addressing MP contamina-
tion, this chapter contributes to creating a planet where the natural environment
and human development coexist harmoniously, paving the way for a future where
both can thrive. It emphasizes the broader objectives of sustainable development,
reflecting the complex relationship between ecological health and human prosperity.
By harnessing soft computational methods to unlock the processes of MP contami-
nation, researchers are empowered to chart a course toward a sustainable future for
our ecosystems and the communities that fundamentally depend on them.
572 J. C. Egbueri et al.

8 Conclusions

This review highlighted the crucial role of soft computational methods in advancing
our understanding of MP contamination. Findings emphasized their effectiveness
in predicting transport pathways, identifying accumulation hotspots, and assessing
impacts on marine organisms. The exploration of statistical models, machine learning
algorithms, and other soft computational approaches revealed strengths and limita-
tions, underlining their relevance in addressing the complexity of MP contamination.
Research in Africa and Asia significantly contributes to a global perspective, empha-
sizing the need to consider diverse environmental settings and data challenges. Soft
computing techniques for MP modelling have found broader utilization across Asia
compared to Africa. While acknowledging certain limitations, this review calls for
continuous updates and further research efforts. The evolution of soft computational
methods demands incorporating the latest advancements, refining models, incorpo-
rating new data sources, and addressing knowledge gaps. Interdisciplinary collabo-
ration is crucial for developing accurate and detailed models, supporting sustained
research endeavors and collective action. Embracing innovative approaches, such
as hybrid modelling and agent-based simulations, researchers can contribute valu-
able insights for interventions and policy decisions. Continued research, particularly
in addressing data gaps and unique environmental settings, is essential for refining
model accuracy and exploring cutting-edge technologies. Future studies can benefit
from closer collaboration with researchers in Africa and Asia, incorporating their
expertise into the global conversation. Addressing the social and economic dimen-
sions of plastic pollution requires further investigation and better solutions. Finally,
the fight against MP contamination demands a global symphony of research, inno-
vation, and collaboration, charting a course toward a cleaner future for our planet
and its inhabitants.

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Application of Geographic Information
System (GIS) and Remote Sensing (RS)
in Microplastic Studies Around Asia

Annisa Utami Rauf, Intan Rosenanda Sofiany, Yuliana Fashani,

Qotru Al Naday, and Sulistiowati

Abstract The increasing issue of microplastic pollution in Asian countries requires

the application of Geographic Information System (GIS) and Remote Sensing (RS)
approaches. This integrated approach empowers researchers to proficiently map,
monitor, and comprehend the dispersion of MPs in diverse Asian landscapes, span-
ning water bodies, soils, and urban areas. This chapter emphasizes the pivotal role of
GIS and RS in pinpointing MPs pollution hotspots and assessing associated environ-
mental and health hazards. The importance of tailored approaches is underscored,
considering challenges like limited data access and regional variations. Leveraging
GIS and RS facilitates the formulation of effective policies and promotes sustain-
able practices to prevent environmental degradation and mitigate potential health
risks linked to MPs pollution in Asia. Good policies will standardize methodologies
for data collection, encourage global cooperation, and integrate spatial insights into
overarching policy frameworks. Beyond strengthening monitoring capabilities, this
holistic approach empowers local communities to actively participate in the fight
against MPs contamination.

Keywords Spatial analysis · Microplastics · Remote sensing · GIS · Asia

A. U. Rauf (B)
Department of Health Behavior, Environment and Social Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Public
Health and Nursing, Universitas Gadjah Mada, Yogyakarta 55281, Indonesia
e-mail: annisaur@ugm.ac.id
I. R. Sofiany · Y. Fashani · Q. Al Naday
MPH Student, Department of Biostatistics, Epidemiology and Population Health, Faculty of
Medicine, Public Health and Nursing, Universitas Gadjah Mada, Yogyakarta 55281, Indonesia
Sulistiowati
Department of Fisheries, Faculty of Agriculture, Universitas Gadjah Mada, Jl. Flora, Bulaksumur,
Yogyakarta 555281, Indonesia

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 581
J. C. Egbueri et al. (eds.), Microplastics in African and Asian Environments, Emerging
Contaminants and Associated Treatment Technologies,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-64253-1_25
582 A. U. Rauf et al.

1 Introduction

Plastics are now a widely used material in practically all commercial products and
have grown to be a significant worldwide commodity. Approximately 6.30 billion
tons of plastic waste were produced from 1950 to 2015 (Liang, 2021). Indonesia,
Philippine, Vietnam, and Thailand are countries major contributors of plastic waste
in Asia (Bosquet, 2023). However, these plastic waste has negative impact on envi-
ronment because it take 20 to 500 years to decompose, and it just gets smaller not
fully disappear (United Nation, 2021). Microplastics (MPs) are generated through the
deterioration of larger plastic objects, typically breaking into small fragments. This
degradation involves various mechanisms, including mechanical breakdown from
exposure to sunlight, wind, and waves, biological degradation facilitated by organ-
isms such as bacteria, and chemical reactions triggered by UV radiation (Abbasi,
2021; Bajt, 2021). In 2017, the European Commission stated that MPs could pose
a threat to marine life and human health due to their size, which allows for easy
uptake and bioaccumulation by organisms. The potential for toxic effects is also a
concern, stemming from the intricate composition of MPs (Laskar & Kumar, 2019).
In marine life, ingested MPs can cause impairment to filter feeders on aquatic animals.
Research conducted in vitro found that the consumption of MPs might increase gut
inflammation and cause localized effects on the immune system (Lusher et al., 2017).
Environmental pollution caused by MPs constitutes a global challenge stemming
from plastic’s extensive production and utilization. The widespread environmental
contamination in aquatic, terrestrial, and atmospheric ecosystems is attributed to the
combination of plastic’s extensive production, low biodegradability, and inadequate
recycling. This phenomenon has resulted in significant repercussions for aquatic and
terrestrial life (Tian et al., 2023). Humans coexist with MPs, inhaling and ingesting
these particles continuously, particularly those with sizes smaller than 5 µm. The
diminutive nature of these MPs renders their removal challenging. As a result, the
existence of MPs not only jeopardizes environmental integrity but also poses a poten-
tial risk to the well-being of both human and animal populations (Auta et al., 2017;
Napper & Thompson, 2020).
Further research is warranted to explore the potential negative impacts of MPs
on the human immune system. Accumulated exposure has demonstrated the ability
to trigger chronic inflammation and induce homeostasis changes in animal experi-
ments (Détrée & Gallardo-Escárate, 2018). Studies on human lung cells have indi-
cated that MPs can activate innate immunity by regulating the expression of specific
genes and proteins involved in the immune response (Chiu et al., 2015). Laboratory
experiments on mice exposed to MPs showed significant effects, including inflam-
mation, disrupted liver metabolism, increased liver damage, and altered gut microbial
composition in diabetic mice.
Understanding the mechanisms that regulate the movement and spatial disper-
sion of MPs in offshore waters is vital for effective control measures. Simultane-
ously, addressing the broader concern of MPs pollution originating from land-based
sources is equally important. Urban runoff, industrial releases, and insufficient waste
Application of Geographic Information System (GIS) and Remote … 583

management play a significant role in the introduction of MPs into marine environ-
ments. To combat the escalating issue of MPs pollution, diverse methods are being
employed, including the application of technologies like Geographic Information
System (GIS) and Remote Sensing (RS). GIS, a computer-based tool, is utilized for
storing, analyzing, and visually interpreting geographic data, aiding in the mapping,
tracking, and comprehension of MPs distribution (Khairunisa et al., 2023).
The use of GIS in the healthcare field began in 1843 in Paris, where it was
employed to analyze cholera outbreaks. Subsequently, in 1854, John Snow continued
to utilize GIS, creating maps to visually represent the distribution of the same cholera
outbreak in London. The first computerized GIS was developed by Roger Tomlinson
in 1963, marking a significant advancement. Since then, GIS has been consistently
applied in health research to analyze the spatial distribution of diseases (Firouraghi
et al., 2022). The RS involves detecting and monitoring an area’s physical characteris-
tics using satellite or aircraft-based reflection and emission radiation. This geospatial
methodology facilitates a detailed comprehension of the spatial dispersion of MPs,
providing valuable assistance to authorities in identifying specific regions for targeted
mitigation efforts, especially for countries with diverse geographical landscapes and
escalating plastic waste challenges.
Rapid economic growth in several Asian countries has resulted in lifestyle
changes, population growth, and increased accumulation of MPs in the environ-
ment. Numerous studies have utilized the benefits of GIS and RS to identify and map
key areas for the efficient control of MPs. This is particularly relevant for nations
grappling with the multifaceted issues associated with the increasing prevalence
of MPs in their evolving environments. The integration of GIS and RS not only
enables the identification of current MPs hotspots but also allows for the tracking
of dynamic environmental processes influencing the fate and transport of MPs over
time. This scientific synergy empowers decision-makers with spatially explicit data,
supporting evidence-based interventions and policy formulations to combat MPs
pollution systematically in the complex and diverse landscapes of Asia.

2 Mapping Microplastic Distribution in Asian

Environments

The worldwide problem of MPs pollution is gaining awareness with the rising utiliza-
tion of plastic in everyday activities. An estimated 80% of plastic products ulti-
mately find their way into the oceans, heightening the likelihood of MPs pollution
in aquatic ecosystems (Rochman, 2018). As the problem of MPs pollution intensi-
fies, different governments and organizations are beginning to mitigate this issue. At
present, studies are primarily centered on assessing the prevalence and distribution
of MPs in various regions, recognizing the potential threats they pose to marine life,
the environment, and human health (Prabhu et al., 2022). Various forms of MPs have
been discovered in several environmental matrices throughout the world (Prabhu
584 A. U. Rauf et al.

et al., 2022). In the Asian region, select nations emerge as prominent contributors
to the global generation of marine litter. This assertion is substantiated by the pres-
ence of eight Asian rivers within the top 10 rankings, signifying their substantial
role as primary contributors to plastic pollution in the Earth’s oceans (Garcia et al.,
2019). A comparative investigation delineated an escalated severity of MPs pollu-
tion within lacustrine ecosystems in designated Asian nations, specifically China
and Saudi Arabia, in contrast to counterparts in Europe, North America, and Africa
(Yang et al., 2022). China, Indonesia, the Philippines, Thailand, and Vietnam collec-
tively account for approximately half of the global marine litter, underscoring the
imperative to address the potential distribution of MPs within this continent (Kumar
et al., 2022).
Before delving deeper into the distribution of MPs in Asia, it is crucial to initially
scrutinize the pathways through which MPs can evolve into environmental pollutants.
This preliminary examination is essential for enhancing our comprehension of MPs
distribution and facilitating the mitigation of their environmental impacts. Figure 1
illustrates the environmental pathways of MPs originating from diverse sources.
The accumulation of MPs in the ocean is primarily influenced by sewage systems,
wind resuspension, atmospheric fallout, runoff, freshwater hydrodynamics, and tides,
as indicated in Fig. 1. The improper disposal of plastic also plays a role in the growing

Fig. 1 The illustration of MPs pathways in the environment from different sources. Reprinted from
Yang et al. (2022). Chemosphere, 286, 131,806, with permission from Elsevier
Application of Geographic Information System (GIS) and Remote … 585

contamination of MPs in the environment. Regions with higher plastic waste genera-
tion, such as urban areas, coastal regions, and rivers, are commonly more vulnerable
to MPs contamination (Amesho et al., 2023). Furthermore, plastic items can be trans-
ported from urban areas to oceans and mountains through atmospheric transport. This
process is affected by precipitation, which impacts the different distribution of MPs
in different areas. Hydrodynamic factors are instrumental in influencing both the size
and distribution of MPs that reach the oceans (Alfonso et al., 2021).
The complexity of the MPs journey from land to sea and their unique optical char-
acteristics pose challenges in studying their distribution and abundance. Tradition-
ally, trawlers have been used to collect MPs samples, serving as the main technique
to describe the distribution and extent of MPs pollution. However, this approach is
considered incomplete and inadequate for capturing real-time conditions (Hanway,
2021). Over time, various methods have been developed to pinpoint the sources of
MPs and track their movement. Certain methods involve the application of GIS
and RS, commonly employed for monitoring the life cycle of plastic materials
(Tran-Thanh et al., 2022). This technology has grown in popularity in mapping
the distribution of MPs across the globe, including the Asian countries.
Research conducted in the Mekong River Basin concluded that the use of GIS and
RS can serve as effective tools for predicting plastic leakage density and identifying
its sources (Tran-Thanh et al., 2022). The utilization of GIS is deemed an innovative
approach for supplying precise geospatial information to address MPs pollution. GIS
facilitates the storage, retrieval, analysis, and visualization of substantial datasets
as required. This capability enables the identification of regions exhibiting a high
abundance of plastic pollution, taking into account the location of data collection
centers (Blanco et al., 2018). GIS maps are valuable for monitoring the distribution
of MPs and can serve as a foundation for decision-making to enhance plastic waste
management (Zulkifli et al., 2022).
Categorically, RS is divided into three major types: spaceborne, airborne
(employing aerial vehicles or drones), and ground-based or lab-based. These classes
involve the utilization of sensors, both passive and active, on board to observe and
analyze the Earth’s surface (Hanway, 2021). This platform has the potential to effi-
ciently conduct MPs mapping on a larger scale and longer term with greater resolution
and more precise maps (Bentley, 2019). It provides spatial and temporal coverage of
the sea surface, enabling the estimation of plastic pollution distribution and enhancing
our comprehension of the presence of MPs in the environment (Garaba & Dierssen,
2018). RS is commonly used to provide information about environmental parame-
ters, such as monitoring seawater quality and temperature during disasters (Ma et al.,
2023). It provides spatial and temporal coverage of the sea surface, enabling the
estimation of plastic pollution distribution and enhancing our comprehension of the
presence of MPs in the environment (Ma et al., 2023). One instrument used in RS is
the Fourier Transform-Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR), which can result in excellent
spatial resolution in mapping MPs (Prabhu et al., 2022). The Synthetic Aperture
Radar (SAR) sensor also properly detected marine pollution by identifying dark
signatures indicating contamination by MPs (Davaasuren et al., 2018).
586 A. U. Rauf et al.

Studies on MPs mapping in Asia are predominantly conducted in China and

are less evenly distributed compared to other Asian countries. An investigation
employing GIS to evaluate the distribution of MPs in Qinghai Lake, China’s largest
inland lake, unveiled the presence of MPs in the lake surface water, flowing rivers,
and lakeshore sediments. The highest abundance was identified in the central part of
the lake. Through mapping, the study concludes that tourism activities played a role
in the presence of MPs in that specific area (Xiong et al., 2018). In East Dongting
Lake, China, a study found MPs in all sediment samples, ranging from 180 to 693
items/kg. Urban areas exhibited higher MP concentrations than rural areas, likely due
to lower human activity in rural regions (Yin et al., 2020). A study in Taihu Lake,
China, discovered MPs pollution in the lake water, sediment, and river water, predom-
inantly in the form of fragments. The research identified elevated MP abundance in
the surface water of the northern, eastern, and central areas of the lake (Zhang et al.,
2021). In the Yellow River Delta wetland, China, the widespread occurrence of MPs
is found in both tourism and protected areas. MPs contamination was found to be
higher in tourism areas, indicating that human activities also influence MPs contami-
nation (Duan et al., 2020). MPs particles were also discovered in samples at Hashilan
Wetland, China. The distribution of MPs was higher in road areas, agricultural fields,
and tourist centers. The polymers identified in the study encompassed polyethylene
(PE), polypropylene (PP), and polystyrene (PS) (Abbasi, 2021). Similar findings
were also found in several countries in the East Asia region. In Hong Kong, a spatial
analysis of MPs revealed their presence in local water surfaces at levels ranging from
67 to 17,182 items/100 m3 . The study also observed fluctuations in the quantity of
MPs, with higher contamination levels during the dry season compared to the rainy
season (Tsang et al., 2020).
In the southern sea area of Jeju Island, Republic of Korea, the examination of
surface seawater samples disclosed the existence of MPs in the form of fragments
and fibers. Notably, more than 53% of the identified polymer types within the MPs
were characterized as PE. Spatial analysis indicated an increasing concentration of
MPs from the south to the north and west (Min et al., 2023). In Japan, researchers
found heightened levels of MPs in four small rivers, characterized by diverse colors
and polymer types, signaling increased pollution levels in comparison to rivers world-
wide. The conclusion drawn was that these particular rivers significantly contribute
to the buildup of MPs in the ocean (Kabir et al., 2021).
Research on the distribution of MPs in the Southeast Asia is also growing. A
study in Tallo River, Indonesia, found that MPs had contaminated the river, as they
were present in all observed samples. The most common types of polymers found
were PE and PP in the form of lines and fractions. MPs in water and sediment
showed a similar spatial distribution, with the river mouth area showing a higher
MPs abundance compared to the upstream area. Seasonal variations influence MPs
abundance, with higher levels during the dry season (Wicaksono et al., 2021). In
the estuary and offshore waters of Terengganu, Malaysia, MPs are predominantly
in the form of fibers and fragments. The concentration of MPs is higher in the
Terengganu estuary compared to offshore waters, attributed to the rising population
density and increased industrial activities in the region (Taha et al., 2021). A study
Application of Geographic Information System (GIS) and Remote … 587

conducted in Laguna Lake, Philippines, revealed variations in the distribution of

MPs in shoreline sediments between the dry and wet seasons. These disparities
were primarily attributed to tidal influences rather than seasonal fluctuations. The
study observed distinctions in the types of MPs, with PE and PS emerging as the
predominant varieties. These variations in MPs types were attributed to a range of
human activities, including fish farming, the utilization of textile materials, and the
prevalence of plastic packaging (Manalo et al., 2023).
Earlier research has also detected the existence of MPs in the South Asia area.
To illustrate, an investigation conducted in the Karnaphuli River in Bangladesh
employed GIS to construct a spatial representation of plastic flow within river
channels. The study revealed that MPs entering the river originated from sources
such as wastewater effluents, drainage ditches, agricultural runoff, storm drains, and
improper disposal (Rakib et al., 2022). Within the West Asia Region, an investi-
gation scrutinized the occurrence and distribution of MPs in two Saudi Arabian
cities through the application of RS and Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) anal-
ysis. The study successfully identified the type of polymer in MPs, revealing that
PP and PE were the prevalent types in both sources (Pico et al., 2021). Additionally,
GIS mapping results display the spatial distribution pattern of MPs in the Caspian
Sea, showing their presence in coastal waters, beaches, and sea surface sediments,
indicating a widespread distribution of MPs at different depths (Nematollahi et al.,
2020).
Based on prior research, it is established that GIS and RS can map MPs pollu-
tion in diverse environments, including lakes, rivers, seas, sediments, and wetlands,
especially when traditional methods are insufficient (Sasaki et al., 2022). By utilizing
GIS and RS, researchers can accurately map the presence of MPs, areas with higher
contamination, sources and pathways of contamination, factors contributing to high
levels of contamination, types of MPs polymers, and enable comparison of contam-
ination between regions. Precise mapping of MPs distribution can serve as a foun-
dation for devising solutions to tackle the issue in Asia. Nevertheless, GIS and RS
technologies are still in the initial stages of development and necessitate additional
research to become effective pollution detectors. The accuracy of RS technology
is influenced by environmental factors, including spatial–temporal variability and
human activities in the sea (Ma et al., 2023). Therefore, integrating RS with other
observation instruments, such as field observations, sensors, and biosensors is neces-
sary to enhance mapping accuracy. If integrated, this technology will be valuable for
measuring contamination and tracking its origins and movement over time (Windeck,
2018).

3 Analyzing Plastic Debris Through Remote Sensing

Remote sensing satellites are intended for worldwide observations, with contin-
uous coverage and consistent data collecting. This method involves utilizing optical
sensing, synthetic aperture radar, hyperspectral imaging, and thermal infrared sensing
588 A. U. Rauf et al.

to directly monitor plastics or approximate their concentrations using surrogate

measurements. They are great tools for monitoring marine trash on a global scale,
covering gaps in limited in situ observations and providing continuous coverage
across wide areas and time periods (Davaasuren et al., 2018; Hanway, 2021; Waqas
et al., 2023). However, the application of these methods for widespread detection of
plastics in the open ocean is still in its early stages.
In Fig. 2, high-resolution multispectral or hyperspectral remote sensing data, with
enhanced spatial and temporal capabilities, have been widely employed for moni-
toring floating marine macro litter, showing advantages over traditional surveying
methods (Waqas et al., 2023). The presence of MPs is intricately connected to the
decrease in the ocean surface roughness induced by wind. Moreover, the concentra-
tion of MPs is correlated with the extent of this reduction. An empirical detection
algorithm is developed using this correlation, allowing the creation of time-lapse
images illustrating global and regional distributions of MPs—a capability that was
not achievable before (Evans & Ruf, 2022). For example, the fluorescence Light
Detection and Ranging (LIDAR) method, employing a 355 nm excitation wave-
length, can effectively identify the fluorescence signal emitted by different types
of weathered commercial plastic samples. This detection ability remains apparent
even when the plastic samples are situated within a layer of natural water, extending
beyond scenarios where they are specifically floating on the surface (Palombi &
Raimondi, 2022).

Fig. 2 Using remote sensing to observe plastic pollution in marine environments. Reprinted from
Waqas et al. (2023). Marine Pollution Bulletin, 197, 115,746, with permission from Elsevier
Application of Geographic Information System (GIS) and Remote … 589

The advent of the Sentinel-2 multispectral instrument signifies a notable enhance-

ment in remote sensing capabilities, offering spatial resolutions of 10, 20 and 60 m.
Functioning across 13 spectral bands spanning 490 to 2190 nm, featuring a 12-bit
radiometric resolution, the instrument confronts challenges in achieving precise esti-
mations of pollutants within the vertical dimension of the water column (Farré, 2020;
Gonzaga et al., 2021; Sakti et al., 2021). The advancement of imaging technology
holds great advantages for vulnerable countries or regions with extensive sea areas.
It enables effective control and monitoring of areas related to environmental health,
contributing to efforts aimed at preventing ecological and biotic damage. In Asia,
countries like China and Japan are actively using remote sensing methods to track
the accumulation of plastic and its derivatives on land and in the ocean (Aoyama,
2016; Hu et al., 2022; Xiong et al., 2019). The extent of these efforts is influenced
by the technological capabilities and readiness of the researchers’ tools. However,
there are still ongoing studies and development processes to address shortcomings,
such as the detection of specific types and quantities of plastic or MPs. In Table 1,
research related to the use of imaginary models and detection of plastic waste in the
environment has been carried out in various countries in Asia.

4 Future and Policy Recommendations

Microplastics pollution has been identified across various media in the Asian region,
and the intricate movement of MPs, transcending boundaries, poses a substantial chal-
lenge (Boodhoo, 2023). The issue has garnered attention from researchers, media, and
society at large, given its potential environmental and health impacts. Stakeholders
at different levels are initiating policy measures to combat MPs contamination in the
environment. However, the complexity and potential for large-scale impacts call for
a coordinated strategy to effectively address this problem (Amesho et al., 2023).
A multidisciplinary approach, involving collaboration at regional and interna-
tional levels, becomes imperative to tackle MPs pollution comprehensively (Prata
et al., 2019). Utilizing GIS and remote sensing technologies enhances the precision
and scope of detection efforts. The application of these advanced technologies aids
in mapping, monitoring, and understanding the distribution of MPs across diverse
landscapes, ranging from water bodies to urban areas (Schreyers et al., 2021; Zulkifli
et al., 2022). These innovative tools not only help pinpoint pollution hotspots but also
provide critical data for formulating evidence-based policies.
Policy development, therefore, should integrate insights from GIS and remote
sensing research findings. The implementation of policies informed by such advanced
methodologies contributes to more effective and targeted interventions. The collabo-
ration model, such as the pentahelix approach, involving academia, business, commu-
nity, government, and media, stands as a promising effort to overcome the challenges
posed by MPs pollution (Hertati et al., 2022). Each sector brings a unique under-
standing of the issue, varying perspectives on potential actions, and different inter-
ests, fostering a more comprehensive and effective response (Boodhoo, 2023). Thus,
590 A. U. Rauf et al.

Table 1 Research using remote sensing approaches for mapping plastic and MPs in Asian
environment
Locations Result Origin of MPs Source
pollution
Tsuruga Peninsula/ The researcher devised a method Improper waste Aoyama
Japan using a histogram of distances disposal, industrial (2016)
from the regression line in scatter discharges, storm
diagrams to identify potential water runoff, and
marine debris pixels. They marine activities
introduced and validated a new
approach employing spectral
angle mapper (SAM). The
effectiveness of these methods is
contingent upon the substantial
size or area of the marine debris,
influencing discernible spectral
changes
Thailand and Laos The features of plastics and the Land-based sources Maharjan
imaging settings affect their et al. (2022)
detection and monitoring.
YOLOv5s is the most efficient
You Only Look Once (YOLO)
model for the Houay Mak Hiao
dataset, with a low computational
cost and a high mAP of 0.81
without the need for transfer
learning
Indonesia Potential regions in Palembang, Waste distribution Sakti et al.
DKI Jakarta, West Java, between the (2021)
Banjarmasin, Delta Mahakam, mainland and the
Palu, and Merauke are river
highlighted by data with a spatial
resolution of 1 km. According to
the analysis, plastic debris may
obstruct river movement. The
flow of rivers in Indonesia that
are directly connected to
estuaries is reduced to 21 m3 /s,
which presents extra difficulties
like flooding during seasonal
rainfall
(continued)
Application of Geographic Information System (GIS) and Remote … 591

Table 1 (continued)
Locations Result Origin of MPs Source
pollution
Hokkaido/ Japan The utilization of the YOLO v3 NA Watanabe
deep-learning et al. (2019)
object-identification algorithm
yields mean average precision
rates of 69.6% and 77.2%,
respectively, for the detection of
submerged marine life and
garbage floating on the ocean
surface
Bohai Sea/China The spatial–temporal distribution Shipping, tourism, Hong et al.
and abundance of MPs in the aquaculture, and (2024)
Bohai Sea in 2022 will be the industries
examined using the successive exploiting marine
projections method (SPA). With resources
a determination coefficient of
0.75 and a root mean square error
of 0.38 items/m3 , the model’s
accuracy was deemed acceptable.
The results showed that the
quantity of MPs varied according
on the season and location on the
surface of the Bohai Sea
Sea of Marmara/Turkey Satellite sensors and bespoke Tourism-related Hu et al.
atmospheric correction revealed industries (2022)
spectrum reflectance properties
of sea snots in the Marmara Sea
up to around 870 nm. Sea snots
have featureless spectral forms
similar to marine detritus,
making them difficult to
differentiate using standard
visible near-infrared (NIR)
optical data unless additional
auxiliary information is present
(continued)
592 A. U. Rauf et al.

Table 1 (continued)
Locations Result Origin of MPs Source
pollution
Xinjiang/ China This work employs cloud Agricultural Xiong et al.
computing and multi-temporal, activities (2019)
multi-sensor satellite pictures to
detect plastic-mulched farms
(PMF) across wide regions,
overcoming previous restrictions.
The created plastic-mulched
farmland mapping algorithm
(PFMA) has an exceptional
overall accuracy of 92.2%, with a
producer accuracy of 97.6% and
a user accuracy of 86.7%
Beijing/China The coverage area of Beijing’s Dust-proof net Chen et al.
dust-proof nets was calculated (2021)
using high-resolution remote
sensing pictures and a U-net
convolutional neural network. A
approximate calculation
estimates that 7.616 × 109 to
3.581 × 1011 MPs collected in
the soil mulched by the
dust-proof nets in Beijing
Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei/ Approximately 1629.68 tons of Plastic gauze Mo et al.
China MPs infiltrate soils via plastic (2021)
gauze, primarily affecting
non-agricultural regions.
Additional model modifications,
incorporating field trials and
regular remote sensing data, are
possible. Plastic gauze’s unique
spectrum may be interpreted
using remote sensing tools such
as Google Earth Engine
(continued)
Application of Geographic Information System (GIS) and Remote … 593

Table 1 (continued)
Locations Result Origin of MPs Source
pollution
Citarum river/ This is the first research to use an Unauthorized Sakti et al.
Indonesia adjusted plastic index (API) and disposal of plastic (2023)
a random forest machine learning waste
technique with Sentinel-2 to
detect illicit plastic trash
disposal. Plastic trash photos
were classified using Pleiades
satellite photography and
photogrammetry from unmanned
aerial vehicles (UAVs).
Validation findings show that the
API is effective at improving the
accuracy of recognizing plastic
garbage
Saigon river/ Vietnam Floating water vegetation, Plastic litter Schreyers
including water hyacinths, et al. (2021)
gathers substantial plastic debris
in tropical rivers. Monitoring this
accumulation involves
employing field techniques like
physical sampling, UAV
imagery, and satellite imagery,
demonstrated in the Saigon
River, Vietnam. This research
assesses the suitability,
spatiotemporal relevance, and
advantages and disadvantages of
these methods for evaluating
macroplastic entrapment in
floating vegetation
Manila Bay/Philippines The application of Sentinel-2 Uncontrolled Gonzaga
imagery revealed that the landfills et al. (2021)
methodology outlined in this
study holds promise for
estimating plastic presence in the
designated area. Despite
acknowledged limitations and
external factors influencing the
results, the Naive Bayes
Classification demonstrated an
ability to estimate a higher
number of potential plastic pixels
(continued)
594 A. U. Rauf et al.

Table 1 (continued)
Locations Result Origin of MPs Source
pollution
Qatar The YOLO-v5 model obtained a Land-based sources Veerasingam
mean Average Precision (mAP) and neighbouring et al. (2022)
of 90% while maintaining countries
processing rates of 2 ms/image.
The quantity of ML near RRI
surpasses that off the coast of
mainland Qatar. According to the
Clean Coast Index, about 61.5%
of sample locations are classed as
‘very unclean’, with greater
accuracy for plastic trash items
India Results indicate spatially varying NA Manohar
proportions of plastic abundance, Kumar et al.
aligning with expected (2023)
proportions. This suggests that
mapping the spatial distribution
of plastic litter abundance is
feasible using airborne
hyperspectral imagery
Republic of Maldives The application of a Local sources Fallati et al.
deep-learning-based software, (2019)
PlasticFinder, facilitates
automatic detection and
quantification of anthropogenic
marine debris (AMD), offering
analysis of UAV-collected
images. In the Maldivian case
study, overall performance was
satisfactory, reaching a PPV of
94%, particularly under better
sunlight conditions

harnessing the power of GIS and remote sensing technologies alongside collabo-
rative efforts can pave the way for impactful policies and sustainable solutions to
combat MPs pollution.
To bolster efforts in addressing MPs pollution, it is crucial to emphasize the inte-
gration of GIS and remote sensing data in policy frameworks. These technologies
provide real-time monitoring capabilities and spatial insights, aiding policymakers
in devising targeted and adaptive strategies (Sakti et al., 2021; Xiong et al., 2019).
Establishing protocols for the collection, analysis, and interpretation of GIS and
remote sensing data ensures a standardized and reliable approach to understanding
the dynamics of MPs contamination. International collaboration and the sharing of
GIS and remote sensing data play a pivotal role in addressing the transboundary
nature of MPs pollution. Regional agreements and partnerships can facilitate the
Application of Geographic Information System (GIS) and Remote … 595

exchange of information and enhance the collective understanding of the issue. Estab-
lishing a centralized database accessible to relevant stakeholders enables informed
decision-making and fosters a coordinated response. Furthermore, the development
of capacity-building programs and training initiatives is essential to equip local
authorities with the necessary skills to leverage GIS and remote sensing technolo-
gies effectively. This empowers communities to actively contribute to monitoring
efforts and ensures a bottom-up approach in tackling MPs pollution. By incorpo-
rating these aspects into policy frameworks, nations can develop a robust and adaptive
response to the pervasive challenge of MPs pollution, emphasizing the significance
of technology-driven, collaborative, and community-centered solutions.

5 Conclusion

The Geographic Information System (GIS) and remote sensing (RS) technologies
stands as a pivotal strategy in addressing the intricate challenge of MPs pollu-
tion across Asia. With the complex movement of MPs disregarding geographical
boundaries, a coordinated, multidisciplinary approach is essential for effective miti-
gation. The pentahelix collaboration, encompassing academia, business, commu-
nity, government, and media, proves to be a holistic and synergistic framework,
leveraging diverse perspectives and expertise to combat the pervasive issue. Policy
measures guided by GIS and remote sensing findings offer a data-driven and adaptive
approach to tackling MPs pollution. Standardizing data collection methodologies,
fostering international collaboration, and incorporating spatial insights into policy
frameworks empower nations to collectively respond to the transboundary nature of
the problem. By emphasizing capacity-building initiatives and community engage-
ment, policymakers can not only enhance monitoring capabilities but also empower
local communities to actively contribute to combating MPs contamination. In navi-
gating the evolving landscape of environmental challenges, the integration of GIS
and remote sensing emerges as a beacon of hope, providing a comprehensive and
technology-driven pathway toward a cleaner, healthier, and more sustainable future
for Asia.

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Monitoring and Assessment Techniques
for Microplastics

Chenhao Zhou, Zhonghao Chen, Mahmoud Nasr, Ahmed I. Osman,

Zhi Ying Lai, Chung Loong Yiin, Bridgid Lai Fui Chin, and Pow-Seng Yap

Abstract The pervasive presence of microplastics in the environment has raised

significant concerns regarding their impact on ecosystems and human health. This
chapter begins by introducing the concept of microplastics, emphasizing their role
as emerging pollutants and their detrimental effects on the environment. The core of
this chapter focuses on the practical aspects of monitoring microplastics. It covers

Chenhao Zhou, Zhonghao Chen—Co-first author.

C. Zhou · Z. Chen · P.-S. Yap (B)

Department of Civil Engineering, Xi’an Jiaotong-Liverpool University, Suzhou 215123, China
e-mail: powseng.yap@xjtlu.edu.cn
C. Zhou
e-mail: times27zhou@163.com
Z. Chen
e-mail: zhonghaochen98@163.com
M. Nasr · A. I. Osman (B)
Nanocomposite Catalysts Lab, Chemistry Department, Faculty of Science at Qena, South Valley
University, Qena 83523, Egypt
e-mail: aosmanahmed01@qub.ac.uk
A. I. Osman
School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Queen’s University Belfast, Belfast BT9 5AG,
Northern Ireland, UK
Z. Y. Lai · C. L. Yiin
Department of Chemical Engineering and Energy Sustainability, Faculty of Engineering,
Universiti Malaysia Sarawak (UNIMAS), 94300 Kota Samarahan, Sarawak, Malaysia
C. L. Yiin
Institute of Sustainable and Renewable Energy (ISuRE), Universiti Malaysia Sarawak
(UNIMAS), 94300 Kota Samarahan, Sarawak, Malaysia
B. L. F. Chin
Department of Chemical and Energy Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Science, Curtin
University Malaysia, CDT 250, 98009 Miri, Sarawak, Malaysia
Energy and Environment Research Cluster, Faculty of Engineering and Science, Curtin University
Malaysia, CDT 250, 98009 Miri, Sarawak, Malaysia

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 601
J. C. Egbueri et al. (eds.), Microplastics in African and Asian Environments, Emerging
Contaminants and Associated Treatment Technologies,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-64253-1_26
602 C. Zhou et al.

sampling and collection techniques, discussing considerations for different environ-

mental matrices such as water, sediments, soils, and biological tissues. Furthermore,
it investigates the various analytical methods, encompassing microscopy-based tech-
niques, spectroscopy, and chemical methods. A thorough discussion of the strengths
and limitations of these methods is provided, enabling readers to make informed
choices for their specific monitoring needs. Data analysis and interpretation are
crucial for drawing meaningful conclusions from monitoring efforts, and this chapter
provides insights into best practices in data processing. It addresses the importance
of data quality, statistical methods, and data visualization in understanding the extent
of microplastic contamination. In addition, it offers a compilation of real-world
case studies showcasing the application of monitoring and assessment techniques
in diverse environmental settings, illustrating the relevance of these techniques in
addressing the challenges of microplastic contamination. The chapter concludes by
addressing current challenges and limitations in microplastic monitoring, presenting
emerging trends and innovations in the field, and suggesting future research direc-
tions. Overall, this chapter underscores the paramount significance of monitoring and
assessment techniques in understanding and mitigating the effects of microplastics
on our environment, thereby contributing to a more sustainable and less polluted
future.

