Chapter 2

Units and Measurements

Units
A unit is an internationally accepted standard for
measurements of quantities.

• Measurement consists of a numeric

quantity along with a relevant unit.
• Units for Fundamental or base quantities
(like length, time etc.) are
called Fundamental units.
• Units which are combination of
fundamental units are called Derived units.
• Fundamental and Derived units together
form a System of Units.
• Internationally accepted system of units
is SystèmeInternationale d’ Unites (French
for International system of Units) or SI. It
was developed and recommended by
General Conference on Weights and
Measures in 1971.
• SI lists 7 base units as in the table below.
Along with it, there are two units - radian or 2.3.1. Measuring large Distances – Parallax
rad (unit for plane angle) and steradian or Method
sr (unit for solid angle). They both • Parallax is a displacement or difference in the
are dimensionless. apparent position of an object viewed along
two different lines of sight, and is measured by
Base Quantity Name Symbol the angle or semi-angle of inclination between
those two lines. Distance between the two
viewpoints is called Basis.
Length metre m

Mass kilogram kg

Time second s

Electric Current ampere A

Thermo dynamic
Temperature kelvin K

Amount of
Substance mole mol

Luminous intensity candela cd

Measuring distance of a planet using parallax • If n –Number of drops of solution in water, V –
method Volume of each drop, t – Thickness of the film,
A – Area of the film
Total volume of n drops of solution = nV cm3
Amount of Oleic acid in this solution
1
= 𝑛𝑉 (20×20) cm3
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑚
Thickness of the film = 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑚
nV
t = cm.
20×20A

Similarly, α = d/D Special Length units

Where α = angular size of the planet (angle
subtended by d at earth) and d is the diameter of Unit Value in
the planet.αis angle between the direction of the Unit name Symbol meters
telescope when two diametrically opposite points
of the planet are viewed. f
fermi 10-15 m
2.3.2.Measuring very small distances
To measure distances as low as size of a Å
molecule, electron microscopes are used. These angstrom 10-10m
contain electrons beams controlled by electric and
magnetic fields. astronomical
• Electron microscopes have a resolution of 0.6 Å unit(average distance AU 1.496 X
or Agstroms. of sun from earth) 1011 m

• Electron microscopes are able to resolve atoms

light year(distance
and molecules while using tunneling
travelled by light in 1
microscopy, it is possible to estimate size of
year with velocity ly 9.46 X
molecule.
3 × 108 𝑚/𝑠) 1011 m

Estimating size of molecule of Oleic acid parsec(distance at

Oleic acid is a soapy liquid with large molecular size which average radius
of the order of 10−9 𝑚. The steps followed in of earth’s orbits
determining the size of molecule are: subtends an angle of 1 3.08 x
pc
arc second) 1016 m
• Dissolve 1 cm3 of oleic acid in alcohol to make a
solution of 20 cm3.Take 1 cm3 of above solution
and dilute it to 20 cm3, using alcohol. Now, the Measurement of Mass
concentration of oleic acid in the solution will Mass is usually measured in terms of kg but for
be (1/(20x20)) cm3 of oleic acid/ cm3 of atoms and molecules, unified atomic mass unit
solution. (u) is used.
• Sprinkle lycopodium powder on the surface of 1 u = 1/12 of the mass of an atom of carbon-12
water in a trough and put one drop of above isotope including mass of electrons (1.66 x 10-27 kg)
solution. The oleic acid in the solution will Apart from using balances for normal weights,
spread over water in a circular molecular thick mass of planets is measured using gravitational
film. methods and mass of atomic particles are
• Measure the diameter of the above circular film measured using mass spectrograph (radius of
using below calculations. trajectory is proportional to mass of charged
particle moving in uniform electric and magnetic Measurement of Time
field). Time is measured using a clock. As a standard,
Range of Mass atomic standard of time is now used, which is
measured by Cesium or Atomic clock.
Object Mass (kg) • In Cesium clock, a second is equal to
9,192,631,770 vibrations of radiation from the
Electron transition between two hyperfine levels of
10-30 cesium-133 atom.
• Cesium clock works on the vibration of cesium
Proton atom which is similar to vibrations of balance
10-27 wheel in a regular wristwatch and quartz crystal
in a quartz wristwatch.
Red Blood Cell • National standard time and frequency is
10-13
maintained by 4 atomic clocks. Indian standard
time is maintained by a Cesium clock at
Dust particle National Physical Laboratory (NPL), New Delhi.
10-9
• Cesium clocks are very accurate and the
uncertainty is very low 1 part in 1013 which
Rain drop
10-6 means not more than 3 μs are lost or gained in
a year.
Mosquito
10-5 Range of Time

Grapes Time
10-3 Interval
Event (s)
Human
102 Life span of most unstable particle
10-24
Automobile
103 Period of x-rays
10-19
Boeing 747 aircraft
108 Period of light wave
10-15
Moon
1023 Period of radio wave
10-6
Earth
1025 Period of sound wave
10-3
Sun
1030 Wink on an eye
10-1
Milky way Galaxy
1041 Travel time of light from moon to
earth
Observable Universe 100
1055
 2. Imperfections in experimental techniques: If
Travel time of light from sun to earth
102 the technique is not accurate (for example
measuring temperature of human body by
placing thermometer under armpit resulting in
Rotation period of the earth
105 lower temperature than actual) and due to the
external conditions like temperature, wind,
Revolution period of the earth humidity, these kinds of errors occur.
107 3. Personal errors: Errors occurring due to human
carelessness, lack of proper setting, taking down
Average human life span incorrect reading are called personal errors.
109
These errors can be removed by:
Age of Egyptian pyramids o Taking proper instrument and calibrating
1011 it properly.
o Experimenting under proper atmospheric
Time since dinosaur extinction
1015 conditions and techniques.
Removing human bias as far as possible
Age of Universe
1017 Random Errors
Errors which occur at random with respect to sign
and size are called Random errors.
Accuracy and Precision of Instruments • These occur due to unpredictable fluctuations
• Any uncertainty resulting from measurement in experimental conditions like temperature,
by a measuring instrument is called an error. voltage supply, mechanical vibrations, personal
They can be systematic or random. errors etc.
• Accuracy of a measurement is how close the Least Count Error
measured value is to the true value. Smallest value that can be measured by the
• Precision is the resolution or closeness of a measuring instrument is called its least
series of measurements of a same quantity count. Least count error is the error associated
under similar conditions. with the resolution or the least count of the
• If the true value of a certain length is 3.678 cm instrument.
and two instruments with different • Least count errors can be minimized by using
resolutions, up to 1 (less precise) and 2 (more instruments of higher precision/resolution and
precise) decimal places respectively, are used. improving experimental techniques (taking
If first measures the length as 3.5 and the several readings of a measurement and then
second as 3.38 then the first has more taking a mean).
accuracy but less precision while the second
Errors in a series of Measurements
has less accuracy and more precision.
Suppose the values obtained in several
Types of Errors- Systematic Errors measurement are a1, a2, a3, …, an.
Errors which can either be positive or negative are Arithmetic mean, amean = (a1+ a2 + a3+ … + an)/n
called Systematic errors. They are of following 𝑛
𝑎𝑖
types: 𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 = ∑
1. Instrumental errors: These arise from imperfect 𝑛
𝑖=1
design or calibration error in the instrument. • Absolute Error: The magnitude of the
Worn off scale, zero error in a weighing scale are difference between the true value of the
some examples of instrument errors. quantity and the individual measurement value
is called absolute error of the measurement. It
 is denoted by |Δa| (or Mod of Delta a). The
Raised
mod value is always positive even if Δa is
Sum or to
negative. The individual errors are:
Criteria Difference Product Power
Δa1 = amean - a1
Δa2 = amean - a2,
… … … Resultant
… … … value Z Z=A±B Z = AB
Z = Ak
Δan = amean – an
• Mean absolute error is the arithmetic mean of
Z ± ΔZ = (A Z ± ΔZ =
all absolute errors. It is represented by Δamean. Z ± ΔZ =
|𝛥𝑎1| + |𝛥𝑎2| + |𝛥𝑎3| + … . +|𝛥𝑎𝑛| Result ± ΔA) + (B (A ± ΔA)
𝛥𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 = with error ± ΔB) (B ± ΔB) (A ±
𝑛 ΔA)k
𝑛
|∆𝑎𝑖 | Resultant ΔZ/Z =
𝛥𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 = ∑
𝑛 error ± ΔZ = ± ΔA/A ±
𝑖=1
range ΔA ± ΔB ΔB/B
For single measurement, the value of ‘a’ is
always in the range 𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 ± 𝛥𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛
So, 𝑎 = 𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 ± 𝛥𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 ΔZ/Z =
Or, 𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 − 𝛥𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 ≤ 𝑎 ≤ 𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 + 𝛥𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 Maximum ΔZ = ΔA + ΔA/A + ΔZ/Z =
error ΔB ΔB/B k(ΔA/A)
• Relative Error: It is the ratio of mean absolute
error to the mean value of the quantity
measured. Sum of Sum of k times
𝛥𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 absolute relative relative
𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 =
𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 Error errors errors error
• Percentage Error: It is the relative error
expressed in percentage. It is denoted by δa.
𝛥𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛
𝛿𝑎 = × 100%
𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 Significant Figures
Combinations of Errors Every measurement results in a number that
If a quantity depends on two or more other includes reliable digits and uncertain digits.
quantities, the combination of errors in the two Reliable digits plus the first uncertain digit are
quantities helps to determine and predict the called significant digits or significant figures.These
errors in the resultant quantity. There are several indicate the precision of measurement which
procedures for this. depends on least count of measuring instrument.
Example, period of oscillation of a pendulum is 1.62
Suppose two quantities A and B have values as A ± s. Here 1 and 6 are reliable and 2 is uncertain. Thus,
ΔA and B ± ΔB. Z is the result and ΔZ is the error the measured value has three significant figures.
due to combination of A and B.
Rules for determining number of significant figures
• All non-zero digits are significant.
• All zeros between two non-zero digits are
significant irrespective of decimal place.
• For a value less than 1, zeroes after decimal and
before non-zero digits are not significant. Zero
before decimal place in such a number is always
insignificant.
• Trailing zeroes in a number without decimal
if mass = 4.237 g (4 227.2 (1 digit
place are insignificant.
significant figures) after decimal)
• Trailing zeroes in a number with decimal place and Volume = 2.51 & .301 (3
are significant. cm3(3 significant digits after
Cautions to remove ambiguities in determining figures) decimal) is
number of significant figures
• Change of units should not change number of = 663.821
significant digits. Example, 4.700m = 470.0 cm Density = 4.237
= 4700 mm. In this, first two quantities have 4 g/2.51 cm3 =
but third quantity has 2 significant figures. 1.68804 g cm-3 =
1.69 g cm-3 (3 Since 227.2 is
• Use scientific notation to report
significant figures) precise up to
measurements. Numbers should be expressed
only 1
in powers of 10 like a x 10b where b is
decimal
called order of magnitude. Example,
place, Hence,
4.700 𝑚 = 4.700 × 102 𝑐𝑚 = 4.700 ×
the final
103 𝑚𝑚 = 4.700 × 10−3 𝑘𝑚
result should
In all the above, since power of 10 are
be 663.8
irrelevant, number of significant figures are 4.
• Multiplying or dividing exact numbers can have
infinite number of significant digits. Example,
radius = diameter / 2. Here 2 can be written as
Rules for Rounding off the uncertain digits
2, 2.0, 2.00, 2.000 and so on.
Rounding off is necessary to reduce the number of
insignificant figures to adhere to the rules of
Rules for Arithmetic operation with Significant arithmetic operation with significant figures.
Figures
Example
Multiplication or Addition or
(roundin
Type Division Subtraction
g off to
two
The final Rule Insignifica Preceding decimal
result should Number nt Digit Digit places)
retain as
The final result many decimal
Insignifica
should retain as places as nt digit to Number
many significant there in be Preceding – 3.137
figures as there in the original
dropped digit is
the original number with
is more raised by Result –
number with the the least
1 than 5 1. 3.14
lowest number of decimal
Rule significant digits. places.
Insignifica
Addition of nt digit to Number
Density = Mass / be Preceding
436.32 (2 – 3.132
Volume dropped digit is left
digits after
is less unchange Result –
decimal), 2 than 5 d. 3.13
Example
 Example 12.9 - 7.06 = 5.84 or 5.8 (rounding off to
If
lowest number of decimal places of original
Insignifica preceding
number).
nt digit to digit is Number
be even, it is – 3.125 2. The relative error of a value of number specified
dropped left to significant figures depends not only on n but
is equal to unchange Result – also on the number itself.
3 5 d. 3.12 Example, accuracy for two numbers 1.02 and 9.89
is ±0.01. But relative errors will be:

Insignifica If For 1.02, (± 0.01/1.02) x 100% = ± 1%

nt digit to preceding Number
be digit is – 3.135 For 9.89, (± 0.01/9.89) x 100% = ± 0.1%
dropped odd, it is
is equal to raised by Result – Hence, the relative error depends upon number
4 5 1. 3.14 itself.