Keywords Microplastics · Collection · Monitoring · Data analysis · Challenges

1 Introduction

Plastic products are highly favored worldwide due to their durability and low produc-
tion costs. The widespread use of plastic products has also created many conve-
niences for modern life (Chen et al., 2020a). However, the high durability and non-
degradability of plastic products often lead to serious pollution caused by plastic
debris to the global ecological environment (Dissanayake et al., 2022). Microplas-
tics are typically defined as any plastic fragment with a size less than 5 mm, and the
lower limit is uncertain (Picó & Barceló, 2019). Microplastic particles can be divided
into large microplastics, small microplastics, and nano microplastics according to
their size. Particles with sizes between 1 and 5 mm are called large microplastics,
particles with sizes between 1 μm and 1 mm are called small microplastics, and parti-
cles with sizes less than 1 μm are called nano-plastics (Tirkey & Upadhyay, 2021).
Meanwhile, microplastic particles have different shapes, such as fibers, particles,
fragments, flakes, and beads (Sharma & Chatterjee, 2017).
In recent years, microplastic particles have been observed in soil ecosystems,
surface water, coastal sediments, freshwater sediments, and various deep environ-
ments worldwide (Ivar do Sul & Costa, 2014; Wong et al., 2020), and microplastic
pollution has become very common. Microplastics often have high durability and
easy diffusion, and can quickly spread and fix in the global biosphere (Osman et al.,
2023; Tang et al., 2021). The issue of microplastic pollution has gradually become
Monitoring and Assessment Techniques for Microplastics 603

a central topic of discussion around the world (Chia et al., 2021). Microplastic
particles can be classified into two types based on their own sources: primary and
secondary (Gupta et al., 2023b). The primary microplastic particles usually refer to
particles used in industry or commerce, such as cosmetics used in the beauty industry
and microbeads used in the medical industry. The secondary microplastic particles
mainly come from the natural weathering and degradation of plastic products, and
indirectly from the oxidation process of larger microplastic particles in industries
such as construction, textile, and agriculture (Gupta et al., 2023b). Considering the
continuous increase in synthetic polymer products, it is expected that the concentra-
tion of microplastic particles will continue to increase in the coming decades, which
will also expand the risks posed to the ecological environment and human health
(Petersen & Hubbart, 2021).
Due to their small size, microplastic particles are easily ingested by organisms,
causing direct physical damage and potential toxic effects (Silva et al., 2018). On the
one hand, the adverse effects of ingesting microplastics on organisms can accumulate
and amplify through the food chain (Razeghi et al., 2021c). On the other hand,
microplastics can adsorb various pollutants and evolve into transport carriers for
persistent organic pollutants and heavy metals present in the environment (Deng et al.,
2021). For example, in soil and sediment, microplastic particles can act as transport
media for harmful substances and interact with organisms or other non-biological
factors (Wong et al., 2020). This will have extremely adverse effects on the health
and various functions of soil, and in the absence of proper treatment, microplastic
particles may exist in soil and sediment for thousands of years. In addition, freshwater
systems such as river water are important carriers of microplastics, and the presence of
microplastics in urban water bodies may pose risks to aquatic organisms and humans.
When high concentrations of microplastics are released into the aquatic environment,
they may pose significant risks to zooplankton, fish, and others (Du et al., 2021).
At the same time, human consumption of organisms from this environment will
have adverse effects on their own health (Anuar et al., 2023). At the same time,
microplastics from different sources are collected and transported together with water
flow, ultimately arriving and accumulating in the marine system (Sun et al., 2022).
In addition, microplastic particles will also be transported through the atmosphere
to remote and primitive areas. For example, microplastics have been reported in
regions such as the Arctic, Antarctica, and the Alps, but in fact, there has been no
direct human input into these regions (Zhang et al., 2022a).
At present, our understanding and awareness of microplastic pollution is not
perfect, and there is still a significant gap and development space (Shruti et al., 2021).
Therefore, it is necessary to adopt reliable and effective monitoring and evaluation
techniques to carry out comprehensive statistics of key data collected from samples,
which can provide practical and useful information data for further understanding
the propagation characteristics of microplastics, and provide effective evidence for
the comprehensive and adverse effects of microplastic pollution on the ecological
environment (Cho et al., 2021). Monitoring and evaluating the uptake of microplas-
tics by biological communities is a challenging and complex task, as research on
604 C. Zhou et al.

microplastics is still in its early stages. The purpose of conducting microplastic moni-
toring and evaluation in the environment is to quantify the correlation and trends of
microplastic pollution, and to determine in detail the main types and dispersion levels
of microplastic particles (Morgado et al., 2021). The characteristics of microplas-
tics usually depend on their own physical and chemical properties, which mainly
include color, shape, size, and density, while chemical properties are mainly based
on the type of plastic (Morgado et al., 2021). Compared with medium and large
plastics, the ingestion of small microplastics often has a more profound impact on
organisms. In other words, the adverse effects of microplastics on organisms are
extremely significant (Wesch et al., 2016).
In fact, there is no standardized procedure established for monitoring and eval-
uating microplastics, which may lead to inconsistent quality and accuracy of
microplastic statistical data (Rodrigues et al., 2018), thereby causing significant inter-
ference in data comparison and analysis between different microplastic studies. For
example, in the study of microplastics in water environments, sample collection and
analysis methods often exhibit heterogeneity and non- standardization, which can
lead to ineffective and reliable data comparison for microplastic studies conducted
in different rivers, and even the microplastic data collected in the same river lacks
comparability (Skalska et al., 2020). Similarly, in the process of monitoring and
evaluating microplastics in the atmosphere, factors such as the location of sample
collection areas, organic matter extraction methods, quality control analysis, etc.
often lead to different quality results and seriously affect the accuracy of the study
(dos Santos Galvão et al., 2022).
Therefore, on the one hand, it is necessary for us to continue to search for real and
reliable monitoring tools to define and examine the formulation of implementation
plans in the monitoring and evaluation process, so that they have a considerable degree
of standardization. On the other hand, we need to develop multi-modal monitoring
and evaluation strategies tailored to local conditions based on the characteristics of
different target areas and microplastic characteristics (Vandermeersch et al., 2015).
This chapter provides relevant and effective information for the monitoring and
evaluation techniques of microplastics. Discussions were conducted on sampling
and collection techniques for water, sediment, soil, and biological tissues in four
different environments, and detailed explanations were provided on the challenges
and precautions that may be encountered during sample collection and preservation.
At the same time, we also provide an overview of various analytical techniques for
identifying and quantifying microplastics, including microscopy-based techniques,
spectroscopy, and chemical methods, and provide a detailed description of the appli-
cable types, advantages, and limitations of these techniques. In addition, this chapter
provides a systematic introduction on how to process and analyze data obtained from
monitoring work, and demonstrates the application of monitoring, and evaluation
techniques in different environments through real work case studies. It is noteworthy
that in order to avoid potential redundancy of information with case studies as shown
in chapters 17 and 18, which focus on case studies in Africa and Asia, this chapter
features case studies from North and South America. Additionally, it discusses the
Monitoring and Assessment Techniques for Microplastics 605

challenges and limitations of microplastic monitoring technology, explores emerging

trends and innovations in this field, and suggests potential future research directions.

2 Sampling and Collection Techniques

The durability of plastics and human attitudes towards their use and disposal have led
to the gradual intensification of plastic waste disposal management issues, as well as
the accumulation and diffusion of such pollutants on a global scale (Courtene-Jones
et al., 2017b). Microplastics (MPs) are a subgroup of plastics with an effective diam-
eter of less than 5 mm (Kang et al., 2019), which often pose potential harm to human
life and the ecological environment (Gao et al., 2022). MPs have become an emerging
pollutant (Muthukumaran et al., 2023). At present, the sampling and collection tech-
nology of MPs is a research hotspot. An overview of methods and equipment for
collecting MPs in various environments is shown in Fig. 1. While providing specific
explanations of the challenges and precautions in collecting and preserving MP
samples, this section also illustrates the effectiveness of these sampling techniques
through practical cases.

2.1 Collection Methods and Equipment for MPs in Various

Environments

2.1.1 Water Environment

The collection of MPs in water is influenced by their distribution, as well as the

sampling location and depth, which together determine the quantity and quality of

Fig. 1 Systematical illustration of the methods and equipment for collecting MPs in various
environments
606 C. Zhou et al.

the samples (Gupta et al., 2023a). The following will introduce common collec-
tion techniques, mainly including filtration, centrifugation, and electrocoagulation
(Osman et al. 2024; Sacco et al., 2023).
Filtration refers to the process of passing water through a filter that filters MPs
based on their size characteristics, effectively capturing MPs in the water environment
(Akarsu et al., 2021). Trawl, as the most common filtering method, refers to the
arrangement of a trawl on a ship, which is submerged in water at a fixed time or route
at a constant speed for towing (Sighicelli et al., 2018). The main types of trawl nets
include Manta nets, Neuston nets, Bongo nets, Plankton nets, etc. (Razeghi et al.,
2021a). In the actual sampling process, it is necessary to determine the appropriate
sampling device based on the characteristics of the water body, for example, when
collecting surface water samples, the Manta network or Neuston network is generally
selected (Schönlau et al., 2020).
Centrifugation is the process of rotating water at high speeds, which gener-
ates centrifugal forces that can cause MPs to move outward at the edges, thereby
distinguishing and collecting MP samples based on density (Grause et al., 2022).
Centrifuge can complete the separation and sampling of MPs in a relatively short
period of time. At present, continuous flow centrifugation technology is regarded as
a technology that can efficiently complete the sampling and collection of MPs from
water bodies (Hildebrandt et al., 2019). At the same time, this technology can selec-
tively collect and sample MPs from the dimensions of particle size and self-density
(Hildebrandt et al., 2020).
Electrocoagulation is the process of applying an electric current to disrupt the
stability and polymerization of MP particles, followed by the collection of MPs
in water through processes such as filtration or precipitation (Liu et al., 2023).
Researchers have made significant breakthroughs and discoveries in collecting MPs
through electrocoagulation. In terms of efficient collection of MPs, better electro-
coagulation reaction conditions include an electrolyte concentration of 0.05 M, an
applied voltage density of 10 V, and an aluminum anode (Shen et al., 2022). In addi-
tion, MPs have a better collection efficiency when the pH value reaches 7.5 (Perren
et al., 2018).

2.1.2 Sedimentary Environment

The MP particles in sediment are very abundant (Cózar et al., 2014). Although exten-
sive sampling techniques have been applied to extract MPs from sediment (Rocha-
Santos & Duarte, 2015), there is no unified standardized approach in sampling and
sample processing methods (Van Cauwenberghe et al., 2015).
Considering sampling accuracy, frequency, and economy, sampling strategies
can be divided into three different types, namely deterministic systems, stochastic
systems, and conventional grid systems (Adomat & Grischek, 2021). Among them,
deterministic systems are sampling work based on specific locations. Stochastic
systems are selective sampling of each subregion based on statistical foundations
while constructing similar subregion random patterns. A conventional grid system
Monitoring and Assessment Techniques for Microplastics 607

utilizes conventional patterns to randomly or deterministically select sampling areas

(Adomat & Grischek, 2021).
In addition, to reduce the impact of pollution, instruments made of stainless steel
or glass are often used during the sampling process (Razeghi et al., 2021a). For
example, a shovel, spoon, trowel or spatula can be used to sample river sediment on
the riverbank. However, equipment such as shovels or spatulas often cannot accu-
rately define the sampling depth and sediment volume (Wang & Wang, 2018), so
using standardized sediment samplers would be more appropriate. Among numerous
sediment sampling devices such as dredgers, grab samplers, and corers, corers have
stronger development potential (Brander et al., 2020a). This device can not only
accurately collect samples on land and underwater in designated areas but can also
be used on hard surfaces where the claws of the sampler are often limited (Adomat &
Grischek, 2021).

2.1.3 Soil Environment

The content of MPs in soil is relatively high (Zhang et al., 2022b). However, the
current understanding of MPs in soil is not comprehensive (Huang et al., 2020), and
there is also a lack of standardization in sampling and collection techniques (Zhang
et al., 2020a).
The commonly used sampling techniques can be divided into random, system-
atic, layered, and composite sampling (Barahona & Iriarte, 2001). Among them,
random sampling can reduce errors caused by human factors and ensure that each
region has the same selection opportunity. System sampling is based on a regular
sampling point pattern to cover the sampling area uniformly. Layered sampling takes
into account the differences between different soil layers. Composite sampling refers
to the process of combining different numbers of sub-samples into a single sample
(Junhao et al., 2021). Taking sampling in farmland as an example, since microplas-
tics are unevenly distributed on farmland and are susceptible to human cultivation,
composite sampling methods are often chosen (Möller et al., 2020). In addition,
to obtain accurate sampling data, it is often possible to combine multiple types of
sampling methods (Junhao et al., 2021).
The sampling tools for soil are similar to those used in sediment, mostly stainless-
steel shovels and soil augers (Zhou et al., 2020), as well as stainless steel corers and
Lenz samplers (Yang et al., 2021).

2.1.4 Biological Tissue Environment

Biological tissues can ingest MPs at different nutritional levels (Wang & Wang, 2018),
thus MPs are abundant in biological tissues (Frias et al., 2014). When sampling MPs
ingested by biological tissues, various methods can be used, and the choice of these
methods will depend on the target species and their habitat (Miller et al., 2021). For
example, various planktonic animals, including jellyfish and algae, can be collected
608 C. Zhou et al.

using the Bongo net (Desforges et al., 2015), while different types of fish can be
obtained using tools such as ocean nets and trawls (Zhang et al., 2017). Crustaceans,
including shrimp, can be obtained through bottom trawls or traps (Lusher et al., 2017),
and bivalves represented by oysters can be obtained through trawls or manual picking
(Vandermeersch et al., 2015). MPs in biological tissues can be obtained by dissecting
organisms and separating the liver, gills, and intestines (Mai et al., 2018). In addition,
when there are significant differences between samples of different biological tissues,
the reliability of the results can be ensured by increasing the sample size (Hermsen
et al., 2018). Comprehensive composite sampling can not only significantly reduce
the differences between detection sites and species but also reasonably evaluate
statistical differences (Miller et al., 2021).

2.2 Challenges and Precautions in the Collection

and Preservation of MP Samples

In the process of collecting and storing MP samples, if appropriate preventive

measures are not taken, it is easy to cause cross contamination. Cross-contamination
refers to the uncontrolled release of microplastics into environmental samples during
the collection and preservation process (Bogdanowicz et al., 2021).
Take the nets used in the collection of microplastic samples as an example, such as
Bongo nets, Manta trawl nets, etc. (Hidalgo-Ruz et al., 2012a). The core parts of these
networks are often made of synthetic fibers, which may exist in the final collected
materials (Mu et al., 2019). In addition, uncleaned sample collection containers
located at the end of the network may also be a source of cross-contamination
(Bogdanowicz et al., 2021).
In addition, special attention should be paid to the storage environment in which
the samples are stored. Due to the presence of a large number of microfiber particles in
the air and their deposition phenomenon (Bogdanowicz et al., 2021), it is necessary to
carry out deep cleaning work on the surfaces of various workbenches with substances
such as ethanol, acetone, and distilled water before use. In addition to cleaning
the instruments and equipment, the hands of the staff should also be wiped (Zhao
et al., 2015). During laboratory work, it is also recommended that experimenters
wear cotton coats or work clothes to avoid fiber interference caused by clothing
(Courtene-Jones et al., 2017a). To achieve a clean working environment, fume hoods
have also been applied in laboratories and processing samples inside fume hoods will
effectively reduce cross-contamination by nearly 50% (Wesch et al., 2017).
Monitoring and Assessment Techniques for Microplastics 609

2.3 Case Study

Currently, the collection of MPs is being carried out in an orderly manner around the
world. Effective sampling techniques are introduced using the collection of MPs in
Dongting Lake and Honghu Lake in China as examples.
Dongting Lake and Honghu Lake are the second and seventh largest freshwater
lakes in China, respectively, located on the south and north banks of the middle
reaches of the Yangtze River. The average depth and maximum depth of Dongting
Lake are 6.39 m and 18.67 m, respectively. Transportation, aquaculture, and tourism
are the main human activities in Dongting Lake (Wang et al., 2018). The average depth
of Honghu Lake is only 1.5 m, and human activities in the lake are mainly aquaculture
(Wang et al., 2018). The sampling equipment used for efficient microplastic collec-
tion in Dongting Lake and Honghu Lake is mainly a 12 V DC Teflon pump. Although
trawl nets with sizes exceeding 300 μm are widely used to collect microplastics in
water (Syberg et al., 2015), considering that they often cannot capture larger MP
particles, this will also cause significant interference in the assessment of MP particle
abundance in the study area. Therefore, the extracted surface water will be filtered
through a stainless-steel sieve with a size of 50 μm (Wang et al., 2017a), and the
collection of MPs will be completed.

3 Analytical Methods

To accurately identify and quantify microplastics in diverse sample types like water
(Johnson et al., 2020; Lee & Chae, 2021; Choran and Oermeci, 2023), sediment
(Bauerlein et al., 2023; Parga Martinez et al., 2023; Soursou et al., 2023), soil
(Fan et al., 2023; Hossain et al., 2023), and biological samples (Malafaia et al.,
2022; Wang et al., 2023a), specialized techniques are essential. In this section, we
explore various analytical methods used for microplastic analysis in detail. These
include microscopy-based approaches such as optical microscopy, scanning electron
microscopy (SEM), and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). Additionally, we
will explore spectroscopic techniques, specifically Fourier transform infrared spec-
troscopy (FT-IR) and Raman spectroscopy, as well as chemical methods such as
pyrolysis–gas, chromatography-mass spectrometry, and thermal analysis.
This comprehensive examination of analytical techniques is crucial for under-
standing the abundance, composition, and sources of microplastics. By assessing the
advantages and limitations of each method, we gain insights into their suitability for
different sample types. This multifaceted approach enables researchers and environ-
mental scientists to enhance their ability to detect and characterize microplastics in
various environmental matrices.
610 C. Zhou et al.

3.1 Microscopy-Based Methods

Microscopy-based methods play a pivotal role in the identification and analysis

of MPs, microscopic plastic particles that pose environmental challenges. In the
quest to understand the impact of MPs on various ecosystems, researchers employ
sophisticated techniques that offer insights into the characteristics of these minute
contaminants.

3.1.1 Optical Microscopy

Optical microscopy stands as a foundational method for estimating the number, color,
size, and shape of MPs in various sample types like water, sediment, soil, and biolog-
ical tissues. Dissection microscopes, preferred over compound microscopes, offer a
greater distance between the specimen and the objective, enabling the use of tools like
tweezers and probes for further analysis of suspected plastic particles. Guidelines for
visual MPs identification, including the hot needle test, are often referenced in studies
analyzing MPs in food. However, the lack of chemical recognition can compromise
accuracy and precision, leading to the potential misclassification of natural organic
and inorganic particles as MPs (Vitali et al., 2022).
Selective staining techniques, such as Nile Red, partially address the chemical
blindness of optical microscopy, enhancing the detection of synthetic polymers (Maes
et al., 2017; Prata et al., 2021). Despite the theoretical resolution limit of 200 nm,
optical microscopy studies on MPs in food rarely report detecting particles smaller
than 20 μm (Devriese et al., 2015; Panebianco et al., 2019; Rochman et al., 2015;
Sparks, 2020). Notably, Renzi and Blaskovic (2018) reported particles as small as 4
μm. Optical microscopes are extensively used for identifying smaller plastic parti-
cles in environmental samples, offering magnification and detailed surface texture
analysis (Fu et al., 2020a; Ghanadi et al., 2024; Jung et al., 2021; Kang et al., 2015).
The highest lateral resolution achievable with optical instruments, following Abbe’s
theory, is defined as D = λ/2NA (Vitali et al., 2022). While the theoretical limit is
200 nm, practical operation limits hover around 1 μm. Optical microscopy provides
crucial information on size distribution, morphology, thickness, topography, degra-
dation stage, and color. However, misidentification challenges persist, especially in
distinguishing microplastics from marine minerals (Girão, 2022).
The advantages of optical microscopy include cost-effectiveness and widespread
availability, enabling visual identification and size distribution analysis. However,
it has limitations in detecting small-sized microplastics and identifying polymer
composition. Wang et al. (2017b) emphasized the morphological classification capa-
bilities of optical microscopy, facilitating the quantification of particle size ranges and
fiber lengths in samples. Nevertheless, caution is advised, as ordinary visual sorting
may lead to misidentification, and factors like sources, types, shape, degradation
stage, and color must be carefully considered, making the process time-consuming
(Hidalgo-Ruz et al., 2012b; Ngozi et al., 2019). Overall, optical microscopy remains
Monitoring and Assessment Techniques for Microplastics 611

a valuable tool with certain advantages and limitations in the comprehensive analysis
of microplastics.

3.1.2 Scanning Electron Microscopy/Energy-Dispersive X-ray

Spectroscope (SEM/EDX)

Utilizing a SEM in microplastic analysis provides visualization of nanometer-sized

particles (Jung et al., 2021). Adding an energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscope (SEM/
EDX) enhances the technique’s capabilities by offering information on the elemental
composition of both organic and inorganic species. Analyzing elemental components
aids in the identification of plastics in environmental samples, with discrimination
of surface structures enabling their distinction from other materials. While EDX
analysis reveals inorganic species, it does not provide hydrogen content, a major
plastic component. Optical microscopy’s resolution limitation at high magnifications
has led to the adoption of electron microscopy (EM), which, with a wavelength
smaller than light radiation, achieves a theoretical resolution of 0.02 nm (Huang
et al., 2023; Jung et al., 2021).
In SEM, the highly energetic electron beam interacts with the specimen, resulting
in inelastic and elastic scattering. Secondary electrons, emitted when part of the elec-
tron beam energy transfers to the specimen, are commonly used in SEM imaging.
Backscattered electrons, resulting from collisions with atoms, vary with the atomic
number, aiding in atomic number-based imaging. Additionally, X-ray emission, crit-
ical for analytical purposes, offers qualitative and quantitative insights through EDX
(Girão, 2022; Reimer, 2013). In studies conducted by Pan et al. (2019), it was
disclosed that elemental analysis using EDX on microplastics demonstrated promi-
nent nitrogen peaks on the surfaces of polystyrene, polypropylene, and polyethy-
lene. This heightened nitrogen presence was identified as a potential indicator of
biomass. The substantial nitrogen content in microplastic samples pointed towards
bioaccumulation, highlighting a robust interaction between living organisms and
microplastics.
SEM–EDX facilitates fast screening of plastic vs non-plastic pellets, detecting
small particles missing visually. Blair et al. (2019c) demonstrated that plastic pellets
exhibit a strong carbon peak, while non-plastic pellets lack this feature. SEM provides
high-resolution topography images, revealing embrittlement due to weathering. Envi-
ronmental scanning electron microscopy (ESEM) allows the analysis of wet samples,
preserving them in a low-pressure nitrogen atmosphere. ESEM-EDX, without sample
coating, ensures artifact-free subsamples for further analysis (Tirkey & Upadhyay,
2021). Wagner et al. (2017) utilized ESEM-EDX as a screening tool, identifying
microplastic residue amidst non-microplastic components. The technique revealed
microplastics with surface-adhered biofilm, mineral crust, and marine organisms,
distinguishing them from mineral particles through the presence of a strong carbon
peak. The integration of these advanced techniques contributes to a comprehensive
understanding of microplastics in diverse environmental matrices.
612 C. Zhou et al.

Advantages of this method include the generation of high-resolution images of

samples with a resolution of less than 0.5 nm. On the other hand, SEM, while
successful in microplastic identification, is a time-consuming process in terms of
sample preparation and observation. Consequently, it is not well-suited for efficiently
identifying a large number of microplastics (Chen et al., 2020b).

3.1.3 Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM)

The TEM serves as a valuable technique for the identification of microplastics,

offering advantages and drawbacks in its application. Unlike SEM, TEM provides
high-resolution images with a resolution as fine as 0.1 to 0.2 nm, enabling the obser-
vation of ultrastructures below 0.2 μm, which are beyond the capability of optical
microscopes. This technique involves transmitting an accelerated and focused elec-
tron beam through a thin sample, allowing for the assessment of chemical properties,
crystal orientation, electronic structure, and general electron absorption (Caldwell
et al., 2022; Zhang et al., 2023b).
TEM has found recent integration with fluorescent dyes, providing valuable fluo-
rescent data overlaid on TEM images for chemical characterization (Samanta et al.,
2022). While TEM has advantages, such as a resolution of tens of thousands to
millions of times magnification, it has limitations in terms of expense and time
consumption (Zhang et al., 2023b). Additionally, the technique requires delicate
sample preparation and may introduce artifacts. The electron beam interacts with
the sample, generating elastically or inelastically scattered electrons, and detectors
collect this signal to produce detailed images (Bonfanti et al., 2021).
Despite its numerous applications in morphological characterization and size
determination of nanomaterials, TEM has limited utility in detecting microplas-
tics due to the amorphous nature and elementary composition of polymers. Organic
elements exhibit weak contrast in TEM analysis, requiring the staining of microplas-
tics with heavy elements to enhance detection efficiency. However, these stains may
impact the chemical composition and structure of polymers. Moreover, TEM has
constraints related to the restricted thickness of particles for valid analysis, leading
to its infrequent use in microplastic characterization (Kalaronis et al., 2022; Mariano
et al., 2021a).
Despite these capabilities, challenges persist in the identification of different types
of plastics, as many share similar electron densities (Singh & Kumar, 2024). In
conclusion, while TEM is a powerful technique for high-resolution microplastic
characterization, researchers must navigate its advantages and limitations, addressing
factors such as expense, time consumption, and sample preparation intricacies.
Monitoring and Assessment Techniques for Microplastics 613

3.2 Spectroscopy-Based Methods

Spectroscopy-based methods are pivotal in the precise analysis of microplastics,

offering detailed insights into their chemical composition. Two prominent tech-
niques are Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR) and Raman spectroscopy.
These methods, with their distinct advantages and applications, play a crucial role
in unravelling the complexities of microplastic pollution, contributing significantly
to environmental research and understanding of plastic contaminants.

3.2.1 Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FT-IR)

FT-IR spectroscopy, a widely employed analytical technique for identifying organic

materials, has recently gained prominence in MP pollution research. FT-IR proves
invaluable in determining the chemical composition of unknown plastic fragments,
comparing IR spectra for reliable identification. This technique becomes particu-
larly valuable in assessing changes in chemical bonds typical of MP aging, offering
insights into weathering indexes representing polymer degradation (Campanale et al.,
2023; Losacco et al., 2022; Veerasingam et al., 2020). For instance, the carbonyl index
serves as a vital indicator, reflecting carbonyl group formation during polypropylene
(PP) and polyethylene (PE) photo or thermo-oxidation. These groups, particularly
the main photo-absorbing species (C = O), trigger reactions due to UV exposure
(Almond et al., 2020; Campanale et al., 2023).
Thompson et al. (2004) first utilized FTIR spectroscopy for analyzing microplas-
tics in marine sediment samples, demonstrating its efficacy in identifying and char-
acterizing microplastics and differentiating between polymers. Over time, FT-IR has
become a cornerstone for detecting microplastics in various environmental samples
(Chen et al., 2020d; Kedzierski et al., 2019; Xu et al., 2019). Environmental studies
extensively employ FTIR to identify and quantify microplastics in water, sediment,
and biota samples (Kedzierski et al., 2019; Miserli et al., 2023; Rathore et al., 2023;
Yu et al., 2019). While FT-IR has proven efficacy, it does have limitations, particu-
larly in identifying mixtures of different plastic types and very small microplastics.
The method requires expertise and proper equipment maintenance (Andoh et al.,
2024). Several methodologies, including focal plane array (FPA)-based reflectance
FT-IR (FPA/FT-IR) (Tagg et al., 2015), attenuated total reflectance (ATR)/FT-IR
spectroscopy (Tsang et al., 2017), and micro-FT-IR (Cai et al., 2017), have been
employed to surmount these challenges. These investigations not only highlight the
adaptability of FT-IR but also underscore its efficiency and speed in detecting and
characterizing microplastics across diverse environmental samples, as evidenced by
their valuable findings (Cai et al., 2017; Tagg et al., 2015; Tsang et al., 2017).
In conclusion, FT-IR spectroscopy stands as a robust tool in microplastic research,
contributing significantly to the understanding and identification of these environ-
mental contaminants. Its applications extend across various environmental matrices,
making it a cornerstone in the field. The technique’s continuous refinement and
614 C. Zhou et al.

adaptation demonstrate its vital role in addressing environmental challenges related

to microplastics.

3.2.2 Raman Spectroscopy

Raman spectroscopy, a non-destructive analytical technique, has emerged as a precise

method for identifying MPs in various environmental samples. By leveraging the
frequency shift of inelastically scattered light based on the Raman effect, this tech-
nique accurately determines the chemical composition of unknown plastic fragments,
showcasing its high reliability. The vibrational modes of polymers obtained through
Raman spectroscopy allow for the identification of MPs, and their applicability
extends to subcellular levels in biological tissues (Murugan et al., 2023).
Raman spectroscopy studies have demonstrated its efficiency in swiftly analyzing
MPs in different contexts. Zada et al. (2018) efficiently identified 88 MPs among
12,000 particles per kg in Rhine estuary sediments in less than five hours, utilizing
stimulated Raman scattering. Wolff et al. (2019) identified MPs in the form of parti-
cles and fibers through Raman micro-spectroscopy after chemical and physical purifi-
cation steps. Kniggendorf et al. (2019) employed Raman spectroscopy to identify
MPs in tap water, while Schymanski et al. (2018) found MPs in packaged drinking
water and beverage cartons using micro-Raman spectroscopy. Despite its advantages,
Raman spectroscopy has some drawbacks. The fluorescent nature of samples may
render Raman spectra interpretation challenging, and baseline variations induced by
the laser’s fluorescence effect could occur. Purification of environmental samples is
recommended to mitigate these challenges (De-la-Torre et al., 2023).
Additionally, Surface Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy (SERS) enhances the
weak Raman signal by utilizing nanoscale roughened metal surfaces. The tech-
nique combines plasmonic and Raman scattering, allowing for the amplification
of Raman signals. SERS is particularly advantageous in quantifying microplas-
tics, providing molecular information about polymeric composition with cost-
effectiveness. However, it has some limitations, such as potential damage to parti-
cles by the laser beam, susceptibility to interference from biological material, and
time-consuming procedures (Dey, 2022).
In conclusion, Raman spectroscopy and its advanced applications, like SERS,
offer valuable insights into the identification and quantification of microplastics.
Despite some limitations, their unique capabilities make them indispensable tools
in environmental research, contributing significantly to our understanding of plastic
pollution.

3.3 Chemical Methods

Chemical methods play a pivotal role in microplastic analysis, offering detailed

insights into their composition, polymer types, and additives. Techniques like
Monitoring and Assessment Techniques for Microplastics 615

pyrolysis gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (Pyr-GC/MS) and Thermal Anal-

ysis contribute to a comprehensive understanding of microplastics in diverse
environmental samples.

3.3.1 Pyrolysis Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (Pyr-GC/

MS)

Pyr-GC/MS stands out as a valuable method for microplastic analysis across diverse
environments. Offering advantages like minimal sample preparation and high sensi-
tivity, it enables the identification of microplastics’ chemical composition, polymer
types, and additives. The technique involves the analysis of thermal degradation
products unaffected by additives, distinguishing it from Raman spectroscopy (Fries
et al., 2013; Löder & Gerdts, 2015; Kappler et al., 2018; Lee et al., 2023).
Being a destructive thermo-analytical method, Pyr-GC/MS thermally decomposes
microplastic samples under defined conditions, allowing simultaneous analysis of
multiple particles and the detection of plastic additives with high sensitivity. However,
its application involves complex data processing, exhibits variable limits of detection,
and necessitates sample preconcentration due to the small sample amounts used
(Huang et al., 2023; Lee et al., 2023; Picó & Barceló, 2020; Santos et al., 2023).
To ensure the reliability of Pyr-GC/MS for quantifying microplastics, studies have
used virgin microplastic standards to correct matrix effects and develop identification
and quantification methods. This involves selecting specific markers or indicator ions
for the plastic types under investigation and interpolating peak areas to determine
microplastic concentrations in environmental samples (Okoffo et al., 2020; Toapanta
et al., 2021). However, the influence of weathering on the accuracy of microplastic
quantification using Pyr-GC/MS has not been fully investigated. Weathering can
alter the chemistry, crystallinity, and morphology of polymers, potentially leading to
over- or under-estimation of microplastic concentrations (Toapanta et al., 2021).
The integration of pressurized liquid extraction (PLE) with Pyr GC/MS is
a promising method for extracting polymers such as polyvinyl chloride (PVC),
polystyrene (PS), polypropylene (PP), poly-(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA), and
polyethylene (PE) from complex environmental samples. In addressing interfer-
ence challenges with environmental samples, double-shot pyrolysis coupled with
PLE is employed, involving two temperature ranges in GC operation. The lower
temperature step facilitates the examination of low molecular components, while
the higher temperature enables the total fragmentation of higher molecular weight
polymers. Incorporating size fractionation before extraction enhances precision by
providing size profile distributions, which are crucial for eliminating unnecessary
matrix particle backgrounds and segregating samples based on sizes (>500 and <
500 μm). This combined approach offers a robust solution for precise environmental
sample analysis, allowing specific polymer extraction and detailed examination of
molecular components and size variations (Dierkes et al., 2019; Fuller & Gautam,
2016; Okoffo et al., 2020; Adhikari et al., 2022).
616 C. Zhou et al.

3.3.2 Thermal Analysis

Thermal analysis techniques, such as thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) and differ-

ential scanning calorimetry (DSC), can be used to characterize microplastics based
on their thermal properties. Thermal analysis can complement other identification
techniques and provide additional information about microplastic samples. However,
it does not offer direct identification of polymer types and is more suitable for bulk
analysis rather than individual particle identification.
TGA is a powerful thermal analysis method that gauges sample weight loss during
controlled heating in a programmed gaseous environment (Yu et al., 2019). When
combined with instruments like FTIR (Cho et al., 2023), DSC (Abbasi et al., 2023),
and GC–MS (Duemichen et al., 2014), TGA becomes a robust tool for characterizing
thermal properties and decomposition products of samples. Dumichen et al. (2015)
devised a pretreatment-free method for quantifying PE microplastics in complex
environments using TGA-GC–MS. TGA-FTIR, employed in material and biomass
studies, continuously scans pyrolysis gas products to monitor compositional changes
(Odochian et al., 2013). Coupling TGA with DSC offers advantages from both
thermal techniques (Chabros et al., 2019). Furthermore, the combination of TGA
with solid-phase extraction (SPE), subsequently linked to thermal desorption gas
chromatography-mass spectrometry (TDS-GC–MS), provided improved resolution
and accommodated larger sample sizes in comparison to DSC and Pyr-GC–MS. This
approach also aids in overcoming the limitations associated with Raman spectroscopy
(Samanta et al., 2022).
DSC is a thermal analysis technique employed to investigate physical and chem-
ical changes, such as melting, crystallization, and glass transition, due to phase trans-
formations and exothermic or endothermic phenomena. It boasts easy calibration,
high sensitivity for analyzing thermodynamic properties, and applicability in plastic
identification (Majewsky et al., 2016; Zhang et al., 2023a). Requiring only a small
sample (about 1 to 20 mg) and avoiding complex data processing, DSC stands as a
valuable method in thermal analysis. It examines thermodynamic properties, transi-
tion temperatures, and enthalpy/entropy changes to verify polymer characteristics,
which is particularly useful for identifying specific primary microplastics like PP and
PE microbeads with available reference substances (Zainuddin & Syuhada, 2020).
While capable of measuring microplastic mass, DSC has limitations when overlap-
ping peaks occur or when analyzing plastics with varied melting temperatures like
PS, Polycarbonate (PC), acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS), and PMMA.
In conclusion, the monitoring and assessment of microplastics require specialized
techniques to identify and quantify these particles in various environmental matrices
accurately. The analytical methods discussed in this section provide valuable insights
into the abundance, composition, and sources of microplastics. Each method has
its advantages and limitations, and researchers must carefully consider their suit-
ability for different sample types. By employing a multifaceted approach, scientists
can enhance their ability to detect and characterize microplastics, contributing to a
comprehensive understanding of their impact on ecosystems.
Monitoring and Assessment Techniques for Microplastics 617

4 Data Analysis and Interpretation

The data obtained from the monitoring process regarding microplastics (MPs) is
crucial for monitoring and assessing the risks of MPs in the environment (Hermsen
et al., 2018). However, faced with the large amount of data provided by modern
analytical methods, manual evaluation by experts is already at a disadvantage (Renner
et al., 2019). At the same time, many problems are often encountered in the process of
data analysis and interpretation, which may affect the accuracy or information value
of the final results (Underwood et al., 2017). Therefore, it is necessary to consider
the data processing methods and evaluation strategies fully. This section provides an
overview of the extraction and processing of data obtained in monitoring work, as
well as the different statistical methods applied in sample data processing, as shown
in Fig. 2, and discusses the importance of data quality and accuracy in drawing
meaningful conclusions.