3. Intermediate results in multi-step computation

should be calculated to one more significant
Rules for determining uncertainty in results of figure in every measurement than the number
arithmetic calculations of digits in the least precise measurement.
To calculate the uncertainty, below process should Example:1/9.58 = 0.1044
be used.
Now, 1/0.104 = 9.56 and 1/0.1044 = 9.58
• Add a lowest amount of uncertainty in the
Hence, taking one extra digit gives more precise
original numbers. Example uncertainty for
results and reduces rounding off errors.
3.2 will be ± 0.1 and for 3.22 will be ± 0.01.
Calculate these in percentage also.
• After the calculations, the uncertainties get
multiplied/divided/added/subtracted. Dimensions of a Physical Quantity
• Round off the decimal place in the Dimensions of a physical quantity are powers
uncertainty to get the final uncertainty (exponents) to which base quantities are raised to
result. represent that quantity. They are represented by
Example, for a rectangle, if length l = 16.2 cm and square brackets around the quantity.
breadth b = 10.1 cm • Dimensions of the 7 base quantities are –
Length [L], Mass [M], time [T], electric
Then, take l = 16.2 ± 0.1 cm or 16.2 cm ± 0.6% and current [A], thermodynamic temperature
breadth = 10.1 ± 0.1 cm or 10.1 cm ± 1%. [K], luminous intensity [cd] and amount of
substance [mol].
On Multiplication, area = length x breadth = 163.62
cm2 ± 1.6% or 163.62 ± 2.6 cm2. Examples, Volume = Length x Breadth x Height
Therefore after rounding off, area = 164 ± 3 cm2. = [L] x [L] x [L] = [L]3 = [L3]
Hence 3 cm2 is the uncertainty or the error in Force = Mass x Acceleration
estimation. = [M][L]/[T]2 = [MLT-2]
Rules • The other dimensions for a quantity are
1. For a set experimental data of ‘n’ significant always 0. For example, for volume only
figures, the result will be valid to ‘n’ significant length has 3 dimensions but the mass, time
figures or less (only in case of subtraction). etc have 0 dimensions. Zero dimension is
represented by superscript 0 like [M0].
Dimensions do not take into account the Since, dimensions can be cancelled like algebra,
magnitude of a quantity dimension [T] gets cancelled and the equation
becomes [L] = [L].
Dimensional Formula and Dimensional Equation
Dimensional Formula is the expression which Applications of Dimensional Analysis
shows how and which of the base quantities Checking Dimensional Consistency of equations
represent the dimensions of a physical quantity. • A dimensionally correct equation must have
Dimensional Equation is an equation obtained by same dimensions on both sides of the
equating a physical quantity with its dimensional equation.
formula. • A dimensionally correct equation need not be
Physical Dimensional Dimensional a correct equation but a dimensionally
Quantity Formula Equation incorrect equation is always wrong. It can test
dimensional validity but not find exact
Volume relationship between the physical quantities.
[M0 L3 T0] [V] = [M0 L3 T0] 1
Example, 𝑥 = 𝑥0 + 𝑣0 𝑡 + (2) 𝑎𝑡 2
Or, Dimensionally, [L] = [L] + [LT-1][T] + [LT-2][T2]
Speed
[M0 L T-1] [υ] = [M0 L T-1] Where, x – Distance travelled in time t,
x0 – starting position,
v0 - initial velocity,
Force
[M L T-2] [F] = [M L T-2] a – uniform acceleration.
Dimensions on both sides will be [L] as [T] gets
Mass cancelled out. Hence this is dimensionally correct
Density equation.
[M L-3 T0] [ρ] = [M L-3 T0]
Deducing relation among physical quantities
• To deduce relation among physical quantities,
we should know the dependence of one
Dimensional Analysis
quantity over others (or independent
• Only those physical quantities which have
variables) and consider it as product type of
same dimensions can be added and
dependence.
subtracted. This is called principle of
homogeneity of dimensions. • Dimensionless constants cannot be obtained
using this method.
• Dimensions can be multiplied and cancelled
like normal algebraic methods. Example, T = k lxgymz
Or [L0M0T1] = [L1]x [L1T-2]y [M1]z= [Lx+yT-2y Mz]
• In mathematical equations, quantities on
Means, x+y = 0, -2y = 1 and z = 0. So, x = ½, y = -½
both sides must always have same
and z = 0
dimensions.
• Arguments of special functions like 𝑙
trigonometric, logarithmic and ratio of So the original equation reduces to 𝑇 = 𝑘 √𝑔
similar physical quantities are
dimensionless.
• Equations are uncertain to the extent of
dimensionless quantities.
Example Distance = Speed x Time. In Dimension
terms, [𝐿] = [𝐿𝑇 −1 ] × [𝑇]
KINEMATICS

KINEMATICS

MOTION IN ONE DIMENSION

IMPORTANT TERMS 2.3 Rest and Motion are relative

Rest and motion depends upon the observer. The object in

1. MECHANICS one situation may be at rest whereas the same object in
another situation may be in motion.
,t is the branch of Physics, which deals with the study of
motion of physical bodies. The driver of a moving car is in motion with respect to an
observer standing on the ground whereas, the same driver is at
Mechanics can be broadly classified into following branches rest with respect to the man(observer) in the passengers seat.
1.1 Statics 3. WHILE STUDYING THIS CHAPTER
It is the branch of mechanics, which deals with the study of ƒ We will treat the objects as Point mass object
physical bodies at rest. x An object can be considered as a point mass object if
during the course of motion it covers distances much
1.2 Kinematics
greater than its own size.
It is the branch of mechanics, which deals with study of ƒ We shall confine ourselves to the study of rectilinear motion
motion of physical bodies without taking into account the x Rectilinear motion is the study of motion of objects along
factors, which causes motion. a straight line.

1.3 Dynamics 4. POSITION, DISTANCE, DISPLACEMENT

It is the branch of mechanics, which deals with the study of 4.1 Position
motion of physical bodies taking into account the factors
which causes motion. x Position of an object is always defined with respect to
some reference point which we generally refer to as origin.
2. REST AND MOTION
x To define the change in position we have two physical
quantities
2.1 Rest
4.2 Distance
x An object is said to be at rest if it does not changes its
position with respect to the surrounding. x It is the actual path traversed by the body during the
course of motion
x The white board in the classroom is at rest with respect
x SI unit is ‘m’
to the classroom
x Dimensions [M0L1T0]
2.2 Motion
4.3 Displacement
x An object is said to be in motion if it changes its position x It is the difference between the final and initial positions
with respect to the surrounding. of the object during the course of motion
x When we walk, run or ride a bike we are in motion with x SI unit is ‘m’
respect to the ground. x Dimensions [M0L1T0]
 KINEMATICS

Difference between Distance and Displacement

Distance Displacement

It is the actual path traversed by the object during It is the difference between the initial and the final positions
the course of motion 'x x2 – x1 where, x2 and x1 are final and initial
position respectively

It is a scalar quantity It is a vector quantity

The distance travelled by an object during the course of The displacement of an object may be positive,
motion is never negative or zero and is always positive negative or, zero during the course of motion

The distance travelled is either equal or greater The magnitude of displacement is less than or equal
than displacement and is never less than magnitude to the distance travelled during the course of motion
of displacement Distance t _Displacement_

The distance depends upon the path travelled The magnitude of displacement is independent of the
path taken by an object during the course of motion

Difference between Speed and Velocity

Speed Velocity

It is defined as the total path length travelled divided by It is defined as the change in position or displacement
the total time interval during which the motion has taken divided by the time intervals, in which displacement
place occurs of

It is a scalar quantity It is a vector quantity

It is always positive during the course of the motion It may be positive, negative or zero during the course of
the motion

It is greater than or equal to the magnitude of velocity It is less than or equal to the speed

NOTE Example:- mass, length, time, distance, speed, work,

temperature
If the motion of an object is along a straight line and in the
same direction, the magnitude of displacement is equal to the 5.2 Vector quantities
total path length. In that case, the magnitude of average
velocity is equal to the average speed. This is not always the The physical quantities which have magnitude as well
case. The average velocity tells us how fast an object has as direction, are called vector quantities.
been moving over a given interval but does not tell us how Example:- displacement, velocity, acceleration, force,
fast it moves at different instants of time during that interval. momentum, torque

5. SCALAR AND VECTOR QUANTITIES 6. AVERAGE VELOCITY AND AVERAGE SPEED

5.1 Scalar quantities 6.1 Average velocity

The physical quantities which have only magnitude but x It is defined as the change in position or
no direction, are called scalar quantities. displacement divided by the time intervals, in which
KINEMATICS

displacement occurs
where, v2 and v1 are velocities at time t2 and t1.
x SI unit of velocity is m/s, although km/hr is used in
x It is the average change of velocity per unit time.
many everyday applications
x SI unit m/s2
x Dimensions [M0L1T-1]
x Dimensions [M0L1T-2]
6.2 Average speed
8.2 Instantaneous Acceleration
x It is defined as the total path length travelled divided
by the total time interval during which the motion x Instantaneous acceleration is defined in the same
has taken place way as the instantaneous velocity :
x SI unit m/s a = 'lim ('v/'t) = dv/dt
t o0
x Dimensions [M0L1T-1] x SI unit m/s2
7. INSTANTANEOUS VELOCITY AND x Dimensions [M0L1T-2]
INSTANTANEOUS SPEED x When the acceleration is uniform, obviously,
instantaneous acceleration equals the average
7.1 Instantaneous velocity acceleration over that period
x Since velocity is a quantity having both magnitude and
x It is velocity at an instant t. The velocity at an instant
direction, a change in the velocity may involve either or
is defined as the limit of the average velocity as the
both of these factors.
time interval 't becomes infinitesimally small.
x Acceleration, therefore, may result from a change in the
x Instantaneous velocity = Lt ('x/'t) = dx/dt
speed(magnitude), a change in direction or changes in
x The quantity on the right hand side of Eq is the both.
differential coefficient of x with respect to t and is
x Like velocity, acceleration can also be positive, negative
denoted by dx/dt.
or zero.
x It is the rate of change of position with respect to
NOTE
time at that instant.
x SI unit is m/s We will restrict ourselves to the study of constant acceleration
for this chapter. In this case average acceleration equals the
x Dimensions [M0L1T-1] constant value of acceleration during the interval
7.2 Instantaneous Speed x If the velocity of an object is vo at t=0 and v at time t, we
have
x Instantaneous speed or speed is the magnitude of
v  v0
velocity o a
t0
x SI unit is m/s
or, v = vo + at — This is first equation of motion
x Dimensions [M0L1T-1]
o Other equations of motion are :
8. ACCELERATION
S = v0t + ½ at2

8.1 Average Acceleration v2 – v02 = 2aS

x The average acceleration over a time interval is a

S = v0 + (2n – 1)
defined as the change of velocity divided by the 2
time interval : o In all the above equations acceleration is assumed
a = (v2 – v1)/(t2 – t1) to be constant
 KINEMATICS

9. GRAPHS

9.1 Uniform motion

x In an uniform motion a body covers equal distance in equal interval of time.

x Velocity is constant during the course of motion

x Acceleration is zero during the course of motion

If we try to represent the same on the number line with x, v, a on the Y-axis and t on the X-axis then we will have

displacement – time graph velocity – time graph acceleration – time graph

n
velocity = slope of x – t graph acc = slope of v – t graph

(i)

Nautre of slope : positive nature of slope : zero nature of slope of a – t

magnitude of slope : constant magnitude of slope : constant

(ii)

nature of slope : negative nature of slope : zero

magnitude of slope : constant magnitude of slope : constant
KINEMATICS

9.2 Non-Uniform motion

Uniformly accelerated motion

Accelerated motion
Magnitude of Velocity increases or decreases with time

displacement – time graph velocity – time graph acceleration – time graph

n
velocity = slope of x – t graph acc = slope of v – t graph

(i)

(ii)

(iii)

nature of slope : positive nature of slope : positive

magnitude of slope : Increasing magnitude of slope : constant

(iv)

nature of slope : positive nature of slope : negative

magnitude of slope : decreasing magnitude of slope : constant
 KINEMATICS

displacement – time graph velocity – time graph acceleration – time graph

n
velocity = slope of x – t graph acc = slope of v – t graph

(v)

nature of slope : negative nature of slope : negative

magnitude of slope : increasing magnitude of slope : constant

(vi)

nature of slope : negative nature of slope : positive

magnitude of slope : decreasing magnitude of slope : constant
 LAWS OF MOTION

LAWS OF MOTION

1. FORCE 2. BASIC FORCES

(a) A force is something which changes the state of rest or There are, basically, four forces, which are commonly
motion of a body. It causes a body to start moving if it is at encountered in mechanics.
rest or stop it, if it is in motion or deflect it from its initial (a) Weight : Weight of an object is the force with which earth
path of motion. attracts it. It is also called the force of gravity or the
(b) Force is also defined as an interaction between two bodies. gravitational force.
Two bodies can also exert force on each other even without (b) Contact Force : When two bodies come in contact they
being in physical contact, e.g., electric force between two exert forces on each other that are called contact forces.
charges, gravitational force between any two bodies of (i) Normal Force (N) : It is the component of contact
the universe. force normal to the surface. It measures how strongly
(c) Force is a vector quantity having SI unit Newton (N) and the surfaces in contact are pressed together.
dimension [MLT–2]. (ii) Frictional Force (f) : It is the component of contact
(d) Superposition of force : When many forces are acting on force parallel to the surface. It opposes the relative motion
a single body, the resultant force is obtained by using the (or attempted motion) of the two surfaces in contact.
o o o o
laws of vector addition. F F1  F2  ...Fn

o o
The resultant of the two forces F1 and F2 acting at angle

T is given by :

F F12  F22  2F1F2 cos T (c) Tension : The force exerted by the end of a taut string,
rope or chain is called the tension. The direction of tension
The resultant force is directed at an angle D with respect is so as to pull the body while that of normal reaction is to
F2 sin T push the body.
to force F1 where tan D (d) Spring Force : Every spring resists any attempt to change
F1  F2 sin T
its length; the more you alter its length the harder it resists.
The force exerted by a spring is given by F = –kx, where
(e) Lami’s theorem : If three forces F1, F2 and F3 are acting
x is the change in length and k is the stiffness constant or
simultaneously on a body and the body is in equilibrium,
spring constant (unit Nm–1).
then according to Lami’s theorem,

F1 F2 F3
3. NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION
where DE and J
sin S  D sin S  E sin S  J 3.1 First law of motion
are the angles opposite to the forces F1, F2 & F3 respectively.
(a) Every body continues in its state of rest or of uniform
motion in a straight line unless it is compelled by a resultant
force to change that state.
(b) This law is also known as law of inertia. Inertia is the
property of inability of a body to change its position of
rest or uniform motion in a straight line unless some
external force acts on it.
(c) Mass is a measure of inertia of a body.
 LAWS OF MOTION