4.1 Data Extraction and Processing

Characterizing MPs is crucial for the reliable interpretation of analysis results in

order to better understand the potential environmental impacts of MPs in ecosystems
(Moura et al., 2023). The characterization of MPs can be roughly divided into four
categories, namely polymer identification, particle size comparison, surface area
estimation, and evaluation of crystallinity and glassiness. The above characterization
will obtain thermal performance parameters, including MP type, particle size range,
particle simulated surface area, and crystallinity, melting temperature, etc.
The identification of polymers can determine their composition, and different
types of MPs can be evaluated based on their composition. At the same time,
polymer components play an important role in determining the adsorption of organic
compounds (Guo et al., 2019). Often, different types of MPs will involve different
adsorption mechanisms of organic compounds (Atugoda et al., 2021). The compar-
ison of MP particle size is mainly used to determine the range of particle sizes that

Fig. 2 A detailed representation of different statistical methods applied in sample data processing
618 C. Zhou et al.

make up MPs. The size of MP particles plays a significant role in adsorbing microp-
ollutants (Pestana et al., 2021), and usually, smaller particles have better adsorption
capacity compared to larger MP particles. Therefore, the importance of MP size
in data interpretation is self-evident. The estimation of the surface area of MPs is
mainly used to determine the strength of the interaction between organic compounds
and MPs. Materials with larger surface areas typically exhibit better adsorption
capacity for organic compounds, as larger surface areas often have more binding
points (Moura et al., 2023). In terms of evaluating crystallinity and glassiness, MP
polymers produced in amorphous regions often have stronger adsorption properties
compared to crystalline MP polymers. X-ray diffraction technology can usually be
used to evaluate the crystallinity inside MPs. If this technology finds that the higher
the peak, area, and other indices, the higher the crystallinity of such MP materials.
In addition, the standard error between samples is often included in the calculation,
which is the arithmetic square root of the variance of the samples. This parameter
can well reflect the degree of dispersion of MP samples. If there is a significant
difference in the amount of MPs in different samples, it will increase the variance
value of this group of samples, leading to a relatively large standard error value.
Similarly, under the condition of consistent variance values, the smaller the sample
size, the greater the standard error. Therefore, the more samples collected, the more
accurate the monitoring and evaluation of MPs in the target area can be.
When analyzing standard error results, two types of errors usually occur (Under-
wood et al., 2017). The first mistake is to assume that two samples are inconsistent
based on the differences between them, but in fact, there is no significant difference
in the MP content in the area where these samples were collected. Simultaneously, it
was determined that there were differences in the conditions between these samples,
such as in aquaculture areas and non-aquaculture areas. On the contrary, the second
error is due to the inability to accurately identify subtle differences between samples,
leading to the erroneous belief that there is no difference in MP content between aqua-
culture and non-aquaculture areas. In fact, there may be differences in MP content
between the two regions. When the sample cannot represent the true situation of
the collected area, such as large sample variance and small sample size, the above
two errors may occur simultaneously. In addition, monitoring and evaluating MPs
will involve multivariate data. Multivariate data is a synchronous analysis of several
environmental variables, which often have complex connections between them. It
is usually possible to conduct accurate univariate analysis to make better judgments
based on the assessment of expected differences.
Monitoring and Assessment Techniques for Microplastics 619

4.2 Data Processing Methods

4.2.1 Control Analysis Methods

The control analysis method based on statistical analysis is widely used for compar-
ison and control between sample data (Akoueson et al., 2020). The commonly used
control analysis methods are t-tests and Bayesian regression models.
The t-test is mainly used to identify the abundance of MP particles between
the sample group and the control group (Su et al., 2019). Normally, independent
Welch t-tests can be used to analyze normally distributed data. On the one hand, the
Mann–Whitney test can be used to analyze abnormal data, and on the other hand, the
Shapiro–Wilk normality test can be used to evaluate normality (Dawson et al., 2023).
In addition, data analysis work can be carried out using software such as GraphPad
Prism and RStudio.
Bayesian regression analysis allows for direct calculation of the color, shape,
size, and various related uncertainties of MP particles between the sample group
and the control group. The shape and size evaluation of MP particles can usually
be evaluated using models with gamma distribution and logarithmic linkage, while
color and polymer evaluation can be evaluated using models with classification and
logical linkage (Dawson et al., 2023).

4.2.2 Data Correction Methods

In the analysis of control data, data correction methods are usually used, and common
data correction strategies include subtraction, spectral similarity, and detection limit/
quantification limit method (LOD/LOQ).
Subtraction can be divided into total subtraction and average subtraction. Total
subtraction refers to the total number of sample items minus the number of items
in the control, while average subtraction refers to the average value of total sample
items minus the average value of items in the control.
The spectral similarity method typically requires highly consistent polymer purity
to generate relatively high-quality spectra. However, when analyzing environmental
MPs, the applicability of the spectral similarity method in data correction is often not
high due to factors such as biological pollution, self-degradation, and non-standard
size (Zvekic et al., 2022).
LOD is usually used to test low-content MP samples, which can to some extent
measure the lowest parameter values of the samples, while LOQ refers to the stable
and accurate testing ability of various parameter values of MP sample groups.
620 C. Zhou et al.

4.2.3 Numerical Simulation Methods

Various numerical simulation-based models have been continuously proposed to

address the emission issues of MPs. According to the concept of the MP cycle
(Rochman & Hoellein, 2020), the emission and transportation of atmospheric MPs
are important components of the global MP cycle. Therefore, current numerical
models mainly focus on the MPs present in the atmosphere. The commonly used
models include the Hybrid Single Article Lagrangian Integrated Trajectory model
(HYSPLIT model), Greenhouse Gas Air Pollution Interactions and Synergies model
(GAINS model), and Community Earth System model (CESM model).
The HYSPLIT model is mainly used to simulate the trajectory of atmospheric
envelope movement. This model can analyze the sources of MPs in the atmosphere
and numerically and proportionally evaluate various sources (Wang et al., 2020).
However, when facing complex atmospheric dynamics problems, the simulation
results of the HYSPLIT model often have a lot of uncertainty.
The simulation of atmospheric MPs using the GAINS model is mainly based
on the statistical data of energy and industry provided globally, as well as the air
pollutant emission inventories of various countries. Taking the calculation of road
MP emissions as an example, the GAINS model can effectively carry out simulation
calculations based on emission data of the target area, vehicle operating distance,
and specific emission ratios (Evangeliou et al., 2020). The CESM model is mainly
used to evaluate the deposition of MPs in the global atmosphere, and its resolution
is high (Brahney et al., 2021).
In the CESM model, to address the size variation caused by differences in the
lifespan of MP particles, MPs are classified into six different diameter tracer cate-
gories and added to the model library. These six diameters are 0.3, 2.5, 7, 15, 35, and
70 μm, respectively (Brahney et al., 2021). The CESM model is considered to have
a strong guiding role in the study of atmospheric MPs, especially in remote areas
where sampling is difficult (Luo et al., 2022a).

4.3 The Significance of Data Quality and Accuracy

When analyzing MP samples in the environment, the lack of standard protocols

and corresponding quality assurance frameworks can lead to unreliable and non-
repeatable research results (Lu et al., 2021). Relevant quality standards should be
established in sampling, laboratory sample analysis, analysis methods, and other
aspects to ensure the effectiveness of each study. At present, our understanding of
MPs is not perfect, and the lack of quality assurance data often means that different
quality data will be generated (Löder & Gerdts, 2015). The spread of erroneous
data will affect various MP data reporting and evaluation standards. Only under the
premise of ensuring data accuracy can standardized documents on the effectiveness
evaluation of MPs be generated, which facilitates researchers to conduct fair and
detailed evaluation work (Kase et al., 2016).
Monitoring and Assessment Techniques for Microplastics 621

5 Case Studies

5.1 San Francisco Bay

In year 2015, San Francisco Bay had conducted an initial screening investigation into
microplastics (Sutton et al., 2016). It was proposed that the contamination level had
exceeded those observed in other larger developed water bodies and concluded that it
is mandatory to conduct a critical regional study to depict the microplastic in the Bay,
and having an in-depth understanding of the entry pathways, analyse the circulation
patterns influencing the spatial variations, and assess the transport of microplastics
to the ocean. To launch the essential baseline data and propose solutions, the San
Francisco Estuary Institute and the 5 Gyres Institute collaborated with the analytical
expertise from the Rochman Lab at the University of Toronto to conduct an extensive
regional study on microplastic pollution in the main estuary (Klasios et al., 2021;
Miller et al., 2021; Rebecca et al., 2019; Zhu et al., 2021). This project was conducted
in 3 years employed different sampling and analysis techniques to have an in-depth
understanding of the anthropogenic microplastics in the area of the San Francisco
Bay and next to National Marine Sanctuaries.
In year 2021, Miller et al. (2021) provided an overview of suggested optimal
approaches derived from the thorough evaluation of microplastics in various compo-
nents of the San Francisco Bay ecosystem inclusive of water, dement, biota, urban
stormwater runoff, and wastewater sewage. Additionally, the discussion covers the
present microplastic which was present in the shallow water within the three National
Marine Sanctuaries that are hydrologically connected to the bay. Standard methods,
quality assurance or control practices for the microplastics evaluation was initiated
by these following authors (Brander et al., 2020b; Hermsen et al., 2018; Koelmans
et al., 2019; Silva et al., 2018). The standard method is used to categorize and compare
the concern area and trends to formulate policy and necessary action plans. Imple-
menting quality assurance and quality control measures allows researchers to scruti-
nize disparities in microplastic analyses, differentiating between statistically signif-
icant variations detected in the field and those that merely result from variances in
collection and analysis methods. The adoption and adherence to standardised proce-
dures and quality assurance and quality control protocols support a comprehensive
evaluation of management actions, guaranteeing their efficient execution in locations
where they can have the most substantial influence. The advantage of this study is
that it allows multiple sampling and various analysis techniques to be used such as for
better understanding and having various characterization on the microplastics in this
location (Miller et al., 2021). Figure 3 illustrates the location of the San Francisco
Bay and Tomales Bay where the monitoring and sampling tests were conducted for
this research. In this figure, the surface water trawls were conducted in both wet
and dry seasons as part of the trawl samples. meanwhile, the watershed samples for
stormwater were indicated in the figure.
The lesson learnt from this research were on the sample site selection and field
sampling, laboratory analysis, and reporting results. For the sample site selection,
622 C. Zhou et al.

Fig. 3 Site location of San Francisco Bay where the assessment of the microplastic were
investigated. Reproduced with permission from Miller et al. (2021). Copyrights 2021 Elsevier

it was proposed to have a truly representative sampling via probabilistic sampling

with sufficient number of sample size meanwhile the trend analysis would be suit-
able for targeted sampling. Nevertheless, the high cost for laboratory analysis on the
microplastic is still the primary concern in such research. Hence, thoughtful plan-
ning on maximizing the utility of a limited number of samples. This analysis on
cost and benefit aspect becomes even more crucial, particularly when accounting
for the substantial amount of quality assurance samples recommended, emphasizing
the necessity for computerized methods. To resolve this, a well-planned design for
trend monitoring is essential which considering the various variables such as the
season, tidal stage, current, and other spatial and temporal aspects that are antici-
pated to impact concentrations. Hence, in this research, their main goal is to an initial
dataset to serve as a foundation for subsequent monitoring. This dataset will serve
as a reference for future sampling endeavors aimed at identifying variations among
sites and over time. Meanwhile, for the field sampling, it was suggested by Miller
et al. (2021) that the evaluation of the smaller particles is more essential to relate
the observation of the toxicity testing existence. This is further explained that more
particles will be accumulated in the provided sample volume based on the smaller
Monitoring and Assessment Techniques for Microplastics 623

range of particle size (Covernton et al., 2019). It is also emphasized the mesh size of
sieves along the different matrices is essential to enable evaluations using uniform
operational size groups. For comparison with other earlier measurements, it is crucial
to employ methods that align with those used in prior studies or the ones that were
reported in relevant literature review. It was also suggested to employ bulk grab
samples when collecting fibers to simplify the collection and analysis process, mini-
mizing the risk of sample contamination and ensuring that fiber samples do not pass
through filters with small pore sizes. It was also learnt that performing small-scale
pilot studies before implementing methods is crucial for calibration and improvement
by establishing expected microplastic concentrations. And also, assessing the vari-
ability in observed concentrations can be improved by taking duplicate samples at
approximately the same time and location. For the laboratory analysis, the investiga-
tion of the microplastics in environmental samples requires laboratory expert owing
to the widespread presence of related contamination sources and the necessity for
chemical identification, frequently requiring multiple techniques. For the past few
years, analysis methods have rapidly advanced from visually identifying probable
plastic particles to adopting material identification methods such as spectroscopy,
for more accurate microplastic identification. Few authors such as Cowger et al.
(2020); Hung et al. (2021); Primpke et al. (2020) had conducted intensive review on
the various analytical techniques involving microplastic measurement and analysis.
For the reporting results, it was concluded that there are still not fix methods for
microplastic analysis particularly for the environmental media (Miller et al., 2021).
Miller et al. (2021) had incorporated the proposed reporting guidelines that was
established by Cowger et al. (2020) with the addition of the particle count instead
of the total mass or volume which was commonly used in the larger trash above
5 mm in the reporting. This reporting approach had provided information on the
current analytical methods, facilitating the relationship with the toxicity studies by
enabling the particle types concentration calculations. Nevertheless, Miller et al.
(2021) had recommended to provide ample of information for others to convert data
into commonly used units. And also, it was also highlighted that the development of
the toxicity studies and real-world exposures relationship is essential, however, many
current monitoring studies lack details on lower or upper size limits, often focusing
solely on the focused size class (Koelmans et al., 2019).
The key recommendations from this case study by Miller et al. (2021) were high-
lighting the importance of a collaborative, multi-stakeholder approach to address
the global issue of microplastic pollution. Furthermore, the accurate measurement
and understanding of microplastic sources, sinks, and reservoirs are emphasized to
gauge the extent of the problem and prioritize effective mitigation strategies. More-
over, the continuous evolution of methods for characterizing microplastic contam-
ination is deemed essential, particularly in addressing challenges related to ubiqui-
tous microfiber contamination (Barrows et al., 2017). And also, the urgent attention
is directed towards establishing standardized quality assurance and quality control
methods, inclusive of reporting of blanks and addressing background contamina-
tion issues. The improved insights into various sources of microplastics, especially
in urban stormwater, are highlighted for the development of targeted solutions.
624 C. Zhou et al.

Additionally, recommendations include further research on airborne deposition, the

fate of microplastics in water bodies, and ecotoxicological studies to assess their
effects at environmentally relevant concentrations. Finally, recognizing the difficul-
ties involved in assessing risks, there is a plea for a thorough examination that takes
into account the varied characteristics of microplastics and their intricate interactions
with other substances in aquatic settings.

5.2 Amazon River

Rico et al. (2023) investigated on the monitoring initiative to evaluate the occurrence
and potential hazards associated with microplastics in freshwater ecosystems within
the Amazon region. Their study examined the pollution of microplastics in a total of
40 samples obtained over a span of 1,500 km in the Brazilian Amazon, encompassing
the Amazon River, three primary tributaries, and various streams adjacent to major
urban centers. Microplastics within the size array of 55–5000 μm were analyzed
based on the characteristics of size, shape, colour through microscopy and identified
in terms of polymer composition using infrared spectroscopy.
As shown in Fig. 4, the Amazon River and its tributaries were sampled from bigger
passenger boats that moved continuously or from stationary small boats that stayed
in one place for as long as possible. Meanwhile, for the urban areas, both bridges
or small boats was utilized to conduct the sampling test. In the mid-way of the river
area, a specific amount of water was extracted and filtration was conducted on the
plankton net. The samples that were filtered will be transferred to a glass container
and filtered using the filter paper with the following specification of GF/A, Ø 47 mm,
pore size 0.7 μm. Thereafter, the filter used for sampling was folded and placed into
aluminum envelopes for subsequent analysis. The quantity of sampled water varied
from 0.3 to 4.6 m3 , determined based on the anticipated level of anthropogenic impact
at the sampling location (Rico et al., 2023) (Fig. 4).
For the microplastics extraction, several processes were involved in the sample
processing, depending on what was shown on the filters. In the event that organic
matter made up the majority of the filter content, the material was washed into Erlen-
meyer flasks using filtered reverse osmosis water, allowed to settle for a night, and
then the water on top was filtered. After the material had sedimented, it was sieved,
the organic debris was removed using hydrogen peroxide (H2 O2 ), and two density
separations were performed using a sodium iodide solution. Sand-filled samples
underwent two density separations, drying, and filtering before the extracts were
saved for further examination.
For the microplastic analysis, the particles were analyzed using a Perkin Elmer
Spotlight 400 μFTIR in transmission mode. To enhance spectral quality, the parti-
cles were initially compressed using a diamond compression cell (DC-3, Perkin
Elmer) before being loaded onto the machine. Meanwhile, for the quality assurance
or quality control, the field materials involved were non-plastic, prewashed, and used
with organic cotton clothing. The samples packed in aluminum foil envelopes, were
Monitoring and Assessment Techniques for Microplastics 625

Fig. 4 The specified site location and sampling locations in small boats conducted by Rico et al.
(2021, 2023). The dots represent where the sampling initiated in this research. Reproduced with
permission from Rico et al. (2021, 2023). Copyright 2023 and 2021 The Authors. The figure
is obtained from open access article which is under a Creative Commons licence Attribution-
Noncommercial-Noderivs 4.0 International

processed in a controlled environment at the Norwegian Institute for Water Research.

To avoid contamination, necessary steps were involved by using the natural fiber
clothing, lint rollers, and laminar flow cabinets. Pre-filtered water and solutions, along
with rinsed glass containers and polyethylene tubes, were employed. Blank samples
were included in each set, and suspected microplastics were characterized visually
and chemically similarly like the field samples. The methodology was validated with
spiked samples, with the efficiency of extraction and rates of recovery documented
in previous studies (Crossman et al., 2020; Hurley et al., 2018). In order to determine
the microplastics mass estimation, the calculation involving the particle volume and
the density of the identified polymers were involved. Particle volume was computed
using distinct shapes for various types: spheres for beads, cylinders for fibers, and
ellipsoids for films, fragments, and glitter. The choice of shapes was based on the
morphology and size of the analyzed axes. For the estimation of microplastic expo-
sure concentrations in various samples, the count of particles (MPs/L) and the mass
of microplastic particles (mg/L) were involved. This calculation involved dividing
the number of microplastic particles or the total mass by the volume of water that
passed through the sampling nets. The ecological risk assessment was determined
using the approach prepared by Koelmans et al. (2020b).
According to this study, there may be ecotoxicological hazards to aquatic life in
the Amazon’s small rivers and streams that are close to urban areas due to higher
quantities of microplastic. Even though only 7–23% of species are impacted, the
results are consistent with earlier research by these authors (Besseling et al., 2019);
Koelmans et al. (2020b); (Schell et al., 2022) that identified metropolitan areas with
inadequate sewage treatment as microplastic hotspots. In order to reduce plastic
pollution in Amazonian freshwater habitats, sewage treatment infrastructure and
626 C. Zhou et al.

increased public awareness are essential. It is anticipated that the demographic rise
may increase microplastic emissions.

6 Challenges and Future Directions

With the rising concerns on the abundance of microplastics in the environment, the
techniques employed to monitor microplastics need to be easily accessible, efficient,
and accurate. The variety of microplastics and their interaction with the surrounding
due to the dynamic properties of the environment and the existing limitations of the
current microplastic research techniques have posed challenges to the advancement
in this field.
The current microplastics monitoring is lack of standardized protocols (Koelmans
et al., 2020a; Zhang et al., 2020b; Lv et al., 2021; Adhikari et al., 2022; Chen
et al., 2023), resulting in difficult data analysis and comparison between studies. The
ocean is the main reservoir of microplastics originating from terrestrial and fresh
water environments that provide the transportation pathway from various sources
to the ocean (Zhang et al., 2020b). Thus, reliable water sampling method is crucial
in microplastic studies to minimize contamination and ensure final data reliability.
The protocols of microplastic separation by sieving and filtration can be established
by standardizing the mesh and pore sizes (Lv et al., 2021), which is important in
water sampling by using trawls and nets that requires multiple mesh sizes to avoid
clogging. Razeghi et al. (2021b) explained that the varying depth of immersion,
caused by wind, waves, and boat movement, makes tracking the volume of water
filtered difficult and hereby affects the sample representativity. This promotes the
combination of net-based and bulk sampling methods, complexifying the sampling
process.
MP studies are complicated by their export from surface water to deep-sea sedi-
ments. This necessitates the assessment of various environmental compartments to
investigate the distribution of microplastics (Simon-Sánchez et al., 2022). Surface
sediment in shore areas serves as an indicator of the prolonged interfacial interac-
tion between water terrestrial environments (Razeghi et al., 2021b). According to
Sajjad et al. (2022), the higher complexity of separating microplastics from soil than
water arises from its ecosystem and microplastic properties. Besides, they noted
that the common techniques for extracting microplastics from soil samples, such
as air flotation, density suspension, and heating at 130 °C for 3–5 s, suffer from
long duration, low recovery, inability to capture three-dimensional heterogeneity,
and limitations in extracting nano- and picoplastics, while also being restricted to
small-scale applications. Residual matrices in sediment samples, including organic
particles, minerals, small particles (<50 μm), and those insoluble in organic solvents,
cannot be easily removed by different purification processes and may interfere further
analyses (Bouzid et al., 2022).
In microplastic separation from biota or biota-rich samples, the main challenge
is minimizing the destructive effects of chemicals on the susceptible polymers,
Monitoring and Assessment Techniques for Microplastics 627

resulted by prolonged exposure or unsuitable reaction conditions. Schrank et al.

(2022) reported the severe fragmentation of polyethylene terephthalate (PET) and
the weight losses of polyamide (PA) 6 and polyurethane (PUR) up to 100% with hot
nitric acid and peroxymonosulfuric acid. Elevating temperatures to enhance diges-
tion efficiency increases the vulnerability of polymers to mild chemicals such as
hydroxide solutions (90 °C) (Gulizia et al., 2022) and hydrogen peroxide (60–70 °C)
(Pfeiffer & Fischer, 2020). Fenton reagent that exerts negligible effects on synthetic
polymers, needs to be coupled with enzymatic digestion to remove a large amount
of organic matters (Möller et al., 2020). In contrast, an increase of sample weight
is probable with certain chemical digestion protocols due to outer surface degra-
dation, internal structural modification, volume increase, structure relaxation, water
entrapment, and salt residues (Pfeiffer & Fischer, 2020).
Apart from purification efficiency, inherent limitations of microscopic techniques
also constrain the accuracy of microplastic visual studies. Stereomicroscopy used for
preliminary screening must be followed by more sophisticated techniques, owing
to its limited magnification and low accuracy to detect microplastics with low
opacity, small sizes (<100 μm), and definite shapes, in addition to the interference of
remaining organic particles that are failed to remove by digestion (Kalaronis et al.,
2022; Mariano et al., 2021b). Fluorescence microscopy has high error rate in the
presence of blended chemicals like dyes or plasticizers, which are hard to eliminate
(Fu et al., 2020b). Polymers that can be detected are limited to fluorescent poly-
mers, such as PET, polypropylene (PP), polystyrene (PS), polyethylene (PE), nylon,
polyester, and elastane (Kalaronis et al., 2022). Scanning electron microscopy-energy
dispersive X-ray (SEM–EDS), known for eliminating visual characterisation errors
by providing high resolution images and elemental composition, is not effective in
differentiating microplastic fibers and non-plastic microfibres because of the small
discrepancies in structural properties and carbon signals (Blair et al., 2019b). Fu et al.
(2020b) highlighted that its constraints also include time-consuming sample prepa-
ration and potential risk of alteration or destruction of thermally unstable polymers,
including polyvinyl acetate (PVAc) and polyvinyl chloride (PVC), when exposed to
high-energy electron beam.
Therefore, vibrational spectroscopies, particularly Fourier transform infrared
spectroscopy (FTIR) and Raman spectroscopy are used after SEM–EDS analysis.
They are able to differentiate microplastic fibres, non-plastic fibres, and suspended
fragments, such as titanium, bromine, and silicon, which produce strong carbon
signals that are difficult to distinguish from the peaks caused by microplastics with
solely SEM–EDS (Blair et al., 2019b). Raman spectroscopy is preferred to detect
extremely small microplastics (>1 μm) when compared with FTIR that is limited
to < 20 μm (Snega Priya et al., 2022). Unlike FTIR, Raman spectra would not be
altered by the water content and sample thickness (Adhikari et al., 2022), but paint
particles could dominate a Raman spectrum due to their stronger scattering effect
than polymeric matrix, causing fluorescence (Xu et al., 2019). In accordance with
Cabernard et al. (2018), despite the size limitation, attenuated total reflectance-FTIR
(ATR-FTIR) performs better than μ-Raman spectroscopy in identifying coloured
628 C. Zhou et al.

microplastics that cause absorbance, fluorescence, and band overlay. Still, their find-
ings show that both techniques could not effectively identify black coloured or
fibrous microplastics. For a large field size, the time consumed for measurement
is significantly extended (Primpke et al., 2018).
In microplastic quantification, various factors, such as resolution limit, misidentifi-
cation of natural particles as plastics, and limitations of purification, lead to high error
rates in conventional counting method with microscopic techniques (Zarfl, 2019).
This encourages the use of mass spectroscopy that offers fast analysis of smaller
particles by yielding data about the polymer types and mass per volume (Chun et al.,
2022), as well as addressing the issue of underestimating plastics based on the particle
sizes (Adhikari et al., 2022). However, since the common mass spectroscopic tech-
niques, namely pyrolysis gas chromatographic mass spectrometry (Pyr-GC–MS) and
liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC–MS/MS) destroy samples
during analysis, size categorization by sieving and filtering shall be done prior to the
experiment in ecotoxicology studies. Plus, the pyrolysis products of certain polymers,
including PE, PET, PVC, and others, lack distinctive characteristics and hence cannot
be readily identified (Li et al., 2021). This potentially results in an underestimation
of these polymers. Furthermore, a challenge exists in assessing the applicability of
various calibration method for use across a broader array of polymers. Lauschke
et al. (2021) reported the potential interference posed by PS-d5 , a common polymer
for creating internal standard in microplastic quantification, due to H–D exchange
during pyrolysis catalysed by residual inorganic fraction in the samples. The study by
Bouzid et al. (2022), concerning the quantification of PE, PET, PP, PS, and PVC with
Pyr-GC–MS, implies that external calibration curve shall be avoided for sediment
samples as the presence of residual organic particles and minerals in the sample was
found accelerating PET depolymerization during pyrolysis, resulting in inaccurate
signals.
Crucially, integrated analysis with multiple analytical techniques that aims to
improve characterisation and quantification of microplastics increases the time and
cost for regular application. Consequently, the development and adoption of auto-
mated analyses become a trend in microplastic monitoring researches. According
to Primpke et al. (2018), automated analysis pipeline for FTIR was created in the
past study, overcoming the drawbacks of manual FTIR analysis, such as human bias,
long measurement time, and size limitation. Automating analyses is viable, yet there
is a notable barrier caused by the substantial scale demands (Adhikari et al., 2022).
The absence of benchmark information for different regions and materials presents
another challenge in automating microplastic analyses. Standardisation of automated
analyses requires a specially designed database for various materials and a detailed
clustering of spectra (Primpke et al., 2018). Neelavannan and Sen (2023) empha-
sized the significance of developing a database for weathered plastics to ease the
determination of unknown microplastics in environmental samples, which is often
impeded by variable Raman spectra. A few attempts have been made to develop a
database for weathered plastics under different conditions, which are natural degra-
dation (Dong et al., 2020; Marica & Pînzaru, 2023) and fire (Luo et al., 2022b).
Enhanced data availability contributes to the accurate estimation of microplastic
Monitoring and Assessment Techniques for Microplastics 629

transport in computer vision and machine learning deployed to automate monitoring

and data collection (Phan & Luscombe, 2023).
Moreover, there is a notable transition in recent research emphasis. Intertidal
mangrove wetlands gain growing attention in MP studies due to their ecological
values and the detected pollution in the mangrove sediments (Chen, 2022). MP
researches concerning freshwater bodies between 2018 and 2022 prioritise inves-
tigating the environmental implications over the earlier focus on characterising
microplastics (Wang et al., 2023b). MPs have been associated with the toxicolog-
ical effects on aquatic organisms, pollutant adsorption, and risks posed to human
health through trophic transfer. Domestic wastewater, increasingly recognised as
a major microplastics contributor in freshwater and ocean environments, has been
studied comprehensively, encompassing the assessment of microplastic removal effi-
ciency in wastewater treatment schemes comprising the usual primary and secondary
processes, which ranges between 73 and 99% (Blair et al., 2019a; Conley et al.,
2019; Gündoğdu et al., 2018; Hernández Fernández et al., 2022; Lares et al., 2018;
Meng et al., 2023). However, several problems to be tackled are sludge manage-
ment, microplastic emission from sludge-based fertiliser, standardisation of research
methods, exploring membrane technology, evaluating small microplastics (<20 μm),
examining specific types of microplastics in industrial wastewater, and implementing
control measure at the household levels (Dey et al., 2021; Hassan et al., 2023; Liu
et al., 2021; Sun et al., 2019).
MP particle transport is a vital topic in microplastic researches, particularly
concerning the life cycle and distribution of microplastics. Currently, there is a chal-
lenge in defining and describing the dynamics of atmospheric transfer over a long
distance (Zhang et al., 2020b). Although the identification of microplastic sources
and atmospheric trajectory travelled is facilitated with the Lagrangian atmospheric
models, such as HYSPLIT, additional researches on their fate and transport mecha-
nism in the air, resuspension from aquatic and terrestrial compartments, and entrain-
ment into these compartments via dry and wet atmospheric precipitation are neces-
sary and currently deficient (Abad López et al., 2023). Since atmospheric deposition
is not the only source of microplastics in the air, the results of passive and active
sampling methods are hardly comparable without the consideration on the sampling
location, height, period, weather, and sampling methods (Chen et al., 2020c). Impor-
tantly, microplastic transport researches across different environmental compart-
ments are hindered by the differences in the metrics of reporting and comparing.
Microplastic transport poses threat by aiding the spreading of organic and inorganic
pollutants and increasing the risk of exposure to these substances. Recent studies have
proven that the association of contaminants on micro-sized debris of various mate-
rials, namely high density polyethylene (HDPE), PVC, polylactic acid (PLA), and
polybutylene succinate (PBS), is affected by the plastic hydrophobicity, physical and
chemical properties, as well as biofilm formation (Cui et al., 2023; Torres et al., 2021;
Tourinho et al., 2019). The future investigation should highlight sorption dynamics
on weathered and degradable plastics, the fate of pollutants, single and combined
ecotoxicity of microplastics and chemical pollutants, and bioaccumulation.
630 C. Zhou et al.

A comprehensive strategy in sampling, monitoring, quantification, and study of

underlying impacts on environment and organisms could deepen the knowledge of the
environmental implications of microplastics. Overcoming the challenges brought by
global microplastic pollution needs the awareness and interdisciplinary collaboration
among scientists, policymakers, and industry stakeholders.

7 Conclusion

Microplastics have posed a serious threat to ecosystems and human health globally
due to their high durability and ease of dispersion. Filtration, centrifugation and
electrocoagulation are commonly used to collect microplastics in aqueous environ-
ments. The accuracy, frequency and economy of microplastic collection in sedimen-
tary environments are currently ensured through the use of deterministic, stochastic
and conventional grid systems. To improve the accuracy of sampling microplastics
in soil, a combination of sampling techniques (random, systematic, stratified and
composite) is required. Full composite sampling is more suitable to be employed in
biologically organized environments. In addition, to further analyze the abundance
and composition of microplastics from different sources, this book chapter analyzes
the advantages and disadvantages of various analytical methods and data processing
methods as shown in Table 1.
This chapter uses the San Francisco Bay and Amazon River cases to further
explore local techniques for microplastic collection and analysis. Current moni-
toring and analytical techniques, there is still a lack of standardized protocols, the
complexity of the collection environment, the harmfulness of the separation chemi-
cals, the detection technology still has the limitation of low accuracy, the researchers
will be committed to ensure the accuracy of the data at the same time, the assessment
of the effectiveness of microplastics to create a standardized document and a fair
assessment of the work. Furthermore, the development of automated analysis and
machine learning to improve the characterization and quantification of microplastics
provides scale-up assistance for the separation of microplastics in wastewater, soil,
and atmosphere.
Monitoring and Assessment Techniques for Microplastics 631

Table 1 Advantages and disadvantages of analytical methods and data analysis methods for
microplastics
Analytical methods Advantages and disadvantages
Microscopy-based Optical microscopes are cost-effective and widely available, but cannot
methods accurately identify microplastics below 0.2 microns
SEM–EDX can help identify microplastics, generating images at 0.5
nm, but is not effective for mass identification
TEM provides 0.1–0.2 nm graphics and valuable fluorescence data, but
suffers from high cost and time-consuming drawbacks
Spectroscopy-based FT-IR improves efficiency in detecting microplastics
methods Raman spectroscopy provides highly reliable and accurate
determination of the chemical composition and polymer molecular
information of unknown plastic fragments
Chemical method Pyr-GC/MS is highly sensitive for microplastics and analyses thermal
degradation products independent of additives. To favour the
extraction of plastic components, the method needs to be combined
with pressurised liquid extraction
Thermal analysis methods do not allow direct identification of the
polymer type, are more suited to batch analysis of microplastics and
are limited by the different melting temperatures of microplastics
Data analysis methods
Control analysis The t-test and Bayesian regression models were applied to identify the
methods abundance, colour, shape and size of microplastics, respectively
Data correction Subtraction, Spectral Similarity and LOD/LOQ to Improve Data
methods Corrections
Numerical simulation HYSPLIT simulates microplastic trajectories in the atmosphere with
methods large uncertainties
The GAINS model simulates global atmospheric microplastic
emissions based on global energy and industry data and air pollutant
emission inventories
The CESM model primarily assesses atmospheric microplastic
deposition

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Environmental Science: Processes & Impacts, 24, 52–61.
Raman Spectroscopy Based Approaches
for Microplastics Investigations

Megha Sunil, S. Unnimaya, N. Mithun, Santhosh Chidangil,

Satheesh Kumar, and Jijo Lukose

Abstract The presence of microplastics (MPs) is becoming a significant environ-

mental concern, as reports highlight their widespread occurrence in both urbanized
areas and remote ecosystems. Microplastics smaller than 5 mm, have accumulated
globally in the environment, because of the direct release of small plastic particles or
due to the fragmentation of larger plastic items. The consumption of microplastics can
lead to harmful toxicological and physical effects. In order to ensure precise compar-
isons, it is essential to utilize reliable and standardized methods during monitoring
studies. Although microscopic techniques are frequently employed for microplastic
identification, they may produce inadequate outcomes when analysing minuscule
particles. The integration of chemical analysis techniques, such as spectroscopy,
can overcome the current limitation in identifying polymer types. Visual observa-
tion can be combined with chemical analysis to enhance the identification process.
Raman spectroscopy is extensively favoured for microplastics research due to its
numerous advantages over Fourier-transform infra-red (FTIR) spectroscopy. Unlike
FTIR, Raman spectroscopy is not affected by water, offers enhanced spectral reso-
lution, and is less susceptible to fluorescence. Moreover, Raman spectroscopy is
recognized for its minimal sample preparation requirements when compared to
FTIR, making it a more efficient choice for this specific research area. Conven-
tional Raman spectroscopy faces challenges in detecting these particles due to their
inherently low scattering cross-section, particularly due to their small size. As a
result, researchers have turned to surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS)
for nanoplastics (NPs) analysis. The Raman tweezers technique displays signifi-
cant potential in capturing and chemically examining individual microplastics in a
water-based context. This approach also has the capability to capture and chemically
evaluate individual microplastics in an aqueous setting. The main objective of this

M. Sunil · S. Unnimaya · S. Kumar · J. Lukose (B)

Department of Atomic and Molecular Physics, Manipal Academy of Higher Education,
Manipal 576104, Karnataka, India
e-mail: jijo.lukose@manipal.edu
N. Mithun · S. Chidangil
Centre of Excellence for Biophotonics, Department of Atomic and Molecular Physics, Manipal
Academy of Higher Education, Manipal 576104, Karnataka, India

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 647
J. C. Egbueri et al. (eds.), Microplastics in African and Asian Environments, Emerging
Contaminants and Associated Treatment Technologies,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-64253-1_27
648 M. Sunil et al.

study is to explore the potential use of Raman Spectroscopy methods for the analysis
of microplastics present in our environment.