(d) A frame of reference in which Newton’s first law is valid is force by B on A (i.e., reaction represented FBA). Thus,
called inertial frame, i.e., if a frame of reference is at rest or FAB= – FBA.
in uniform motion it is called inertial, otherwise non-inertial. (b) The two forces involved in any interaction between two bodies
3.2 Second law of motion are called action and reaction. But we cannot say that a
particular force is action and the other one is reaction.
(a) This law gives the magnitude of force.
(c) Action and Reaction always act on different bodies.
(b) According to second law of motion, rate of change of
momentum of a body is proportional to the resultant force
4. LINEAR MOMENTUM
o
§ o ·
acting on the body, i.e., F v ¨ d p / dt ¸ The linear momentum of a body is defined as the
© ¹
product of the mass of the body and its velocity i.e.
Here, the change in momentum takes place in the direction Linear momentum = mass × velocity
G G
of the applied resultant force. Momentum, p m v is a
If a body of mass m is moving with a velocity v , its
G
measure of sum of the motion contained in the body. G
linear momentum p is given by
(c) Unit force : It is defined as the force which changes the
momentum of a body by unity in unit time. According to G
p mv
G
o o
o d p d § o· d v o dm
this, F v . Linear momentum is a vector quantity. Its direction is the
¨ m v¸ m
dt dt © ¹ dt dt same as the direction of velocity of the body.
If the mass of the system is finite and remains constant the SI unit of linear momentum is kg ms–1 and the cgs unit
w.r.t. time, then (dm/dt) = 0 and of linear momentum is g cm s–1.

o 4.1 Impulse
§ o · o
§ o o·
F m ¨ d v/ dt ¸ m a ¨ p 2  p1 ¸ / t
© ¹ © ¹ Impulse of a force, which is the product of average force
during impact and the time for which the impact lasts, is
(d) External force acting on a body may accelerate it either
measured by the total change in linear momentum
by changing the magnitude of velocity or direction of
produced during the impact.
velocity or both.
(i) If the force is parallel or antiparallel to the motion, impulse of a force is a measure
it changes only the magnitude of v but not the direction.
G of total effect of the force.
So, the path followed by the body is a straight line. The force which act on bodies for short time are called
(ii) If the force is acting A to the motion of body, it impulsive forces. For example :
changes only the direction but not the magnitude of (i) In hitting a ball with a bat,
v . So, the path followed by the body is a circle
G
(ii) In driving a nail into a wooden block with a hammer,
(uniform circular motion). (iii) In firing a gun, etc.
(iii) If the force acts at an angle to the motion of a body, An impulsive force does not remain constant, but changes
G
it changes both the magnitude and direction of v . In first from zero to maximum and then from maximum to
this case path followed by the body may be elliptical, zero. Thus it is not possible to measure easily the value of
non-uniform circular, parabolic or hyperbolic. impulsive force because it changes with time. In such cases,
(e) To apply Newton’s Second Law in non-inertial frame refer we measure the total effect of the force, called impulse.
Section 17 (Page no. 10 Hence
G G
3.3 Third law of motion Fav u t p 2  p1
G G
I

(a) According to this law, for every action there is an equal

5. APPARENT WEIGHT OF A BODY IN A LIFT
and opposite reaction. When two bodies A and B exert
force on each other, the force by A on B (i.e., action (a) When the lift is at rest or moving with uniform velocity,
represented by FAB), is always equal and opposite to the i.e., a=0 :
 LAWS OF MOTION

mg– R = 0 or R = mg ? Wapp. = W0 G G
If FAB is force on A exerted by B, and FBA is force on B
(b) When the lift moves upwards with an acceleration a :
exerted by A,
§ a· then, according to Newton’s second law.
R – mg = ma or R = m(g + a) = mg ¨1  ¸
© g¹ G G G
FAB u 't change in linear momentum of A p A'  p A

§ a· G G G
? Wapp. = W0 ¨1  ¸ FBA u 't change in linear momentum of B pB'  p B
g © ¹
G G
(c) When the lift moves downwards with an acceleration According to Newton’s third law, FAB  FBA
a:
G G G G G G G G
§ a·
?From eqns. p A'  p A  p 'B  p B or p A'  p'B p A  pB
mg – R = ma or R = m (g–a) = mg ¨1  ¸
© g¹ which shows that total final linear momentum of the
isolated system is equal to its total initial linear momentum.
§ a· This proves the principle of conservation of linear
? Wapp. =W0 ¨1  ¸
© g¹ momentum.

Here, if a > g, Wapp. will be negative. Negative apparent

7. FRICTION
weight will mean that the body is pressed against the roof Friction as an opposing force that comes into play when
of the lift instead of floor. one body actually moves (slides or rolls) or even tries
(d) When the lift falls freely, i.e., a = g : to move over the surface of another body.

R = m (g –g) = 0 ? Wapp. = 0 Thus force of friction is the force that developes at the
surfaces of contact of two bodies and impedes (opposes)
(Wapp. = R = reaction of supporting surface and W0= mg =
their relative motion.
true weight.)
(i) Frictional force is independent of the area of contact.
6. PRINCIPLE OF OF CONSERVATION This is because with increase in area of contact, force of
adhesion also increases (in the same ratio). And the
OF LINEAR MOMENTUM
adhesive pressure responsible for friction, remains the
According to this principle, in an isolated system, the same.
vector sum of the linear momenta of all the bodies of (ii) When the surfaces in contact are extra smooth, distance
the system is conserved and is not affected due to their between the molecules of the surfaces in contact decreases,
mutual action and reaction. increasing the adhesive force between them. Therefore,
Thus, in an isolated system (i.e., a system with no external the adhesive pressure increases, and so does the force of
force), mutual forces between pairs of particles in the friction.
system can cause changes in linear momentum of 7.1 Static Friction, Limiting Friction and Kinetic Friction
individual particles. But as the mutual forces for each
pair are equal and opposite, the linear momentum changes The opposing force that comes into play when one body
cancel in pairs, and the total linear momentum remains tends to move over the surfac of another, but the actual
unchanged. Hence the total linear momentum of an motion has yet not started in called Static friction.
isolated system of interacting particles is conserved. This Limiting friction is the maximum opposing force that
principle is an important consequence of second and third comes into play, when one body is just at the verge of
laws of motion. moving over the surface of the other body.
Let us consider an isolated system comprising of two Kinetic frictioin or dynamic friction is the opposing force
G G that comes into play when one body is actually moving
bodies A and B, with initial linear momenta p A and p B .
over the surface of another body.
Let them collide for a small time 't and separate with
G G Kinetic friction is always slightly
final linear momenta p'A and p'B respectively. During
less than the limiting friction.
collision,
 LAWS OF MOTION

Cause of rolling friction. Let us consider a wheel which

7.2 Laws of limiting friction
is rolling along a road. As the wheel rolls along the road,
(a) Static Friction it slightly presses into the surface of the road and is itself
slightly compressed as shown in Fig.
(i) The force of friction always acts in a direction opposite
to the direction of relative motion, i.e., friction is of
perverse nature.
(ii) The maximum force of static friction, fms (called
limiting friction) is directly proportional to the normal
reaction (R) between the two surfaces in contact. i.e.,

f ms v R ...(1)
Thus, a rolling wheel :
(iii) The force of limiting friction depends upon the nature
(i) constantly climbs a ‘hill’ (BC) in front of it, and
and the state of polish of the two surfaces in contact and it
acts tangential to the interface between the two surfaces. (ii) has to simultaneously get itself detached from the road
(AB) behind it. The force of adhesion between the wheel
(iv) The force of limiting friction is independent of the
and the road opposes this process.
extent of the area of the surfaces in contact so long as the
normal reaction remains the same. Both these processes are responsible for rolling friction.

7.3 Coefficient of Static Friction 9. ANGLE OF FRICTION

We know that, f ms v R or f ms Ps R
The angle of friction between any two surfaces in
contact is defined as the angle which the resultant of
f ms
or Ps ...(2) the force of limiting friction F and normal reaction R
R makes with the direction of normal reaction R.
Here, Ps is a constant of proportionality and is called the It is represented by T.
coefficient of static friction. Thus :
In fig. OA represents the normal reaction R which balances
Coefficient of static friction for any pair of surfaces in the weight mg of the body. OB represent F, the limiting
contact is equal to the ratio of the limiting friction and the force of sliding friction, when the body tends to move to
normal reaction. the right. Complete the parallelogram OACB. Join OC.
Ps, bei g a pure ratio, has got no units and its value depends This represents the resultant of R and F. By definition,
upon the nature of the surfaces in contact. Further, Ps, is ‘AOC = T is the angle of friction between the two bodies
usually less than unity and is never equal to zero. in contact.
Since the force of static friction (fs) can have any value
from zero to maximum (fms), i.e. fs < fms, eqn. (2) is
generalised to
fs < PsR ...(3)
Kinetic Friction
The laws of kinetic friction are exactly the same as those
for static friction. Accordingly, the force of kinetic friction
is also directly proportional to the normal reaction, i.e.,
The value of angle of friction depends on the nature of
f k v R or fk P kR ...(4) materials of the surfaces in contact and the nature of the
surfaces.
8. ROLLING FRICTION
Relation between P and T
The opposing force that comes into play when a body
AC OB F
rolls over the surface of another body is called the In 'AOC, tan T P ...(5)
rolling friction. OA OA R
LAWS OF MOTION

Hence P tan T ...(6) 11. METHODS OF CHANGING FRICTION

i.e. coefficient of limiting friction between any two surfaces Some of the ways of reducing friction are :
in contact is equal to tangent of the angle of friction (i) By polishing.
between them.
(ii) By lubrication.
10. ANGLE OF REPOSE OR ANGLE OF SLIDING (iii) By proper selection of materials.
(iv) By Streamlining.
Angle of repose or angle of sliding is defined as the
minimum angle of inclination of a plane with the (v) By using ball bearings.
horizontal, such that a body placed on the plane just
begins to slide down.
12. DYNAMICS OF UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION
CONCETP OF CENTRIPETAL FORCE
It is represented by D. Its value depends on material and
nature of the surfaces in contact. Centripetal force is the force required to move a body
In fig., AB is an inclined plane such that a body placed on uniformly in a circle. This force acts along the radius
it just begins to slide down. ‘BAC D = angle of repose. and towards the centre of the circle.
Infact, when a body moves in a circle, its direction of
motion at any instant is along the tangent to the circle at
that instant. From fig., we find that the direction of motion
of the body moving in a circle goes on changing
continuously.

The various forces involved are :

(i) weight, mg of the body, acting vertically downwards,
(ii) normal reaction, R, acting perpendicular to AB,
(iii) Force of friction F, acting up the plane AB.
Now, mg can be resolved into two rectangular components :
mg cos D opposite to R and mg sin D opposite to F. In
equilibrium,
F = mg sin D ... (7)
According to Newton’s first law of motion, a body cannot
R = mg cos D ... (8) change its direction of motion by itself. An external force
Dividing (7) by (8), we get is required for this purpose. It is this external force which
is called the centripetal force.
F mg sin D
, i.e., P tan D On account of a continuous change in the direction of
R mg cos D
motion of the body, thre is a change in velocity of the
Hence coefficient of limiting friction between any two body, an hence it undergoes an acceleration, called
surfaces in contact is equal to the tangent of the angle of centripetal acceleration or radial acceleration.
repose between them. An expression for centripetal force is

i.e. F m v2 / r m r Z2

Combining (6) and (9), we obtain 13. CENTRIFUGAL FORCE

P = tan T = tan D The natural tendency of a body is to move uniformly along
a straight line. When we apply centripetal force on the
? T D body, it is forced to move along a circle. While moving
actually along a circle, the body has a constant tendency
i.e. angle of friction is equal to angle of repose. to regain its natural straight line path. This tendency gives
 LAWS OF MOTION

rise to a force called centrifugal force. Hence (i) The weight of the car, mg, acting vertically downwards,
Centrifugal force is a force that arises when a body is (ii) Normal reaction R of the road on the car, acting vertically
moving actually along a circular path, by virtue of upwards,
tendency of the body to regain its natural straight (iii) Frictional Force F, along the surface of the road, towards
line path. the centre of the turn, as explained already.
Centrifugal forces can be regarded as the reaction of As there is no acceleration in the vertical direction,
centripetal force. As forces of action and reaction are always R – mg = 0 or R = mg ...(1)
equal and opposite, therefore, magnitude of centrifugal force
= m v2/r, which is same as that of centripetal force. However, The centripetal force required for circular motion is along
the surface of the road, towards the centre of the turn. As
direction of centrifugal force is opposite to the direction of
explained above, it is the static friction that provides the
centripetal force i.e. centrifugal force acts along the
necessary centripetal force. Clearly,
radius and away from the centre of the circle.
Note that centripetal and centrifugal forces, being the forces mv 2
dF ...(2)
of action and reaction act always on different bodies. For r
example, when a piece of stone tied to one end of a string is
rotated in a circle, centripetal force F1 is applied on the stone where v is velocity of car while turning and r is radius of
circular track.
by the hand. In turn, the hand is pulled outwards by
centrifugal force F2 acting on it, due to tendency of the stone As F = PsR = Ps mg, [using (1)]
to regain its natural straight line path. The centripetal and where Ps is coefficient of static friction between the tyres
centrifugal forces are shown in Fig. and the road. Therefore, from (2),

mv2
d Ps mg or v d Ps rg ? vmax Ps rg ...(3)
r
Hence the maximum velocity with which a vehicle can go
round a level curve ; without skidding is

v P s rg .
14. ROUNDING A LEVEL CURVED ROAD The value of depends on radius r of the curve and on
coefficient of static friction (Ps) between the tyres and the
When a vehicle goes round a curved road, it requires some
road. Clearly, v is independent of mass of the car.
centripetal force. While rounding the curve, the wheels of
the vehicle have a tendency to leave the curved path and
15. BANKING OF ROADS
regain the straight line path. Force of friction between the
wheels and the road opposes this tendency of the wheels. The maximum permissible velocity with which a vehicle
This force (of friction) therefore, acts, towards the centre can go round a level curved road without skidding depends
of the circular track and provides the necessary centripetal on P, the coefficient of friction between the tyres and the
force. road. The value of P decreases when road is smooth or
Three forces are acting on the car, fig. tyres of the vehicle are worn out or the road is wet and so
on. Thus force of friction is not a reliable source for
providing the required centripetal force to the vehicle.
A safer course of action would be to raise outer edge of
the curved road above the inner edge. By doing so, a
componenet of normal reaction of the road shall be spared
to provide the centripetal force. The phenomenon of
raising outer edge of the curved road above the inner
edge is called banking of roads. We can calculate the
angle of banking T, as detailed below:
In Fig., OX is a horizontal line. OA is the level of banked
 LAWS OF MOTION

curved road whose outer edge has been raised. ‘XOA = But F < Ps R, where Ps is coefficient of static friction
T = angle of banking. between the banked road and the tyres. To obtain vmax, we
put F = Ps R in (1) and (2).
R cos T = mg + Ps R sin T ...(3)

mv 2
and R sin T + Ps R cos T = ...(4)
r
From (3), R (cos T– Ps sin T) = mg

mg
R ...(5)
cos T  P s sin T

mv 2
From (4), R(sin T + Ps cos T) =
r

mg sin T  Ps cos T mv 2
Using (5),
cos T  Ps sin T r

rg sin T  P s cos T
? v2
cos T  Ps sin T
rg cos T tan T  Ps
Three forces are acting on the vehicle as shown in Fig.
cos T 1  Ps tan T
(i) Weight mg of the vehicle acting vertically downwards.
(ii) Normal reaction R of the banked road acting upwards in a 1/ 2
ª rg Ps  tan T º
direction perpendicular to OA. v « » ...(6)
(iii) Force of friction F between the banked road and the tyres, «¬ 1  Ps tan T »¼
acting along AO.
This is the max. velocity of vehicle on a banked road.
R can be resolved into two rectangular components :-
Discussion
(i) R cos T, along vertically upward direction
(ii) R sin T, along the horizontal, towards the centre of the 1. If Ps = 0, i.e., if banked road is perfectly smooth, then
curved road. from eqn. (51),

F can also be resolved into two rectangular components : 1/ 2

v0 rg tan T ...(7)
(i) F cos T, along the horizontal, towards the centre of curved
road This is the speed at which a banked road can be rounded
(ii) F sin T, along vertically downward direction. even when there is no friction. Driving at this speed on a
As there is no acceleration along the vertical direction, banked road will cause almost no wear and tear of the
the net force along this direction must be zero. Therefore, tyres.

R cos T= mg + F sin T...(1)

From (7), v 20 = rg tan T or tan T v20 / rg ...(8)
If v is velocity of the vehicle over the banked circular
road of radius r, then centripetal force required = mv2/r. 2. If speed of vehicle is less than v0, frictional force will be
This is provided by the horizontal components of R and F up the slope. Therefore, the vehicle can be parked only if
as shown in Fig. tan T < Ps.
Roads are usually banked for the average speed of vehicles
mv 2
? R sin T  Fcos T ...(2) passing over them. However, if the speed of a vehicle is
r
 LAWS OF MOTION

somewhat less or more than this, the self adjusting static In equilibrium, R cos T balances the weight of the cyclist i.e.
friction will operate between the tyres and the road, and
R cos T = mg ...(1)
the vehicle will not skid.
and R sin Tprovides the necessary centripetal force (m v2/r)
The speed limit at which the curve can be negotiated safely
is clearly indicated on the sign boards erected along the m v2
curved roads. ? R sin T ...(2)
r
Note that curved railway tracks are also banked for the
same reason. The level of outer rail is raised a little above R sin T m v2
Dividing (2) by (1), we get
the level of inner rail, while laying a curved railway track. R cos T r mg

16. BENDING OF A CYCLIST v2

tan T
When a cyclist takes a turn, he also requires some rg
centripetal force. If he keeps himself vertical while turning,
Clearly, Twould depend on v and r.
his weight is balanced by the normal reaction of the ground.
In that event, he has to depend upon force of friction For a safe turn, T should be small, for which v should be
between the tyres and the road for obtaining the necessary small and r should be large i.e. turning should be at a slow
centripetal force. As force of friction is small and uncertain, speed and along a track of larger radius. This means, a
dependence on it is not safe. safe turn should neither be fast nor sharp.
To avoid dependence on force of friction for obtaining
17. PSEUDO FORCE
centripetal force, the cyclist has to bend a little inwards
from his vertical position, while turning. By doing so, a G
If observer O is non-inertial with acceleration a 0 and still
component of normal reaction in the horizontal direction
provides the necessary centripetal force. To calculate the wants to apply Newton’s Second Law on particle P, then
angle of bending with vertical, suppose observer has to add a “Pseudo force” in addition to real
forces on particle P.
m = mass of the cyclist,
G G
v = velocity of the cyclist while turning, FPseudo m P a 0
r = radius of the circular path,
Thus, Newton Second Law with respect to O will be
T = angle of bending with vertical.
In Fig., we have shown weight of the cyclist (mg) acting
vertically downwards at the centre of gravity C. R is force
of reaction of the ground on the cyclist. It acts at an angle
Twith the vertical. G G G
FRe al  FPseudo m P a P, O
G G G
i.e., FRe al  m P a O mP a P,O
G
Where a P, O is acceleration of P with respect to observer O.

If observer is in rotating frame then Pseudo force is called

“Centrifugal force”.

R can be resolved into two rectangular components: Remember : Pseudo force is required only and only if
R cos T, along the vertical upward direction, observer is non-inertial.e.g.

R sin T, along the horizontal, towards the centre of the (i) Study of motion with respect to accelerating lift.
circular track. (ii) Study of motion with respect to accelerating wedge.
 LAWS OF MOTION

18. FORCE (a) Weight : Weight of an object is the force with which earth
attracts it. It is also called the force of gravity or the
(a) A force is something which changes the state of rest or gravitational force.
motion of a body. It causes a body to start moving if it is
(b) Contact Force : When two bodies come in contact they
at rest or stop it, if it is in motion or deflect it from its
exert forces on each other that are called contact forces.
initial path of motion.
(i) Normal Force (N) : It is the component of contact
(b) Force is also defined as an interaction between two bodies. force normal to the surface. It measures how strongly
Two bodies can also exert force on each other even without the surfaces in contact are pressed together.
being in physical contact, e.g., electric force between two (ii) Frictional Force (f) : It is the component of contact
charges, gravitational force between any two bodies of force parallel to the surface. It opposes the relative
the universe. motion (or attempted motion) of the two surfaces in
contact.
(c) Force is a vector quantity having SI unit Newton (N) and
dimension [MLT–2].
(d) Superposition of force : When many forces are acting
on a single body, the resultant force is obtained by using
o o o o
the laws of vector addition. F F1  F2  ...Fn

(c) Tension : The force exerted by the end of a taut string, rope or
o o
The resultant of the two forces F1 and F2 acting at angle chain is called the tension. The direction of tension is so as to
pull the body while that of normal reaction is to push the body.
T is given by : (d) Spring Force : Every spring resists any attempt to change
its length; the more you alter its length the harder it resists.
F F  F  2F1F2 cos T
1
2 2
2
The force exerted by a spring is given by F = –kx, where
The resultant force is directed at an angle D with respect x is the change in length and k is the stiffness constant or
spring constant (unit Nm–1).
F2 sin T
to force F1 where tan D
F1  F2 sin T 20. NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION

(e) Lami’s theorem : If three forces F1, F2 and F3 are acting 20.1 First law of motion
simultaneously on a body and the body is in equilibrium, (a) Every body continues in its state of rest or of uniform
then according to Lami’s theorem, motion in a straight line unless it is compelled by a
F1 F2 F3 resultant force to change that state.
where DE and J
sin S  D sin S  E sin S  J (b) This law is also known as law of inertia. Inertia is the
property of inability of a body to change its position of
are the angles opposite to the forces F 1, F 2 and F 3
rest or uniform motion in a straight line unless some
respectively.
external force acts on it.
(c) Mass is a measure of inertia of a body.
(d) A frame of reference in which Newton’s first law is valid
is called inertial frame, i.e., if a frame of reference is at
rest or in uniform motion it is called inertial, otherwise
non-inertial.
20.2 Second law of motion
(a) This law gives the magnitude of force.

19. BASIC FORCES (b) According to second law of motion, rate of change of
momentum of a body is proportional to the resultant force
There are, basically, five forces, which are commonly o
§ o ·
encountered in mechanics. acting on the body, i.e., F v ¨ d p / dt ¸
© ¹
 LAWS OF MOTION

Here, the change in momentum takes place in the direction (b) to predict the future motion of a body, given the body’s
G G initial position and velocity and the forces acting on it.
of the applied resultant force. Momentum, p m v is a
For either kind of proble, we use Newton’s second law
measure of sum of the motion contained in the body.
¦ F ma . The following general strategy is useful for
(c) Unit force : It is defined as the force which changes the
momentum of a body by unity in unit time. According to solving such problems :
o o (i) Draw a simple, neat diagram of the system.
o d p d § o· d v o dm
this, F ¨ m v¸ m v . (ii) Isolate the object of interest whose motion is being
dt dt © ¹ dt dt analyzed. Draw a free body diagram for this object,
If the mass of the system is finite and remains constant that is, a diagram showing all external forces acting
w.r.t. time, then (dm/dt) = 0 and on the object. For systems containing more than one
object, draw separate diagrams for each objects. Do
o
§ o · o
§ o o· not include forces that the object exerts on its
F m ¨ d v/ dt ¸ m a ¨ p 2  p1 ¸ / t surroundings.
© ¹ © ¹
(d) External force acting on a body may accelerate it either (iii) Establish convenient coordinate axes for each body
by changing the magnitude of velocity or direction of and find the components of the forces along these
velocity or both. axes. Now, apply Newton’s second law, 6 F = ma,
in component form. Check your dimensions to make
(i) If the force is parallel or antiparallel to the motion,
G sure that all terms have units of force.
it changes only the magnitude of v but not the
(iv) Solve the component equations for the unknowns.
direction. So, the path followed by the body is a Remember that you must have as many independent
straight line. equations as you have unknowns in order to obtain a
(ii) If the force is acting A to the motion of body, it complete solution.
changes only the direction but not the magnitude of (v) It is a good idea to check the predictions of your
G solutions for extreme values of the variables. You
v . So, the path followed by the body is a circle
(uniform circular motion). can often detect errors in your results by doing so.

(iii) If the force acts at an angle to the motion of a body, 21. SOME IMPORTANT POINTS CONCERNING
G
it changes both the magnitude and direction of v . In NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION
this case path followed by the body may be elliptical,
(a) The forces of interaction between bodies composing a
non-uniform circular, parabolic or hyperbolic.
system are called internal forces. The forces exerted on
20.3 Third law of motion bodies of a given system by bodies situated outside are
called external forces.
(a) According to this law, for every action there is an equal (b) Whenever one force acts on a body it gives rise to another
and opposite reaction. When two bodies A and B exert force called reaction i.e., a single isolated force is
force on each other, the force by A on B (i.e., action physically impossible. This is why total internal force
represented by FAB), is always equal and opposite to the in an isolated system is always zero.
force by B on A (i.e., reaction represented FBA). Thus, o o
FAB= – FBA. (c) According to Newton’s second law, F §¨ d p/ dt ¸· . If
© ¹
(b) The two forces involved in any interaction between two
o o
bodies are called action and reaction. But we cannot say § o · § o ·
F 0, ¨ d p/ dt ¸ 0 or ¨ d v/ dt ¸ 0 or v = constant or
that a particular force is action and the other one is reaction. © ¹ © ¹
(c) Action and Reaction always act on different bodies. zero, i.e., a body remains at rest or moves with uniform
velocity unless acted upon by an external force. This is
20.4 Applications of Newton’s Laws of Motion Newton’s Ist law.
(d) The ratio of times for which the same force acts on two
There are two kinds of problems in classical mechanics : bodies of different masses initially at rest to have
(a) To find unknown forces acting on a body, given the body’s
acceleration, and (i) equal displacement is : (t1/t2) = m1 / m2 ;
 LAWS OF MOTION

(ii) equal final velocity is : (t1/t2) = (m1/m2); (in translatory equilibrium), then T0 =mg.
(iii) equal final momentum is : (t1/t2) = 1/1. (b) If the carriage is accelerated up with an acceleration
Newton’s second law can also be expressed as : Ft= p2– a, then
p1. Hence, if a car and a truck are initially moving with
§ a·
the same momentum, then by the application of same T = m(g + a) = mg §¨ 1  a ¸· = T0 ¨1 ¸
breaking force, both will come to rest in the same time. © g¹ © g¹
(c) If the carriage is accelerated down with an acceleration
22. APPARENT WEIGHT OF A BODY IN A LIFT a, then
(a) When the lift is at rest or moving with uniform velocity, § a· § a·
i.e., a=0 : T = m(g – a) = mg ¨ 1  ¸ T0 ¨1  ¸
© g¹ © g¹
mg– R = 0 or R = mg ? Wapp. = W0
(d) If the carriage begins to fall freely, then the tension in
(b) When the lift moves upwards with an acceleration a :
the string becomes zero.
§ a·
R – mg = ma or R = m(g + a) = mg ¨1  ¸
© g¹ (e) If the carriage is accelerated horizontally, then

§ a· (i) mass m experiences a pseudo force ma opposite to

? Wapp. = W0 ¨1  ¸ acceleration;
© g¹
(c) When the lift moves downwards with an acceleration a : (ii) the mass m is in equilibrium inside the carriage and
§ a· T sin T = ma, T cos T = mg, i.e.,
mg – R = ma or R = m (g–a) = mg ¨1  ¸
© g¹
T = m g2  a 2 ;
§ a·
? Wapp. =W0 ¨1  ¸
© g¹ (iii) the string does not remain vertical but inclines to
the vertical at an angle T = tan–1 (a/g) opposite to
Here, if a > g, Wapp. will be negative. Negative apparent acceleration;
weight will mean that the body is pressed against the roof (iv) This arrangement is called accelerometer and can be
of the lift instead of floor. used to determine the acceleration of a moving
(d) When the lift falls freely, i.e., a = g : carriage from inside by noting the deviation of a
R = m (g –g) = 0 ? Wapp. = 0 plumbline suspended from it from the vertical.
(Wapp. = R = reaction of supporting surface and W0= mg =
true weight.) 25. CONSTRAINED METHOD
Let us try to visualize this situation
23. PROBLEM OF MONKEY CLIMBING A ROPE
Let T be the tension in the rope.
(i) When the monkey climbs up with uniform speed
: T = mg.
(ii) When the monkey moves up with an acceleration
a : T – mg = ma or T = m (g + a).
(iii) When the monkey moves down with an acceleration a
: mg – T = ma or T = m (g – a).