Keywords Microplastics · Raman spectroscopy · Surface-enhanced Raman

spectroscopy · Polymers · Polystyrene · Polyethylene

1 Introduction

Plastic pollution poses a significant environmental threat that presents itself in diverse
forms. The presence of minuscule plastic particles, like microplastics (MPs) and
nanoplastics (NPs), originating from the primary as well as the secondary sources,
has raised substantial worldwide apprehension owing to their adverse impacts on the
environment and public well-being (Lamichhane et al., 2023). The contamination of
these minute particles into aquatic environments poses significant risks. Microplas-
tics are divided primary and secondary. Primary microplastics are produced through
particulate emissions in industrial activities, as well as the shedding of plastic dust
particles from different items. Secondary microplastics consist of bigger plastic parti-
cles that vary in shapes, sizes, and colours, including fragments, fibers, spheres,
or films, and can be either transparent or coloured. These different forms are a
consequence of the deterioration of larger plastic objects caused by weathering,
UV radiation, and mechanical abrasion (Hasan and Jho, 2023). The proliferation
of MPs in marine aquatic environments has emerged as a notable global environ-
mental issue in the past few years. Also, these tiny plastic particles have been found
in various sources, including tap water (Kniggendorf et al., 2019), drinking water
(Weber et al., 2021), sewage water (Becucci et al., 2022), fresh water (Leterme et al.,
2023), marine sediments (Liu et al., 2020), seafood (Hantoro et al., 2019), and fish
as well (Keshavarzifard et al., 2021). This widespread presence of microplastics
highlights the seriousness of the problem. As a result, environmental microplastics
have been classified as a new global pollutant, and the general population is increas-
ingly exposed to these synthetic particles (Wu et al., 2023). Marine creatures face
heightened vulnerability due to their potential ingestion of microplastics, resulting in
physical injury, obstructions, or the transmission of hazardous substances throughout
the food web. Moreover, people may inadvertently ingest microplastics via tainted
food and water sources. The full extent of the health risks associated with microplastic
consumption is still being investigated (Sunil et al., 2024a, 2024b).
It is crucial to detect microplastics to gain a comprehensive insight into water-
borne microplastic pollution. This process is essential for developing effective envi-
ronmental policies to minimize its harmful effects. Accurate identification of poly-
mers plays a crucial role in combating microplastic pollution; however, conven-
tional techniques come with constraints that may result in sample deterioration,
ultimately hindering thorough subsequent examination. Vibrational spectroscopy
methods, like Raman and FTIR, are commonly used to detect microplastics. Raman
spectroscopy, known for its accuracy with wet samples, provides more accurate
Raman Spectroscopy Based Approaches for Microplastics Investigations 649

results with less water molecule interference than FTIR spectroscopy. This tech-
nique works by revealing the molecular structure of a sample using inelastic light
scattering, creating a unique chemical fingerprint spectrum that is determined by
particular vibrational frequencies upon laser exposure. This method, which is non-
destructive and extremely sensitive, does not necessitate any extra sample prepa-
ration. It has the ability to distinguish between plastics and organic substances in
marine environments by analysing their spectral patterns (Rodriguez-Saona et al.,
2017). This chapter focuses on the advancements achieved in Raman spectroscopy
methods for the analysis and characterization of environmental MPs.

2 Conventional Techniques for the Identification

of Microplastics

MPs come in a variety of sizes, shapes, and types, making their identification a
challenging task. The process of identifying microplastics typically involves two
main steps: physical characterization and chemical analysis (Shim and Hong, 2017).
Physical characterization methods encompass a range of microscopic techniques
including stereo microscopy, fluorescence microscopy, atomic force microscopy
(AFM), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and transmission electron microscopy
(TEM). Conversely, chemical analysis methods involve spectroscopic techniques
such as Fourier Transform Infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), Raman spectroscopy (RS),
and thermal analysis. However, relying solely on microscopic techniques often leads
to incomplete results in microplastics analysis, underscoring the importance of
combining microscopic techniques with spectroscopy for more accurate analysis
(Mariano et al., 2021).

2.1 Visual Identification

Visual identification involves directly observing microplastics with the ordinary eye,
using forceps and a tray to detect and separate larger microplastics visually (Shim &
Hong, 2017). This method also allows for the observation of colourful plastic frag-
ments. However, limitations exist as smaller microplastics necessitate the use of a
microscope for magnified observation. Moreover, differentiating microplastics from
other biological substances through visual recognition can pose a significant chal-
lenge. Furthermore, variations in observations among different observers may occur
(Lv et al., 2021). As a result, visual identification is unable to provide accurate results
in the identification of microplastics.
650 M. Sunil et al.

2.2 Stereo Microscopy

Stereo microscopy is a practical and direct method used for identifying microplas-
tics. This approach allows for easy differentiation of microplastics based on their
sizes, shapes, and colours. Not only does this method provide a magnified view of
the sample, but it also offers insights into its structure and surface texture (Shim &
Hong, 2017). Through the use of a stereo microscope, a 3D analysis can be conducted
using stereoscopic vision, enabling the examination of the sample from two different
perspectives. Nevertheless, it is essential to recognize the limitations of this tech-
nique. Firstly, it does not definitively confirm the nature of plastics, making it a
non-confirmatory method. Additionally, it does not offer information on the polymer
composition of a sample. Furthermore, stereo microscopy does not provide data on
transparent and small particles (Eriksen et al., 2013; Mariano et al., 2021).

2.3 Fluorescence Microscopy

Fluorescence microscopy involves the collection of fluorescence emission from a

sample by the microscope when exposed to a specific wavelength. The fluorophore
found in the sample is stimulated by a laser, leading to the emission of fluorescence
light (Mariano et al., 2021). This fluorophore, derived from jellyfish, is utilized for
protein labelling as it absorbs photons and emits photons of lower energy. Unlike
stereo microscopy, fluorescence microscopy is used to examine white and transparent
plastics (Sweden, 2007), providing easy sample visualization. Typically conducted
using a laser in the ultraviolet range, this technique may pose harm and toxicity
risks to the sample. Moreover, it may not be suitable for plastics containing chemical
additives, as it could disrupt the emitted fluorescence (Shim & Hong, 2017).

2.4 Transmission Electron Microscopy

Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) is capable of observing extremely small

particles thanks to its exceptional resolution. It offers valuable chemical insights into
nanomaterials. In contrast to light microscopes that rely on a light beam for sample
focusing, TEM utilizes an electron beam to generate images (Sims & Hardin, 2007).
By combining TEM with fluorescence, fluorescence information can be obtained to
chemically characterize a sample. Due to the weak interaction of polymers with elec-
trons, identifying microplastics using TEM is challenging as they are polymer-based.
Therefore, heavy element stains that alter the chemical composition of polymers are
necessary for sample visualization (Mariano et al., 2021). Furthermore, this tech-
nique does not allow for the characterization of microplastics based on their size and
surface properties.
Raman Spectroscopy Based Approaches for Microplastics Investigations 651

2.5 Scanning Electron Microscopy

SEM is a high-resolution microscopy technique that employs an electron beam to

visualize a sample. It unfolds information on the surface chemical and structural
composition of the sample. The signals generated as a result of the incident beam
of electrons are called the secondary electrons which provide the surface structure
of the sample. Since lenses are used for demagnification, spherical and chromatic
aberrations of the lenses produce blurred images (Bogner et al., 2007). SEM is
coupled with Energy Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy (EDS) for the elemental analysis
of the sample but the sample cannot be used for further analysis. The benefits of
SEM–EDS are remarkable, offering precise chemical analysis while minimizing the
chances of error. Nonetheless, it faces limitations in distinguishing between additives
and adsorbents within microplastics, often due to sample charges interfering (Zhu &
Wang, 2020). Moreover, its high cost and time-intensive nature restrict the number of
samples that can be analyzed within a given timeframe. SEM also does not provide
information on the type of polymer (Mariano et al., 2021).
Heavy element staining is commonly employed to visualize polymer samples,
particularly in electron microscopy methods like TEM and SEM. This process
involves treating the specimen with specific chemicals that selectively react with
certain polymer phases. Among the most commonly used staining agents for poly-
mers are Osmium tetroxide, Ruthenium Tetroxide, Uranyl acetate, and Tungsten
phosphoric acid. The selection of a stain depends on factors such as the type of
polymer under investigation, the desired level of contrast, and the particular imaging
technique being utilized (Michler et al., 2016).

2.6 Atomic Force Microscopy

Atomic force microscopy (AFM) is a surface characterization technique used

primarily for examining nanoparticles and polymers. The high-resolution 3D images
obtained through atomic force microscopy (AFM) offer detailed insights into the
surface morphology of a sample, requiring simple sample preparation techniques
like spin coating or mechanical trapping on different substrates (Sinha Ray, 2013).
Moreover, AFM finds utility in investigating bacterial adherence, degradation, and
destabilization processes concerning microplastics within marine ecosystems (Fu
et al., 2020). Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM) typically operates in two basic modes
for sample characterization:
Contact Mode AFM: In contact mode, the AFM tip scans the sample surface,
detecting forces with a sensitive detector. These forces bend the cantilever, creating
a topographic map. While offering high-resolution imaging, contact mode AFM
may damage delicate samples due to direct contact between the tip and the surface
(Johnson et al., 2017).
652 M. Sunil et al.

Non-contact Mode AFM: In non-contact mode, the AFM tip hovers near the
sample surface without touching it. Attractive and repulsive forces between the tip and
the surface alter the cantilever’s oscillation, which is measured to produce an image
of the surface. This mode is ideal for imaging delicate or sensitive samples without
causing damage through direct contact (Johnson et al., 2017). The main limitation
of the technique is that there is no prevention from outside, like contamination and
also the sample may get damaged as the tip is in contact with the sample (Mariano
et al., 2021).

2.7 Thermal Analysis

Plastic polymers demonstrate diversity in their thermal stability, making thermo-

analytical methods invaluable for understanding their physical and chemical prop-
erties. Identification of polymers often involves analyzing their degradation prod-
ucts. Thermal analysis techniques, including differential scanning calorimetry, ther-
mogravimetry, and pyrolysis–gas chromatography-mass spectrometry, play a an
important role in this process. Specifically, the use of the differential scanning
calorimetry method provides insights into the thermal properties of polymeric mate-
rials. However, identifying the specific type of polymers typically requires reference
materials due to the distinct thermal characteristics exhibited by each polymer in
this technique. A mixture of microplastics having closely spaced melting points
cannot be characterized due to the lack of specificity of the method. The pyrol-
ysis–gas chromatography-mass spectrometry analyses the thermally decomposed
gas from the polymers. The drawback of Thermal Analysis techniques, including
methods like differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) or thermogravimetric analysis
(TGA), in comparison to Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy and Raman
spectroscopy (RS) for analysing microplastics, stems from their inability to provide
precise chemical identification and characterization of microplastic particles. While
Thermal Analysis techniques are adept at determining properties such as melting
points or thermal degradation temperatures, they lack the specificity to reveal the
chemical composition or functional groups within microplastics. In contrast, FTIR
spectroscopy and Raman spectroscopy offer molecular-level insights by analysing
the vibrational modes of chemical bonds, thus facilitating the identification of poly-
mers and additives present in microplastic samples. Thermal analysis is a destructive
technique and therefore cannot perform additional analysis on the sample. Also, this
method requires more time and has complex data processing compared to Fourier
Transform Infrared spectroscopy and Raman spectroscopy (Shim & Hong, 2017;
Mansa & Zou, 2021; Mariano et al., 2021).
Raman Spectroscopy Based Approaches for Microplastics Investigations 653

2.8 Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy

The FT-IR method is utilized to analyse chemical bonds within a substance, enabling
the identification of polymer types and verification of plastic materials. Small parti-
cles can be detected and identified using micro-FTIR. This is a non-destructive
technique that allows for additional analysis of the sample (Mariano et al., 2021).
In conventional methods, there are four sample handling techniques: transmission,
attenuated total reflection (ATR), diffuse reflectance, and true specular reflectance
or reflection absorption.
Transmission Mode: In this mode, the sample is typically in the form of a thin
film or pellet. Infrared radiation passes through the sample, and the absorption of
specific wavelengths by the sample is measured. This mode is commonly used for
solid samples.
Attenuated Total Reflectance (ATR) Mode: ATR mode is suitable for analysing
solid, liquid, and even semi-solid samples without the need for extensive sample
preparation. The sample that is to be analyzed is placed in direct contact with an
ATR crystal, and infrared radiation passes through the crystal/sample interface. The
absorption of infrared radiation by the sample is measured, providing information
about its composition.
Diffuse reflectance Mode: The diffuse reflectance mode in FTIR spectroscopy
refers to a technique where infrared radiation is directed onto a sample, and the
reflected radiation is collected and analysed. This mode is particularly useful for
analysing samples that are not easily measured in traditional transmission methods,
such as powders, rough surfaces, or opaque materials. In diffuse reflectance, the
light scatters in multiple directions upon hitting the sample surface, allowing for a
representative measurement of the sample’s infrared spectrum.
True specular reflectance/reflection absorption Mode: This mode in FTIR spec-
troscopy involves directing infrared radiation onto a sample at a precise angle, causing
the light to reflect off the surface predictably. This method is ideal for analysing
smooth surfaces or thin films where reflection follows a well-defined angle. The
absorption of infrared radiation by the sample during reflection provides valuable
insights into its composition and properties (Mohamed et al., 2017). The spectra
of an unknown sample can be identified by comparing it with a spectrum of the
known material. Recent advancement provides an automatic identification of the
microplastics without sorting out the sample from the filter (Song et al., 2014).

2.9 Raman Spectroscopy

Raman Spectroscopy (RS), is an analytical technique employed to deduce molec-

ular structure by scrutinizing the vibrational frequencies of molecule bonds within
specimens. Renowned for its sensitivity and broad acceptance, RS proves invaluable
in scrutinizing the chemical attributes of compounds. (Sunil et al., 2024a, 2024b).
654 M. Sunil et al.

When monochromatic light interacts with a material, the majority of the light passes
through unchanged in frequency. However, a small portion scatters, showing frequen-
cies that are either lower or higher than the original frequency. This occurrence,
known as Raman scattering or the Raman effect, occurs when the scattered radi-
ation experiences a shift in frequency. Raman scattering is recognized as one of
the fastest and least destructive analytical techniques. The development of a high-
resolution micro-Raman spectroscopy system aimed at visualizing and characterizing
microplastics from water bodies was undertaken by researchers. The optimization
of experimental parameters was done by the utilization of standard microplastics
samples, subsequently evaluating the setup’s feasibility by identifying microplas-
tics within environmental samples (Sunil et al., 2024a, 2024b). Raman spectroscopy
stands out among conventional techniques used for microplastics analysis due to
several distinct advantages over other methods. Compared to techniques like Fourier-
transform infrared spectroscopy, microscopy, and thermal analysis, Raman spec-
troscopy presents unique advantages. It is highly sensitive and can detect trace
amounts of microplastics with minimal sample preparation, a capability that is often
lacking in FTIR or microscopy. Furthermore, Raman spectroscopy is less prone to
fluorescence interference than FTIR, making it particularly effective for analysing
samples with complex matrices commonly encountered in environmental samples
(Xu et al., 2019). Furthermore, Raman spectroscopy provides detailed information
about the molecular structure and composition of microplastics, including the ability
to distinguish between different polymorphs and crystalline forms, which may not be
as readily achievable with other techniques. Raman spectroscopy is non-destructive,
allowing for the analysis of microplastics without altering or damaging the sample,
unlike some thermal analysis methods, and also is less susceptible to interference
from water compared to FTIR spectroscopy (Ozaki & Sato, 2021). These advan-
tages make Raman spectroscopy particularly well-suited for aqueous samples and
environmental monitoring applications where low concentrations of microplastics
are encountered, and where complex sample matrices are common.
Surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS) is an effective method within
vibrational spectroscopy, enabling the precise identification of low-concentration
analytes by amplifying electromagnetic fields produced through the activation of
localized surface plasmons. SERS merges the specificity of molecular fingerprints
with the capability of potentially detecting single molecules. This high sensitivity
enables the detection of trace amounts of analytes in complex samples, which is
crucial for many analytical and diagnostic applications (Cialla et al., 2012). SERS
has garnered attention in the analysis of microplastics, offering a promising approach
to their detection and characterization. SERS offers molecular specificity, allowing
researchers to distinguish between different types of microplastics based on their
unique spectral fingerprints (Sharma et al., 2012). This capability is crucial for
identifying and quantifying microplastics in complex environmental matrices.
Raman tweezers is an application of Raman spectroscopy and optical trapping
techniques that enable non-destructive, label-free analysis and manipulation of
microscopic particles and cells. By integrating laser tweezers with Raman spec-
troscopy, it can precisely manipulate individual particles while simultaneously
Raman Spectroscopy Based Approaches for Microplastics Investigations 655

obtaining their Raman spectra (Mithun et al., 2021). Raman tweezers operate based
on the utilization of concentrated laser beams for particle trapping, alongside the
concurrent application of Raman spectroscopy to acquire molecular fingerprint data.

3 Different Raman Spectroscopy Techniques

for the Detection of Microplastics

3.1 Micro-Raman Spectroscopy for Microplastics Detection

The escalation of microplastic contamination is evident in both aquatic and terres-

trial ecosystems, primarily originating from household items such as furnishings,
clothing, and food packaging. This phenomenon leads to the accumulation of
microplastics in both human bodies and aquatic ecosystems through the sewer
system. In a study conducted by Gillibert et al. (2019), it was observed that the
prevalence of micro and nano-plastics is on the rise in marine environments. The
utilization of conventional techniques for characterizing and identifying small plas-
tics in liquid environments poses significant challenges and limitations. To address
this issue, the researchers employed the optical tweezers technique in combination
with Raman spectroscopy for the detection and identification of micro-plastics and
nano-plastics in seawater. This innovative approach facilitated the differentiation
between organic matter, mineral sediments, and plastics, offering chemical identifi-
cation and optical trapping of plastics ranging from sub-20 microns to 50 nm in size.
Experimental procedures involved the use of two lasers with wavelengths of 633 and
785 nm, enabling the detection and identification of micro and nanoparticles in both
distilled water and seawater. Additionally, marine sediments of micro and nano sizes
were analyzed to establish a reference database. Furthermore, the study revealed the
capability of Raman tweezers to determine the aging and fragmentation of micro and
nano plastics (Gillibert et al., 2019).
Jin et al. (2022) investigated on MPs utilizing Raman spectroscopy combined
with multivariate analysis techniques. The study focused on environmental plastics,
including water bottles, medicine vials, and snack boxes. Micro-Raman analysis
was used for both identification and size determination purposes. To establish refer-
ence data, the researchers collected seven types of standard plastics: polyethylene
terephthalate, polyvinyl chloride, high-density polyethylene, low-density polyethy-
lene, polypropylene, polycarbonate, and polyamide. Microplastics were obtained by
grinding medicine vials, water bottles, juice bottles, and snack boxes using sand-
papers. Confocal Raman micro-spectroscopy was employed for sample analysis
and size determination, utilizing a laser wavelength of 532 nm, laser power of 4.2
mW, and an exposure time of 4 s. The Raman spectra collected underwent analysis
using MATLAB, where specific features of control and environmentally stressed
samples were differentiated through principal component analysis (PCA) and linear
discriminant analysis (LDA) (Jin et al., 2022).
656 M. Sunil et al.

The importance of identifying microplastics in drinking water, food, and beverages

arises from their potential effects on both human health and the environment. These
particles can potentially carry harmful chemicals and toxins, posing health risks
when ingested. Identifying microplastics in these sources is crucial for assessing
human exposure levels, understanding their potential health effects, and imple-
menting measures to mitigate their presence. Kniggendorf et al. (2019) addressed
the escalating contamination of microplastics in drinking water, food, and beverages,
highlighting the necessity for their identification and quantification. The researchers
detected microplastics in streaming tap water utilizing Raman spectroscopy. Samples
obtained from different areas in Germany were dried and utilized in the study.
The distinctive characteristics of microplastics were determined using a confocal
Raman microscope with an Nd-YAG laser emitting light of wavelength 532 nm. This
approach showcased the ability to identify microplastics as tiny as 0.1 mm. Various
types of microplastics, including polyethylene terephthalate, polyethylene, polyester,
polyamide, polypropylene, polystyrene, and polymethyl methacrylate, were identi-
fied. The Raman spectra corresponding to these findings are presented in Fig. 1
(Kniggendorf et al., 2019).
The investigation led by Keshavarzifard et al. (2021) underscored the escalating
apprehension surrounding the prevalence of microplastics in the environment, espe-
cially in marine ecosystems, stemming from irresponsible disposal of plastic waste.
The ingestion of these microplastics by marine organisms, including fish, poses
significant risks to their survival, as well as to consumers of seafood. To address this
concern, the researchers examined the tissues of white shrimp to identify microplas-
tics using confocal Raman spectroscopy. Samples were collected from Musa Bay in
the Persian Gulf region. The system utilized in the study featured a laser with a wave-
length of 785 nm and a laser power ranging from 10 to 100 mW. Comparative analysis
of spectra was conducted using the Know-It-All database. The study confirmed that
polyethylene terephthalate, polypropylene, and polystyrene were the predominant
types of microplastics present in the samples. Notably, it was observed that the
quantity of microplastics was lower in areas with lesser anthropogenic impact. This
highlights the crucial significance of adopting responsible waste management prac-
tices to reduce the spread of MPs in marine aquatic environments (Keshavarzifard
et al., 2021).
In addressing the increasing global environmental hazard posed by plastic debris
contamination, Siegel H adopted a micro-Raman spectroscopy approach to analyze
the occurrence of MPsin the Warnow River in Germany. The spectroscopy system
utilized a laser with a wavelength of 532 nm, along with laser strengths of 5 and 10
mW, coupled with a 20 × objective lens. Through this analysis, a variety of poly-
mers were identified in the sample, including polyethylene, polypropylene, poly-
oxymethylene, polystyrene, polyethylene terephthalate, polyvinyl chloride, poly-
methyl methacrylate, Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene, polysiloxane, epoxy resin,
acrylic resin, and silicone rubber. This comprehensive examination sheds light on
the diverse range of plastic polymers present in the river, emphasizing the need
for effective strategies to mitigate plastic pollution and protect aquatic ecosystems
(Siegel et al., 2021).
Raman Spectroscopy Based Approaches for Microplastics Investigations 657

Fig. 1 Raman spectra of microplastic particles were collected of tap water flowing at a rate of 1
L/h through the flow cell: a In its original recorded form; b after background (Kniggendorf et al.,
2019)

Lavoy and Crossman (2021) employed micro-Raman spectroscopy to examine

the microplastics found in dewatered sludge obtained from the Southwestern Ontario
wastewater treatment plant, addressing the notable contamination of biosolids and
sludge with microplastics. These organic substances play a crucial role in facilitating
the introduction of microplastics into the environment, given their frequent utilization
as fertilizers in agricultural activities. Characterizing and quantifying microplastics
in these materials is crucial for reducing contamination levels. The analysis involved
examining the samples using laser wavelengths of 785 and 532 nm. Initially, the fibers
were illuminated by 785 nm laser, and if clear spectra were not obtained, the 532 nm
laser was used instead. Conversely, when characterizing fragments, the 532 nm laser
was employed as the primary choice. Standard plastics such as polyester, polyethy-
lene terephthalate, polypropylene, low-density polyethylene, polymethyl methacry-
late, polycarbonate, and polystyrene were subjected to organic matter, leading to
the conclusion that microplastic characteristics remained unaltered despite digestion
processes conducted using septic tank cleaner. This digestion strategy resulted in a
658 M. Sunil et al.

93% reduction in organic matter compared to other methods and proved to be both
cost and time-effective, completing the process in just two days with all enzymes
added in a single step.
In a study conducted by Pavithran (2021), micro-Raman spectroscopy was used
to investigate microplastics in the coastal regions of Kerala’s northern shore, an
ecosystem crucial for its abundant bioresources. The research aimed to understand
human-induced pollution and environmental challenges in these coastal seawaters.
Sea water samples were obtained from five regions on the northern coast of Kerala
for analysis. The analysis utilized a 532 nm wavelength laser and a 50 × objec-
tive. Raman spectra obtained were compared with reference data from the Bio-Rad
KnowItAll Raman Spectral Library. Polypropylene was identified as the predominant
plastic in the samples, likely due to human activities in the nearby regions. Apart
from microplastics, the samples also contained other small particles such as rust
particles and paints, which were visually recognized. These discoveries illuminate
the presence and potential sources of microplastic pollution in the coastal waters of
Kerala, emphasizing the importance of monitoring and mitigating human impacts on
these essential ecosystems (Pavithran, 2021; SK and Varghese, 2020).
Becucci et al. (2022) conducted a study that examined wastewater treatment plants
as notable contributors to plastic pollution in both land and water ecosystems. This
study concentrated on analyzing the existence of microplastics in the discharge of
the Florence sewage treatment facility through micro-Raman spectroscopy. Samples
were obtained from the wastewater treatment facility in San Colombano, Italy. The
collected samples were filtered through 8 steel sieves and then subjected to diges-
tion. The digested samples on filter paper were initially visually identified and
subsequently characterized using micro-Raman spectroscopy. Characterization of
microplastics utilized an 80 × microscope objective and a 785 nm laser with a 5–50
mW laser output. The analysis showed the presence of polypropylene, polyethy-
lene, and polystyrene among the detected microplastics, with polypropylene being
the most abundant. This dominance of polypropylene could potentially be linked to
textile washing processes. These findings underscore the significance of wastewater
treatment plants (WWTPs) as contributors to microplastic pollution and empha-
size the necessity for implementing effective mitigation strategies to tackle this
environmental concern. (Becucci et al., 2022).
In research conducted by Prata et al. (2021), Nile Red staining emerges as a
cost-effective and high-throughput method for visually identifying and quantifying
fluorescent particles, particularly those of small sizes. While spectroscopic tech-
niques offer detailed chemical characterization of polymers, they often involve
significant costs and time. Nile Red staining presents a solution by allowing for the
pre-selection of particles before applying spectroscopy, thereby enhancing method
efficiency, reducing time consumption, and improving characterization. The study
investigates the combined use of Nile Red staining and micro-Raman spectroscopy
to identify microplastics in collected samples. Water and sediment samples were
obtained for analysis. Initially, the samples were examined using 470 nm light with
an orange filter and a 10 × objective lens. Subsequently, Raman spectra were recorded
using a system featuring a 442 nm laser, which produces a strong fluorescent signal
Raman Spectroscopy Based Approaches for Microplastics Investigations 659

through the orange filter, along with a 50 × or 100 × objective lens. This integrated
approach offers a promising method for effectively identifying microplastics while
streamlining the analysis process (Prata et al., 2021).
In addressing the risks posed by environmental contamination to rural water
sources and agricultural activities, safeguarding rural habitats emerges as a crucial
step toward supporting sustainable development and enhancing the quality of life
in rural regions while mitigating water pollution. To contribute to these ongoing
efforts, Wei et al. (2020) conducted a study on the presence of MPs in rural domestic
wastewater utilizing micro-Raman spectroscopy. The study concentrated on exam-
ining the input and output of five common rural domestic wastewater treatment
facilities (RD-WWTFs) situated in various regions across China. Various parame-
ters like the quantity, size, shape, type of polymer, and colour of microplastics were
examined during the investigation. Additionally, the study explored the distribution,
origins, removal efficiencies, and dependencies of MPs in rural areas. The identifi-
cation of microplastics was carried out using a laser wavelength of 785 nm and a 50
× objective lens, which revealed the presence of polypropylene, polystyrene, and
polyethylene terephthalate. Among these, polypropylene was found to be the most
abundant type, followed by polystyrene. This prevalence of polypropylene may be
attributed to the widespread use of disposable bowls made of polystyrene for storing
snacks and noodles by rural residents. Furthermore, the study highlighted a higher
prevalence of fragmented plastics compared to fibrous ones. These findings under-
score the importance of understanding and addressing microplastic pollution in rural
environments to safeguard water resources and agricultural sustainability (Wei et al.,
2020).
The global accumulation of plastic waste has reached alarming proportions due
to increased demand, consumption, affordability, and durability of plastic products.
Improper management of plastic debris poses severe health risks to ecosystems and
organisms worldwide. This study conducted by Li et al. (2022) provides quantita-
tive insights into the presence, abundance, and distribution of microplastics in fish
tissues, crucial for assessing the dangers associated with marine microplastic expo-
sure. Focusing on pelagic dolphin fish, 15 samples were collected from the Eastern
Pacific Ocean and analyzed using micro-Raman spectroscopy. The system employed
included a 785 nm wavelength laser, a 50 × objective lens, and a laser power ranging
from 1 to 60 mW. Analysis of the samples revealed the presence of microplastics
such as polyether sulfone, polyethylene terephthalate, polypropylene, polystyrene,
polyethylene-polypropylene, and polyethylene. Among these, polyether sulfone and
polyethylene terephthalate emerged as the dominant plastics. The researchers suggest
that atmospheric depositions may contribute to the prevalence of these plastics.
Furthermore, molecular docking analysis indicated that polyether sulfone could pose
greater health risks to pelagic dolphin fish (Coryphaena hippurus) due to its interac-
tions with fish enzymes. These findings underscore the importance of understanding
the impacts of microplastics on marine organisms and ecosystems, emphasizing the
need for effective management strategies to mitigate plastic pollution in oceans (Li
et al., 2022).
660 M. Sunil et al.

The threat posed by the bioaccumulation of microplastics in marine ecosystems

has garnered significant attention due to the increasing ingestion of plastic by marine
organisms, particularly in seafood, raising concerns about potential health impacts
on humans. In a study conducted by Priyawardhana et al. (2022) the occurrence
of microplastics in commercial marine dried fish from seven Asian countries was
investigated. Initially, particles from the collected samples were visually identified
and sorted based on their morphotypes. Subsequently, the identified plastic particles
underwent characterization using ATR-FTIR spectroscopy, chosen for its minimal
fluorescence issues. However, some particles were damaged during contact with
the ATR objective, necessitating the use of Micro-Raman spectroscopy for further
analysis and characterization. The experiment employed a laser with a wavelength of
633 nm, a power of less than 20 mW, and a magnification of 50x. Analysis revealed the
presence of polyethylene, polyethylene terephthalate, polystyrene, polyvinyl chlo-
ride, and polypropylene, with polyethylene being the dominant plastic-type iden-
tified. This prevalence of polyethylene may be attributed to its widespread use in
plastic bags, bottles, and milk jugs. The Raman spectra of the microplastics are
provided in Fig. 2, where the red colour represents the reference Raman spectra from
the Know-It-All library, and black indicates the Raman spectra of the microplastics
observed in the study. These findings underscore the importance of understanding
the contamination of microplastic in seafood and its potential implications for human
health (Piyawardhana et al., 2022).
The mismanaged production of plastics contributes significantly to environmental
contamination, with weathering processes leading to an escalation in microplastic
levels. This contamination poses a heightened risk to drinking water sources. Weber
et al. (2021) investigated microplastic presence in drinking water. Samples were
systematically collected from various locations throughout a German city, including
house connections, transfer stations, educational institutions, and apartments. Using
a 785 nm laser with a laser power output of 20 mW and a 10 × objective lens,
the experiment revealed a notable absence of microplastics in house connections
and transfer stations. However, pigment traces such as copper phthalocyanine were
detected in tap water samples, indicating potential contamination from water distribu-
tion pipes. These findings underscore the need for robust monitoring and management
strategies to safeguard drinking water quality and minimize the risk of microplastic
contamination (Weber et al., 2021).
The presence of microplastics in seafood, drinking water, and gastrointestinal
tracts of marine animals and humans poses significant health concerns, as they can
serve as carriers of various harmful chemicals and additives into the human body.
In a groundbreaking discovery by Ragusa et al. (2021) microplastics were identified
in the human placenta for the first time. Samples were obtained from six women
with physiological pregnancies and analyzed using micro-Raman spectroscopy. The
placenta samples underwent digestion using potassium hydroxide solution, followed
by filtration using Whatman filter membranes with a pore size of 1.6 µm. Initially,
the filter membranes were examined under visible light through a 10 × objective lens
to identify microplastics morphologically. Subsequently, samples were directly char-
acterized on the filter paper using micro-Raman spectroscopy. Figure 3 illustrates the
Raman Spectroscopy Based Approaches for Microplastics Investigations 661

Fig. 2 Raman spectra for particles detected as a PE b PS c PP d PET e PVC (Piyawardhana et al.,
2022)

mechanism of microplastics entering human tissue, while Fig. 4 displays the Raman
spectra and microphotographs of identified microplastics. The analysis revealed the
presence of 12 microplastic fragments, with 3 identified as polypropylene, while
pigments were detected in the remaining samples. These findings highlight the urgent
need for further research into the health implications of microplastic exposure and
662 M. Sunil et al.

underscore the importance of mitigating microplastic pollution to protect human

health (Ragusa et al., 2021).
Plastics undergo degradation into microplastics, dispersing via wind and waves
in marine environments, posing significant threats to organisms. To assess marine

Fig. 3 Hypothetical mechanisms of microplastics penetrating human tissues (Ragusa et al., 2021)
Raman Spectroscopy Based Approaches for Microplastics Investigations 663

Fig. 4 Microscopic images and Raman spectra of the microplastics discovered within the human
placenta.: a Particle #1, b Particles #2 and #10, c Particle #3, d Particle #4, e Particle #5, f Particles
#6 and #7, g Particle #8, h Particle #9, i Particle #11, and j Particle #12 (Ragusa et al., 2021)
664 M. Sunil et al.

pollution levels, Liu et al. (2020) employed micro-Raman spectroscopy to analyze

microplastics in sediment samples from Huiquan Bay, China. The presence of biolog-
ical residue in the samples introduced inaccuracies and fluorescence in recorded
spectra. To address this, two lasers of different wavelengths (532 and 785 nm) were
utilized. A 10 × objective lens facilitated target particle observation, while analysis
and polymer identification were conducted using 50× and 100 × objective lenses.
However, the use of a 100 × objective lens risked sample and objective damage
due to its short working distance, prompting predominantly 50 × objective lens
use. The most common microplastics identified included polypropylene, polyamide,
polytetrafluoroethylene, polystyrene, polyethylene, polyethylene terephthalate, and
acrylonitrile butadiene styrene, with polypropylene and polyethylene predominating.
These findings suggest commercial packaging materials, predominantly containing
polypropylene and polyethylene, as potential sources of microplastic dispersion in
the region (Liu et al., 2020).
The proliferation of microplastics in marine ecosystems has emerged as a global
concern, posing significant threats to aquatic organisms and potentially to human
health through ingestion. Polymer compositions of microplastics may undergo
alterations under various environmental conditions such as UV-induced photo-
degradation, thermal degradation, and biodegradation, underscoring the importance
of characterizing and identifying chemically weathered plastics for vibrational spec-
tral analysis. Lenz et al. (2015) employed Micro-Raman spectroscopy to identify
microplastics in the marine environment. Samples were collected during a trans-
Atlantic voyage aboard the Danish research vessel R/V Dana, spanning European
and subtropical North Atlantic regions. The experiment utilized a 455 nm wavelength
laser with a power output of 3 mW. A Raman reference library comprising 52 spectra,
including standard plastics, additives, and colors, was established. Microplastics
were initially sought on filters and categorized based on morphology as fibers or
particles. Visual identification and analysis of plastics were conducted using 10 ×
and 50 × objectives, with experimental parameters adjusted to mitigate fluorescence
effects relative to the laser wavelength. The study concluded that fibers outnumbered
particles, with polyethylene and polypropylene being the most commonly identified
polymers. These discoveries enhance our comprehension of microplastic distribution
and composition in marine environments, underscoring the necessity for additional
research to alleviate their impact on ecosystems and human health. (Lenz et al.,
2015).
The usage of plastics has witnessed a worldwide surge owing to their benefi-
cial characteristics. Microplastic contamination is observed as a consequence of
widespread improper handling and disposal of plastic wastes, fragmentation during
usage, and various other factors. Microplastic contamination can also be linked to
the packaging of beverages using plastics. In a study conducted by Prata JC et al.,
a method was devised for identifying and quantifying microplastics in the intricate
beverage matrix, which is abundant in natural organic matter. The study partic-
ularly focused on white wines capped with polyethylene stoppers, which have a
Raman Spectroscopy Based Approaches for Microplastics Investigations 665

high probability of microplastic contamination. Visual identification using a stereo-

microscope and Nile red staining was initially employed for microplastic quan-
tification, although confirmation of their presence was not achieved. Subsequently,
micro-Raman spectroscopy was applied to analyze the samples, allowing for the iden-
tification of polymer types despite interference from organic matter. In this study, a
total of 26 bottles of 750 ml white wines were gathered from diverse regions across
Italy. For microplastic identification, a 442 nm He: Cd laser and a 633 nm He: Ne
laser were utilized with a 100 × objective for microscopic observation. Laser power
and the number of accumulations were adjusted according to the sample to minimize
damage, ranging from 1 to 30 accumulations. Aluminum oxide Anodisc filters were
used for sample filtration due to poor Raman signal, and the use of a 442 nm blue laser
improved the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR). Sample volume reduction to 350–400 ml
helped reduce organic matter interference. Although attempts with 15% H2O2 to
reduce natural organic matter were unsuccessful due to Raman signal interference,
the technique successfully detected the presence of polyethylene, consistent with the
composition of the stoppers used in capped white wines (Prata et al., 2020).