24. PROBLEM OF A MASS SUSPENDED FROM (i) If m3 was stationary, then magnitude of displacements of
A VERTICAL STRING IN A MOVING CARRIAGE m1 and m2 would be same and in opposite direction.

Following cases are possible : Let us say x (displacement of m1 and m2 when m3 is

stationary).
(a) If the carriage (say lift) is at rest or moving uniformly
(ii) Now consider the case when m3 displaces by x1, then
 LAWS OF MOTION

net displacement of m1 = x1 – x
m2 = x1 + x
m3 = x1
(iii) Differentiate it twice we have

a m3 a1 Note : If Length is decreasing then differentiation of that length

will be negative.
a m1 a1  a
? On differentiating twice we have
a m2 a1  a 0 = a + (–a3)
a = a3
This problem can be approached in other way. Which is
more mathematical and do not require much of Now, we can apply F = ma for different blocks.
visualisation. Solve for a3, a1 a2 and Tension.
Steps involved to approach problems of multiple
pulleys of system having different accelerations :
26. FORCE OF FRICTION
(i) Define a fixed point/axis. Whenever two rough surfaces are in contact, sliding between the
surfaces is opposed by the force of friction which the surfaces
(ii) Locate positions of all movable points from fixed point/axis.
exert on each other. The force of friction acts parallel to the
(iii) (a) Write down the relation between length of the string surfaces in contact and on both the surfaces.
and the position of different movable points.
(b) No. of relation must be equal to no. of string. 26.1 Static Friction
(iv) Differentiate it twice to get the relationship between If the tendency to slide against each other is too small to cause
acceleration of different objects.
actual sliding motion, the force of friction is called as the force
of static friction. The magnitude of this force balances the net
applied force. Hence if there is no sliding between the surfaces.
Force of static friction = net applied force parallel to the surfaces.

26.2 Critical Point (Maximum Static friction)

If the sliding between the surfaces is about to begin, the static

friction is at its maximum value which is equal to PsN, where N =
normal reaction between the surfaces and Ps = coefficient of static
friction. In this situation, we say that the surfaces are at their
point of sliding and are exerting a force PsN on each other so as
to oppose sliding.
For string connecting m1 and m2 :
26.3 Kinetic Friction
Let the length of the string be l1
If actual sliding is taking place between the surfaces, the force of
friction is called as force of kinetic friction or the force of sliding
friction (fk).
fk Pk N where Pk = coefficient of kinetic friction.
On differentiating it twice :
a1  a 2
0 = (a2 – a) + (a1 – a) + 0 Ÿ a
2
For string connective m3 and pulley :
Frictia always opposes relative motion between the
Let the string length be l2 surfaces in contact.
LAWS OF MOTION

SOME IMPORTANT CASES

Case Diagram Result

F m1F
(a) When two bodies are kept in contact (i) a , (ii) N
m1  m 2 m1  m2
and force is applied on the body of
mass m1.

F m2 F
(b) When two bodies are kept in contact (i) a , (ii) Nc
m1  2 m1  m2
and force is applied on the body of
mass m2.

F m1 F
(c) When two bodies are connected by (i) a , (ii) T
m1  2 m1  m 2
a string and placed on a smooth

F
(d) When three bodies are connected (i) a
m1  m 2  m 3

m1F
through strings as shown in fig and (ii) T1
(m1  m2  m3 )

placed on a smooth horizontal surface. (iii) T2 m1  m 2 F

m1  m 2  m 3

m1  m 2 g
(e) When two bodies of masses m1 & m2 (i) a
m1  m 2

§ 2m 1 m 2 ·
are attached at the ends of a string (ii) T ¨¨ ¸¸ g
© m1  m 2 ¹
passing over a pulley as shown in the
figure
 LAWS OF MOTION

m 2g m1 m 2 g
(f) When two bodies of masses m1 & m2 (i) a , (ii) T
m1  m 2 m1  m 2
are attached at the ends of a string
passing over a pulley in such a way
that mass m1 rests on a smooth
horizontal table and mass m2 is
hanging vertically.

m 2  m1 sin T g
(g) If in the above case, mass m1 is placed (i) a
m1  m 2

m1m 2 g 1  sin T
on a smooth inclined plane making an (ii) T
m1  m 2
angle Twith horizontal as shown in (iii) If the system remains in equilibrium,
figure, then. then m1g sin T = m2g

g m1 sin D  m 2 sin E
(h) In case (f), masses m1 and m2 are (i) a
m1  m 2

m1 m 2
placed on inclined planes making (ii) T sin D  sin E g
m1  m 2

angles D & E with the horizontal

respectively, then

(i) When a body is moving on smooth a = g sin T, N = mg cos T

inclined plane.

(j) When a body is moving down on

a rough inclined plane. g (sin T – P cos T)

(k) When a body is moving up on a au = g (sin T+ P cos T)

rough inclined plane.
 WORK, POWER & ENERGY

WORK, POWER & ENERGY

1. WORK W ˆi F  ˆjF  kˆ F . ˆi x  ˆj y  kˆ z
x y z

In Physics, work stands for ‘mechanical work’.

Work is said to be done by a force when the body is W x Fx  y Fy  zFz
displaced actually through some distance in the direction
Obviously, work is a scalar quantity, i.e., it has magnitude
of the applied force.
only and no direction. However, work done by a force can
However, when there is no displacement in the direction be positive or negative or zero.
of the applied force, no work is said to be done, i.e., work
done is zero, when displacement of the body in the direction 2. DIMENSIONS AND UNITS OF WORK
of the force is zero. 1 1 –2
As work = force × distance ? W = (M L T ) × L
G
Suppose a constant force F acting on a body produces a
G W ª¬ M1 L2 T 2 º¼
displacement s in the body along the positive x-direction,
figure This is the dimensional formula of work.
The units of work are of two types :
1. Absolute units 2. Gravitational units
(a) Absolute unit
1. Joule. It is the absolute unit of work on SI.
Work done is said to be one joule, when a force of one
newton actually moves a body through a distance of one
metre in the direction of applied force.
G
If T is the angle which F makes with the positive x– From W = F cos T
G 1 joule = 1 newton × 1 metre × cos 0° = 1 N–m
direction of the displacement, then the component of F in
the direction of displacement is (F cos T). As work done 2. Erg. It is the absolute unit of work on cgs system.
by the force is the product of component of force in the Work done is said to be one erg, when a force of one dyne
direction of the displcement and the magnitude of the actually moves a body through a distance of one cm.in
displacement, the direction of applied force.
From W = Fs cos T
? W F cos T s ...(1)
1 eg = 1 dyne × 1 cm × cos 0°
If displacement is in the direction of force applied, T = 0°. (b) Gravitational units
From (1), W = (F cos 0°) s = F s
These are also called the practical units of work.
G G
Equation (1) can be rewritten as W F.s ...(2) 1. Kilogram-metre (kg–m). It is the gravitational unit of
work on SI.
Thus, work done by a force is the dot product of force and Work done is said to be one kg–m, when a force of 1 kg f
displacement. move a body through a distance of 1 m in the direction of
G G the applied force.
In terms of rectangular cmponent, F and s, may written as
G From W = F s cos T
F ˆ and Gs
ˆi F  ˆjF  kF ˆix  ˆjy  kz
ˆ
x y z 1 kg–m = 1 kg f × 1 m × cos 0° = 9.8 N × 1 m = 9.8 joule, i.e.,
G G 1kg  m 9.8 J
From (2), W F.s
 WORK, POWER & ENERGY

2. Gram-centimetre (g-cm). It is the gravitational unit of (c) Zero work

work on cgs system. G G
When force applied F or the displacement s or both are
Work done is said to be one g-cm, when a force of 1 g f zero, work done W = F s cos T is zero. Again, when angle
moves a body through a distance of 1 cm. in the direction G G
of the applied force. T between F and s is 90°, cos T = cos 90° = 0. Therefore
work done is zero.
From W = F s cos T
For example :
1 g-cm = 1 g f × 1 cm × cos 0°
When we push hard against a wall, the force we exert on
1 g-cm = 980 dyne × 1 cm × 1 G
the wall does no work, because s 0. However, in this
1g  m 980 ergs process, our muscles are contracting and relaxing
alternately and internal energy is being used up. That is
3. NATURE OF WORK DONE why we do get tired.

Although work done is a scalar quantity, its value may be 4. WORK DONE BY A VARIABLE FORCE
positive, negative, negative or even zero, as detailed below:
(a) Graphical Method
(a) Positive work
G G A constant force is rare. It is the variable force which is
As W = F.s = F s cos T encountered more commonly. We can, therefore, learn to
when T is acute (< 90°), cos T is positive. Hence, work calculate work done by a variable force, let us consider a
?
done is positive. force acting along the fixed direction, say x–axis, but
having a variable magnitude.
For example :
We have to calculate work done in moving the body from
(i) When a body falls freely under the action of gravity, A to B under the action of this variable force. To do this,
T = 0°, cos T = cos 0° = + 1. Therefore, work done by we assume that the entire displacement from A to B is
gravity on a body falling freely is positive. made up of a large number of infinitesimal displacements.
(b) Negative work One such displacement shown in figure from P to Q.
G G As the displacement PQ = dx is infinitesimally small, we
As W = F. s = F s cos T
consider that all along this displacement, force is constant
? When T is obtuse (> 90°), cos T is negative. Hence, work in magnitude (= PS) as well in same direction.
done is negative. ? Small amount of work done in moving the body from P to
For example : Q is
(i) When a body is thrown up, its motion is opposed by dW = F × dx = (PS) (PQ) = area of strip PQRS
G Total work done in moving the body from A to B is given by
gravity. The angle T between gravitational force F and
the displacement sG is 180°. As cos T = cos 180° = –1, W = 6 dW
therefore, work done by gravity on a body moving W = 6 F × dx
upwards is negative.
If the displacement are allowed to approach zero, then the
number of terms in the sum increases without limit. And
the sum approaches a definite value equal to the area under
the curve CD.

A B
 WORK, POWER & ENERGY

G JJG
dW F.ds
JJG
When ds o 0, total work done in moving the body from A
to B can be obtained by integrating the above expression
between SA and SB.

SB

³ F.ds
G JJG
? W
SA

5. CONSERVATIVE & NON­CONSERVATIVE FORCES

Hence, we may rewrite, W = limit 6 F dx Conservative force
dx ox

In the language of integral calculus, we may write it as A force is said to be conservative if work done by or against
the force in moving a body depends only on the initial and
xB
final positions of the body, and not on the nature of path
W ³ F dx
xA
, where xA = OA and xB = OB followed between the initial and the final positions.
This means, work done by or against a conservative force
xB
in moving a body over any path between fixed initial and
W ³ area of the strip PQRS
xA
final positions will be the same.
For example, gravitational force is a conservative force.
= total area under the curve between F and x-axis from
x = xA to x = xB Properties of Conservative forces :
1. Work done by or against a conservative force, in moving
W Area ABCDA a body from one position to the other depends only on
the initial position and final position of the body.
Hence, work done by a variable force is numerically equal
to the area under the force curve and the displacement axis. 2. Work done by or against a conservative force does not
depend upon the nature of the path followed by the body
Mathematical Treatment (of work done by a variable
in going from initial position to the final position.
force).
3. Work done by or against a conservative force in moving a
Suppose we have to calculate work done in moving a body
body through any round trip (i.e., closed path, where final
from a point A (SA) to point B (SB) under the action of a
position coincides with the initial position of the body) is
varying force, figure. Here, SA and SB are the distance of
always zero.
the points A and B with respect to some reference point.
Non-conservative Forces
A force is said to be non-conservative, if work done by or
against the force in moving a body from one position to
another, depends on the path followed between these two
positions.
For example, frictional forces are non-conservative forces.

6. POWER
At any stage, suppose the body is at P, where force on the
G
body is F . Under the action of this force, let the body Power of a person or machine is defined as the time rate at
JJJG JJG which work is done by it.
undergo an infinitesimally small displacement PQ ds .
During such a small displacement, if we assume that the work done
i.e., Power = Rate of doing work =
force remains constant, then small amount of work done time taken
in moving the body from P to Q is
Thus, power of a body measures how fast it can do the
work.
 WORK, POWER & ENERGY

Formula for Kinetic Energy

dW
P Kinetic Energy of a body can be obtained either from
dt
G JJG (i) the amount of work done in stopping the moving body, or
G JJG
Now, dW = F.ds, where F is the force applied and ds is from
the small displacement. (ii) the amount of work done in giving the present velocity
G JJG today he body from the state of rest.
F.ds
? P Let us use the second method :
dt
suppose m = mass of a body at rest (i.e., u = 0).
JJG
ds G F = Force applied on the body
But v, the instantaneous velocity..
dt a = acceleration produced in the body in the direction of
force applied.
G G
? P F.v v = velocity acquired by the body in moving through a
distance s, figure
Dimensions of power can be deduced as :

W M1 L2 T 
¬ª M L T ¼º
1 2 3
P
t T1

Units of power
The absolute unit of power in SI is watt, which is denoted From v – u = 2 a s
2
by W. v – 0 = 2 as
From P = W/t
v
a
1 joule 2s
1 watt = , i.e., 1W 1Js 1
1sec
§ v2 ·
Power of a body is said to be one watt, if it can do one As F = m a ? using, F = m ¨ ¸
© 2s ¹
joule of work in one second.
Work done on the body, W = Force × distance
1 h.p. 746 W
v
W m us
7. ENERGY 2s

Energy of a body is defined as the capacity or ability of

1
the body to do the work. W mv

8. KINETIC ENERGY This work done on the body is a measure of kinetic energy
The kinetic energy of a boyd is the energy possessed by (K.E.) acquired by the body,
the body by virtue of its motion.
1
For example : ? K.E. of body W mv
(i) A bullet fired from a gun can pierce through a target on
account of kinetic energy of the bullet. Alternative method
(ii) Wind mills work on the kinetic energy of air. For example, The formula for kinetic energy of a body is also obtained
sailing ships use the kinetic energy of wind. by the method of calculus :
(iii) Water mills work on the kinetic energy of water. For Let m = mass of a body, which is initially at rest
example, fast flowing stream has been used to grind corn. (i.e., u = 0)
(iv) A nail is driven into a wooden block on account of kinetic G
energy of the hammer striking the nail. F = Force applied on the body,,
 WORK, POWER & ENERGY