3.2 Surface-Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy

for Microplastics Detection

Raman signals, known for their weak nature, can be intensified when the sample is
adsorbed on a metal surface. Typically, gold or silver nanoparticles are employed
for SERS due to their ability to enhance signals effectively (Lv et al., 2020). In the
SERS technique, silver colloid served as the active substrate, with sodium chloride
(NaCl) acting as the aggregating agent for the silver colloid. The experiment involved
analyses conducted in both pure water and seawater environments. The effectiveness
of the technique was assessed by adjusting the volume ratio of the sample along with
the concentrations of NaCl and silver colloid. Various types of plastics including
polystyrene, polyethylene, and polypropylene were subjected to analysis using this
method. A laser of wavelength 785 nm and laser power of 105 mW was employed
for the experiment. The study concluded that the SERS-based technique enabled
the detection and chemical composition identification of micro and nanoplastics,
including the analysis of plastic types. Remarkably, the technique exhibited excep-
tional sensitivity, allowing the detection of plastics as small as 100 nm (Lv et al.,
2020).
In addressing the challenge of identifying nanoplastics in environmental samples,
there’s a pressing demand for innovative methodologies. Numerous studies have indi-
cated that, under controlled laboratory conditions, microplastics can further degrade
into nano-sized particles ranging from 1 to 999 nm. However, detecting and char-
acterizing nanoplastics in natural systems has proven elusive due to methodological
limitations. While FTIR and conventional Raman spectroscopy are currently efficient
for microplastic analysis, they fall short in accurately characterizing nanoplastics due
666 M. Sunil et al.

to the diffraction limit. While the smallest microplastics detected in actual samples
using FTIR and RS are 50 µm and 10 µm, respectively, SERS shows high potential
for analyzing particles smaller than the diffraction limit of conventional RS. Zhou
et al. (2021) explored the quantitative and sensitive measurement of polystyrene
nanoplastics down to 50 nm using the SERS technique. Polystyrene nanoplastics
and water samples were collected, and a 785 nm wavelength laser with a 50 ×
objective and a laser power of 1 mW was used to minimize sample damage. In this
research, a water droplet that contains polystyrene nanoplastics, Ag nanoparticles
(AgNPs), and MgSO4 was placed on a silicon wafer. With the aid of the inorganic salt,
silver nanoparticles (AgNPs), and polystyrene nanoplastics were induced to adhere
together, forming a densely packed layer on the silicon wafer as the water evaporated.
Raman mapping was employed to produce a comprehensive chemical image of the
sample within a specified area, offering insights into the distribution of nanoplastics
on the silicon wafer. While SERS demonstrates ultra-high sensitivity, easy accessi-
bility, high spatial resolution, low water interference, and good repeatability, limi-
tations persist. The uneven enhancing effect for nanoplastic samples leads to poor
reproducibility due to inconsistent nanoplastic distribution on the silicon wafer and
heterogeneous hot-spot densities. Additionally, the lack of high lateral resolution
in Raman spectroscopy and limited morphology information provided by SERS
spectra may result in spectral overlap for multicomponent nanoplastics, constraining
its utility for environmental sample detection. Consequently, tip-enhanced Raman
spectroscopy emerges as a potential solution to overcome these limitations. In conclu-
sion, this study successfully detected polystyrene nanoplastics of various sizes and
concentrations (Zhou et al., 2021).
In addressing the escalating challenge of identifying and separating microplastics
from biological and environmental samples, driven by their adverse effects on human
health, a cost-effective and sensitive analysis technique is imperative. Microplastics,
smaller than 1 µm, pose a significant risk of entering human cells, underscoring
the urgency for advanced detection methods. Lee and Feng (2022) employed SERS,
a cost-effective, sensitive, and non-destructive technique requiring simple sample
preparation, to analyze submicroplastics at the individual particle level. Their main
objective was to ascertain the minimum quantity of gold nano urchins (AuNU) needed
to trigger SERS on a single polystyrene particle when excited with the appropriate
wavelength. Polystyrene was employed as the probe analyte, while gold nano urchins
acted as the SERS-active substrate. Polystyrene particles were coated with varying
quantities of AuNU, and Raman spectra were obtained using a 785 nm laser with a
100 × objective and 300 mW laser power. The study concluded that 1–5 AuNU parti-
cles excited at 785 nm are adequate to induce SERS on a polystyrene particle. These
findings lay the groundwork for developing SERS-based instruments for submi-
cron and nanoplastics detection. However, further research is warranted to enhance
techniques applicable to food and environmental samples (Lee & Fang, 2022).
With the extensive utilization of plastics, a substantial amount of plastic waste
is being discharged into the environment, becoming a significant contributor to
microplastic pollution. China, being the largest plastic producer globally and
possessing a wide array of freshwater ecosystems, displays significant diversity in the
Raman Spectroscopy Based Approaches for Microplastics Investigations 667

concentrations and distribution of microplastics within these habitats. Consequently,

comprehensive investigations are imperative to comprehend the dissemination of
microplastics in lakes and the factors influencing them. Yuan et al. (2019) conducted
research on microplastic prevalence, composition, and distribution in water, wild
fish, and sediments using the SERS technique. The main aim of this study was to
provide a thorough comprehension of microplastic pollution in Poyang Lake by
examining sediments, surface waters, and the gastrointestinal tracts of wild crucian
carp (Carassius auratus). Such insights are crucial for evaluating microplastic sources
and risks in Poyang Lake, as well as for formulating prevention strategies against
freshwater ecosystem contamination. Samples were collected from Poyang Lake,
China, the country’s largest lake, and underwent preprocessing and filtration. Stere-
omicroscopic observation and classification based on size, colour, and shape were
conducted on the filtered samples, excluding particles smaller than 50 µm due to
sieve pore size limitations. Micro-Raman spectrometry and a 785 nm wavelength
laser were employed for polymer type identification, utilizing SERS for Raman
analysis. Notably, four polymers including polypropylene, polyethylene, nylon, and
polyvinyl chloride were identified, with polypropylene and polyethylene being the
most abundant in the lake. Polypropylene and polyethylene particles were more
prevalent in water samples, potentially attributed to industrial and fishing activities,
while polyvinyl chloride predominated in sediment samples. The presence of nylon
may stem from laundry waters from northern or middle regions. The study revealed
microplastic pollution in the lake’s middle and northern regions through water and
sediment samples, respectively, underscoring the risk of microplastic ingestion by
aquatic organisms (Yuan et al., 2019).

3.3 Raman Tweezers for Microplastics Detection

Raman Tweezer spectroscopy emerged as the primary method for analyzing indi-
vidual particles of micro and nano plastics in a liquid environment, effectively
preventing re-aggregation due to its non-reliance on sample drying, unlike traditional
techniques. In the investigation conducted by Gillibert et al. (2022) tire and road wear
particles (TRWP) were found to originate from the heat generated during tire and
road surface contact. It was observed that the incidence of TRWPs is increasing in
terrestrial environments, potentially contributing to elevated levels of microplastic
contamination in aquatic systems during stormwater runoffs. A Raman Tweezer
spectroscopic technique was employed for the study, wherein a He–Ne laser with
a wavelength of 633 nm was utilized for both trapping and analyzing particles,
alongside a 100 × microscope objective. The researchers obtained car tire samples
by scrubbing them against a wet grinding stone, while TRWPs were acquired by
washing a brake test platform with distilled water. Hetero aggregates, which are the
combination of road materials and rubber, were also identified in the study. Figure 5
presents optical images and Raman spectra of the particles for further reference
(Gillibert et al., 2022).
668 M. Sunil et al.

Fig. 5 Optical images of

trapped TRWP particles of
sizes a 4.6 µm, b 2 µm, c,
1.5 µm, d 800 nm, and e 600
nm. f Raman spectra of the
TRWP particles (Gillibert
et al., 2022)

4 Conclusion and Future Research Directions

The significant health risks associated with the widespread presence of microplas-
tics are primarily due to human exposure through the contamination of food and
water sources. Studies indicate that microplastics have the ability to release harmful
chemicals and absorb dangerous pollutants, thereby posing potential risks when
ingested. The extensive surface area linked to minuscule microplastics, especially
those measuring less than 150 µm, enables their effortless assimilation by organ-
isms, potentially assisting their traversal through biological obstacles and giving rise
to apprehensions regarding widespread human exposure. Ingesting these microplas-
tics can potentially trigger inflammation, oxidative stress, and disrupt hormone
function, leading to various health problems such as digestive issues, reproductive
complications, and even the development of cancer.
The advancement of microplastics research opens up new avenues for exploration
through the use of Raman spectroscopy. Future studies may focus on addressing chal-
lenges, improving techniques, and expanding the scope of applications to enhance
our understanding of microplastics within their environmental setting. Combining
Raman spectroscopy with advanced techniques offers new and interesting paths for
studying microplastics in the future. As the study of nanoplastics gains prominence,
leveraging Raman spectroscopy’s sensitivity to small particle sizes offers a promising
direction. By refining Raman techniques specifically for identifying and character-
izing nanoplastics in environmental samples, it becomes possible to gain a more
comprehensive understanding of their distribution, behavior, and potential conse-
quences. In the evolving field of nanoplastics research, numerous opportunities for
Raman Spectroscopy Based Approaches for Microplastics Investigations 669

further investigation emerge, each offering prospects to enhance our understanding of

nanoplastics’ environmental fate, toxicity, and potential mitigation strategies. Inves-
tigating the mechanisms governing nanoplastics’ interactions with organisms and
ecosystems is crucial for elucidating their environmental impacts. Assessing the
ecological ramifications of nanoplastics exposure on various organisms and ecosys-
tems is essential for understanding the broader implications of nanoplastics pollu-
tion. Essentially, the exceptional spatial resolution of Raman spectroscopy makes
it a powerful analytical tool for precisely detecting and characterizing nanoplastics
in environmental samples. Unlike Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy, which
typically offers a spatial resolution of 10 to 20 µm, Raman spectroscopy holds a
distinct advantage for nanoplastics analysis due to its superior spatial resolution, often
reaching as low as 1 µm. This heightened spatial resolution enables Raman spec-
troscopy to accurately pinpoint and characterize individual nanoparticles, including
nanoplastics, with unparalleled detail and accuracy. By harnessing this capability,
researchers can gain deeper insights into the prevalence, behavior, and environmental
impacts of nanoplastics, thereby enhancing our understanding of plastic pollution and
informing strategies for its management and remediation.
Combining Raman spectroscopy with machine learning algorithms offers a robust
method for automating the analysis of microplastics. By training machine learning
models on extensive datasets of Raman spectra, it becomes possible to improve the
identification, classification, and quantification of microplastics within complex envi-
ronmental samples. This integration has the potential to streamline analysis proce-
dures significantly and enhance result accuracy. The merging of Raman spectroscopy
with machine learning presents a promising avenue for advancing microplastics
research. As scientists explore this innovative approach, numerous opportunities
for future investigation arise, promising to refine the precision, effectiveness, and
adaptability of microplastics identification and characterization (Sunil et al., 2024a,
2024b). Thus, researchers can continue leveraging Raman spectroscopy’s capabil-
ities to comprehensively analyze microplastics, furthering our understanding of
their origins, behavior, and environmental ramifications. By integrating Raman
spectroscopy with machine learning techniques, scientists can tackle crucial chal-
lenges in microplastics research and contribute to a more holistic comprehension of
microplastics pollution in the environment.
Expanding the application of stimulated Raman scattering (SRS) techniques
holds great promise for microplastics research. SRS offers enhanced sensitivity and
imaging capabilities compared to conventional Raman spectroscopy, enabling the
detection and characterization of microplastics with unprecedented spatial resolu-
tion and chemical specificity. Future studies could explore the utilization of SRS for
mapping the distribution of microplastics in environmental samples and investigating
their interactions with biological systems. Creating portable Raman systems with
the ability for quick, on-site analysis would streamline the thorough monitoring of
microplastic pollution across various ecosystems. This method could offer valuable
observations regarding the fluctuations in both time and location of microplastic
contamination, thus assisting in the formulation of precise mitigation plans. Inte-
grating Raman spectroscopy with other imaging and spectroscopic techniques offers
670 M. Sunil et al.

a multidimensional approach to microplastics characterization. This can provide the

combination of Raman spectroscopy with techniques such as microscopy, infrared
spectroscopy, and hyperspectral imaging to gain complementary information on
microplastics properties, including morphology, chemical composition, and spatial
distribution. This way, researches can advance the understanding of microplas-
tics pollution and its environmental implications, ultimately contributing to more
effective strategies for mitigation and management.

Acknowledgements The authors are thankful to the Manipal Academy of Higher Education for
providing MAHE intramural funding. Megha Sunil and Mithun N are also thankful to MAHE for
T.M.A Pai Doctoral fellowship.

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Mitigation and Future Directions
A Review on Microplastics Migration
from Sources Through Wastewater
to the Environments: Classifications,
Impacts and Removal Techniques

Leonard N. Onuba , Nchekwube D. Nweke , Johnbosco C. Egbueri ,

Daniel A. Ayejoto , and Johnson C. Agbasi

Abstract Non-renewable microplastics are tiny (< 5 mm) synthetic polymer parti-
cles essentially of carbon and hydrogen atoms that resulted from fragmentation,
degradation or production of plastic materials. These particles are emerging as world-
wide pollutants with devastating impacts on the environments and the human health.
This chapter provides a basic understanding of microplastics, sources, migration,
impacts, removal techniques, and future projections. Microplastics originated from
industrial production of plastic materials from fossil to domestic usage down to
wastewater treatment systems before being discharged into the environments. In this
review, microplastic pollutants were divided into three types based on environmental
considerations. They include airborne, marine and terrestrial pollutants. The main air
pollutants are polyethylene, polyester, and polyethylene terephthalate and circulated
by wind in form of particle dust. In marine pollution, polyethylene (PE) floats on
water surface and interacts with aquatic organisms, whereas denser ones sink and
affects the sea floor and biota at the bottom of the sea/ocean. Terrestrial pollutants
like microfiber polyesters affect the physicochemical nature of the soil and disrupting
activities of microorganisms. Three major removal methods of microplastics include
(i) the natural (biological) techniques, (ii) the artificial (physical and chemical) tech-
niques and (iii) the combination techniques. Numerous studies have been directed
towards the removal of microplastics from wastewater. To date, no technique has
completely removed microplastics from wastewater with high level of precision and

L. N. Onuba (B) · J. C. Egbueri · J. C. Agbasi

Department of Geology, Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu University, Uli, Nigeria
e-mail: ln.onuba@coou.edu.ng
N. D. Nweke
Department of Earth, Environmental and Geographic Sciences, The University of British
Columbia, Kelowna, Canada
D. A. Ayejoto
Department of Environmental and Sustainability Sciences, Texas Christian University, Fort
Worth, TX, USA

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 675
J. C. Egbueri et al. (eds.), Microplastics in African and Asian Environments, Emerging
Contaminants and Associated Treatment Technologies,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-64253-1_28
676 L. N. Onuba et al.

consistency. Integrated and multi-disciplinary approaches remain key for effective

removal from the sources, wastewater and the environment.

Keywords Non-renewable microplastics · Microplastic pollutants · Microplastics

in wastewater · Impacts of microplastics · Removal techniques

1 Introduction

Generally, plastics obtained from fossils are regarded as synthetic organic mate-
rials that are utilized worldwide in daily activities, making things easier for people
in different aspects of life (El Hayany et al., 2022; Gunes-Durak, 2021). Plastics
(synthetic polymers) are among the essential and most demanded materials often
used in modern society (d’Ambrieres, 2019; Garcia-Munoz et al., 2023) with world-
wide production of over 320 million tons annually (Wright & Kelly, 2017). These
constitute approximately 54% of the globally generated waste (Hoellein et al., 2014).
The untreated wastes like microplastics/plastic debris are the sources of pollutions in
marine, and terrestrial ecosystems (Lebron, 2017). The rate of daily use of these prod-
ucts have gone astronomically high in less than a decade. The rates of pollution caused
by plastic waste are also increasing due to lack of proper management and adequate
recycling plans. Plastic materials are among the man-made most stubborn pollu-
tants that are produced in various forms in respect to material science and chemistry
(Tore & Yilmaz, 2022). Generally, around 90% of these materials are made up of
low to high density polymers that include polythene (PE), Polyethene terephthalate
(PET), Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC), Polystyrene (PS) and Polypropylene (PP), etc.
(Andrady, 2011). In 2015, roughly 6.3 billion Mt of plastics have been produced
and abandoned in the Earth’s environments. Out of which 12% were incinerated, 9%
were recycled and 79% were discarded in terrestrial (soils) environments (Geyers
et al., 2017; Mendenhall, 2018).
The Earth’s environments have four key systems, the biosphere (living organ-
isms/biota), the lithosphere (terrestrial/soil), the hydrosphere (marine/aquatic/water)
and the atmosphere (air) (Huddart & Tim, 2020). These systems are interdependent
on one another since what affects any system, will directly or indirectly influence
the rest of the other systems. A simplified diagram showing interdependence of
the four major Earth systems is seen in Fig. 1. The details of their relationship
could be observed in water/hydrological cycle (Oki et al., 1999), rock cycle, atmo-
spheric cycle and food chain. Take, for example, the water cycle has a close rela-
tionship with the Earth’s biogeochemical cycle and energy cycle (Oki et al., 1999).
Earth processes could be either internal (earthquakes, volcanism, plate tectonics) and
external/surface processes (weathering, erosion, deposition), and they play essential
parts in the cycling of the basic elements of the Earth (Allen, 2009). Chemistry
and geology (geochemistry) play essential roles in understanding these processes,
and the recycling of inorganic matter between living organism, and their nonliving
environments are regarded as biogeochemical cycles.
A Review on Microplastics Migration from Sources Through … 677

Fig. 1 A simplified
representation of the Earth’s
environments system

The aim of this review is to understand the migration of microplastics from

sources through wastewater to the environment. This will be achieved by exam-
ining the fundamentals of microplastic sources, classifications, type of microplastics
pollutants, impacts and removal techniques.

2 Classifications of Microplastics

Plastics can either be classified as ‘synthetic’ (non-renewable) or ‘biobased’ (renew-

able) plastics (Baheti, 2024). Synthetic plastics emanate from crude oil, natural gas
or coal. The biobased plastics are derived from products of renewable materials like
starch, carbohydrates, vegetable fats and oils (Baheti, 2024). Synthetic plastic mate-
rials pass through four major processes namely (Baheti, 2024): (i) Extraction of crude
oil/natural gas/coal; (ii) to transform crude oil into various products of petroleum;
(iii) conversion of monomers to polymers through polymerization; (iv) formation of
plastics by blending processes. Most monomers employed in the production process
of plastic are extracted from hydrocarbons (e.g. ethylene) (Fig. 2).
Hydrocarbons are the main components of crude oil and/or natural gas, used as
lubricants, fuels, and raw materials to produce plastics, solvents, rubbers, fibers,
industrial chemicals and explosives (Baheti, 2024). Hydrocarbons are obtained from
fossils that are formed from the remains of dead plants and animals that lie deep
usually in sedimentary rocks (organic in origin) over millions of years under required
temperature and pressure conditions. Plastic materials could also be classified by sizes
and these include Nanoplastics, Microplastics (small and large sizes), Macroplastics,
and Mesoplastics (Table 1) (Tore & Yilmaz, 2022).
Plastics are broken into pieces due to man-made (industrial and domestic) activ-
ities from numerous physical abrasions to form microplastics. This may also be
due to natural occurrence, once plastics are thrown into the environment; they
678 L. N. Onuba et al.

Fig. 2 Non-renewable chemical materials obtained from the refining of fossil. Modified from
Baheti (2024)

Table 1 Plastic types and

Particle Type Particle size range
various particle sizes
Nanoplastics < 20 µm
Small size Microplastics 20 µm to 1 mm
Large size Microplastics 1–5 mm
Mesoplastics 5–200 mm
Macroplastics > 200 mm
Modified from Tore and Yilmaz (2022)

degrade by breaking down into smaller components called Microplastics (Gao et al.,
2023; Park & Park, 2021). Microplastics are minute particles made up of poly-
mers (synthetic) that resulted from the breaking down of plastics into small pieces
(< 5 mm) and can be found in aquatic, biota and terrestrial environments (Bheta,
2024; El Hayany et al., 2022; Tore & Yilmaz, 2022; Murphy et al., 2016). Plas-
tics are absorbed as microplastics through hydrosphere, lithosphere, atmosphere and
biosphere (Park & Park, 2021). The study of these minute particles called microplas-
tics started with those of the hydrosphere (marine environments) as suggested by
Bowmer and Kershaw (2010). Microplastics have been suggested to originate from
both industrial and domestic activities (Kwon et al., 2022). These activities include
cosmetics microbeads, tire-wears particles, textile’s fibers, plastic manufacturing
industries, etc. (Sugiura et al., 2021).

2.1 Microplastic Classifications Criteria

Microplastics are also classified in accordance with the following criteria, (a) the
morphology (shape/size) (Tanaka & Takada, 2016; Yu et al., 2019); (b) the origin/
source (Avio et al., 2017); and (c) the chemical composition (Hahladakis & Lacoviou,
A Review on Microplastics Migration from Sources Through … 679

2018). Microplastics could be divided based on morphology (shape/size), into six

categories namely foams, fibers, pellets, microbeads, fragment and films (Dey et al.,
2021; Yu et al., 2019). The foams and fragments exhibit secondary origin with irreg-
ular shapes resulting from microplastics abrasion (Wu et al., 2019). Fiber-shaped
microplastics are frequently observed in marine and terrestrial environments (Zhang
et al., 2018). In water, microfibers vary from 0.02–25.8 fibers/L to 0.09–27.06 mm/
L. The main point of release of microfibers is from the garment industries, during
washing in the production processes of clothing (Cesa et al., 2017; Suaria et al.,
2020). The microplastic fibers have a diameter range of 10–20 µm and must have
resulted from textiles wears (Bianco & Passananti, 2020). The pellet microplastics
forms cylindrical grains that are generated by industries and are discharged into the
environments (Bianco & Passananti, 2020). Sphere-type microplastics are suggested
to have originated from the leakage of resin pellet during blasting media, trans-
portation system and various abrasive products (Acosta-Coley & Olvero-Verbel,
2015). The microbeads are generally synthesized by suspension, polymerized by
dispersion and emulsion (Environment and Climate-Change Canada, 2015). The
film microplastics are produced from synthetic plastic bags and packages whereas
the foams are manufactured from various plastic products (Zhang et al., 2015).
Based on origin, there are two classes of microplastics; primary and secondary
(Avio et al., 2017). The primary microplastics are identified as particles in size of
microbeads (< 2 µm) as in cosmetics and cleaners (Eriksen et al., 2013; Tanaka &
Takada, 2016), air blasting media and powders (Raju et al., 2018) and resin pellets
sizes (Antunes et al., 2013; Ogata et al., 2009). These microplastics exhibit char-
acteristics of small-sized polymer particles of synthetic origin used in chemical
formulation, and exfoliates in sand blasting (Chatterjee & Sharma, 2019). The
secondary particles are produced from plastics that have weathered and fragmented
(Suigura et al., 2021). These are obtained after mesoplastics or microplastics have
gone through biodegradation, thermal, hydrolysis, photodegradation and oxidative
processes (Sharma & Chatterjee, 2017). Microplastics are classified based on their
chemical contents or composition (Campanale et al., 2020; Hahladakis & Lacoviou,
2018). Raw material has chemicals that are absorbed by the surroundings in form
of microplastics during parent plastic production. These microplastics penetrate the
different environments through water, air and soil (Akindele et al., 2020; de Souza
Machado et al., 2018). Details of the microplastics classifications based on chemical
contents could be found in Okeke et al. (2022).
Types of Microplastic Pollutants
Microplastics pollutants could be categorized based on the environments where
they are observed or have been introduced into. They could be grouped into
airborne microplastics pollutants, terrestrial microplastics pollutants, and marine
microplastics pollutants.
680 L. N. Onuba et al.

2.1.1 Terrestrial Microplastic Pollutants

Microplastic particles that are observed in soil environments are suggested to disrupt
the physicochemical properties of the soils, which includes bulk density, soil struc-
ture and water-retaining capacity (Li et al., 2020). The alteration of soil proper-
ties depends on composition of the microplastics (Okeke et al., 2022). Take, for
example, microfiber polyesters could combine with soil particles resulting to clod
formation and eventually lead to macropores affecting soil-inhibiting microorgan-
isms (Zhang et al., 2019a). Microplastics sometimes combine with other pollu-
tants, including heavy metals, organic contaminants, and antibiotics and these affect
microorganisms destructively. A reasonable amount of data is required to confirm
this proposition (Wang et al., 2019). Domestic greywater acts as a means through
which microfibers enter the terrestrial and aquatic environments via treatment plants
(Browne et al., 2011). Cleaning agents, personal-care, and blasting media particles
have polypropene (PP), Polyethylene (PE) and polystyrene (PS) that could be used
for scrubbing as observed in wastewater plants (Claessens et al., 2011; Prata et al.,
2018; Raju et al., 2018). Researchers suggested that about 80% of plastic waste is
sourced from wastewater, rainfall, rivers, wind and runoffs (Andrady, 2011; Frias
et al., 2016; Jambeck et al., 2015). Studies have also suggested the soil to be a major
storing chamber for microplastics as observed in recycled fertilizers from the sludge
of wastewater systems (Corradini et al., 2019). Since the sludges that are introduced
into the environment are obtained from the wastewater treatment facilities, it is essen-
tial to examine the sludge recycling fertilizers before being used on agricultural land
(Park & Park, 2021).

2.1.2 Airborne Microplastic Pollutants

Air microplastics pollutants originated from plastic dust (particles) that resulted
from industrial distillation of hydrocarbon, plastic production, domestic activities
and urbanization. These are transported through the atmospheric environment into
another environment (the freshwater system) (Abbasi et al., 2019; Cai et al., 2017;
Dris et al., 2016; Gasperi et al., 2018). Studies suggested that building materials,
object from the household, waste incineration, abrasive powders, landfills, sewage
sludge, fabrics from clothing, etc. have been identified as the main sources of airborne
microplastics particles (Okeke et al., 2022; Amato-Lourenco et al., 2020; Gasperi
et al., 2018). The microplastic pollutants of this nature are polyethylene terephthalate,
polyethylene, polyester, poly (N-methyl acrylamide), etc., and they appear as foams,
granules, fragments, films and fibers in the atmospheric environment (Cai et al.,
2017; Okeke et al., 2022). These dusty particles are easily blown up to the atmo-
sphere by the means of wind to other aquatic or terrestrial environments. The wind
acts as a transportation medium through which these particle dusts are suspended
in the atmosphere (Zhang et al., 2019b). Although the amount, form, distribution of
airborne microplastics have not been studied in detail when compared to the pollu-
tants associated with the terrestrial and aquatic environments (Okeke et al., 2022;
A Review on Microplastics Migration from Sources Through … 681

Trainic et al., 2020). Air microplastic dust poses a serious threat to the ecosystems and
by extension to humans through daily inhalation or ingestion into the body systems
(Abbasi et al., 2019; Dehghani et al., 2017). The airborne microplastic are usually
toxic with damaging effect when inhaled by construction workers and vulnerable
individuals, especially young children (Ding et al., 2021). About 70, 000 microplas-
tics are observed on exposed food, thereby creating avenues through which humans
consume microplastics (Kuna & Sreedhar, 2019). The continuous consumption of
microplastics is evidently observed in several diseases ranging from cardiovascular
diseases, viral diseases, respiratory problems, asthma, lung cancer, etc. (Dey et al.,
2021; Okeke et al., 2022).

2.1.3 Marine Microplastic Pollutants

The pollutants in marine environments have become a very critical issue in recent
years. Some studies suggest that microplastics act as a medium of absorbing various
pathogens, heavy metals, and additives that are used in producing raw plastics (Dey
et al., 2021). These pollutants are often released into the marine environment directly
and indirectly through plastic production, to the daily use of the items, manufacturing
industries, degradation of the materials, and wastewater treatment plants. These are
discharged from raw plastic materials (Olverira et al., 2023), textile industry (Van
Tran et al., 2023), washing of clothing (Zhou et al., 2023), nylon discharge and
synthesis (Zhuang & Wang, 2023), to the release of microbeads from personal-care
particles (Bostan et al., 2023). There exist other undiscovered sources through which
microplastics are introduced to the ocean environment. The effects of microplastic
pollution on the water environments are studied the most with extensive reviews when
compared to the other atmospheric and terrestrial environments (Ding et al., 2021;
Gunes-Durak, 2021; Issac & Kandasubramanian, 2021; Okeke et al., 2022). The
reason for this since the global water body of the earth covers about 71% of the entire
earth’s surface and holds about 97% volume of the earth’s water (Issac & Kanda-
subramanian, 2021). Generally, water is a very important component of the earth
systems, and the introduction of microplastics into the water body creates serious
threats to the aquatic life (flora and fauna), which by extension affects the human
population (Issac & Kandasubramanian, 2021). For example, less dense microplas-
tics float on the surface of the water body like polyethylene (PE) and interact with
organisms, whereas denser ones sink and affect the sea floor and biota at the bottom
of the sea/ocean. In the marine environment, water current and wind act as the
transportation medium through which microplastic particles move from soils to the
water environments (Issac & Kandasubramanian, 2021; Kataoka et al., 2013). Recent
studies suggest that the presence of microplastic in water environments is globally
spread throughout the coastal and sediment ecosystems (Cai et al., 2017; Ding et al.,
2021; Okeke et al., 2022). Since they appear everywhere and are very common,
their small sizes allow organisms to ingest them (Padervand et al., 2020; Tanaka &
Takada, 2016). Once the microplastics are ingested by organisms, these particles
create physical damages resulting to the clogging of the digestive tracts, thereby
682 L. N. Onuba et al.

preventing proper feeding mechanism of the aquatic biota (Cole et al., 2015). This
has health-related implications with respect to the food chain.

2.2 Microplastics in Wastewater

Sonune and Ghate (2004) defined wastewaters as the waterborne liquids and solids
that are discharged into the sewer system from domestic and industrial activi-
ties. These comprise dissolved and suspended solids of organic origin that are
‘’putrescible” or biologically decomposable and are recognized as wastewater. The
domestic wastewater, industrial wastewater, livestock wastewater, and agricultural
wastewater are suggested to contain many microplastics, and these microplastics
cannot easily be separated from the wastewater systems (Park & Park, 2021).
However, those that can be detected in wastewater include polyethylene (PE),
polyester (PES), polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polyamide (PA), polypropylene
(PP), polyurethane (PU), and polystyrene (PS) (Cui et al., 2024; Hasan & Jho, 2023;
Ivy et al., 2023). These wastewaters consist of washings from textiles, micro-pellets
from cosmetic preparations, and textile fibers (Saur, 2020). The process by which
solids in wastewater are removed and changed partially by the decomposition from
organic solids to minerals is referred to as wastewater treatment (Sonune & Ghate,
2004). The wastewaters are usually transported to municipal wastewater treatment
plant, where plastics are eliminated. Although microplastics and nanoplastics are not
completely removed from the wastewater treatment plant, some microplastics are
discharged into the environment as effluent (Lv et al., 2019). A common wastewater
treatment plant usually performs three major treatment sequences to purify or sepa-
rate wastewater before letting them into the environment in form effluents or biosolids
(Raju et al., 2018). Due to the level of effluents, the quantity of microplastics being
released from wastewater systems globally is quite alarming and surpasses millions of
particles per day (Alvim et al., 2020). Numerous studies have been directed towards
the removal of microplastics from wastewater. To date, no removal technique has
eliminated MPs from wastewater with high level of precision and consistency.

2.3 Impacts of Microplastic Pollutants on Human Health

The most plastic usage in daily life activities includes food packaging, electric mate-
rials, medical devices, water bottles for drinking water, mobile phone accessories,
contact lens frames and their accessories, etc. These materials increase the abun-
dance of microplastics and pose a high danger to human health (Jiang et al., 2020).
Microplastics pose a lot of threats to all living things and the ecosystem and are also
found in synthetic clothes, health and beauty products, frames and lenses; plastic
bags, car tyres, phone accessories, etc. (Gunes-Durak, 2021). The consumption of
microplastics by humans started from an early age and increases as one grows older
A Review on Microplastics Migration from Sources Through … 683

(Li et al., 2023). For humans, fish is a major source of protein that is commonly
available for consumptions. Microplastics are observed in the food chain due to
their widespread availability in marine and terrestrial environments (Kiran et al.,
2021). Once microplastics gain access into the human body through the consump-
tion of food like fish (Dey et al., 2021), it runs through the gastrointestinal chamber.
This chamber interacts with the mechanism of the body physiology, especially with
respect to colon and rectum and further interacts with a covering layer called colonic
mucus (Li et al., 2023). If this happens, microplastics might cause disruption to the
mucus layer, thereby reducing the efficacy of the protective effect and this might lead
to colorectal cancer. Microplastics that are made up of PVC, and PS are suggested
to be responsible for emitting hazardous chemicals (monomers) that could cause
cancers in humans (Li et al., 2023; Wang et al., 2016). However, studies are required
to confirm and substantiate the nature, quantity and chemical interaction with the
human body mechanism.

3 Removal Techniques of Microplastics

A lot of techniques have been developed or devised for the elimination of microplas-
tics from the earth’s environment and wastewater systems and more are being
proposed. Microplastic removal techniques fall within three essential categories:
chemical, physical, and biological methods. This should be mainly for microplas-
tics observed in the hydrosphere (marine/aquatic/water) environments and the litho-
sphere (soil/terrestrial) environments. The removal techniques could be grouped into
natural (biological) and artificial (chemical and physical) removal techniques or a
combination of both.
Natural methods involve removal of microplastics by sea or land creatures or
organisms from the marine and terrestrial environments (Gunes-Durak, 2021). The
natural methods include microbial degradation (fungi and bacterial degradation),
biosorption, plant uptake, etc. (Manikanda Bharath et al., 2022; Dey et al., 2021).
These methods are engineered by enzymes of micro-organisms that act as decom-
posing agents by breaking down microplastic waste into methane, biomass, carbon
dioxide and other compounds of inorganic origin (Dey et al., 2021). This tech-
nique depends on the nature and characteristics of the polymer types involved and
the necessary environmental conditions like adequate temperature, ultraviolet radi-
ation, sunlight and atmospheric humidity, etc. These parameters play vital roles in
micro-organism degradation (Shah et al., 2008). Microplastics in the ocean greater
than 60 with lower half-lives (days); in fresh or estuarine sediments greater than
120 or freshwater greater than 180 are recognized to be degradable and risk-free
to the environments (Verschoor, 2015). On the other hand, the non-natural methods
remove microplastics by introducing man-made technologies. These include filtra-
tion, membrane technology, electrocoagulation technique, coagulation and agglom-
eration processes, advanced oxidation process, etc. The combination methods involve
684 L. N. Onuba et al.

the integration of the natural and artificial methods. A good example of this method
is the extraction of microplastics from wastewater treatment plants.

3.1 Microplastics Removal by Natural Methods

This deals with the removal of microplastics based on sludge consumption by micro-
organisms. This involves the accumulation of acetic acid, sludge hydrolysis and
production of methane and hydrogen (Gunes-Durak, 2021). The effectiveness of
these methods is dependent on the intricate environmental controls (Cui et al., 2024).
It is thereby suggested that biodegradation of microplastics by micro-organisms could
be a possible solution in eliminating microplastics from the environments (Dey et al.,
2021).

3.1.1 Microplastic Removal by Marine Microalga

Studies suggested that certain algae groups, for example Fuscus Vesiculosus has
the capability to cling to microplastics of 20 µm in size. This sticking was due
to the alginate compounds being excreted from the cell wall (Sundbæk et al.,
2018). The alginate compounds are anionic polysaccharide substances that enable
polystyrene (PS) microplastics to gum to the surface of the seaweed (Martin et al.,
2013; Gunnes-Durak, 2021). Other algae referred to as Pseudokirchneriella Subcap-
itata (green algae), maintain charged microplastics on the surface of the micro-
organisms (Nolte et al., 2017). This gumming characteristics are dependent on the
particle loads attached on the surface of the algae. (Gunnes-Durak, 2021). It was
suggested that seaweed, Fuscus Vesiculosus, and marine microalga have the abili-
ties of clinging fluorescent microplastics on their surface (Manikanda Bharath et al.,
2022). If microplastics are charged positively, then there is more efficient cohe-
sion depending on the visibility of the anionic polysaccharide (alginate) observed in
chemical structure of the algae (Gunnes-Durak, 2021).
Studies suggest that bacterium has the potential to hydrolyze polyethylene tereph-
thalate (PET) with PETase enzymes and this has been demonstrated by the secretion
of PETase enzymes by Escherichia and Bacillus in degrading microplastics (Dey
et al., 2021). Therefore, the PETase enzyme plays important part in the decomposi-
tion process of microplastics (Huang et al., 2018; Moog et al., 2019; Seo et al., 2019).
Similarly, microalga (phaeodactylum tricornutum observed in marine environment
could break down PET into MHET (2-hydroxyethylnterephthalate) and TPA (tereph-
thalic acid) (Dey et al., 2021; Moog et al., 2019). Future studies should also focus
on the freshwater microalga to understand if they also have the ability of excreting
enzymes that are capable of degrading microplastics (Dey et al., 2021).
A Review on Microplastics Migration from Sources Through … 685

3.1.2 Microplastic Removal by Bacterial and Fungal Degradation

Experiments have been conducted to find the bacteria responsible for the removal
of microplastics (e.g. PET) by degradation. A PET degrading whole-cell biocata-
lyst (Comamonas testosteroni) for the removal of MPs were identified (Dey et al.,
2021). Three different types of media were presented, namely the bacteria in pH of
7 (neutral media), bacteria in pH of 12 (alkaline media) and alkaline media without
bacteria. It was observed that the rate of degradation of PET with biocatalyst and high
pH performed better than those in neutral media (Gong et al., 2018). Other studies
from Yoshida et al. (2016), highlighted that isolated bacteria (Ideonella sakaiensis)
were capable of degrading PET into monomers, ethylene glycol and terephthalic
acid (TA). Their results suggest that the bacterium can release enzymes (PETase
and MHETase) that will hydrolyze PET using microplastic waste as the main source
of carbon nutrients. Vimala and Mathew (2016) examined an isolated bacterium
(Bacillus subtilis) and revealed that the secretion of biosurfactant was mainly respon-
sible for the degradation of microplastics. The decomposition is faster with bacterial
than fungal, especially with the major roles exhibited by enzymes and biosurfac-
tants (Dey et al., 2021). Pretreatment of photo-induced (photolysis) degradation and
chemical degradation before exposing the microplastics under bacteria will help to
reduce the timing of degradation and make it to be commercially viable (Dey et al.,
2021).
Russel et al. (2011) proposed that fungi can extract nutrients from microplastics
and could be used to degrade MPs. A key example is the use of water fungi (Zale-
rion maritimum) to degrade PE-based microplastics in Portuguese marine waters. In
the experiment, the fungus was exposed to microplastics for 14 days in controlled
media (dark environment) at a temperature of 25 °C with 120 rpm continuous stir-
ring. The observations suggest that microplastics decrease in mass while the fungus
increases in weight. In this study, the change in biomass was 82.0% + 2.1, while the
change in microplastics was given as 56.7% + 2.9 with the removal efficiency of 43%
(Paco et al., 2017). Rusell et al. (2011) examined the degradation potential of PUR
MPs by endophytic fungi also known as pestalotiopsis microspore. Their findings
suggested that serine hydrolase plays an important role in the decomposition of the
polymer while the PUR was suggested to be a source of carbon. Other studies like
Yamada-Onodera et al. (2001) determined PE degradation from fungus (Penicillium
simplicissimum) while Zhang et al. (2020) examined the fungus (Aspergillus flavus)
for PE remediation. It was generally observed that the fungus can degrade microplas-
tics under required temperature, agitation and with the availability of serine hydro-
lase enzyme. It was further observed that it takes longer time for fungi to degrade
microplastics and therefore, proposing that a pretreatment (Ozonolysis, solvolysis,
and photo-oxidation) is essential before fungal degradation (Dey et al., 2021).
686 L. N. Onuba et al.