JJG This is shown in figure (b).

ds = small displacement produced in the body in the
2
direction of the force applied. If m = constant, p v K.E. or p v K.E.
? Small amount of work done by the force, This is shown in figure (c)
G JJG
dW = F.ds = F ds cos = 0° = F ds

If a is acceleration produced by the force, then from

dv
F= ma=m
dt

§ dv · § ds ·
From, dW = ¨ m ¸ ds m ¨ ¸ dv
© dt ¹ © dt ¹

§ ds ·
dW = m v d v ¨' v¸
© dt ¹

? Total work done by the force in increasing the velocity of

the body from zero to v is

v v
ª2º
W ³ m vd v m ³ vd v
0 0
m« »
¬ 2 ¼0

1
W mv
10. WORK ENERGY THEOREM OR
Thus, kinetic energy of a body is half the product of mass
of the body and square of velocity of the body.
WORK ENERGY PRINCIPLE
According to this principle, work done by net force in
9. RELATION BETWEEN KINETIC ENERGY
displacing a body is equal to change in kinetic energy of
AND LINEAR MOMENTUM the body.
Let m = mass of a body, v = velocity of the body. Thus, when a force does some work on a body, the kinetic
? Linear momentum of the body, p = mv energy of the body increases by the same amount.
Conversely, when an opposing (retarding) force is applied
1 1 on a body, its kinetic energy decreases. The decrease in
and K.E. of the body mv m2v
2m kinetic energy of the body is equal to the work done by
the body against the retarding force. Thus, according to
p work energy principle, work and kinetic energy are
? K.E.
2m equivalent quantities.
Proof : To prove the work-energy theorem, we confine
This is an important relation. It shows that a body cannot
ourselves to motion in one dimension.
have K.E. without having linear momentum. The reverse
is also true. Suppose m = mass of a body, u = initial velocity of the
body, F = force applied on the body along it direction of
1 motion, a = acceleration produced in the body, v = final
Further, if p = constant, K.E. v
m velocity of the body after t second.
This is showin in figure (a) Small amount of work done by the applied force on the
2
If K.E. = constant, p v m or p v m body, dW = F (ds) when ds is the small distance moved by
the body in the direction of the force applied.
 WORK, POWER & ENERGY

§ dv ·
Now, F = ma = m ¨ ¸
© dt ¹

§ dv · § ds ·
? dW = F (ds) = m ¨ ¸ ds = m ¨ ¸ dv = mv dv
© dt ¹ © dt ¹

§ ds ·
¨' v¸
© dt ¹
Total work done by the applied force on the body in
increasing its velocity from u to v is If we assume that height h is not too large and the value of
g is practically constant over this height, then the force
v
v v
ª v2 º applied just to overcome gravitational attraction is
W ³m vd v
u
m ³ vdv
u
m« »
¬ 2 ¼u F = mg
As the distance moved is in the direction of the force
1 1 1 applied, therefore,
W m v u mv  mu
Work done = force × distance
W = F × h = mgh
1 2 1 2
But mv = Kf = final K.E. of the body and mu = Ki = Note that we have taken the upward direction to be positive.
2
Therefore, work done by applied force = + mgh. However,
initial K.E. of the body work done by gravitational force = – mgh.
? W = Kf – Ki = Increases in K.E. of body This work gets stored as potential energy. The gravitational
i.e., work done on the body = increase in K.E. of body. potential energy of a body, as a function of height (h) is
denoted by V (h), and it is negative of work done by the
11. POTENTIAL ENERGY gravitational force in raising the body to that height.

The potential energy of a body is defined as the energy Gravitational P.E. = V (h) = mgh
possessed by the body by virtue of its position or 11.2 Potential Energy of a spring
configuration in some field.
Potential energy of a spring is the energy associated with
Thus, potential energy is the energy that can be associated
the state of compression or expansion of an elastic spring.
with the configuration (or arrangement) of a system of
objects that exert forces on one another. Obviously, if To calculate it, consider an elastic spring OA of negligible
configuration of the system changes, then its potential mass. The end O of the spring is fixed to a rigid support
energy changes. and a body of mass m is attached to the free end A. Let the
spring be oriented along x–axis and the body of mass m lie
Two important types of potential energy are : on a perfectly frictionless horizontal table.
1. Gravitational potential energy
2. Elastic potential energy.

11.1 Gravitational Potential Energy

Gravitational potential energy of a body is the energy The position of the body A, when spring is unstretched is
possessed by the body by virtue of its position above the chosen as the origin.
surface of the earth. When the spring is compressed or elongated, it tends to
To calculate gravitational potential energy, suppose recover to its original length, on account of elasticity. The
force trying to bring the spring back to its original
m = mass of a body
configuration is called restoring force or spring force.
g = acceleration due to gravity on the surface of earth.
For a small stretch or compression, spring obeys Hook’s
h = height through which the body is raised, figure. law, i.e., for a spring,
 WORK, POWER & ENERGY

Restoring Force v stretch or compression This is called the principle of conservation of total
– F v x or – F = kx mechanical energy.
where k is a constant of the spring and is called spring For simplicity, we assume the motion to be one dimensional
constant. only. Suppose a body undergoes a small displacement 'x
under the action of a conservative force F. According to
1 work energy theorem,
It is established that for a spring, k v
A change in K.E. = work done
i.e., smaller the length of the spring, greater will be the 'K = F (x) 'x
force constant and vice-versa. As the force is conservative, the potential energy function
The negative sign in equation indicates that the restoring V (x) is defined as
force is directed always towards the equilibrium position. – 'V = F (x) 'x or 'V = – F (x) 'x
Let the body be displaced further through an infinitesimally Adding, we get 'K + 'V = 0 or ' (K + V) = 0,
small distance dx, against the resotring force.
which means
? Small amount of work done in increasing the length of the
spring by dx is KV E constant
dW = – F dx = kx dx
Total work done in giving displacement x to the body can 12.1 Illustration of the law of conservation
be obtained by integrating from x = 0 to x = x, i.e., of mechanical energy

x x To illustrate the law further, let us calculate kinetic energy

ªx º ªx º
x x
1
W ³x 0 k x dx k «¬ »¼ x k «  0»
¬ 2 ¼
kx K.E., potential nergy P.E. and total energy T.E. of a body
0 falling freely under gravity.
This work done is stored in the spring at the point B. Let m be the mass of the body held at A, at a height h
above the ground, figure.
1
? P.E. at B W kx

The variation of potential energy with distance x is shown

in figure

As the body is at rest at A, therefore,

At A : K. E. of the body = 0
12. MECHANICAL ENERGY AND ITS CONSERVATION P.E. of the body = mg, where g is acceleration due to gravity
at A.
The mechanical energy (E) of a body is the sum of kinetic
T.E. of the body = K.E. + P.E. = 0 + mgh
energy (K) and potential energy (V) of the body
E1 = mgh ...(1)
i.e., E KV Let the body be allowed to fall freely under under gravity,
Obviously, mechanical energy of a body is a scalar quantity when it strikes the ground at C with a velocity v.
2 2
measured in joule. From v – u = 2 a s
2
We can show that the total mechanical energy of a system v – 0 = 2 (g) h
is conserved if the force, doing work on the system are 2
v = 2 gh ...(2)
conservative.
 WORK, POWER & ENERGY

particular configuration of its molecules and also their

1 1
? At C : K.E. of the body mv 2 m 2 gh mgh random motion. Thus, internal energy of a body is the
2 2
sum of potential energy and kinetic energy of the
P.E. of the body = mgh = mg (0) = 0 molecules of the body.
Total energy of the body = I.E. + P.E. 3. Electrical Energy
E2 = mgh + 0 = mgh ...(3) The flow of electric current causes bulbs to glow, fans to
In free fall, let the body cross any point B with a velocity rotate and bells to ring. A definite amount of work has to
v1, where AB = x be done in moving the free charge carriers in a particular
2 2
From v – u = 2 as direction through all the electrical appliances.
4. Chemical Energy
v12  0 2 g x ...(4)
Chemical energy arises from the fact that the molecules
v12 2 gx participating in the chemical reaction have different
binding energies. A chemical reaction is basically a
1 1 rearrangement of atoms. For example, coal consists of
At B : K.E. of the body mv12 m 2 gx mgx
2 2 7
carbon and a kilogram of it. When burnt releases 3 × 10 J
Height of the body at B above the ground = CB = (h – x) of energy.
? P.E. of the body at B = mg (h – x) 5. Nuclear Energy
Total energy of the body at B = K.E. + P.E. It is the energy obtainable from an atomic nucleus. Two
E3 = mgx + mg (h – x) = mgx + mgh – mgx distinct modes of obtaining nuclear energy are (i) Nuclear
fission (ii) Nuclear fusion.
E3 = mgh ...(5)
Nuclear fission involves splitting of a heavy nucleus into
From (1), (3), (5) we find that
two or more lighter nuclei, whereas nuclear fusion involves
E1 E2 E3 mgh fusing of two or more lighter nuclei to form a heavy
nucleus.
13. DIFFERENT FORMS OF ENERGY
14. MASS ENERGY EQUIVALENCE
We have studies some details of potential energy and
kinetic energy. These are not the ony two forms of energy. Einstein made an incredible discovery that energy can
Energy may manifest itself in several other forms. Some of be transformed into mass and mass can be transformed
the examples are : into energy. One can be obtained at the cost of the other.
1. Heat Energy The mass energy equivalence relation as put forth by
Einstein is
It is the energy possessed by a body by virtue of random
motion of the molecules of the body.
E mc 2
Heat is also associated with the force of friction. When a
block of mass m sliding on a rough horizontal surface with where m = mass that disappears, E = energy that appears,
speed v, stops over a distance x, work done by the force of c = velocity of light in vacuum.
kinetic friction f over a distance x is –f (x). By the work Mass and energy are not conserved separately, but are
1 conserved as a single entity called ‘mass-energy’.
energy theorem, mv2 f x . We often say that K.E. of
2
15. THE PRINCIPLE OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY
the block is lost due to frictional force, However, when we
examine the block and the horizontal surface carefully, we
If we account for all forms of energy, the total energy of an
detect a slight increase in their temperatures. Thus, work
isolated system does not change.
done by friction is not lost, but it is transferred as heat
energy of the system. The principle of conservation of energy cannot be proved
as such. However, no violation of this principle has ever
2. Internal Energy
been observed.
It is the total energy possessed by the body by virtue of
 WORK, POWER & ENERGY

16. WORK DONE BY A VARIABLE FORCE dU

which, in the limit, becomes F(x) = –
dx
When the force is an arbitrary function of position, we need the Integrating both sides for a displacement from x = a to x = b, we
techniques of calculus to evaluate the work done by it. The have :
figure shows F (x) as some function of the position x. To calculate b
work done by F from A to B, we find area under the graph from
XA to XB.
Ub  Ua ³
 F x dx
a

18. DYNAMICS OF CIRCULAR MOTION

18.1 Force on the Particle

In uniform circular motion, acceleration is of magnitude v2/r and is

directed towards centre. Hence a force of magnitude mv2/r and
directed towards centre is required to keep a particle in circular
motion. This force (acting towards centre) is known as the
centripetal force. Centripetal force is not an extra force on a body.
Whatever force is responsible for circular motion becomes the
centripetal force.
Thus, the work done by a force F (x) form an initial point A to final
point B is Example : When a statellite revolves around the earth, the
gravitational attraction of earth becomes the centripetal force for
xB
WA oB ³x A Fx dx the circular motion of the satellite; when an electron revolves
around the nucleus in an atom, the electrostatic attraction of
17. CONSERVATIVE & NON­CONSERVATIVE FORCES nucleus becomes the centripetal force for the electron’s circular
motion; in case of a conical pendulum, T sin T (component of
17.1 Conservative Forces tension) becomes the centripetal force.

There are two ways in which we can characterize a Conservative 18.2 Main steps for analysing forces
Force : in uniform circular motion
A force is conservative if :
Take one axis along the radius of circle (i.e., in direction of
i The net work done against the force in moving a mass acceleration) and other axis perpendicular to the radius. Resolve
between two points depends only on the location of two all the forces into components.
points and not on the path followed
Net force along perpendicular axis = 0
17.2 Non-Conservative Forces
Net force along radial axis (towards centre)
Those forces which do not satisfy the above mentioned criteria.
Friction and viscous forces are the most common examples of mv 2
mZ 2 r
non-conservative forces. r
17.3 Conservative Forces and Potential Energy 18.3 Main steps for analysing forces in
For every conservative force, there is a corresponding potential Non–uniform Circular Motion
energy function. In each cases, the potential energy expression
After resolving all the forces along tangential and radial axes :
depends only on position.
For every conservative force Fx that depends only on the position net tangential force = Ft = m at
x, there is an associated potential energy function U(x). When net radial force = Fr = m ar = mv2/r
conservative force does positive work, the potential energy of
Example of non-uniform circular motion : the motion of particle
the system decreases. Work done by, conservative force is
in verticle circle. If a particle is revolved in a vertical circle with the
F(x) 'x = – 'U help of a string, the forces are : tension (T) towards centre and
Ÿ F(x) = – 'U / 'x weight (mg). In case of a particle moving along the outside surface
 WORK, POWER & ENERGY

of a circular track (or sphere), the forces are : normal reaction (N) its own weight & the tension in the string.
away from the centre and weight (mg). Let the radius of the circle = l
18.4 Conical Pendulum
A small block of mass m is rotated in a horizontal circle with the
help of a string of length l connected to m. The other end of the
string is fixed to a point O vertically above the cnetre of the circle
so that the string is always inclined with the vertical at an angle T.
This arrangement is known as a conical pendulum. (a) At the top : Let vt = velocity at the top

mv 2t
net force towards centre =
A

mv 2t mv 2t
T  mg ŸT  mg
A A
For the movement in the circle, the string should remain tight i.e.
the tension must be positive at all positions.
From the force diagram of the block. As the tension is minimum at the top Ttop t0
Along the vertical : T cos T = mg ...(i)
mv 2t
Net force towards centre : T sin T = ma Ÿ  mg t 0 Ÿ v t t Ag
A
T sin T = mZ2 r ...(ii)
From (i) and (ii), we have Ÿ minimum or critical velocity at the top = 1g

g tan T g tan T g
Z2
r A sin T A cos T

2S A cos T
Ÿ Time period = T = 2S
Z g

(b) Let Vb be the velocity at the bottom. As the particle goes

i If h is the height of point O above the centre of the circle. up, its KE decreases and GPE increases.
then time period = 2S h / g Ÿ loss in KE = gain in GPE

i For a conical pendulum, Z2 A cos T g 1 1

Ÿ mv 2b  mv12 mg 21
2 2
Ÿ Z ! g / A (Because cos T < 1)
v 2b v 2t  4 gA

18.5 Motion in a Vertical Circle (vb)min = v 2t min  4 gA 5 gA

Example : A mass m is tied to a string of length l and is rotated in

a vertical circle with centre at the other end of the string.
(a) Find the minimum velocity of the mass at the top of the
When a particle moves in a vertical circle, its speed
circle so that it is able to complete the circle.
decreases as it goes up and its speed increases as it
(b) Find the minimum velocity at the bottom of the circle. comes down. Hence it is an example of non-uniform
At all positions, there are two forces acting on the mass : circular motion.
 ROTATION MOTION

ROTATIONAL MOTION

1. KINEMATICS OF SYSTEM OF PARTICLES It is always along the axis of the motion.

(c) Angular Acceleration
1.1 System of particles can move in different ways as observed
Angular acceleration of an object about any point is rate of
by us in daily life. To understand that we need to understand
change of angular velocity about that point.
few new parameters.
(a) Angular Displacement A
A B
Consider a particle moves from A to B in the following figures. B

A
A B
B

d d
 
O O dt dt
2
Angle is the angular displacement of particle about O. Units  Rad/s
Units  radian It is a vector quantity. If  is constant then similarly to
(b) Angular Velocity equation of motion (i.e.)
The rate of change of angular displacement is called as  t are related  = 0 + t
angular velocity.
1
A   0 t  t 2
2
A B
B
f2  02  2
1.2 Various types of motion

(a) Translational Motion

System is said to be in translational motion, if all the particles
lying in the system have same linear velocity.
O
O Example

d d
 
dt dt

Units  Rad/s
It is a vector quantity whose direction is given by right
hand thumb rule.
According to right hand thumb rule, if we curl the fingers of
right hand along with the body, then right hand thumb gives
Motion of a rod as shown.
us the direction of angular velocity.
 ROTATION MOTION

Example
vp
P
a
r
O

Motion of body of car on a straight rod.

In both the above examples, velocity of all the particles is   
v p   r
same as they all have equal displacements in equal intervals
   
of time. a    r  2 r
(b) Rotational Motion Example
A system is said to be in pure rotational motion, when all the B vB
points lying on the system are in circular motion about one
common fixed axis.
A
L
B
L/2
A
C B
O
O A
B L
A vB = L and v A  , with directions as shown in figure.
D 2
O B
A Now in rotational + translational motion, we just superimpose
velocity and acceleration of axis on the velocity and
In pure rotational motion.
acceleration of any point about the axis. (i.e.)
Angular velocity of all the points is same about the fixed
P
axis.
(c) Rotational + Translational
A system is said to be in rotational + translational motion, Q O v
when the particle is rotating with some angular velocity j
about a movable axis.
For example : i

vPO  Riˆ

v v v0  v ˆi
O
  
 v P  v0  v PO
  
 v P  v PO  v O
v = velocity of axis.
 = Angular velocity of system about O. R  viˆ

1.3 Inter Relationship between kinematics variable Similarly v QO  Rjˆ
In general if a body is rotating about any axis (fixed or 
v0  v ˆi
movable), with angular velocity  and angular acceleration
 then velocity of any point p with respect to axis is 
 v Q  v ˆi  R ˆj
      
v   r and a    r  2 r .
Inter-relation between v of axis and  or a of axis and 
i.e., depends on certain constraints.
ROTATION MOTION

General we deal with the case of no slipping or pure rolling. Torque  = rf sin  about a point O.
Where r = distance from the point O to point of application
of force.
v f= force
O No slipping
 
 = angle between r and f

vP Platform
A f
The constraint in the above case is that velocity of points
of contact should be equal for both rolling body and
playfrom. r

(i.e.) v – r = vP
If platform is fixed then  Torque about O.
 A is point of application of force.
vP = 0  v  r
Magnitude of torque can also be rewritten as
An differentiating the above term we get
  rf  or   r f where
dv r d f  = component of force in the direction  to r .
 .
dt dt

r = component of force in the direction  to f .
dv
Now if a Direction :
dt
v Direction of torque is given by right hand thumb rule. If we
a 
d curl the fingers of right hand from first vector  r  to second

dt 

vector f then right hand thumb gives us direction of their
then a  r cross product.
 Torque is always defined about a point or about an axis.
Remember if acceleration is assumed opposite to velocity
 When there are multiple forces, the net torque needs to be
dv dv
then a   instead of a  . calculated, (i.e.)
dt dt   
net  F  F  ........... F
1 2 n

d
Similary : If  and  are in opposite direction the    . All torque about same point/axis.
dt
If    0, then the body is in rotational equilibrium.
Accordingly the constraints can change depending upon
the assumptions.  If  F  0 along with    0 , then body is in mechanical
equilibrium.
2. ROTATIONAL DYNAMICS  If equal and opp. force act to produce same torque then
they constitutes a couple.
2.1 Torque
 For calculating torque, it is very important to find the eff.
Similar to force, the cause of rotational motion is a physical point of application of force.
quantity called a torque.  Mg  Acts at com/centre of gravity..
Torque incorporates the following factors.
 Amount of force.
 Point of application of force.
 Direction of application of force.  N  Point of application depends upon situation to
Combining all of the above. situation.
 ROTATION MOTION

2.2 Newtwon’s Laws

   I.
 I = moment of Inertia
r
  = Angular Acceleration. 2m

2.3 Moment of Inertia

 Gives the measure of mass distribution about on axis.

 I   m i ri2
th
ri  distance of the i mass from axis. axis
 Always defined about an axis.
I axis   r 2 dm

3. MOMENT OF INERTIA
r1
M1 3.1 Moment of inertia of Continuous Bodies
r4 r2
M4 M2 When the distribution of mass of a system of particle is continuous,
r3 the discrete sum I   m i ri2 is replaced by an integral. The
M3
moment of inertia of the whole body takes the form

r
2
I dm

I  M1r12  M 2 r22  M 3 r32  M 4 r42

2
 SI units  kgm
 Gives the measure of rotational inertia and is equavalent to r dm
mass.
(a) Moment of Inertia of a discreet particle system :

M1 Keep in mind that here the quantity r is the perpendicular distance

to an axis, not the distance to an origin. To evaluate this integral,
r1 r2 we must express m in terms of r.

M2
Comparing the expression of rotational kinetic energy with
2
1/2 mv , we can say that the role of moment of inertia (I) is
same in rotational motion as that of mass in linear motion. It
r3 is a measure of the resistance offered by a body to a change
axis in its rotational motion.
M3
3.2 Moment of Inertia of some important bodies
I  M1r12  M 2 r22  M3 r32
(b) Continuous Mass Distribution 1. Circular Ring
For continuous mass distribution, we need to take help of Axis passing through the centre and perpendicular to the plane
integration : of ring.
 ROTATION MOTION
2
I = MR (b) Axis passing through an end and perpendicular to the
rod:
axis R
M 2
I
3

2. Hollow Cylinder
2
I = MR

3.3 Theorems on Moment of Inertia

hollow
1. Parallel Axis Theorem : Let Icm be the moment of inertia
of a body about an axis through its centre of mass and Let Ip be
axis the moment of inertia of the same body about another axis which
is parallel to the original one.
3. Solid Cylinder and a Disc
If d is the distance between these two parallel axes and M
About its geometrical axis : is the mass of the body then according to the parallel axis theorem :
1
I MR 2 ICM
2 IP

d
solid

CM P
axis

4. (a) Solid Sphere 2

Ip = Icm + Md
Axis passing through the centre :
2
2. Perpendicular Axis Theorem :
I = 2/5 MR
Consider a plane body (i.e., a plate of zero thickness) of mass M.
Let X and Y axes be two mutually perpendicular lines in the plane
of the body. The axes intersect at origin O.

Z
(b) Hollow Sphere
Axis passing through the centre : Y
2
I = 2/3 MR
5. Thin Rod of length l : X
(a) Axis passing through mid point and perpendicular to the
length :
Let Ix = moment of inertia of the body about X–axis.
Let Iy = moment of inertia of the body about Y–axis.
The moment of inertia of the body about Z–axis (passing through
O and perpendicular to the plane of the body) is given by :
Iz = Ix + Iy
M 2
I The above result is known as the perpendicular axis theorem.
12
 ROTATION MOTION

3.4 Radius of Gyration (compare with linear momentum p = mv in linear motion)

L is also a vector and its direction is same as that of  (i.e. clockwise
If M is the mass and I is the moment of inertia of a rigid body, then
or anticlockwise)
the radius of gyration (k) of a body is given by :
We knows,
I  
k L  I
M
 
dL d 
4. ANGULAR MOMENTUM (L) AND IMPULSE I  I  = 
dt dt net

4.1 Angular Momentum 4.2 Conservation of angular momentum


(a) For a particle If  net  0
Angular momentum about origin (O) is given as : 
dL
      0
L  r  p  r   mv  dt

where r = position vector of the particle ; v = velocity  L = constant
 
y  Lf  Li

4.3 Angular Impulse

v
A  

r 
J   dt  L

r 5. WORK AND ENERGY

x
O
5.1 Work done by a Torque
 L = mv r sin  = mv (OA) sin  = mvr
Consider a rigid body acted upon by a force F at perpendicular
where r = perpendicular distance of velocity vector from O. distance r from the axis of rotation. Suppose that under this force,
(b) For a particle moving in a circle the body rotates through an angle .

For a particle moving in a circle of radius r with a speed v, its linear Work done = force × displacement
momentum is mv, its angular momentum (L) is given as : W = F r. 

L  mvr  mvr W = 

Work done = (torque) × (angular displacement)

mv dW d
Power    
r dt dt

5.2 Kinetic Energy

(c) For a rigid body (about a fixed axis) Rotational kinetic energy of the system
L = sum of angular momentum of all particles
1 1
 m1 v12  m 2 v 22  ......
= m1v1r1 + m2v2r2 + m3v3r3 + ...... 2 2

 m1r12   m 2 r22   m 3 r32   ...... (v = r) 1 1

 m1r12 2  m 2 r22 2  .........
2 2
 
 m1r12  m 2 r22  m 3 r32  ......   L = I
 ROTATION MOTION


1
2
 
m1r22  mr22  m 3 r32  ......... 2 (ii) K 
1 
Icm 2  MVcm
2

2 2
1 2
Hence rotational kinetic energy of the system = I
2
M
The total kinetic energy of a body which is moving through space cm Vcm
as well as rotating is given by : A
K = Ktranslational + Krotational P

1 2 1 where (a) IP = Icm + MR2 (parallel axes theorem)

K MVCM  I CM 2
2 2
(b) Vcm = R [pure] rolling condition.
where VCM = velocity of the centre of mass 4. Forward Slipping
ICM = moment of inertia about CM
 = angular velocity of rotation H
v v+
6. ROLLING v + C = v
L
1. Friction is responsible for the motion but work done or v f v–
v=0
dissipation of energy against friction is zero as there is Translation Rotation Rolling (Sliding)
no relative motion between body and surface at the point
of contact. The bottom most point slides in the forward direction w.r.t.
2. In case of rolling all point of a rigid body have same angular ground, so friction force acts opposite to velocity at lowest
speed but different linear speed. The linear speed is point i.e. opposite to direction of motion e.g. When sudden
maximum for the point H while minimum for the point L. brakes are applied to car its ‘v’ remain same while ‘r’
decreases so its slides on the ground.
H H H 5. Backward Slipping
v v+
C v + C = C v
L v v+
v v–
L L v + v
=
Translation Rotation Pure Rolling
v –v f
v=0
3. Condition for pure rolling : (without slipping)
Translation Rotation Rolling (Sliding)

The bottom most point slides in the backward direction

Vcm w.r.t. ground, so friction force acts opposite to velocity
(i) A i.e. friction will act in the direction of motion e.g. When
B car starts on a slippery ground, its wheels has small ‘v’
but large ‘r’ so wheels slips on the ground and friction
general (when surface is moving) acts against slipping.
in terms of velocity : Vcm –R = VB 6.1 Rolling and sliding motion on an inclined plane
in terms of rotation : acm – R = aB
special case (when VB = 0)
in terms of velocity : Vcm = R
in terms of acceleration : acm  R h h
(ii) Total KE of Rolling body :

1 Pure Rolling Sliding

(i) K  I P 2 OR
2
 ROTATION MOTION

Physical Quantity Rolling Sliding Falling

Velocity VR  2gh  /  VS  2 gh VF  2 gh

Acceleration aR = g sin / aS = g sin  aF = g

Time of descend t R  1 / sin  2h / g  t S  1 / sin  2h / g t F  2h / g

(where  = [1 + I/Mr2])

 Velocity of falling and sliding bodies are equal and is more than rollings.
 Acceleration is maximum in case of falling and minimum in case of rolling.
 Falling body reaches the bottom first while rolling last.
GRAVITATION

GRAVITATION

1. INTRODUCTION
The constitutents of the universe are galaxy, stars, planets, Where  r̂12  is a unit vector drawn from particle m1 to
comets, asteriods, meteroids. The force which keeps them
particle m2.
bound together is called gravitational force. Gravitation is

a nature phenomenon by which material objects attract  
Similarly, the force F12 exerted on particle m1 by particle
towards one another.
m2 is given by
In 1687 A.D. English Physicist, Sir Isaac Netwon published
principia Mathematica, which explains the inverse-square  mm
F12   G 1 2 2  rˆ12  ...(ii)
law of gravitation. r