3.1.3 Microplastic Removal by Microbial Ingestion and Plants Uptake

The microplastics ingested by microorganisms is suggested as one of the removal

techniques in marine environment (Manikanda Bharath et al., 2022). Cole et al.
(2013) examined the negative impact of ingested microplastics on zooplankton
function and observed that this technique had the great capacity to remove 1.7–
30.6 m polystyrene microplastics by microbial ingestion. Red sea giant (Tridacna
maxima) can remove 53- 500 µm of polyethylene particles (Arossa et al., 2019).
There is proof that polypropylene microplastics can be removed by Scleractinian
corals (Manikanda Bharath et al., 2022). Studies suggest that since microorganisms
can ingest microplastics, they are also employed in elimination of low concentration
microplastics (Manikanda Bharath et al., 2022).
In plant uptake of microplastics, phytoremediation has been demonstrated to be
an eco-friendly technology that is mainly used (Qi et al., 2018). It involves tech-
niques such as phytofiltration, phytoextraction and phytostabilization depending on
the nature and site of microplastics contamination (Manikanda Bharath et al., 2022).
The root of the plant is generally the initial point of contact of microplastics in a
contaminated soil and rhizosphere is the region of first point of contact using phytore-
mediation technology. The polystyrene observed in microbeads was observed to be
the root to lettuce plants (Li et al., 2019). The plant selection process for the phytore-
mediation technology includes (i) accumulation capacity, (ii) tolerance for microplas-
tics, bioaccumulation factor, (iii) profuse root system, (iv) biomass production, etc.
one of the major limitations of this technique is the risk of microplastics entering
the food chain. Therefore, care should be taken for plant selection process based
on mobilization and immobilization of microplastics present in the soil environment
(Ebere et al., 2019).

3.2 Microplastics Removal by Artificial Methods

The artificial methods are non-natural techniques that are employed extract of
microplastic particles from the environment. Although the techniques reviewed here
were based on those associated with marine and terrestrial environments. In addition,
we also highlighted some of the removal techniques in the context of wastewater treat-
ment plants (WWTP). These artificial methods will be reviewed from two important
components, namely physical, and chemical approaches.

3.2.1 Microplastics Removal by Physical Methods

Some studies have demonstrated how microplastics are eliminated by physical

methods (Raju et al., 2018; Dey et al., 2021; Park & Park, 2021; Manikanda Bharath
A Review on Microplastics Migration from Sources Through … 687

et al., 2022; Kwon et al., 2022). These methods include floatation, filtration, sedi-
mentation, membrane technology, etc. (Park & Park, 2021). The most common phys-
ical techniques used during wastewater treatments in removal of microplastics are
filtration techniques, and membrane technology. Sediments are suggested to be the
major means (transport medium) of microplastics contamination to the water environ-
ments. Therefore, for effective removal of microplastics, a proper clean up exercise is
required with concentration on the sea floor and a quality marine debris monitoring
programs may be employed to minimize the level of microplastics contamination
(Manikanda Bharath et al., 2022).
Microplastics Removal by Filtration Techniques
The primary aim of filtration technique is to eliminate microplastics particles from
sewage water or wastewater (Manikanda Bharath et al., 2022). In the past, sewage-
treatment plants were not designed to eliminate microplastics, but the plants have
shown to be a good removal facility for microplastics. It has been observed that the
microplastics elimination rate was 71.67% during the primary processes, while at the
end of the advanced stages, the microplastics removal efficiency could be up to 99.9%
(Talvitie et al., 2017). In the filtration techniques, various filters are employed, such as
disc filter, membrane bioreactor, etc., depending on the size and volume of microplas-
tics observed in wastewater during the filtration process (Manikanda Bharath et al.,
2022). The key steps employed in the filtration process of every wastewater treat-
ment include: (a) the separations of solid materials from the water due to gravity
techniques since sediments are denser than the water body. (b) Other particles (e.g.
wood, oils, etc.) can be removed from the water body due to floatation of the mate-
rials on the surface water. Based on this, any chemical materials, suspensions of solid
colloidal particles and stream effluent contaminants are filtered (Gregory, 2009). (c)
After filtration, the water undergoes oxidization that reduces or eliminates any toxi-
city from remaining contaminants and disinfects the effluent before being directed
toward the environment (Manikanda Bharath et al., 2022). In addition, the combi-
nation of filtration to other techniques like biological and sedimentation, recorded
a good microplastic removal efficiency (Lares et al., 2018). A study that blends
filtration with dynamic membrane (Li et al., 2018); alternatively, combined reduced
turbidity, filtration and dynamic membrane (Ersahin et al., 2017; Horton & Dixion,
2018); or integrate membrane bioreactor, dissolve air floating, fast sand filtration,
and disc filtration are very efficient in removal of microplastics (Manikanda Bharath
et al., 2022).
Microplastics Removal by Membrane Technology
The removal of microplastics using this technique involves the dynamic membrane
technology and membrane bioreactor technology (Manikanda Bharath et al., 2022).
This technology was designed from diatomite mesh of 90 µm to eliminate microplas-
tics within 20 min (Ersahin et al., 2017). This was in consideration of the low
turbidity and influent water starting from 195 NTU to less than 1 NTU for wastew-
ater (Horton & Dixon, 2018). Membrane bioreactor technology has been discovered
to be better than dynamic membrane technology in extracting microplastics and
688 L. N. Onuba et al.

polymeric debris pollutants (Manikanda Bharath et al., 2022). Membrane technolo-

gies have demonstrated to be generally good for microplastics elimination from
the environments, especially in fresh water. This effectiveness depends on the size of
microplastics in a matrix, variations in influent and effluent water flow, the membrane
size and durability, etc. (Manikanda Bharath et al., 2022). Talvitie et al. (2017)
conducted a study in removal of microplastics using disk filters, rapid sand filters,
dissolved air floatation and membrane bioreactor technology. Their results suggested
that the membrane bioreactor technology gave 99.9% removal rate of microplas-
tics. This technique has also been applied and confirmed by study carried out using
membrane bioreactor technology by Gurung et al. (2016). Thereby revealing that
membrane bioreactor technology holds great promise for the future extraction of
microplastics in wastewater. Gunes-Durak (2021) also suggested that membrane
bioreactor technology had the potential to provide higher removal capacity and effi-
ciency with a combination of porous membrane. The study further suggested that
when membrane bioreactor technology is combined with filtration and sorption, a
high level of purification is attained. The major limitation of this technique is that
it requires a high degree of energy, making it to be an expensive option. This might
lead for an alternative technique that is cheaper.

3.2.2 Microplastics Removal by Chemical Techniques

The chemical techniques involve advanced oxidation process, coagulation and

agglomerate processes, and electrocoagulation technique (Dey et al., 2021;
Manikanda Bharath et al., 2022; Cui et al., 2024).
Microplastics Removal by Advanced Oxidation Process
Cui et al. (2024) highlighted three important advanced oxidation processes that can
remove microplastics from wastewater, and these were based on (i) Sulfate radical,
(ii) Photocatalytic degradation and (iii) Electro-Fenton-like. In advanced oxidation
technique based on sulfate radical, the peroxymonosulfate (PMS) has an asymmet-
rical structure that releases sulfate radical (SO4-) during activation of transitional
metal. The problem associated with this process, for example, is the leaching of
metal ion, leading to active site reduction (Cui et al. (2024). To improve catalytic
activity and increase the production of active sites, it was suggested that the doping
of nonmetallic atoms (C, N, S, etc.) in the orbital atoms of SP2 would go a long
way (Tian et al., 2016). Subsequently, carbonamide nanoparticles were put together
and fixed carbonization on the N-doped carbon nanotubes by pyrolysis to create
MN@NCNTs and this activated PMS to remove microplastics in water (Kang et al.,
2019). The results from experiments carried out suggest that MN@NCNTs calcined
at 800 °C have exhibited excellent catalytic performance and have PE removal rate
of 54% at a temperature of 160 °C.
The photocatalytic degradation makes use of low-temperature removal technology
that takes advantage of catalyst-induced oxidation once illumination was powered by
A Review on Microplastics Migration from Sources Through … 689

light energy. This process creates quality oxidizing free radicals that react with pollu-
tants, resulting to microplastic pollutant removal (Cui et al., 2024). A good example of
catalyst-induced oxidation is titanium dioxide (TiO2). This oxide is a semiconductor
that is known for photostability and oxidation properties (Cui et al. (2024). Although,
the catalytic activity of this oxide is restricted to a range lower than 385 nm of the
ultraviolet wavelength, thus, this requires some form of modifications that would
enhance optimal performance of the catalyst under solar energy (Cui et al., 2024).
The photocatalytic degradation technique provides a great hope for microplastics
removal from wastewater; however, this process is associated with some limitations.
These challenges include (i) the dependency on external light sources for activation,
(ii) catalyst after-use might introduce secondary pollution to the environment and
(iii) current measurements depend on weight loss technique for the removal rate of
microplastic in sewage degradation (Cui et al., 2024).
In Electro-Fenton-like process, the various experimental studies were carried out
to examine the removal of microplastics from wastewater (Miao et al., 2020; Kien-
drebeogo et al., 2021; Lu et al. 2022). Kiendrebeogo et al. (2021) investigated the
effect of electrode oxidation in removal of microplastics (polystyrene microsphere)
by exploring three anodes namely Boron-doped diamond (BDD), mixed metal oxide
(MMO) and iridium oxide (IrO2) and in combination with titanium cathode. Their
outcome suggested that the BDD anode electrode showed excellent results than the
others due to the formation rate of higher OH- during the reaction process. Their
results further suggest that under optimal conditions, a high removal rate for 26 µm
polystyrene microsphere was attained at 89 + 9%. Due to the hydrophobic and insol-
ubility nature of microplastics, the efficiency rate of removal using BDD technology
depends on their rate of transfer from liquid to electrode form. Miao et al. (2020)
introduced an electrocatalytic process that made use of TiO2 /C as the cathode for
degradation of PVC. Their findings showed the removal rate of 56% and dichlori-
nation rate of 75% after 6 h of electrolysis at −0.7 V and AgCl at 100 °C. Lu et al.
(2022) introduced Sodium Dodecyl Sulfate (SDS) as surfactants into the reaction
process to improve removal rate of microplastics. This process equilibrates inter-
facial tension, which elevates homogenization and creates active free radicals by
anodization thereby improving the removal rates of microplastics. This technique
improves removal rate of polystyrene and degradation of polyvinyl chloride (PVC),
polystyrene (PS) or Polyethylene (PE).
Microplastics Removal by Coagulation and Agglomerate Processes
Coagulations in all wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) were constructed to elim-
inate phosphorous that was not removed from initial treatment processes but can
effectively remove microplastics from wastewater (Kwon et al., 2022).
In water treatment plants, for example, coagulates like iron salts
(Fe2 (SO4 )3 .9H2 O, FeCl3 .6H2 O) and aluminum salts (KAl(SO4 )2 .12H2 O,
AlCl3 .6H2 O, Al2 (SO4 )3 .18H2 O) were used to seize dissolved solids in wastewater.
This was achieved by ensuring the flocculants settle at the bottom of the coagulation
tank (Dey et al., 2021). Some factors like pH of the wastewater, the surface charge,
and the concentration of microplastic contaminants are linked to this procedure
690 L. N. Onuba et al.

(Jamal et al., 2019). In aquatic environments, microplastics are often charged

negatively and can be removed through coagulation (Dey et al., 2021). Some studies
(Fotopoulou & Karamanagioti, 2012; Perren et al., 2018; Triebskom et al., 2019;
Rajala et al., 2020) suggested that aluminum-based coagulants in conjunction with
polyacrylamide produced better results in removal performance when compared to
iron-based coagulants. Coagulation experiments in conjunction with microsphere/
microbeads revealed high levels of microplastics removal efficiency of over 90%
(Perren et al., 2018; Rajala et al., 2020). Ma et al. (2019) presented microplastic
removal efficiency from WWTPs to be 36.89% with aluminum-based coagulant
for 15 mmol/L (calculated as 405 mg/L). This was in contradiction to the report
presented by Rajala et al. (2020), where they suggested that microplastic removal
in conjunction with Polyaluminum Chloride at a considered dosage of 1.4 mmol/
L gave efficiency rate of 98.2%. Other report (Wang et al., 2020) propose that
combined coagulation with sedimentation could remove microplastics at the rate
of 40.5–54.5% with high concentration of Aluminum-based salt and 50.7–60% for
macrofibres that were eliminated through this approach. The variations in results
were due to the degree of dosages of microplastic type, coagulant, and the properties
of wastewater used during the experiment (Kwon et al., 2022).
Microplastics Removal by Electrocoagulation Technique
This is an integrated microplastics removal approach comprising the floatation, elec-
trochemical reactions and flocculation (Cui et al., 2024). The electrocoagulation
technique involves the process by which cations are produced from metal elec-
trodes in a natural electrical field (Dey et al., 2021). The electrolyte cell is the prin-
cipal unit of this approach, and it is usually observed where cathodes and anodes
are immersed and linked to the power supply, especially direct current (DC) (Cui
et al., 2024). According to Cui et al (2024), the external current quickly activates
the metal anodes’ electrolysis, producing the metal cations. These cations give rise
to hydroxide ions in an aqueous medium after undergoing hydrolysis. The amal-
gamation of different hydroxide ions generates micro-flocculants The microplastic
pollutants that are suspended to coalesce into sinking flocculants under the influence
of grid interception and charge neutralization. Therefore, the contaminants’ removal
of microplastics via electrocoagulation, are observed where the cathode produces an
insoluble gas that pushes up light flocs to water surface. A good example of the appli-
cation of this technique was demonstrated by Shen et al. (2022) to understand the
removal rate of microplastics. In their study, they examined plastic fibers (cellulose
acetate (CA) and polypropylene (PP)) that were obtained from discarded cigarette
but and granular microplastics (polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) and polyethylene
(PE)) with medical masks. The anode employed was aluminum or iron electrode, and
the cathodes used were copper electrode. The results obtained within the reaction
system, and from the variations of multiple optimization parameters revealed high
removal rates at pH value of 7.2: polyethylene (93.2%), polymethylmethacrylate
(91.7%), cellulose acetate (98.2%), and polypropylene (98.4%). The study further
suggests that the aluminum electrode gave an impressive result when compared to
the iron electrode. This impressive outcome was attributed to the small particle size
A Review on Microplastics Migration from Sources Through … 691

of the aluminum flocculants (174.6 + 24.3 µm) when compared to the size of the
iron flocculants (243.8 + 36.4 µm). Another interesting example was an experi-
ment conducted by Elkhatib et al. (2021). Their study was an attempt to remove
polyester particles from the sewage system using the electrocoagulation. To achieve
this, they recognized the best conditions by optimizing MP concentration, pH value,
current density, and electrolysis time. Subsequently, these conditions were tested
in live sewage simulation by bringing into a treatment plant of chlorinated sewage,
the same quantity of microplastics. The results suggested that the removal rate of
microplastics is about 96.5% in the real sewage scenario but a bit lower than the results
obtained from the laboratory of about 98.5%. The difference could be as a result of
suspended particle competing for hydroxide in the real sewage. Dey et al. (2021)
suggested that electrocoagulation produced coagulants (metal electrodes) that reacts
with microplastics. This has numerous advantages including automatic treatment,
reduction of sludge, high efficiency and low operating cost.

3.3 Microplastics Removal by Combination Method

In this method, the removal of microplastic from wastewater treatment plants uses
both natural and artificial techniques. Globally, wastewater systems act as a medium
by which microplastics enter the ecosystems (Raju et al., 2018). Wastewater treatment
plant cannot remove all the microplastics that are present in domestic, industrial and
agricultural wastewaters (Park & Park, 2021). Generally, a wastewater system can
perform the three core treatment processes to eliminate microplastics and separate it
from wastewater before letting the effluent into the environment (Raju et al., 2018).
Although the wastewater treatment facilities were not initially designed to metabolize
plastic particles (Leslie et al., 2017; Talvitie et al., 2017), most microplastics removed
from the primary treatment process are observed to be present in the sludge (Park &
Park, 2021). These microplastic materials being removed include fibers from textiles,
micro-pellets from cosmetics, particles released during washing process of textiles,
etc. (Park & Park, 2021).

3.3.1 Preliminary Treatment Processes

This process is a preparation stage for primary treatment process. Park and Park
(2021) suggested that a preliminary treatment process was made up of a fine and
coarse screen with grit removal materials are essential in eliminating very large
plastics. This is in addition to the sedimentation tank present for settling and removal
of microplastic materials. The aim of the screening process was to differentiate
between solid organic and inorganic materials from the wastewater before releasing
the remaining solid particles to the Primary treatment process (primary clarifier)
(Kwon et al., 2022).
692 L. N. Onuba et al.

3.3.2 Primary Treatment Processes

This is a physicochemical technique that sieves out materials of large sizes from the
influent and proceeds to detain floatable particles (e.g. grease and oil) and finally
accommodate solids to settle down (Mason et al., 2016). Every treatment in this
process involves the removal of heavy or light plastics by sedimentation and skim-
ming using aeration tanks (Park & Park, 2021). Among the efficient ways of removing
most of the buoyant microplastics (fragments and fiber residues) are the settling (sedi-
mentation) and skimming process of a primary treatment process (Carr et al., 2016).
Microplastics (fibers) are usually observed as the prominent MPs to be retained in the
primary sedimentation processes (Talvitie et al., 2015; Carr et al., 2016; Ziajahromi
et al., 2017; Raju et al., 2018). This treatment could discharge > 20% microplastic
influent into the aquatic environment (Hartline et al., 2016).

3.3.3 Secondary Treatment Processes

This treatment is based essentially on natural methods whereby organic materials

are removed by biological treatment. This treatment removes most microplastics >
500 µm and is made up of an anoxic tank, an aerobic tank, anaerobic tank, and
a settling tank (Conley et al., 2019; Edo et al., 2020; Wu et al., 2020). In this
treatment process, microorganisms are used to eliminate dissolved and suspended
organic wastewater particles in wide aeration tanks, lagoon or ponds systems (Raju
et al., 2018). Efficient microplastic removal using biological treatment as observed
at French WWTP enhanced the removal rate from 83 to 95% (Dris et al., 2015).

3.3.4 Tertiary Treatment Processes

The tertiary treatment involves the use of chemicals in removing nitrogen and phos-
phorus from the wastewater treatment plants, and this is usually employed as an
option. During this period, many coagulants are used to enhance the removal rate
of microplastics (Wu et al., 2020; Dey et al., 2021; Park & Park, 2021). Raju et al.
(2018) suggested that removal efficiency could be enhanced for tertiary treatment
from 93 to 98% using reverse osmosis, microfiltration, and membrane bioreactor.

3.3.5 Advanced Treatment Processes

Raju et al. (2018) suggested that the advanced treatment plants generated better
effluent quality when compared to the secondary treatment sequences due to the
removal of suspended solids and organic materials. These include nutrients, toxic
particles, and nitrogen oxygen demand (NOD). The advanced treatment gives a
reasonable percentage when combined with membrane technologies, and this gives
a removal rate of 82.1–99.9% (Iyare et al., 2020) (Fig. 3).
A Review on Microplastics Migration from Sources Through … 693

Fig. 3 A simplified schematic diagram indicating the removal rates of microplastics from
wastewater treatment plants

4 Discussion

Most-recent studies on microplastics have devised various techniques with the avail-
able but limited data in quantifying the amount of microplastics that could be observed
in some selected countries with restriction to either aquatic or terrestrial environ-
ments. These efforts are encouraging and are based purely on estimation and in
some situations, these were purely based on speculations or assumptions. The most
synthetic polymer microplastics are initially produced from the fractional distillation
of crude oil, and these were originally sourced from fossil. The production of fossil
fuel has had adverse effects on the entire earth systems, and the impact had resulted in
global warming, climate change, water pollution, air pollution, etc. To address these
alarming global issues that persist till date, it would be ideal to revisit the ‘original
sources’ of fossil-fuel production. Although, we simply cannot ban them without
adequate replacement alternatives or stop using them because of our undeniably ever
dependence on them (Garcia-Munoz et al., 2023). However, removing these global
pollutants requires working locally and thinking globally. There are needs for proper
documentation of the possible sources, amount, distribution of microplastic pollu-
tants in local domains. This could help in devising a more sophisticated approach/
technology for the removal and treatment processes of microplastics from wastewater
treatment plants and the environments. There is need for stricter policies and legis-
lations in reducing the rate of hydrocarbon cum plastic production with a timeline
in view to eliminating the industrial production of synthetic polymer. On the other
hand, incentives should be provided for industries to encourage biobased/renewable
plastic production that would not harm the ecosystem. Numerous studies have been
directed towards the removal of MPs from wastewater and the environment. To
date, no removal technique/approach has completely removed microplastics from
wastewater with high level of precision, accuracy and consistency.
694 L. N. Onuba et al.

The point/or initial sources of plastics/microplastics production should be of grave

concern and must be factored in the consideration of elimination of microplastics.
Microplastic pollutants are transported from the production sources through the
wastewater down to the environments. Integrated techniques and multi-disciplinary
approaches remain vital in the elimination of plastics from the sources through
wastewater down to the environments. This could play an important part for devel-
oping future elimination techniques of microplastics from the point of production
through the transportation media, down to the point of discharge. To tackle the menace
of microplastics globally, it is very crucial to assess the production processes of plas-
tics from the oil companies and textiles industries around the world. The first step is
to examine how plastics are produced from hydrocarbon during fractional distillation
or refining processes (cracking) using heat. This is important because hydrocarbons
are the principal constituents of petroleum and natural gas that are used as raw
materials for plastic production. The refining/cracking heat process turns these raw
materials into ethylene and propylene and other products. Ethylene and propylene
are monomers derived from hydrocarbon materials. These products are subjected to
polymerization that involves conversion of monomers to polymers. These polymers
are synthetic and non-biodegradable and often difficult to recycle posing a great
threat to the ecosystem. These polymers are subjected to blending processes since
many of the plastics that are used are mainly sourced from hydrocarbon as synthetic
polymers. It is advisable to review the production procedural processes of plastics
from fossil fuel.

5 Conclusions and Recommendations

Most non-renewable microplastic (< 5 mm) materials are emerging as worldwide

pollutants with damaging effect on humans and the environments. This chapter
provides a basic understanding of microplastics, sources, classifications, impacts,
removal techniques, and future projections. Microplastics originated from indus-
trial production of synthetic polymer materials from fossil through fractional distil-
lation. This could also be observed from the domestic use of plastic materials
down to wastewater treatment systems before being discharged into the environ-
ment. Studies have suggested that microplastics are not removed completely from
wastewater systems. The untreated microplastics wastes are the sources of pollutions
in the air, marine, and terrestrial environments. In this review, microplastic pollu-
tants were divided into three types based on environmental considerations. They
include airborne, marine and terrestrial microplastic pollutants. The main air pollu-
tants are polyethylene, polyester, and polyethylene terephthalate and circulated by
wind in form of particle dust. In marine pollution, polyethylene (PE) floats on water
surface and interacts with aquatic organisms, whereas denser ones sink and affects
the sea floor and biota at the bottom of the sea/ocean. Terrestrial pollutants like
microfiber polyesters affect the physicochemical nature of the soil and disrupting
activities of microorganisms. Three removal methods of microplastics include: (i)
A Review on Microplastics Migration from Sources Through … 695

the natural (biological) methods, (ii) the artificial (physical and chemical) methods.
The natural methods involve microbial degradation (fungi and bacterial degradation),
biosorption, plant uptake, microbial ingestion methods involve floatation, filtration,
sedimentation, membrane technology. In addition to advanced oxidation process,
coagulation and agglomerate processes, and electrocoagulation techniques, and (iii)
The combination techniques comprise both natural and artificial methods. Numerous
studies have been directed towards the removal of microplastics from wastewater.
To date, no technique has completely removed microplastics from wastewater with
high level of precision and consistency. Integration and multi-disciplinary approaches
remain key for effective removal from the sources, wastewater and the environments.
Integration involves combining conventional and non-conventional methods in elim-
inating microplastics from wastewater and the environments. The multi-disciplinary
approach may involve experts from various areas of specialties, including (i) the
medical and health professionals to understand the extent of damage to the human
health as with respect to cancers, respiratory problems, reproductive challenges both
in humans and aquatic animals; (ii) scientists and engineers to review their utiliza-
tion of fossil fuel in plastic production; (iii) environmentalists to understand the
level of damages caused by microplastics in the air, marine and terrestrial environ-
ments, (iv) government agencies to propose strict laws that will encourage renewable
plastic production and usage but discourages non-renewable plastics; and (v) non-
governmental organizations to champion the course for safe and livable ecosystems.
In addressing the issues of microplastics in wastewater and their removal techniques,
it is equally very essential for researchers to re-examine the production of plastics
from fractional distillation of hydrocarbons. This is very important since this serves
as the main sources of microplastics production in our ecosystems.

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Source Apportionment and Interaction
Between Microplastics
and Environmental Pollutants: A Review
on Current Understanding and Prognosis

Augustine Crispin and Purushothaman Parthasarathy

Abstract Microplastics (MPs) are a group of pollutants made of a complex mix

of chemicals and polymers found in a wide range of ecosystems. Heavy metals and
organic pollutants have also been proven to affect the ecosystem in many ways. The
cumulative impact of MPs and other organic and inorganic contaminants poses a
significant environmental threat. The present chapter aims to understand the inter-
action of organic and inorganic contaminants with MPs in various environments.
The study was carried out by considering articles dealing with the transport and
interaction of MPs with organic or inorganic contaminants. The review shows that
MP adsorption characteristics change with particle size, surface area, polymer type,
and aging. Adsorption is a necessary process governing the interaction of MPs with
organic or inorganic pollutants. Organic contaminants adhere to MPs mainly through
hydrophobic, π − π interactions, and electrostatic interactions. Inorganic contami-
nants get adsorbed specifically through π − π interactions and electrostatic interac-
tions. Van der Waals and hydrogen bonding for organic pollutants and ion exchange
for inorganic contaminants also play a significant role in interacting these compo-
nents with MPs. As adsorption is the dominant process, these sites may be preferred
by organic and inorganic contaminants simultaneously. A deep understanding of
MPs’ interactions with organic and inorganic pollutants will help to enhance under-
standing of the processes governing the settling or releasing of these contaminants

Augustine Crispin: Conceptualization, Methodology, Literature survey, Data extraction and data
curation, Writing-Original draft preparation and editing.

Purushothaman Parthasarathy: Conceptualization, Methodology, Visualization, Supervision,

Writing, and Reviewing.

A. Crispin · P. Parthasarathy (B)

Department of Civil Engineering, College of Engineering and Technology, SRM Institute of
Science and Technology, Kattankulathur, Chengalpattu District, Tamil Nadu 603203, India
e-mail: purushop1@srmist.edu.in
A. Crispin
e-mail: ac6028@srmist.edu.in

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 705
J. C. Egbueri et al. (eds.), Microplastics in African and Asian Environments, Emerging
Contaminants and Associated Treatment Technologies,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-64253-1_29
706 A. Crispin and P. Parthasarathy

from MPs. This will also help to improve the management techniques for reducing
the environmental impacts of these contaminants in the future.

Keywords Microplastics · Organic contaminants · Sorption · Trace metals · π −

π interactions

1 Introduction

The ever-growing human population has resulted in massive amounts of plastic trash
despite contributing to humankind’s progress. Plastics are employed in many appli-
cations because of their low cost, dependability, and adaptability. However, the build-
up of numerous plastic items has resulted in global plastic pollution. Microplastics
(MPs) of size ranging from 0.1 μm to 5 mm are recognized as arising contaminants
in both aqueous and land-based habitats (Wong et al., 2020). When MPs sorb pollu-
tants from the environment, their toxicity rises even more. The polymer and the kind
of contamination determine the rate at which harmful pollutants bind to MPs. In
addition to the sorption mechanisms, MP attributes and contaminants impact their
sorption behaviors (Guo & Wang, 2019). MP’s in the ecosystem are subjected to aging
processes, including oxidation, ultraviolet radiation, and thermal radioactivity, all of
which cause MP characteristics to alter (Celina, 2013). Older MPs featured huge,
rough surfaces that facilitated the absorption and adsorption of pollutants (Liu et al.,
2019a, 2019b). Organic and inorganic compounds, undissolved monomers, and other
substances employed in synthesizing plastic products are emitted into the ecosystem
simultaneously as microplastics. This poses a concern considering the majority
of compounds and plasticizers, including bisphenol A, di(2-Ethylhexyl) adipate
(DEHA), phthalic acid esters (PAEs), alkylphenols, and brominated flame retar-
dants (BFRs), have the potential to alter the endocrine system and cause cancer (Liu
et al., 2020). Additionally, MP is influential in adsorbing several persistent organic
pollutants such as dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane, polychlorinated biphenyls, poly-
brominated diphenyl ethers, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (Rodrigues et al.,
2019).
Trace metals could enter the water sources continually owing to their inability to
degrade, and since they are reprocessed and enhanced in the aquatic system, they
are a ubiquitous environmental problem. Metals accumulate in water, sediments,
and biota after entering water bodies. Natural or man-made processes carry them as
suspended particulates or in soluble form. They are subsequently eradicated from the
surrounding water via rainfall, flocculation, sorption onto organic and inorganic parti-
cles, sedimentation, and accumulation in the bottom sediment (Deepulal et al., 2012).
River sediments are essential for assessing man-made pollution in rivers because they
operate as both a source and a sink for heavy metals (Purushothaman & Chakrapani,
2007). Trace metal behavior and cycling between both the water column and surface
sediments are influenced by adsorption, precipitation, desorption, dissolution, and
diffusion caused by chemical variations (Jaiswal & Pandey, 2020). It has been found
Source Apportionment and Interaction Between Microplastics … 707

that these metals bioaccumulate in species in both terrestrial and aqueous environ-
ments. Surface morphometric and chemical alterations brought on by the breakdown
of plastic and weathering in the surroundings may impact the physical detainment
of toxic metals onto the plastic layer, electrostatic ability to interact, and chemical
connection of trace metal species with plastic functional groups on the surface (Huang
et al., 2020). As a result, MPs provide a conduit for heavy metals to be transmitted
from the environment to micro-organisms (Khalid et al., 2021).
Even though MPs are seen as emerging poisons of global concern, humans have
been using plastic polymer for years, implying that MPs and heavy metals have most
likely coexisted in the environment. In recent years, many studies and research have
been carried out to understand the interactions between organic contaminants (Fu
et al., 2021; Liu et al., 2019a, 2019b; Tang, 2021) and inorganic pollutants (Vedolin
et al., 2018) with MPs. These studies have concentrated on MPs’ interactions with
organic or inorganic contaminants. These studies have found that MPs act as a sink
for both organic and inorganic pollutants primarily through adsorption processes
through π − π interactions and electrostatic interactions (Hüffer & Hofmann, 2016;
Liu et al., 2019a, 2019b), van der Waals bonding, and hydrogen bonding (Llorca et al.,
2018; Zhang et al., 2020a, 2020b). These studies have not considered the combined
effect of the sorption of organic and inorganic contaminants on MPs. The present
chapter aims to understand the interaction of these organic and inorganic (heavy
metals) contaminants with MPs in various environments. The chapter also identifies
the importance of a combined understanding of these interactions and recommends
future trends that would help understand the behaviour of these contaminants in the
environment.

2 Literature Survey

A literature survey was conducted using the keywords “microplastics,” “microplas-

tics interaction with heavy metals,” microplastics interaction with organic pollutants,”
“microplastics interaction with sediments,” “microplastics interaction with heavy
metals in sediments,” “microplastics interaction with heavy metals in water,” and
“microplastics interactions with biota” for retrieving the articles published during
the recent years. The search was confined to significant journal database sources,
namely, Science Direct, Scopus, and Web of Science (WoS), including research and
review articles. The shortlisted articles were further reduced to interaction studies
for the current review (Fig. 1).
708 A. Crispin and P. Parthasarathy

Fig. 1 Survey of literature based on Scopus, web of science, and Elsevier database

3 Source Apportionment of Microplastics

3.1 Sources of Microplastics in Soil and Sediments

MPs are introduced into the soil horizon primarily through two major processes:
natural and anthropogenic activities. Plastics discharge into the ecosystems through
various processes like surface discharge, agro-plastic films, effluent irrigation, soil
additives, and trash (Bläsing & Amelung, 2018). Distinct origins of soil MPs are
generally responsible for different forms of MPs. MPs can infiltrate terrestrial ecosys-
tems through various routes, including biosolids, sewage sludge, wastewater irriga-
tion, organic fertilization, plastic film mulching, and atmospheric deposition (Wang
et al., 2021). Various climatic conditions, such as wind speed, precipitation, and
terrain, significantly impact the deposit and mobility of MPs in the atmosphere MPs
may influence soil quality and nutrient cycling by altering soil physical qualities,
decreasing soil fertility, and disrupting resident microbial populations (Wang et al.,
2021).
Source Apportionment and Interaction Between Microplastics … 709

3.2 Sources of Microplastics in Surface Water

Leachate from landfills, effluent treatment facilities, poor handling of plastic waste,
terrestrial intake from soil disintegration, sewage outflow from residences, and ship-
ping operations are the primary sources of MPs in the freshwater system (Cole et al.,
2011). Fibers from synthetic fabric sectors and wastewater discharge while washing
clothing, lens care detergents, polymers used in air blasts, and dust produced during
the production of plastics are all origins of MPs in wastewater. In the aqueous
system, fragments of the most prevalent polymers include polypropylene (PP),
polyethylene (PE), and polystyrene (PS). Fibers are mainly produced during the
washing processes and carried far away by the aquatic system (Ricciardi et al.,
2021). Depending on density, MP either hovers on the water’s surface or descends
to the base (Cózar et al., 2014). Apart from disintegration, MP particles constantly
emit various compounds utilized in manufacturing plastic items, including bromi-
nated flame retardants, nonylphenol, and phthalates (Hauser & Calafat, 2005). MP
pollution has been found in modestly inhabited freshwater bodies and industrial
sites (Anderson et al., 2017). Freshwater sources include the treatment of wastew-
ater facilities and river flow to the ocean waters due to turbulence, tidal circulation,
and oceanic effects (Law et al., 2010).

3.3 Transport of Pollutants Through Microplastics

Plastics discharged into the aquatic environment undergo weathering and aging
caused by various environmental aspects, including photooxidation, thermal and
chemical oxidation, bioremediation, and physical weathering resulting from rocks,
sand, river flow, and surges. These variations result in the formation of microplas-
tics and nanoplastics (Gewert et al., 2015). The disintegration of plastics is dynamic
and controlled by environmental factors during its transit in the environment (Chen
et al., 2020). Rainfall has been cited as a critical component in increasing MP levels
in total atmospheric fallout (Dris et al., 2016). Plastics get transported and settle
down along with the sediments upon entering the aquatic environment, especially
the riverine ecosystem (Corcoran et al., 2015). Photooxidation, oxidative, hydrolytic,
and biodegradation processes can all significantly affect the destiny of plastic debris
in the aqueous ecosystem. Regardless of the large quantities of suspended particles,
particulate organic matter, and depositional particulates in aqueous ecosystems, accu-
mulation, biofouling, and eventual sedimentation may be prominent in the destiny
and transit of microplastics (Akdogan & Guven, 2019).
MPs may transmit organic pollutants into organisms when MPs and organic
contaminants are exposed together, promoting MPs and organic pollutants (Zhao
et al., 2020). The capacity of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) to travel long
distances via absorption onto MPs depends on several parameters, including the
kind of MPs used and the concentration of PCBs in the medium. PE and PP are
710 A. Crispin and P. Parthasarathy

the most effective carriers of organic pollutants compared to other MPs. Other poly-
mers have a lower potential to adsorb hydrophobic organic contaminants than PE
and PP. Aging/ weathering processes, on the other hand, improve the adsorption and
absorption capacity of the MPs irrespective of the type of MPs due to their eroded
surfaces, which results in rougher surfaces, generating fractures, increasing porosity,
and specific surface area, and modified functional groups (Torres et al., 2021).

4 Interaction of Microplastics with Environmental

Pollutants

In general, MPs are released individually and/or combined with other pollutants
into the aquatic environment at a higher rate. Bioaccumulation and biomagnifica-
tion of MPs on environmental, both biotic and abiotic, components were studied by
various researchers. According to toxicology, simultaneous exposure to MPs and
other environmental contaminants may offer undiscovered hazards to persons and
the ecosystem. It is observed that the accumulation of MPs not only causes health
and environmental impacts but also acts as a sink for heavy metal and organic pollu-
tants. As a transporter, MPs would continually absorb and concentrate on other
environmental contaminants from the accumulation perspective (Xiang et al., 2022).

4.1 Interaction Between Microplastics and Organic

Pollutants

4.1.1 Surface Water

Industries using organic-based chemicals in their production release a signifi-

cant quantity of toxic organic contaminants like polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
(PAHs), perfluoroalkoxy alkanes (PFAs), antibiotics, polybrominated diphenyl ethers
(PBDEs), polychlorinated biphenyls phthalates (PCBs), and phenols (Zhou et al.,
2018). Persistent organic pollutants (POPs), often called “forever chemicals,” are
organic molecules resistant to atmospheric chemical, biological, and photolytic
breakdown. POPs are synthesized chemicals that can persist in different habitats
for prolonged periods because they resist several ecological deterioration processes
and impact the ecosystem and human health. A class of compounds known as PCBs
are used as cooling solvents and dielectrics in electrical equipment (Ighalo et al.,
2022). These pollutants have high toxicity and a long retention time in the environ-
mental components, which gets adsorbed or absorbed onto solid surfaces. MPs with
a significant specific surface area and a high hydrophobicity are ideal for adsorbing
these organic contaminants in the ecosystem (Atugoda et al., 2020). Sorption, which
encompasses adsorption and absorption, is a technique that transfers compounds
Source Apportionment and Interaction Between Microplastics … 711

from liquids to solids. Adsorption confines chemical molecules to the solid–liquid

contact, whereas absorption allows them to permeate the solid matrix. Adsorption
of organic contaminants onto MPs occurs at low concentrations due to the strong
forces acting on the MPs. Absorption dominates the higher concentration as the space
available for molecules is comparatively more immense (Tang, 2021). However, it
is tough to tell the difference between adsorption and absorption occurring in MP’s
since they frequently happen simultaneously (Fu et al., 2021).

4.1.2 Sediments

River sediments serve as a drain for MPs and a transit channel for MPs from rivers
to seas (Andrady, 2011). Because of their low density, MP particles float in water
after being released into aquatic habitats. On the other hand, MPs near the surface
of the water can descend into the subsurface water table and even be embedded in
sediments. MPs in sediments may be transported by hydrodynamic pressures or trans-
mitted with the sediments directly (Ballent et al., 2016). The hydraulic movement
of running water, thus, affects the dispersion of MPs governed mainly by sediment
transport behavior (He et al., 2020). River flow dynamics are considered a pivotal
contribution to MP abundance, while little is understood about this procedure. A
rapid flow rate is projected to promote sediment and plastic particle mobilization, and
plastic fragments will probably settle together with silt particles when flow accelera-
tion decreases (Rodrigues et al., 2018). As a result, MP would be deposited, retained,
and accumulated in river sediments, creating MP hotspots (Horton & Dixon, 2018).
When plastics are discharged into freshwater environments, interactions with bio/
abiotic variables are anticipated to destabilize their molecular structure, alter their
density, speed up the breakdown of large plastic particles into tinier plastic particles,
and alter MPs’ settling velocity profile and mechanisms. Small suspended particles
(less than 10 μm) have a minor impact on the settling of MPs. The amount of MPs
with depth in a sediment column decreases and stays undegraded for a long time.
These MPs further deteriorate due to the influences of physico-chemical conditions
prevailing in the sediment column. The presence of algae or microorganisms further
carries these particles, which are finally consumed by the aquatic organisms (Zhang
et al., 2020a, 2020b).

4.1.3 Sorption Mechanism of Organic Pollutants onto Microplastics

π − π and hydrophobic interactions drove the sorption of organic contaminants onto

PE and PS. Although PS has several benzene rings in its molecular composition, its
higher absorption and adsorption for aromatic molecules are facilitated by π − π
interactions. The partition effect was primarily responsible for phthalate esters (PAE)
adsorption on MPs. By altering the electrostatic contact between contaminants and
MPs, the aquatic ecosystem’s pH and ionic intensity may change contaminants’ sorp-
tion behavior on PP and PS but scarcely affect PE. Surface adsorption is PE’s most
712 A. Crispin and P. Parthasarathy

Fig. 2 Microplastic adsorption towards organic pollutants

common pesticide adsorption process (Fig. 2). The binding of organic contaminants
onto polyvinyl chloride (PVC) is inhibited by electrostatic reluctance. Hydrogen
and halogen interactions also facilitated the adsorption of POPs on PVC. PE and
PS have the highest adsorption rate towards organic pollutants such as PAEs, PFAs,
antibiotics, and pesticides.
Electrostatic bonds, hydrophobic interrelations, and interface complexations
contribute to the adsorption of antibiotics onto MPs. The primary processes of the
adsorption process include halogen bonding, hydrogen adhesion, electrostatic attrac-
tion, ion exchange, hydrophobic bonds, and the salting-out phenomenon. MPs and
PFAS bind electrostatically when the pH of the solution varies. Throughout the
adsorption process, physical sorption is the primary mechanism (Table 1).

4.2 Interaction Between Microplastics and Heavy Metals

4.2.1 Surface Water

Growing industrial activities have benefited humans in many facets since the begin-
ning of the industrial age. Nonetheless, these industrial operations have had detri-
mental consequences on the ecology. Chromium (Cr), arsenic (As), copper (Cu), iron
(Fe), and aluminium (Al) are among the trace metals commonly detected in effluents
discharged into the ecosystem, particularly in adjacent aquatic bodies without waste
treatment (Aqeel et al., 2021). Trace metal adsorption on MPs increases the prob-
ability of bioaccumulation in both aqueous and land-based habitats. MPs’ metal
adsorption is influenced by dissolved organic matter in the adjacent freshwater
(Godoy et al., 2019). As a result, MPs provide a conduit for trace metals to be
Source Apportionment and Interaction Between Microplastics … 713

Table 1 Sorption of organic pollutants onto microplastics

Type of MPs Organic contaminant References
PS, PE, PP NPAH: 9-Nitroanthracene Zhang et al. (2020a, 2020b)
(9-NAnt)
PVC, PS, PE 17β-estradiol (E2) Hu et al. (2020)
Nano-PE, Submicro- PE and Phenanthrene and Nitrobenzene Wang et al. (2019a, 2019b,
Micro-PE 2019c)
PS, PVS, PE Dibutyl phthalate (DBP); PAEs: Liu et al. (2019a, 2019b)
Diethyl phthalate (DEP);
PA, PS, PE, PVC Cyclohexane, Naphthalene, Hüffer and Hofmann (2016)
Benzene, n-Hexane,
Chlorobenzene and Toluene
PE Pesticides: Imidacloprid, Li et al. (2021)
Buprofezin, Difenoconazole
PE fiber and PS foam Antibiotics: Cephalosporin C Guo and Wang (2019)
(CEP-C), Sulfamethazine
(SMT), Sulfamethoxazole
(SMX)
PVC, PP, PE, PS Tylosin (TYL): Antibiotics Guo et al. (2018)
PVC Bisphenol AF (BPAF), Wu et al. (2019)
Bisphenol S (BPS), Bisphenol
analogs: BPA, bisphenol F
(BPF), and Bisphenol B (BPB)
PVC, PE, PS Levofloxacin (OFL): Antibiotics Yu et al. (2020)
PE, PP, PVC, PA, PET, PS Sulfamethoxazole (SMX): Guo et al. (2019)
Antibiotics
HDPE, PS, PS-COOH PFAS Llorca et al. (2018)
PVC-S, PVC-L Triclosan (TCS) Ma et al. (2019)
PS—Polystyrene; PET—Polyethylene terephthalate; PAEs—Phthalate esters; PE—Polyethylene;
HDPE—High density polyethylene; PFAS—Perfluoroalkyl substances; PA—Polyamide; PVC—
Polyvinyl chloride; PS-COOH—Polystyrene Carboxylate

transferred from the ecosystem to organisms. Depending on the solution’s organic

content, alternative interfaces for pollutant interaction may be readily accessible,
or metallic particles adsorbed on MP interfaces may interact with the metal ions.
Metal adsorption is further aided by forming a thick microbiological layer on the
MP interface identified as a ‘Plastisphere’ (Rochman et al., 2014).

4.2.2 Sediments

Most plastic contaminants from diverse anthropogenic sources enter the environment
through terrestrial ecosystems. Vehicle exhausts typically produce heavy metals,
including lead, cadmium, nickel, zinc, and iron, commonly abundant in roadside soils
714 A. Crispin and P. Parthasarathy

(Khalid et al., 2018). MPs may absorb trace metals and are regarded as transporters
of trace metals in the ecosystem. This adsorption occurs naturally and is regulated by
MP surfaces. MPs have no primary porosity on their surfaces. However, they develop
negatively charged surfaces that can absorb metal cations from the environment
following extensive abrasion, oxidation, and weathering mechanisms in the physical
surroundings (Khalid et al., 2021). Another factor that impacts trace metal adsorption
is the size of the particles of MPs. The minor ratio of surface area to volume of MPs
is more significant, allowing for additional metal adsorption space (Wang et al.,
2019a, 2019b, 2019c). Including plastic mulches in soil agricultural systems, which
eventually contributes to the emergence of MPs, may enhance cadmium toxication
by increasing its transportation (Zhang et al., 2020a, 2020b). In metal desorption,
MPs can function as direct emitters of pollutants in the environment (Munier &
Bendell, 2018). The soil solution’s pH, particle size, and MPs dosage are crucial
for adsorption and desorption (Zhang et al., 2020a, 2020b). The desorption of trace
metals from MPs is impacted by soil physicochemical properties, which stimulate
the change of toxic elements from soluble to organically bonded (Yu et al., 2021).

4.2.3 The Sorption Mechanism of Heavy Metals onto Microplastics

Several methods mediate trace metal adsorption on MPs. Heavy metal adsorption on
plastic pellets is particular to metal, with cadmium, cobalt, nickel, and lead adsorption
rising with rising pH and reducing salinity and reducing adsorption with increasing
pH and reducing salinity. The adsorption of metals is aided much more by the weath-
ering of polymers. The MP’s surface morphology improved due to the cracks, avul-
sions, fissures, and flakes on the surfaces, allowing for more adsorption of other envi-
ronmental pollutants. Trace metals like chromium, nickel, zinc, lead, and cadmium
were also discovered on the surfaces of MPs with more visible adsorption at cracks,
pits, and flakes, indicating that MPs were heavy metal carriers. According to the find-
ings, the adsorption behavior on MPs surfaces increased as the retention duration
extended. According to studies, heavy metals can be readily adsorbed on suspended
particulate matter (SPM) owing to their extensive surface area and reactivity. As the
polymer matures, its polarities, surface area, and permeability rise, which becomes
contaminated with organic debris and hydrous metal oxides, and metal adsorption
to the polymer is expected to increase. Rapid adsorption of cations and compounds
upon charged sites or neutralized portions of the plastic’s interface is one possible
method for metal absorption. The adsorption impact of PP particles was controlled
by the sorption time. Although the hazardous metals were mostly adsorbing to the
MP particles’ outermost layer, the adsorption capacity increased. MPs like PP and
PVC have adsorption characteristics for heavy metals like manganese and lead, indi-
cating that they can transfer pollution globally via freshwater and marine movement
(Fig. 3).
MPs, mainly PVC, PP, PE, and PS, are strongly attracted to metals, instantly
binding these elements. As a result, these polymers acquired more chromium, copper,
cobalt, and lead. Plastic surface properties such as porosity and shape have an impact
Source Apportionment and Interaction Between Microplastics … 715

Fig. 3 Microplastic interaction with heavy metal

on adsorption. Heavy metal adsorption by MPs may also be impacted by the ions’
electronegativity, with the ions with a higher electronegativity adhering to the inter-
face more strongly (Akpomie et al., 2023). Since their crystallization properties
change and tend to have an enormous carrier adsorption impact, sustainable MPs
have a higher adsorption capacity than regular MPs (Table 2).

5 Effect on the Aquatic Environment

Microplastics negatively influence the biological processes of the aquatic environ-

ment, affecting the food web, altering natural ecosystems, affecting the microbial
population, and interfering with the evolution of new species (Ma et al., 2020). The
toxicity of microplastics to phytoplankton appears to depend on several parameters,
including particle size, polymer type, microplastic concentration, exposure period,
and target species (Wang et al., 2019a, 2019b, 2019c). As a result, in the pres-
ence of microplastics, the harmful impact of numerous pollutants has been observed
to increase (Vivekanand et al., 2021). MP’s transport materials to other species or
sites in aquatic ecosystems, mediating chemical pollution and pollutants. Chem-
ical contaminants and MPs have been found to create extremely harmful effects in
numerous species (Ha & Yeo, 2018). Microplastic toxicity may be influenced by
particle size, shape, and surface coating. Microplastics in aquatic creatures and the
natural landscape may control microplastic trophic transmission from various trophic
levels across the food web (Huang et al., 2021).
Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), pesticides, and dichlorodiphenyl-
trichloroethane (DDT) are organic chemical pollutants that float on water body
716 A. Crispin and P. Parthasarathy

Table 2 Sorption of heavy metals onto microplastics

Polymer type Polymer shape Metals (max concentration) Researchers
Water/Sediments On MP’s
PP, PET, PE, Plastic trash in – Pb, Sn Nakashima et al.
PS, PVC large quantities (2012)
PA, PE, PVC, Screw caps, – Ni, Cd, Pb, Cu, Imhof et al. (2016)
PET, PS fragments, and Ti
plastic bags
PP, PE, PS, Fragments and – Pb and Cd Massos and Turner
PVS pellets (2017)
PE and PP Fragments Zn, Pb, Ni, Cd, Ti, Cu, Cd, Ni, Wang et al. (2017)
Ti, Cu Pb, Zn
HDPE, PP, and Pellets – Al, Cu, Fe, Mn, Vedolin et al. (2018)
PE Zn, Ti
PP, PVC, PE Fragments and – Pb Turner et al. (2020)
pellets
PVC, PET, PP, Fragments, – Zn, Mn, Cu, Li et al. (2020a,
PE, PS, PA foams, films, As, Fe, Cd, Ni 2020b)
fibers, and pellets
Polyester, PE, Pellets, fibers Zn, Pb, Cu. Cr, Cu, Cr, Cd, Ni, Ta and Babel (2020)
PP, PS films, and Ni, Cd Pb, Zn
fragments
PET, PP, PE Fragments, films, Hg, As, Zn, Ni, Cu, As, Cr, Ni, Deng et al. (2020)
and fibers Cu, Cr, Pb, Cd Cd, Zn, Pb, Hg
PE and PET Fragments, films, As, Cu, Cd, Cr, As, Cu, Pb, Cd, Sarkar et al. (2021)
fibers, foams, and Zn, Ni, Pb Zn, Cr, Ni
beads
PE Pellets Fe, Cu, Zn, Co, U, Sb, Cr, Co, Ashton et al. (2010)
Cr, Sb, U, Al, Zn, Cu, Fe, Al,
Mn, Pb, Ag, Cd, Mn, Pb, Ag,
Mo, Sn Cd, Mo, Sn
HDPE, PVC, Pellets – Cr, Fe, Ni, Cd, Rochman et al.
PET, PP, LDPE Al, Pb, Mn, (2014)
Co, Zn
Aged PVC and Fragments and Zn and Cu Zn and Cu Brennecke et al.
Virgin PS beads (2016)
POM, PE, Pellets Cd, Cr, Cu, As, Cu, Zn, Cr, Gao et al. (2019)
PVC, PA, PP Pb, Mn, Zn Mn, As, Cd, Pb
PP, PE, PVC, Fragments, pellets – Pb, Cr, Cd, Zn, Godoy et al. (2019)
PET, PS Ni, Cu, Co
(continued)
Source Apportionment and Interaction Between Microplastics … 717

Table 2 (continued)
Polymer type Polymer shape Metals (max concentration) Researchers
Water/Sediments On MP’s
LDPE, PET Films Pb, Zn Pb, Zn Aghilinasrollahabadi
et al. (2021)
LDPE, PBAT Films Sn, Pb, Cu, Cr, Sn, Pb, Cu, Ba, Li et al. (2020a,
As, Ba As, Cr 2020b)
Cr—Chromium, Cd—Cadmium, Ni—Nickel, Pb—Lead, Fe—Iron, Hg—Mercury, Cu—Copper,
Al—Aluminium, Ag—Silver, Co—Cobalt, Zn—Zinc, Mn—Manganese, As—Arsenic, Ba—
Barium, V—Vanadium, Se—Selenium, Sn—Tin, Sc—Scandium, Sb—Antimony, U—Uranium,
Mo—Molybdenum, Ti—Titanium, PP—Polypropylene, PS—Polystyrene, PE—Polyethylene,
HDPE—High density polyethylene, PES—Polyether sulfone, LDPE—Low-density polyethy-
lene, POM—Polyoxymethylene, PET—Polyethylene terephthalate, PVC—Polyvinyl chloride,
PBAT—Polybutylene adipate terephthalate

surfaces. Hydrophobicity isolates them even more on the surface of plastic particles.
Microplastics often prey on small aqueous species, such as snails, tiny fish, baby
shrimp, and grasses, along river systems, when they are prevalent in aquatic
systems. Furthermore, as microplastics fragment into relatively small pieces, the
likelihood that such small plastics will enter exposed organisms’ cardiovascular
system and phagocytic cell rise, arguably endangering the organisms owing to the
long periods of preservation of MPs in their bodies and aiding the transfer of MPs to
relatively high trophic predatory animals (Browne et al., 2008; Wang et al., 2019a,
2019b, 2019c).

6 Effect on Human Beings

Microplastics can travel through a wide range of pathways in the human system,
including drinking water, consuming terrestrial and aquatic food types, and breathing
in dust (Dris et al., 2017). MP’s physicochemical properties make them ideal adsor-
bents and absorbents of other environmental pollutants (Holmes et al., 2014). One
of the foremost typical methods for microplastics to enter the biological system
is through food (Wright & Kelly, 2017). Due to its spread, people may have
respiratory discomfort, cytotoxic and inflammatory consequences, and autoim-
mune illnesses (Prata, 2018). Seafood, one of the foods most often consumed
worldwide, contributes to environmental MPs and toxins, such as polychlorinated
biphenyls (PCBs) and dioxins. However, current regulations only pertain to pollu-
tants, such as mercury, and do not apply to toxicants of growing concern, such as
microplastics. If toxins in seafood surpass permissible levels, there may be significant
health implications (Wright & Kelly, 2017). From a perspective of physical effects,
microplastic bio persistence may cause various biological consequences, including
718 A. Crispin and P. Parthasarathy

apoptosis, necrosis, genotoxicity, inflammation, and oxidative stress. If these condi-

tions continue, several outcomes might happen, such as tissue damage, fibrosis, and
cancer.
PET, also known as polyethylene terephthalate, is a polymer often utilized to
manufacture plastic film, pipes, microwaveable wrapping, and insulation moldings
(Li et al., 2016). Packaging foam, throwaway cups, plates, tableware, CDs, and
construction materials are all made from polystyrene (PS). It has been found that
PS and PVC contain hazardous monomers in humans, which can cause cancer and
reproductive problems (Karbalaei et al., 2018). Phthalates, such as di-n-octyl phtha-
late (DnOP) and di(2-Ethylhexyl) phthalate, are a class of compounds extensively
employed as admixtures in consumer goods made of plastic. Phthalates have been
linked to various health problems in humans, and they are frequently identified in
urine and blood samples from people due to their widespread use. Phthalates have
been linked to developmental abnormalities, affecting pubertal development, men’s
and women’s reproductive health, and pregnancy rates (Hauser & Calafat, 2005).

7 Effect on Soil

Microplastics are a kind of solid pollutant that can change fundamental soil charac-
teristics, including soil morphology, moisture content, and bulk density (MacHado
et al., 2018). Owing to their enormous particular surface area and small size of parti-
cles, microplastic adsorption capacity is substantially increased when they infiltrate
the ecosystem of the soil and incorporate additional natural contaminants, altering the
soil’s physical structure and affecting the soil biota (Yu et al., 2022). Microplastics
can concentrate hazardous contaminants like trace elements and hydrophobic organic
pollutants on their interface due to their enormous surface areas and hydrophobicity
(Holmes et al., 2012). When plastic waste disintegrates, these compounds may leak
out and contaminate the nearby soils (Hahladakis et al., 2018).
In addition to possessing additives like diethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP), a typical
organic pollutant during the plastic manufacturing process, microplastics also accu-
mulate potentially hazardous pollutants like hazardous organic pollutants like antibi-
otics, polybrominated diphenyl ether (PBDE) and perfluorochemicals (PFOS), trace
metals like Zn, Cu, and Pb (Brennecke et al., 2016; Gaylor et al., 2013). Recent studies
have demonstrated that microplastics can change how soil-dissolved organic matter
affects the carbon and nutrient cycles. Microplastics in soil potentially change the
microorganisms’ ability to control soil greenhouse gas releases (Liu et al., 2017).
They might enhance the breakdown of organic carbon and minimize methane emis-
sion levels (Rillig et al., 2021). Microplastics also disrupt the nitrogen cycle in the soil.
Studies involving long-term plastic mulch revealed that residual plastic mulching
could reduce soil inorganic nitrogen. Polyethylene microplastics were shown to
enhance enzyme activities, indicating that they affected the nitrogen cycle (Huang
et al., 2019; Ya et al., 2021).
Source Apportionment and Interaction Between Microplastics … 719

8 Conclusions and Future Recommendations

Plastic waste has been discharged into the ecosystem in increasing proportions due
to the expanded use of plastic products in recent decades. Microplastics disinte-
grate in the ecological system, resulting in progressively smaller particles influenced
by various elements and the bio, chemical, and physical conditions to which the
particles are exposed. Living species interacting closely with these toxins may harm
natural communities and ecosystems. As MPs, organic pollutants, and heavy metals
are chronic pollutants that defy environmental deterioration and metamorphosis,
they are challenging to eliminate. Combining these contaminants can have additive,
opposing, or potentiating impacts on organisms. Determining the natural hazards of
these pollutants in people is challenging, and their effects still need to be understood.
Microplastics have been shown to release chemicals and provide a platform
for chemical adsorption. MPs’ capacity to adsorb these contaminants is affected
by particle size, surface area, age, crystalline nature, chemical bonding, and
polarity. Hydrophobic couplings, fractionation, electrostatic attraction, and other
non-covalent activities are the principal mechanisms MPs adsorb/absorb organic
pollutants. On the other hand, adsorption, π − π interactions, and electrostatic
interaction dominate heavy metals’ sorption on MPs. It is found that MPs inter-
action with organic contaminants is dominated by hydrophobic interactions, π − π
interactions, and electrostatic interactions, with few showing Van der Waals inter-
actions and hydrogen bonding. On the other hand, heavy metals mainly illustrate
electrostatic interactions and π − π interactions along with ion exchange as the
primary mode of adsorption onto the MPs. The aging and weathering of MPs also
act as significant inducers of adsorption processes. As it is evident that the adsorp-
tion of organic and inorganic contaminants mainly depends on the physicochemical
conditions prevailing in the aquatic ecosystems, its change will affect the adsorption
process of these contaminants. This change can also induce competition between
HM and Organic compounds for the adsorption sites available in the MPs. Hence,
a combined study on organic and inorganic contaminants with MPs interaction will
help to enhance the understanding of the behaviour of these components in the aquatic
environment.
Governments should take a prominent role in preventing plastic pollution in habi-
tats. In both developed and emerging nations, better regulatory systems, and require-
ments on the use of admixtures during plastics production, as well as improved
recycling perspectives during the plastics waste recycling process, could result in the
healthier and more efficient management of this source of energy and its accompa-
nying impacts on the environment as well as public health, particularly once plastic
material tries to find its way into the system.

Acknowledgements Augustine Crispin thanks the Management and Dean (CET), SRM Institute
of Science and Technology, Kattankulathur, and the SRMIST Directorate of Research for their
financial support through a Doctoral Research Fellowship.

Statements and Declarations

720 A. Crispin and P. Parthasarathy

Funding This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public,
commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

Life Science Reporting No life science threat was practiced in this research.

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A Call to Action for Addressing
Microplastic Pollution: Mitigation
and Solutions
Eman H. Zaghloul, Asmaa Elsayis, Hala H. Abdel-Latif, Moaz H. Mahran,
and Sahar W. M. Hassan

Abstract In light of the escalating issue of microplastic (MP) pollution, it has

become essential to seek inventive strategies for mitigating the presence of MP.
The strategies utilized for MP elimination can be categorized into three categories:
physical, chemical, or biological. Each procedure possesses its removal efficiency,
operating circumstances, benefits, and constraints. The physical method encom-
passes the processes of filtration, adsorption, and flocculation. The selection of the
applied methodology is determined by the characteristics and attributes of the MP
being studied, including their type, size under alkaline conditions, and composition.
Various chemical methods, such as coagulation and flocculation, are employed to
reduce the impact of MP. Several studies have documented the efficacy of these
methods in removing MP through the use of different coagulants, including salts
based on iron (Fe) and aluminum (Al). Plastic biodegradation involves converting the
polymer’s organic carbon into biogas and biomass by a series of enzymes produced
by a consortium of microorganisms (bacteria, fungi, and actinomycetes) capable of
utilizing plastic as a carbon source. Furthermore, abiotic degradation leads to rough-
ness, fractures, and molecular alterations in polymers. Abiotic degradation induces
alterations in plastic materials, referred to as “aging”. The degradation of this process
is influenced by factors such as temperature, solar radiation, salt, pH, and substances
that oxidize or interrupt polymer chain stretch to accelerate deterioration. There-
fore, the current chapter summarizes the most used and effective MP mitigation
approaches.

Keywords Microplastic · Biodegradation · Mitigation · Abiotic degradation

E. H. Zaghloul (B) · A. Elsayis · H. H. Abdel-Latif · M. H. Mahran · S. W. M. Hassan

National Institute of Oceanography and Fisheries (NIOF), Cairo, Egypt
e-mail: eman_hamed88@yahoo.com

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 727
J. C. Egbueri et al. (eds.), Microplastics in African and Asian Environments, Emerging
Contaminants and Associated Treatment Technologies,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-64253-1_30
728 E. H. Zaghloul et al.

1 Introduction

There has been a growing global concern regarding microplastics (MPs) in recent
decades. They are exclusively human-made pollutants resulting from the period of
human supremacy on Earth. MPs are prevalent in the environment. According to
Pico et al. (2019), approximately 1.5 million tons of MPs are discharged into the
aquatic environment annually. They pose a threat not only to the ecological system
but also to human health (He et al., 2023).
The increasing problem of MP necessitates the development of innovative mitiga-
tion strategies. In recent years, there has been a proliferation of novel methodologies
that can be broadly classified as either biotic or abiotic degradation (Sun et al., 2022).
Abiotic degradation processes, such as photooxidation, physical decomposition,
chemical degradation, and hydrolysis, have the potential to alter the molecular weight
of MPs or increase their surface area (Bacha et al., 2021). By hydrolyzing large molec-
ular chains, biotic degradation can produce small molecular weight compounds,
including organic acids and carbohydrates, that are bioavailable to organisms and
can be assimilated. Several microorganisms can be used for MP natural degrada-
tion, such as Aspergillus sp., Penicillium sp., Azotobacter sp., Pseudomonas sp.,
Amycolatopsis sp., and Actinomadura sp., as they have great capacity to degrade
both artificial and organic polymers. Nevertheless, hydrophobicity and cross-linking
of chemicals hinder biotic degradation (Bose, 2021).
The degradation of spilled MP is affected by several factors, including the
surrounding environment (such as terrestrial or marine habitat), the type of plastic
(whether it is synthetic or natural), and its specific characteristics (such as hydropho-
bicity, molecular weight, crystallinity, hardness, and shape). Hydrophilic degradation
has a higher rate of decay in comparison to hydrophobic degradation. For instance, the
rate at which polylactic acid (PLA) breaks down on land is 20 times higher than that of
high-density polyethylene (HDPE). Significantly, a similar rate of deterioration was
observed in the marine ecosystem (Chamas et al., 2020). MP’s qualities may undergo
alterations due to fragmentation or degradation over their period of residence. MPs
come from several sources, but in the end, the oceans act as the primary storage for
all kinds of plastic particles since they receive MPs from upstream, including plastics
from land and freshwater sources.
Moreover, a wide range of commercial plastics, such as polyethylene (PE),
polypropylene (PP), polystyrene (PS), polyvinyl chloride (PVC), polycarbonate, and
polyethylene terephthalate (PET) among others, contain various additives including
bisphenol A (BPA), phthalates, polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDE), and others.
Usually, these compounds are not covalently attached to the polymer and are liberated
as plastic garbage decomposes. The fragmented or deteriorated plastic particles are
observed suspended on the ocean surface, accumulating on marine snow, descending
to different depths in the water column, or settling on the seafloor. The dispersion
of MPs or pollutants is contingent upon the dimensions of the particles and their
capacity for absorption (Galloway et al., 2017). Consequently, these particles can
A Call to Action for Addressing Microplastic Pollution: Mitigation … 729

be reached by all aquatic organisms, ultimately affecting food systems and human
health (Roy et al., 2022).
The principal process responsible for the degradation of MPs in ecosystems
is photooxidation, triggered by ultraviolet (UV) radiation. An increasing amount
of research has documented photocatalytic degradation as a potentially effective
approach to mitigating MP pollution (Nabi et al., 2020). This process induces the
liberation of monomers and oligomers, culminating in the creation of miniature
fragments. The smaller polymer fragments display a higher degree of vulnerability
to biodegradation. At first, the plastic polymers undergo degradation, leading to
the creation of individual monomers. Afterward, these individual units undergo
mineralization (Roy et al., 2022).
Therefore, it is crucial to carry out additional research on the mitigation of MPs
and carefully choose the most appropriate strategy for MPs mitigation. Hence, the
present chapter highlights the predominant and efficient techniques for mitigating
MPs and considers their advantages and drawbacks.

2 Physical Methods

Physical methods of MP removal include procedures and techniques that physi-

cally separate or remove MP particles from various environments. In order to effec-
tively remove MPs, these methods often make use of their physical characteristics,
including their size, density, and behavior (Sacco et al., 2023).

2.1 Filtration Technology

MPs removal has seen substantial use of membrane filtration technology. Microfiltra-
tion, ultrafiltration, dynamic membrane, reverse osmosis, and membrane bioreactors
are some of the membrane filtration techniques that have been used to fight MP pollu-
tion. Sand filtration and the use of activated carbon particles are two examples of
media filtration technologies that have been used for this purpose (Fig. 1). Filtration
stands out as a highly efficient means of removing MPs from water. Its capability to
capture particles of diverse sizes, including the smaller MPs that might pose chal-
lenges for other removal methods, makes it particularly effective. The outcomes of
filtration methods in removing MPs from water have shown promise. Notably, in-line
filtration has emerged as more efficient in reclaiming MPs, holding greater potential
for mitigating MP contamination compared to in-lab filtration (Akarsu et al., 2021).
In contrast, these methods center on physically separating MPs from polluted
water using filters and membranes. These obstructions allow only liquids to flow
through, thereby separating MPs from water. However, their effectiveness diminishes
when dealing with sludge waste characterized by higher viscosities. To separate
micro- and nano-sized MPs found in minute concentrations, filtration techniques need
730 E. H. Zaghloul et al.

Fig. 1 Filtration technology

a lot of labor and the transportation of huge amounts of water. These techniques are
useful for quantifying MPs that have been separated, but they need to tell us about the
composition and kind of MP contaminants. For a comprehensive understanding of the
characteristics of MPs, alternative characterization techniques need to be employed
(Dey et al., 2021).
The adoption of membrane technology is on the rise, driven by its low energy
demands, straightforward and adaptable operation, ease of scalability, and method
stability. Membrane filtration serves as a broad category encompassing various tech-
niques, including ultrafiltration, microfiltration, nanofiltration, and reverse osmosis
(Barbier et al., 2022).
The elimination of MPs has been demonstrated to be feasible using membrane
bioreactors (MBRs) and dynamic membrane (DM) systems. These systems optimize
performance by utilizing membranes with a range of pore sizes and by responding
to external factors like pressure and pumping shear stress. The effectiveness of MP
removal is affected by several important aspects, such as the permeability and selec-
tivity of the membranes, how long they last, the concentration and size of the MPs, and
the influent flux. Membrane processes, especially when combined with other tech-
niques, have demonstrated remarkable removal efficiencies, reaching up to 99.9%.
For example, Lares and his introduced an advanced MBR system integrated with a
wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) to assess MP removal. Their comparison with
a conventional activated sludge method revealed that the MBR exhibited higher effi-
ciency in removing MPs than the traditional activated sludge method (Prata et al.,
2020).
Membrane filtration frequently encounters fouling issues attributed to the gath-
ering of MPs in the pores of the membrane and microbial growth, causing clogging
and diminishing filtration efficiency (Fig. 2). Consequently, there is often a neces-
sity to pre-treat contaminated water with disinfectants or coagulants to mitigate this
A Call to Action for Addressing Microplastic Pollution: Mitigation … 731

Fig. 2 Illustration depicting the process of removing MPs through membrane filtration and the
subsequent accumulation of substances on the membrane surface

problem, even though such pre-treatment may decrease the likelihood of membrane
fouling (Pandey et al., 2022). Xing et al. (2018) conducted a study proposing a low-
dosage UV/Chlorine pre-oxidation approach to mitigate membrane fouling, reporting
a 49% reduction in fouling using this method. Also, membrane cleaning and back-
washing could increase MP release, which is a major problem. While membrane
filtration is effective in removing fragment and pellet MPs through synergistic inter-
actions with membrane materials and pores, it proves less effective for fiber MPs, as
these may longitudinally traverse the membrane pores (Ziajahromi et al., 2017).

2.1.1 Advantages of Filtration Technology

1. Versatility: The adaptability of membrane filtration is demonstrated by its use in

many water treatment applications, such as those dealing with wastewater and
potable water. Its adaptability allows for customization to meet various scales
and specific requirements.
2. Existing Infrastructure Integration: The filtration process can be easily included
in the current water treatment system. This feature makes it a viable option for
enhancing or modifying existing systems to tackle the problem of MPs contam-
ination. This flexibility maximizes efficiency by reducing the need for major
overhauls.
3. Physical Barrier: Building a physical barrier is of important benefit. The filtra-
tion technology effectively removes MPs from water without requiring complex
procedures or chemical additives. The ease contributes to the cost-effectiveness
and reliability of membrane filtration as a method for MPs removal (Wang et al.,
2021).
732 E. H. Zaghloul et al.

2.1.2 Disadvantages of Filtration Technology

Challenges associated with membrane filtration for MP removal include:

1. Size Limitations: The efficacy of membrane filtration may differ depending on
particle size; however, it is effective throughout a broad spectrum of MPs. If
the MPs or nano plastics are too small to pass through standard filters, further
processing or the use of specialized filter media may be required.
2. Filter Clogging: Clogged filters are a real possibility when microplastic-laden
water is filtered continuously. Regular cleaning and maintenance are necessary
to keep the system running smoothly and at peak efficiency.
3. Limited Removal of Dissolved MPs: If the MPs or nano plastics are tiny and
distributed in the water, filtration may not be as effective as it is when dealing
with bigger MP particles.
4. Cost and Energy Requirements: There is a high barrier to entry and continuing
operating costs associated with filtration system implementation, especially for
systems intended for big water volumes. Additionally, it would be best if you
thought about how much power is required to keep the filters running at a constant
flow rate.
5. Disposal of Captured MPs: Properly managing and disposing of the captured
MPs pose challenges. Ensuring that collected MPs are handled appropriately
is crucial to prevent their reintroduction into the environment, introducing an
additional level of complexity to the filtering process (Wang et al., 2021).

2.2 Adsorption

Because of its many benefits, including its ease of use, high efficiency, and low
cost, the adsorption method is widely considered the best option for cleaning water
contaminants. Adsorption is a surface process that uses weak Van der Waal inter-
actions to collect pollutants on an adsorbent’s surface. To remove MPs from water
sources, divers materials have been employed, such as carbonaceous compounds,
polymers, zeolites, and inorganic clays. The effectiveness of adsorbent materials in
the adsorptive and regenerative processes is determined by factors such as the abun-
dance of adsorption sites, the nature of the adsorbent, and the strength of interactions
(Pandey et al., 2022).
Biosorption is a unique and promising approach for the absorption of MP. Due
of its ability to inhibit the release of secondary MPs into the aquatic ecosystems.
The adsorption process often involves the use of physical adsorption, microprecipi-
tation, ion exchange, chelation, and complexation processes. As a result of carboxyl,
hydroxyl, amine, and phosphonate groups found in microbial and plant cell walls,
MPs are able to be adsorbed. One kind of adsorption is physical adsorption, and
the other is chemical adsorption. Intermolecular forces, specifically Van der Waals
A Call to Action for Addressing Microplastic Pollution: Mitigation … 733

forces, interact to produce physical adsorption. Chemical bonding, which encom-

passes covalent, ionic, and hydrogen bonding, is the foundation of chemical adsorp-
tion. Fast adsorption rates, low heat of adsorption, and non-discriminatory adsorption
are characteristics of physical adsorption, which typically take place at lower temper-
atures. When compared to physical adsorption, chemical adsorption is more selective
since it uses greater temperatures and the creation and breaking of chemical bonds
(Sacco et al., 2023).
Novel composite materials have been successfully engineered to efficiently adsorb
MPs, falling into two distinct categories: powder composites (Zhao et al., 2022) and
sponge composites (Sun et al., 2021). These categories employ different processes for
MP adsorption. Powder composite materials typically involve an initial mixture with
MPs, followed by separation using various physical methods like high-speed centrifu-
gation or magnetic extraction. For instance, an environmentally friendly adsorbent
was created by modifying fly ash (FA) with iron ions to target polystyrene MPs. To
carry out the adsorption procedure, the adsorbent was added to a suspension of MPs,
mixed thoroughly, and then separated using high-speed centrifugation. Thorough
characterizations have shown that the iron-modified FA and MPs interact strongly,
with complexation and electrostatic attraction driving the adsorption dynamics. At
pH values between 5 and 7, this magnetic adsorption material showed an outstanding
ability to absorb MPs, with capacities ranging from 82.8 to 89.9 mg/g (Sacco et al.,
2023).

2.2.1 Advantages of the Adsorption Method

Advantages of adsorption for MPs removal include:

1. High Removal Efficiency: Adsorption exhibits exceptional efficiency in removing
MPs, encompassing both large and small particles. The adsorbent material’s
strong affinity for MPs allows for effective capture and removal from water.
2. Versatility: Adsorption is a flexible process that can be used for different kinds
of MPs and water sources. The use of various adsorbent materials allows for
customization according to individual water treatment needs; these materials
include activated carbon, zeolites, and certain polymers.
3. Additional Pollutant Removal: Some of the adsorbents used to filter out MPs also
work to draw out organic molecules, heavy metals, and other substances from
the water. All together, they help raise the bar for water purity.
4. Potential for Regeneration: Regeneration and reuse of some adsorbent materials is
possible in specific circumstances. Reducing operational expenses and reducing
the environmental effect of spent adsorbent disposal are both possible outcomes
of this capacity (Wang et al., 2021).

2.2.2 Disadvantages of Adsorption Method

Challenges and limitations associated with adsorption for MPs removal include:
734 E. H. Zaghloul et al.

1. Limited Adsorption Capacity: There is a limit to how much an adsorbent material

can hold; when that limit is reached, regeneration or replacement may be required.
This may cause the adsorption process’s operational and maintenance expenses
to rise.
2. Specificity: Certain MPs may have a stronger affinity for particular adsorbents
due to the selectivity of adsorption. A mix of adsorbent materials or pre-treatment
procedures can be necessary to increase efficiency.
3. Cost: Adsorbent materials can range in price from somewhat inexpensive to quite
pricey. The adsorption process’s overall cost-effectiveness can be affected by this
cost fluctuation.
4. Disposal of Used Adsorbents: It is necessary to adopt appropriate disposal tech-
niques in order to avoid any environmental contamination and mitigate the
ecological consequences of spent adsorbents (Wang et al., 2021).

2.3 Flocculation

The most popular approach for removing MPs from water sources is CFS, which
stands out as a combination of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation. Hetero-
geneous solid–liquid separation and density-based monitoring are the heart of the
CFS mechanism. The process starts with coagulation, which introduces a coagulant
material to a colloid and destabilizes the particles floating in it, often in the form
of metal salts. This rapid method is frequently succeeded by flocculation. Floccula-
tion, a complementary technique, involves slow mixing over extended time intervals.
The destabilized particles eventually clump together into bigger masses called flocs
as a result of this slow process. With the help of sedimentation, these flocs can be
effortlessly removed. During stirring, the production of flocs is greatly affected by
the properties of the aqueous medium (Pandey et al., 2022). Zhang and his team
conducted a study in which they synthesized a magnetic coagulant based on magne-
sium hydroxide and Fe3 O4 , applying it for the removal of MPs. Their findings indi-
cated a notable removal efficiency of 87.2%. The researchers further investigated
the impact of aging time on the formation of flocs. Notably, they concluded that a
removal efficiency exceeding 85% could be sustained in water samples within the pH
range of 5–8. Additionally, their observations suggested that charge neutralization
plays a significant role in the mechanism involved in the removal of MPs (Zhang
et al., 2021).
The gravitational settling of suspended aggregates is the basis of the sedimenta-
tion technique, which is affected by the density of MP particles. Because angular
and irregular particles readily mix to create bigger aggregates that settle owing to
increased density, this technique is especially useful for removing MP pieces with an
uneven shape. It is common practice to increase the removal capabilities of MPs by
combining coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation procedures. The morpholog-
ical and physiochemical characteristics of MPs, such as their size, shape, and surface
characteristics, are used to measure the CFS method’s efficiency. These approaches
A Call to Action for Addressing Microplastic Pollution: Mitigation … 735

are frequently utilized as main or secondary treatment procedures, and they are
frequently combined with other sophisticated technologies to enhance the efficacy
of MP removal. The CFS approach is more effective in removing fibrous MPs than
spherical or fragmented ones. This is because the surface area of fibrous MPs is larger,
which means they interact with flocculating agents more effectively (Pandey et al.,
2022). A remarkable removal effectiveness of 98.2% was achieved by Peydayesh
et al. (2021) when they investigated the uptake of carboxylated polystyrene micro-
spheres from different water samples utilizing a lysozyme amyloid fibril natural
bioflocculant in conjunction with the CFS technique (Peng et al., 2021).
The CFS technique has some limitations, such as significant chemical consump-
tion, heavy power demands, and frequent electrode replacement. These problems
restrict the efficiency with which the CFS method may be utilized for water
purification (Pandey et al., 2022).

3 Physicochemical Approaches

The concept of chemical degradation is primarily dependent on the formation of

various reactive oxygen species (ROS), such as highly reactive sulfate and hydroxyl
radicals, with a potential for targeting organic substances and destabilizing their
bonds (Duan et al., 2018). The extent of chemical deterioration of MPs is affected by
multiple variables such as the polymer nature and structure, additives incorporation,
depositional environment, and the surrounding medium. Because of the variations
in salinity, alkalinity, and biological species, it becomes apparent that the chem-
ical degradation rate rapidly develops in seawater or simulated seawater conditions
rather than in freshwater. Additionally, it is anticipated that the precious location of
MPs—whether they are floating in the water column, sedimented in the benthic zone,
or detected in the surface zone—will influence the degree of chemical degradation
level (Da Costa et al., 2018). Advanced oxidation processes (AOPs), a chemical
breakdown protocol, depend on the ROS theory and emphasizes several mecha-
nisms, including direct photodegradation and photocatalytic oxidation, among other
techniques (Sutkar et al., 2023).

3.1 Coagulation

The metal-based coagulation technique relies on the chemical coagulation-

flocculation process, whereby certain chemicals are added to enhance the aggregation
of particles into larger flocs, facilitating their removal from the water. In addition,
flocculation is an inherent process that does not involve charge balance, whereas coag-
ulation is a synthetic procedure that does. According to Jiang (2015), this removal
strategy cycle may serve as a preliminary or intermediate stage in conjunction with
other water or wastewater treatment procedures, such as filtration and sedimentation.
736 E. H. Zaghloul et al.

Coagulants such as iron, aluminum, titanium, and zirconium salts are frequently
utilized.
Electrocoagulation is a simple tertiary treatment method that does not depend on
chemicals or microorganisms like conventional chemical coagulation and activated
sludge procedures. This approach makes use of metal electrodes. The electrodes
transport the coagulants electrically, which makes the coagulation cycle necessary
and vigorous (Garcia-Segura et al., 2017). Regardless, electrocoagulation is a volatile
process in which cations are transported through metal cathodes under the influence
of an electric field (Enyoh et al., 2022).

3.2 Photocatalytic Oxidation

Photocatalytic degradation is a method that harnesses sunlight as the energy source

to break down MP particles (Rahman et al., 2023).
Photocatalytic degradation involves oxidation–reduction reactions where semi-
conductors absorb adequate photons for electron transportation, producing super-
oxide anions that work on disrupting the chains and catalyze MP degradation into
water and carbon dioxide (Kristanti et al., 2023; Tofa et al., 2019). Essentially, charge
separation, charge transfer, and light absorption are basic properties of an effective
photocatalyst. Titania (TiO2 ) or zinc oxide (ZnO) are metal oxide semiconductors
with acceptable wide bandgap to be utilized as photocatalytic materials (Mahmud
et al., 2022). Zinc oxide is the most often used because of its exceptional optical
properties, ionic conductivity, and chemical inertness. Additionally, it is easily manu-
factured and molded into various shapes using basic chemical water bath procedures
(Tofa et al., 2019). This remediation technique is cost-effective since no electricity
or chemicals are used, and no hazardous materials are released into the environment.
However, it requires a more extended retention period and has a lesser removal
efficiency when compared to other remediation approaches (Kristanti et al., 2023).
Photocatalysts absorb the photon during the photocatalytic oxidation process.
Positive holes (h+ ) are created in the valence band when an electron (e− ) moves
into the conduction band due to the absorption of photon energy that is superior to
the band gap energy of the semiconductor—both the hole and the electron travel
to the semiconductor’s surface. Superoxide and hydroxyl radicals are often formed
when electrons reduce oxygen molecules. ROS, such as the hydroxide radical (OH·
), superoxide (O2 − ), and hydrogen peroxide (H2 O2 ), are produced when the created
holes oxidize adsorbed water molecules. These reactive oxidizing entities are super-
oxidizing agents with the ability to decompose organic contaminants into H2 O and
CO2 (Nosaka & Nosaka, 2013). The following equations represent the mechanism
of the reactions (Nosaka & Nosaka, 2013).
A Call to Action for Addressing Microplastic Pollution: Mitigation … 737

h+ + H2 O → H+ + OH
h+ 2H2O → 2H+ + H2 O2
H2 O2 → 2OH
e− + O2 → O−
2
2O− + 2H2 O → 2H2 O2 + O2
H2 O2 → 2OH

Additionally, the usage of nano photocatalysts is advantageous since their nano

sizes improve the ratio between surface area and volume, which gives the particle new
physical and chemical characteristics that empower them with high photocatalytic
activity and, consequently, high capabilities in the rate at which plastic polymers
degrade (Saxena et al., 2020). Similarly, Nabi et al. (2020) documented that, after 12
h of UV 365 nm irradiation, the use of TiO2 nanoparticle films prepared with Triton
X100 as a catalyst during the photocatalytic degradation of 400 nm polystyrene
(PS) particles resulted in a full particles mineralization (up to 98.40%). Furthermore,
in a related experiment for polyethylene breakdown, after 36 h of photoreaction,
no detectable traces of polyethylene MPs were recorded, and Raman spectroscopy
detected CO2 as a main product of degradation.

4 Biological Degradation of MPs

The biological breakdown of MPs is usually a method of polymer cleavage into

smaller molecules (e.g., monomers, dimers, oligomers, or shorter chains). This
process is initiated by the production of free radicals and extracellular enzymes
to cleave MPs into smaller components. The produced monomers may be essential
for the consumption and growth of microorganisms. Then, the consumed monomers
are either mineralized into CO2 , H2 O, and CH4 or CO2 , H2 O, to yield biomass for
energy (Cai et al., 2023).
Diverse methods have been used to investigate the breakdown of MPs, including
the determination of weight reduction as a result of leaching and the production
of CO2 attributed to the breakdown of polymers (Baldera-Moreno et al., 2022). To
obtain evidence of the breakdown, structural, chemical, thermal, and morpholog-
ical characteristics are examined by several methods, including scanning electron
microscopy (SEM), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), differential
scanning calorimetry, dynamic light scattering, X-ray diffraction (XDR), and laser
diffraction particle, etc. (Huang et al., 2023).
738 E. H. Zaghloul et al.

4.1 Bacterial Degradation of MPs

Different research has been directed to utilize bacteria for the biodegradation of MPs.
Bacteria are able to degrade MPs have been gained from a widespread variety of envi-
ronments comprising polluted municipal landfills, compost, sludge, wastewater, and
sediments (Ali et al., 2021; Awasthi et al., 2020), in addition to thrilling habitats such
as the mangrove, marine sediments, and Antarctic soils. Additionally, MPs breaking
microorganisms have also been gained from microflora inhabiting the earthworms.
It is mostly stated that microorganisms existing in contaminated locations often can
trigger the enzymes accountable for the breakdown of MPs (Othman et al., 2021).
Bacteria can degrade organic polymers into inorganic compounds and simple H2 O
and CO2 (Ali et al., 2021). MPs are supposed to be one of the major sources of carbon
required for the viability of bacteria during degradation. The MPs crack and corrode
due to the adhering bacteria to their surface and generating a biofilm. To achieve the
goal of removal, the bacteria work on softening and finally absorbing the MPs as
they flourish and proliferate on the biofilm.
Various species of bacteria produce different kinds of enzymes that impact and
degrade MPs via various means. It has been stated that bacteria may produce toxic
compounds during the breakdown process (Li et al., 2023). Furthermore, it is chal-
lenging to degrade MPs because the enzymes produced by bacteria might only be
active on some types of MPs. Therefore, numerous types of effective degrading
bacteria are reliably known and can increase MP degradation effectiveness (Yuan
et al., 2020).
Multiple research investigations have been conducted on the breakdown of MPs by
bacterial species related to Brevibacillus, Pseudomonas, and Bacillus. Earlier efforts
were made by Kyaw et al. (2012), who examined the breakdown of Low-Density
PE (LDPE) using Pseudomonas spp. In a study by Vimala and Mathew (2016),
four diverse Pseudomonas strains, comprising P. syringae, P. putida, P. aeruginosa
(ATCC), and P. aeruginosa (PAO1), were examined for the degradation of LDPE.
Following 120 days of inoculation, weight losses were detected. On the other hand,
only 0.3% weight loss was detected in the negative control. The PE inoculated with
P. aeruginosa PAO1 exhibited the highest loss of weight. The biodegradation was
detected by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC–MS) and ATR-FTIR spec-
troscopy. Additionally, PE was pretreated with UV irradiation before testing the
ability of Bacillus subtilis to degrade it (Vimala & Mathew, 2016). A summary of
the MPs degrading microorganisms can be displayed.

4.2 Fungal Degradation of MPs

Fungi can attach to and use MPs (Mitik-Dineva et al., 2009). There are few researches
focus on fungi’s capability to break down MPs, which suggests that finding fungal
isolates that exhibit MP-degrading capabilities may be challenging (Yuan et al.,
A Call to Action for Addressing Microplastic Pollution: Mitigation … 739

2020). However, in the last few years, some research has recovered fungi that
can break down MPs from different sources, primarily the ocean and soil. Fungal
enzymatic systems produce different extracellular enzymes that assist in the break-
down of polymers. These enzymes include multifunctional manganese peroxidase,
peroxidase, and laccase.
These enzymes break the polymeric structure into monomeric materials, which
are subsequently taken up by the fungus and its intracellular enzyme system for
mineralization and assimilation (Daly et al., 2021; Skariyachan et al., 2016). More-
over, fungi can generate hydrophobins, which adhere hyphae to the surfaces of MPs.
These hydrophobins can also penetrate the polymer material’s surface and go deep
within it, thus increasing matrix degradation.
The animal body can also be used as a home for fungi that break down MPs. The
PE-breaking Aspergillus flavus PEDX3 was reported by Zhang et al. (2020) from the
intestinal substances of Galleria mellonella. FTIR analysis revealed that carbonyl
groups and ether had been developed on the surface of low-density polyethylene
(LDPE) after twenty-eight days of mixing the culture with MPs, proposing that the
fungus may degrade MPs. Moreover, reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction
(RT-PCR) analysis showed that 2 laccase-like multicopper oxidase (LMCO) genes,
AFLA_053930 and AFLA_006190, were raised during degradation. It has been
recognized that fungi can produce enzymes that degrade LDPE (Zhang et al., 2020).
The soil is home to varied kinds of microorganisms (Zhang et al., 2023). Most
waste plastics end up in landfills, where they are degraded by a diversity of microor-
ganisms, among them fungi. Many researchers have recognized and examined the
influences of these fungi on the degradation of MPs that have been recovered from
landfills. It was found that after 90 days of culture, the loss of LDPE weight caused
by Aspergillus clavatusJASK1 reached 35%, according to Gajendiran et al.’s study
(Gajendiran et al., 2016). Moreover, two fungi, identified as A. terreus and A. flavus,
were isolated from the Agra dump by Verma and Gupta (2019). They succeeded in
reducing the LDPE weight in 9 months of culture by 11.4% and 30.6%, respectively.
Aspergillus terreus MF12 was identified by Balasubramanian et al. (2014) from a
plastic waste dump. The strain was reported to be able to degrade HDPE effectively
using FTIR analysis and weight loss; after 30 days, 9.4% of the HDPE weight was lost.
Moreover, this research examined the influence of some environmental circumstances
on the HDPE degrading procedure, showing that the rate of degradation could be as
high as 20.8% in ideal conditions.
In the ocean, some fungi can use and degrade MPs. The influence of the marine
fungus Zalerion maritimum on LDPE particles at different incubation periods was
tested by Paco et al. (2017). The findings revealed that the fungus could degrade PE
particles and that, after 14 days of culture, the elimination rate of PE could reach
43% (Paco et al., 2017; Li et al., 2023). Aspergillus flavus VRKPT2 and Aspergillus
tubingensis VRKPT1 were identified from PE garbage near the shore by Devi et al.
(2015). They were capable of living by consuming PE as a carbon source. The weight
loss of HDPE was 8.51 and 6.02%, respectively, following 30 days of treatment. In
order to mitigate the environmental effect of MPs, it is essential to conduct more
experiments that include screening a greater number of fungal strains.
740 E. H. Zaghloul et al.

4.3 Joint Breakdown of MPs by Fungi and Bacteria

The majority of prior research on MP degradation has concentrated on isolating

a single class of degrading microorganisms. Yet, investigations have demonstrated
that mixing fungi and bacteria exhibits more biodegradation efficacy. The bacterial
species Lysinibacillus xylanilyticus and the fungus Aspergillus niger F1 were found
to have a noteworthy capability to break down LDPE from landfill soil in Tehran.
The breakdown capacity using PE was confirmed by SEM, XRD, and FTIR analyses.
The biodegradation of non-UV-irradiated and UV-irradiated films were 15.8% and
29.5%, respectively, after 126 days post-treatment (Esmaeili et al., 2013).

4.4 Actinobacteria

Actinobacteria is a unique phylum of the domain bacteria. They are characterized

by high GC content and known as pseudo bacteria. While they share the unicellular
nature of bacteria, they lack a clearly defined cell wall. Instead, they produce a nonsep-
tate and slenderer filamentous mycelium. They can exist in a range of natural ecosys-
tems, including marine habitats, freshwater, and soils (de Oliveira et al., 2020). They
can do a range of roles in the surroundings and have a wide array of unique metabo-
lites. As well as producing antibiotics, fungicides, anticancer, among other bioactive
secondary compounds, able to degrade resistant cellulose, chitin, and carbohydrates,
while others are utilized in bioremediation as they can recycle organic carbon and
break down toxic components (de Oliveira et al., 2020).
Actinomycetes can degrade different MP types quite effectively. It took just 16
days for the first signs of deterioration to display when Rhodococcus ruber strain
C208 was utilized. This species can form a biofilm on PE surfaces. After 12–15 h
of incubation, microcolonies started to organize and differentiate, rising in density
and size until three-dimensional multicellular configurations were designed. Subse-
quently, after 1 day of incubation, the biofilm realized its maximum size, and a small
proportion of bacteria enclosed the intricate biofilm structure with a thin single-film
layer. R. ruber was capable of using PE as the only carbon source and broke down
the MPs to 7.5% of its inventive weight after 2 months (Sivan et al., 2006).
One species that can be taken as a model organism for polymer breakdown
is Rhodococcus ruber. R. rhodococcus ATCC 29672 also revealed a reasonable
biodegradation. Here, the polymer underwent photoaging after being processed,
and a dramatic drop in the polymer’s weight and molecular distribution was noted
(Fontanella et al., 2013).
Numerous actinomycetes and Bacillus species in bacterial consortia exhibited a
substantial capability for biodegradation. As well as the weight loss of MPs and
chemical, physical, and structural changes in the incubation period, comprising the
emergence of narrow gaps and holes. As the species Bacillus has high degradative
A Call to Action for Addressing Microplastic Pollution: Mitigation … 741

abilities, this consortium of actinomycetes and Bacillus may have donated to the
improved polymer reduction (de Oliveira et al., 2020).
Nitric acid pretreatment is valuable for microbial breakdown. Since carbonyl
groups are breakdown prompts, nitric acid can break native bonds in MPs and permits
the integration of these groups into the polymer’s backbone, hastening the rate of
degradation (Rajandas et al., 2012) as soluble and emulsified materials were gained
after pretreatment process.
The utilization of nitric acid hurries the biodegradation of polymers, causing 61%
polymer reduction, which is the highest noted reduction of MPs from nonrenew-
able sources because the native form of polymers necessitates an elongated time to
breakdown (Rajandas et al., 2012).
Actinobacteria has the ability to effectively decompose PLA via their specialized
metabolic processes. This is significant since commercially available PLA is widely
used as a bioplastic substitute for non-biodegradable polymers. Actinomycetes with
the ability to degrade PLA may effectively break down this biopolymer in both field
studies and lab conditions (Butbunchu & Pathom-aree, 2019). The PLA powder was
completely degraded in 8 h due to the extracellular PLA-degrading enzyme that
Amycolatopsis orientalis produced. Also, the Kibdelosporangium aridum strain had
a significant ability for breakdown, eliminating approximately 97% of the native
polymer.
These investigations demonstrated that PU, a polymer that is not frequently
employed in biodegradation tests conducted in lab settings, is amenable to micro-
bial degradation. Furthermore, investigations have shown that the addition of gelatin
(0.1–0.2%) raises the degree of polymer biodegradation and reduction. The polymer
reduction, which can be related to microbial action, displays alterations in the poly-
mers’ physical and chemical structures as well as weight loss (de Oliveira et al.,
2020).

4.5 Algal Degradation of MPs

Microalgal species can efficiently assist the biological breakdown of MPs through
toxins and enzymes (Chia et al., 2020; Manzi et al., 2022; Moog et al., 2019). The
primary benefit is that, in contrast to the bacterial system, they do not require a rich
carbon resource for growing and can exist in a variety of. It is well recognized that
microalgae can attach themselves to plastic surfaces in wastewater streams, initiating
the production of exopolysaccharide and ligninolytic enzymes, which in turn causes
the breakdown of MPs. These polymers primarily act as a supply of carbon, boost the
amount of carbohydrates and proteins in cells, and quicken the amount of growth.
Lately, LDPE sheet surface deterioration or degradation through colonization of
algae has been recognized using SEM (Sanniyasi et al., 2021).
Recent advances in several biotechnological methods have made it possible to
find a number of genetically improved microalgal cell factories that can produce
742 E. H. Zaghloul et al.

the enzymes desired to degrade plastic (Shen et al., 2019). Through genetic alter-
nations, the green microalgal species Chlamydomonas reinhardtii was capable of
creating polyethylene terephthalate hydrolase, which breaks down terephthalic acid
and polyethylene terephthalate (Kim et al., 2020). The same finding was also observed
for Phaeodactylum. tricornutum, which created polyethylene terephthalate hydro-
lase and revealed catalytic capability toward polyethylene terephthalate (Moog et al.,
2019). Consequently, microalgae are promising MPs degraders and an eco-friendly
method for effective biological degradation of MPs.
Algal biodegradation mostly occurs through a diversity of mechanisms, including
hydrolysis, penetration, corrosion, and fouling (Chia et al., 2020). It was also discov-
ered that Phormidium lucidum and Oscillatoria subbrevis may colonize and destroy
surfaces of LDPE without the need for prior treatment (Sarmah & Rout, 2018). A
diversity of algae, including Chlamydomonas Mexicana, Chlorella vulgaris, Stephan-
odiscus hantzschii, and Chlorella fusca, broke down bisphenol A, which is an
improver with estrogenic activity that is usually present in polymers (Hirooka et al.,
2005; Ji et al., 2014; Li et al., 2009).
Usually, the progress of biofilms on the surface of MPs is linked to the degrada-
tion process. The capability to create biofilms on the MPs polymers was also estab-
lished by a number of cyanobacterial strains, including Synechococcus, Pleurocapsa,
Leptolyngbya Calothrix, Rivularia, Microcystis, Scytonema and Prochlorothrix
(Bryant et al., 2016; Debroas et al., 2017; Dussud et al., 2018; Muthukrishnan et al.,
2019).

4.6 Novel Approaches in MP Degradation by Invertebrates

According to a recent investigation, the guts of some insects remain as bioreactors

due to the presence of digestive enzymes and gut microbiomes that contribute to the
breakdown of some resistant polymers, Bacillus sp. YP1 and Enterobacter asburiae
YT1 are two bacterial strains that break down LDPE and were gained by Yang
et al. (2014) from the intestine of Plodia interpunctella (Indianmeal moth). The
two bacterial strains were able to produce 12 water-soluble compounds, which were
detected in the stomach of P. interpunctella and were capable of degrading about
6–10% of PE films.
Bombelli et al. (2017) discovered the remarkable capacity of Galleria mellonella,
the larger wax moth larvae, to degrade polyethylene. Ren et al. (2019) identified
Enterobacter sp. D1 from the stomach of G. mellonella. They confirmed that the PE
film had physical changes during management, and they suggested that these changes
were the consequence of bacterial oxidation. Similar findings were stated by Cassone
et al. (2020) when they evaluated the biodegradation of LDPE by G. mellonella
larvae, which were able to live on LDPE alone. However, growth was not probable
with this diet. These findings propose that mild oxidation or initial breakdown may
have occurred during the passage of the PE through the gut’s of larvae, causing
changes in the physical attributes rather than chemical properties. Billen et al. (2020)
A Call to Action for Addressing Microplastic Pollution: Mitigation … 743

revealed that 44 larvae chewed and ingested polyethylene in addition to reducing the
size of polyethylene films. It is proposed that microbiomes inhabiting insect larvae
are essential for the quick early biodegradation that occurs in the gut of the larvae.
However, this initial quick biodegradation of PE cannot be attained alone by the
insect stomach microbiome. The mitigation of other petro-plastics, such as PS and
PE by insect larvae, including snails (Achatina fulita) (Song et al., 2020), Lesser
Waxworms (Achroia Grisella) (Kundungal et al., 2019), Superworms (Zophobas
atratus) (Peng et al., 2020), Dark Mealworms (Tenebrio obscurus) (Brandon et al.,
2018; Peng et al., 2019), Yellow Mealworms (Tenebrio molitor) (Billen et al., 2020)
have been detected in recent years. Two strains of LDPE-degrading bacteria, Bacillus
sp. strain NyZ451 and Acinetobacter sp. strain NyZ450, were recognized from the
intestine of T. molitor larvae by Yin et al. (2020) as LDPE biodegraders. Over 30
days, their co-culture on LDPE flourished and eliminated 18% of the LDPE mulching
films. This denotes that a number of bacteria are required for LDPE biodegradation.
According to Yang et al. (2021), the depolymerization of LDPE in the gut of Tenebrio
molitor larvae was not repressed by antibiotics, proposing that the larvae’s digestive
enzymes were capable of degrading LDPE.
Several factors may hinder the use of insect larvae as a waste management
method for petro-plastics, namely polyethylene, despite their high biodegradation
rates. These restrictions comprise the following: (i) the required preserving cultures
of insects to yield the larvae that eat LDPE; (ii) the great fee of making so; and
(iii) incomplete breakdown and absence of mineralization, which may exacerbate
environmental issues. Instead, it might be more operative to generate new methods
for handling PE waste by recognizing new bacterial and fungal strains that can break
PE and by understanding the precise mechanism of degradation means (Billen et al.,
2020; Montazer et al., 2020).

5 Abiotic Degradation of MPs

MPs decompose environmentally due to a combination of biotic and abiotic strate-

gies. Abiotic degradation is commonly referred to as non-biological breakdown. It
is the process by which MPs decompose via hydrolysis and photochemical interac-
tions, as well as physical deterioration. Abiotic degradation can be brought on by
multiple factors, including mechanical stress, temperature, sunlight (UV radiation),
and chemical reactions (Sutkar et al., 2023). The initiation of the abiotic degradation
process takes place when the plastic material’s outer layer is subjected to chemical
reactions.
In comparison with larger plastic items, MPs have a higher degradation rate due
to their prominent volume-to-surface area ratio (Tofa et al., 2019). In spite of the fact
that abiotic degradation is a slow process that may take a long duration to accom-
plish, it significantly disintegrates MPs into smaller components that may persist
in the environment and potentially have possible ecological impacts. In addition,
this process consists of unspecific reactions that can affect a wide range of MPs
744 E. H. Zaghloul et al.

instead of emphasizing a definite polymeric category (Sutkar et al., 2023). There are
several abiotic degradation ways targeting MPs, including mechanical, thermal, and
chemical routes (Klein et al., 2018).

5.1 Mechanical Degradation

Mechanical degradation techniques rely on various mechanical pressures that break

major MP polymers into little ones. Throughout this process, a significant drop
in the relative molecular weight of the polymer may not be achieved; however,
when paired with the chemical degradation process, a remarkable reduction in the
overall molecular weight is frequently recorded (Pan et al., 2023). Mechanical forces
cause molecular chain breakdown, this decreases the size of the particles and hence
increases the surface area, providing a greater reactivity and degradation rate (Arpia
et al., 2021).
Mechanical abrasion (MA), the most recognizable route among the different
mechanical forces, is brought about by the action of air, water, sand, and human activ-
ities on plastic surfaces that lead to their deterioration and fragmentation (Oliveira
et al., 2019). After the plastic has aged to a specific degree, minimal mechanical
pressure can cause it to tear up totally (Sun et al., 2022). Mechanical abrasion arises
when MP particles come in contact with abrasive materials, such as floating timbered
materials, shells, and various wastes. MA initiative creates spherical particles that
mimic the shape of sediment grains carried over far distances by naturally abrasive
forces (Arpia et al., 2021).
An investigation that represents the effect of mechanical forces was performed
on extracted PE microbeads from a facial cleanser. These microbeads were placed
in a water column and exposed to shear stress conditions manifested in mechanical
stirring, pumping, and ultrasonic radiation. The outcomes verified that MPs were
converted to nanoplastics even under moderate-shear stress conditions (Enfrin et al.,
2020). In spite of the impact of mechanical abrasion on MPs, the study mentioned that
the process may either be accelerated or initiated via chemical degradation, including
photooxidation, thermal oxidation, and hydrolysis, in parallel with variations in
salinity and alkalinity levels.

5.2 Thermal Degradation

The thermodegradation process is defined as a degradation reaction that occurs at

temperatures above those that the polymeric structures can withstand, causing chem-
ical changes that alter the large plastic polymers into smaller hydrocarbon chains with
different boiling points and carbon numbers (Hou et al., 2021). Plastic may be a valu-
able source of fuel if properly employed since it is an origin of elemental carbon and
hydrogen (Mahmud et al., 2022). Thermodegradation of MPs is gaining attention
A Call to Action for Addressing Microplastic Pollution: Mitigation … 745

among researchers; however, two key barriers impeding the development of this
novel approach are the insufficient heat transfer and weak flow dispersion properties
of the plastic polymers (Hou et al., 2021).
To overcome these constraints, supercritical water has been employed; it performs
as an organic solvent that, under suitable conditions, can degrade MPs efficiently
(Ciuffi et al., 2020). Bai et al. (2020) reported one of the successful investigations
that used supercritical water gasification (SCWG) for PET MPs degradation and
revealed that long exposure time under elevated temperature improved the thermal
splitting of MPs, resulting in a 98% carbon conversion efficacy at 800 °C and 10 min
exposure duration by using MPs particles of 177 µm size. Despite the promising
outcomes of this technique, thermodegradation is still a premature technology that
requires further deep investigations of the kinetics and thermal attitude of various
MPs.

5.3 Photodegradation

Photodegradation can be described as the alteration and disintegration of poly-

mers by the effect of solar irradiation (UV light). The main factors influencing MP
photodegradation include natural mechanical forces, UV light intensity, exposure
duration, polymer structure, and the environmental conditions in which the MPs are
generated. This process alters the polymers’ physical structure, as surface cracking,
fading discoloration, and embrittlement are some of the most significant changes
(Sutkar et al., 2023). Cracks and discoloration resulted from elasticity reduction and
excessive oxidation of the phenolic components in the polymer, respectively. MPs
without additives and those with a terrestrial origin are more likely to experience
these two modifications (Arpia et al., 2021).
The course of solar degradation can be represented in three fundamental steps:
initiation, propagation, and termination. Throughout the initiation step, the primary
polymer chain is broken down by light-produced free radicals. In order to trigger
a chain-cleavage reaction that creates oligomers and initial radicles, photoinitia-
tion requires the presence of chromophoric entities on the polymer chain (Feldman,
2002). Certain polymers, such as Polyethylene and polypropylene, are insusceptible
to photoinitiation due to the presence of C–C bonds that hinder photooxidation. This
drawback can be overcome through the inclusion of additives and impurities, as well
as exerting structural changes in the macromolecular structure. These changes include
random scission of bonds due to thermal degradation or UV radiations that break
C-H bonds in the polymer (Arpia et al., 2021; Kinyua et al., 2023). Secondly, the
propagation step begins when radicals interact with oxygen, giving peroxy radicals,
followed by autoxidation via complicated radical reactions. Finally, when radicles
react with one another to generate termination products, the process ends (Kinyua
et al., 2023).
In order to assess the advantages of a combination of UV exposure and MA,
accelerated weathering experiments were carried out in the lab, with UV exposure for
746 E. H. Zaghloul et al.

up to 12 months followed by MA with sand for two months on LDPE, polypropylene,

and expanded polystyrene. Results indicated that the implementation of the protocol
above, in contrast to using a single method of degradation, enhanced the extent of
fragmentation in all tested polymers. Following a two-month MA treatment and a 12-
month UV exposure, the degradation findings for PP and PE were 6084 ± 1061 and
20 ± 8.3 particles/pellet, respectively. In contrast, lower yields for PE and PP (8.7 ±
2.5 and 10.7 ± 0.7 particles/pellet, respectively) were documented by using merely
MA without photooxidation by UV. Also, even if expanded polystyrene pellets were
susceptible to MA alone by giving (4220 ± 33 particles/pellet), the combination of
6 months of UV exposure followed by 2 months of MA expressed a higher level of
particle release by 12,152 ± 3276 particles/pellet (Song et al., 2017).

6 Conclusion

MPs, as a widely spread threatening pollutant, have gained worldwide attention due
to their massive biological and ecological impacts, especially on the marine envi-
ronment. As a result, the mitigation process of various MP polymers became an
interesting area of research. Several factors can affect the rate of MP degradation,
including environmental conditions, the nature of the polymer, and its chemical char-
acteristics. In this chapter, we spotlighted the various techniques for the mitigation
of MPs, including physical, chemical, and biological routes. Physical approaches
include filtration, adsorption, and CFS approach (flocculation, sedimentation, and
coagulation). They depend mainly on the separation and removal of MPs from the
environment. However, chemical techniques focused on the molecular breakdown of
the polymer and its disintegration to reduce its harmful impact as possible. Photocat-
alytic degradation is one of the main chemical procedures for MP degradation, which
amends solar energy to boost a catalytic reaction through a photocatalyst, leading to
the conversion of MPs into H2 O and CO2 . Thermal degradation, as a sustainable non-
biological degradation technique of great importance, uses “supercritical water” to
degrade MPs, eliminate and reduce their hazardous risks, and convert them into fuel.
However, it is still a promising technology that needs deep investigation and research.
As a biological tool, various microorganisms, including bacteria, fungi, and actino-
mycetes, can degrade MPs and use them as a sole carbon source. Lastly, to reduce the
impact of MPs, further research is required to achieve the ideal combination of these
physical, chemical, and biotechniques to gain the complete depolymerization of MPs
in the real field. Also, alternative solutions, like bioplastics obtained from sustain-
able sources like microorganisms, can be applied to decrease the rate of conventional
plastic consumption.
A Call to Action for Addressing Microplastic Pollution: Mitigation … 747

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