2. NEWTON’S LAW OF GRAVITATION Where  r̂12  is a unit vector drawn from particle m1 to
2. 1 Defintion particle m2
Every particle of matter attracts every other particle of From (i) and (ii)
matter with a force which is directly proportional to the  
 F12   F21
product of their masses and inversely proportional to the
square of the distance between them.
3. UNIVERSAL CONSTANT OF GRAVITATION

Fr 2
Universal gravitation constant is given as, G =
m1m 2

Suppose that, m1 = m2 = 1, and r = 1 then G = F

2.2 Mathematical Form  Universal gravitation constant is numerically equal to the
force of attraction between two unit masses placed at unit
If m1 and m2 are the masses of the particles and r is the
distance apart.
distance between them, the force of attraction F between
the particles is given by 3.1 Unit

m1m2
newton  metre 
2
F Nm 2
r2 SI unit : =
 kilogram 
2
kg 2
m1m 2
 F G CGS Unit : dyne cm /gm
2 2
r2
Where G is the universal constant of gravitation. 3.2 Value of G
–11 2 2
2.3 Vector Form G = 6.67 × 10 Nm /kg
Dimensions of G
In vector form, Newton’s law of gravitation is represented

 
in the following manner. The force F21 exerted on particle
[G] =
 F  r 2 
=
 M1L1T 2   M 0 L2 T 0 

m2 by particle m1 is given by,  m1m2   M 2 L0 T 0 

–1 3 –2
 mm = [M L T ]
F21   G 1 2 2  rˆ12  ...(i)
r
 GRAVITATION

GM
gh  ...(ii)
 R  h
2

1. The gravitational force is independent of the intervening

Dividing eq (ii) by eq (i), we get,
medium.
2. The gravtional force is a conservative force. gh R2

3. The force exerted by the first particle on the second is g  R  h 2
exactly equal and opposite to the force exerted by the
second particle on the first.
 R2 
4. The gravitational force between two particles act along  gh   g
  R  h  
2
the line joining the two particles and they from an action-
reaction pair.
4.2 Acceleration due to gravity at a very small height

4. VARIATION IN ‘g’ 2
Rh
gh  g  
4.1 The Acceleration due to Gravity at a height h above  R 
the Earth’s surface 2
 h
 g 1  
Let M and R be the mass and radius of the earth and g be  R
the acceleratio due to gravity at the earth’s surface.
Suppose that a body of mass m is placed on the surface of  2h h 2 
the earth.  g 1   2 ........ 
 R R 
The weight ‘mg’ of the body is equal to the gravitational
If h << R, then neglecting high power’s of ‘h’ we get,
force acting on it.
 2h 
GMm g h  g 1  
 mg   R 
R2
4.3 Effect of depth on a acceleration due to Gravity
GM
 g 2 ...(i) Also g in terms of 
R
Now suppose that the body is raised to a height h, above GM
g
the earth’s surface, the weight of the body is now mgh and R2
GMm If  is density of the material of earth, then
the gravitational force acting on it is
R  h
2
4
M R 3
3

4
G  R 3
 g 3
R2

4
 g GR ...(i)
3
Let gd be acceleration due to gravity at the point B at a
depth x below the surface of earth. A body at the point B
will experience force only due to the portion of the earth of
radius OB (R – d). The outer spherical shell, whose
GMm
mg h  thickness is d, will not exert any force on body at point B.
 R  h
2
Because it will acts as a shell and point is inside.
 GRAVITATION
2
g A  g’ = g – r cos
Now, r = R cos  (where R is the radius of the earth)
g' B d 2
Then g’ = g – (R cos )  cos 
R M 2 2
 g’ = g – R cos 
R–d
M' The effective acceleration due to gravity at a point ‘P’ is
O given by,
2 2
g’ = g – R cos .
Thus value of ‘g’ changes with ‘’ and ‘’
1. At poles,
 = 90,
2 2
4 g’ = g – R  cos 90.
R  x 
3
Now, M  
3 g’ = g
This is maximum acceleration due to gravity.
4
or gd  G  R  d   ...(ii) 2. At equator
3
= 0,
Dividing the equation (ii) by (i), we have 2 2
g’ = g – R cos 0
2
4 g’ = g – R
G  R  d    d
gd 3 R d
  or g d  g 1   ...(iii) This is minimum acceleration due to gravity.
g 4 R  R
GR
3

Therefore, the value of acceleration due to gravity

decreases with depth. The variation of acceleration due to gravity according to
the depth and the height from the earth’s surface can be
4.4 Variation of ‘g’with latitude due to Rotational motion of Earth
expressed with help of following graph.
2
Due to the rotational of the earth the force mr cos  acts
radially outwards. Hence the net force of attraction exerted
by the earth of the particle and directed towards the centre A
of the earth is given by g' Ou
2
mg’ = mg – mr cos a rth t si d
h ee et
where g’ is the value of the acceleration due to gravity at et he
sid ea
rth
the point P. In

B
O depth altitude
R

r P
5. SATELLITE
R mg
R
5.1 Definition

Any smaller body which revolves around another larer

body under the influence of its gravitation is called a
satellite. The satellite may be natural or artificial.
1. The moon which revolves around the earth, is a satellite
of the earth. There are sixteen satellites revolving around
the planet Jupiter. These satellite are called natural
satellites.
 GRAVITATION

2. A satellite made and launched into circular orbit by man is 1. If the velocity of the projection is less than the critical
called an artificial satellite. The first satellite was launched velocity then the satellite moves in elliptical orbit, but the
by USSR named SPUTNIK–I and the first Indian satellite point of projection is apogee and int he orbit, the satellite
was ‘ARYABHATTA’. comes closer to the earth with its perigee point lying at
180°. If it enters the atmosphere while coming towards
5.2 Minimum two stage rocket is used to project
perigee it will loose energy and spirally comes down. If it
a satellite in a cirular orbit round a planet does not enters the atmosphere it will contiune to move in
Suppose that a single stage launching system (i.e. a rocket), elliptical orbit.
carrying satellite at its tip, is used to project the satellite 2. If the velocity of the projection is equal to the critical velocity
from the surface of the earth. When the fuel in the rocket then the satellite moves in circular orbit round the earth.
is ignited, the rocket begins to move upwards. The rocket 3. If the velocity of the projection is greater than the critical
attains maximum velocity when all the fule is exhausted. velocity but less than the escape velocity, then the satellite
1. If the maximum velocity attained by the rocket is equal to moves in elliptical orbit and its apoagee, or point of greatest
or greater than the escape velocity, the rocket overcomes distance from the earth, will be greater than projection
the eath’s gravitational influence and escapes into space height.
alogn with the satellite. 4. If the velocity of the projection is equals to the escape
3. If the maximum velocity attained by the rocket is less velocity, then the satellite moves in parabolic path.
escape velocity, the rocket cannot overcome the earth’s 5. It the velocity of the projection is greater than the escape
gravitational influence and both the rocket and the satellite velocity, then orbit will hyperbolic and will escape the
eventually fall on the earth’s surface due to gravity. gravitational pull of the earth and continue to travel
Thus a single stage rocket is unable to launch a satellite in infinitely.
a circular orbit round the earth. Therefore a launching
system (i.e. a rocket) having two or more stages must be 6. ORBITAL VELOCITY
used to launch a satellite in a circular orbit round the earth.
6.1 Definition
5.3 Different cases of Projection
The horizontal velocity with which a satellite must be
When a satellite is taken to some height above the earth projected from a point above the earth’s surface, so that it
and then projected in the horizontal direction, the following revolves in a circular orbit round the earth, is called the
four cases may occur, depending upon the magnitude of orbital velocity of the satellite.
the horizontal velocity.
6.2 An Expression for the Critical Velocity of
a Satellite revolving round the Earth

Suppose that a satellite of mass m is raised to a height h

above the earth’s surface and then projected in a horizontal
direction with the orbital velocity vc. The satellite begins
to move round the earth in a circular orbit of radius, R + h,
where R is the radius of the earth.
GRAVITATION

GMm
The gravitational force acting on the satellite is ,
R  h
2

where M is the mass of the earth and G is the constant of

gravitation.
For circular motion,
Centrifugal force = Centripetal force

mvc2 GMm
  ,
 R  h   R  h 2
GM
GM  vc  ...(i)
vc  r
 R  h If T is the period of revolution of the satellite,
This expression gives the critical velocity of the satellite. circumference of orbit 2r
Period (T)  
From the expression, it is clear that the critical velocity critical velocity vc
depends upon.
2r
1. Mass of the earth T ...(From i)
GM
2. Radius of earth and r
3. Height of the satellite above the surface of the earth.
r3
 T  2
7. PERIOD OF REVOLUTION OF A SATELLITE GM
The time taken by a satellite to complete one revolution This expression gives the periodic time of the satellite.
round the earth is called its period or periodic time (T). Squaring the expression, we get
Consider a satellite of mass m revolving in a circular orbit
4 2 r 3
at a height h above the surface of  T2 
c
GM
w i t h a o r b i t a l v e l o c i t y v

the earth. Let M and R be the mass and the radius of the
2 3
earth respectively. The radius (r) of the circular orbit of the  T r ...(since G and M are constants)
satellite is r = R + h. Thus, the square of the period of revolution of a satellite
For the circular motion, is directly proportional to the cube of the radius of its
orbit.
GRAVITATION
GRAVITATION

8. GRAVITATIONAL FIELD point is equal to the potential energy of a unit mass placed
at that point.
The space surrounding any mass is called a gravitational
feld. If any other mass is brought in this space, it is acted 3. If a small point mass m is placed in a gravitational field at a
upon by a gravitational force. In short, the space in which point where the gravitational potential is V, the gravitational
any mass experiences a gravitational force, is called a potential energy (P.E.) of the mass m is given by.
gravitational field. P.E. = mass × gravitational potential
= mV
9. GRAVITATIONAL INTENSITY
The gravitational intensity at any point in a gravitational GMm
P.E.  
field is defined as the force acting on a unit mass placed at r
that point.
10.1 Gravitational Potential Energy
1. The gravitational intensity (E) at a point at distrance r
Gravitational potential energy of a body at a point is
from a point mass M is given by
defined as the work done in bringing the body from infinity
GM to that point.
E (Where G is the constant of gravitation.)
r2 Let a body of mass m is displaced through a distance ‘dr’
towards the mass M, then work done given by,
2. If a point mass m is placed in a gravitational field of intensity
E, the force (F) acting on the mass m is given by r
GMm GMm
F = mE. dW  F dr 
r2
dr   dW  

r2
dr

10. GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL

GMm
Gravitational potential energy, U  
The gravitational potential at any point in a gravitational r
field is defined as the work done to bring a unit mass from
(i) From above equation, it is clear that gravitational potential
infinity to that point.
energy increases with increase in distance (r) (i.e. it
1. The gravitational potential (V) at a point at distance r from becomes less negative).
a point mass M is given by,
(ii) Gravitational P.E. becomes maximum (or zero) at r = .
GM
V (Where G is the constant of gravitation) 10.2 Expressions for different Energies of Satellite
r
2. The work done on a unit mass is converted into its 1. Potential Energy
potential energy. Thus, the gravitational potential at any 2. Kinetic Energy
 GRAVITATION

3. Total Energy and 4. Binding energy (B.E.) : From the expression for the total
4. Binding energy energy, it is clear that if the satellite is given energy equal

Let M = mass of the earth GMm

to  2  R  h  the satellite will escape to infinity where its
R = radius of the earth
m = mass of the satellite total energy is zero.
G = constant of gravitation
 GMm  GMm
h = height of satellite  B.E. = – (T.E.) =    
 
2 R  h   2R  h
1. Potential energy (P.E.) : The satellite is at a distance (R + h)
from the centre of the earth. 5. Binding Energy of a satellite
The minimum energy which must be supplied to a satellite,
so that it can escape from the earth’s gravitation field, is
called the binding energy of a satellite.
When the body of mass m is at rest on the earth’s surface,
its gravitational potential energy is given by,

GMm
U 
R

GMm
If the body is give an energy equal to  , it will
R
escape to infinity.

GMm
 Binding energy of the body = 
Gm1m 2 R
U
r
11. ESCAPE VELOCITY OF A BODY
GMm
 U 11.1 Expression for the escape velocity of
Rh
a body at rest on the earth’s surface
2. Kinetic energy (K.E.) : The satellite is revolving in a
circular orbit with the critical velocity (vc). Hence its kinetic The minimum velocity with which a body should be
energy is given by, projected from the surface of the earth, so that it escapes
from the earth’s gravitational field, is called the escape
1
K.E.  m v c2 velocity. Thus, if a body or a satellite is given the escape
2
velocity, its kinetic energy of projection will be equal to its
GM binding energy.
But vc 
Rh Kinetic Energy of projection = Binding Energy.

1  GM  GMm 1 GMm
 K.E.  m   2R  h  mv e2 
2 Rh 2 R
3. Total energy (T.E.)
2GM
T. E = P.E. + K.E.  ve 
R
GMm GMm GMm
   11.2 Expression for ‘Ve’ in terms’s of ‘g’
R  h 2R  h 2R  h 
The escape velocity for any object on the earth’s surface
The –ve sign indicates that the satellite is bound to the is given by.
earth.
 GRAVITATION

2GM 1 GMm
ve   mv e2 
R 2 2

If m is the mass of the object, its weight mg is equal to the 2GM

gravitational force acting on it.  ve  ...(ii)
R
GMm From Eq (i) and Eq. (ii), we get,
 mg 
R2
2 ve  2 vc
 G M = gR
Substituting this value in the expression for ve we get, 12. COMMUNICATION SATELLITE
ve  2gR An artificial satellite revolving in a circular obrit round the
earth in the same sense of the rotational of the earth and
11.3 Expression for the escape velocity of a body from having same period of revolution as the period of rotation
Earth in terms of mean density of the planet of the earth (i.e. 1 day = 24 hours = 86400 seconds) is
called as geo-stationary or communication satellite.
1. Derive expression for
As relative velocity of the satellite with respective to the
2 GM earth is zero it appears stationary from the earth’s surface.
ve  Therefore it is know as geo-stationary satellite or
R
geosynchronous satellite.
2. Let  be the mean density of the planet. Then,
1. The height of the communication satellite above the earth’s
4 surface is about 36000 km and its period of revolution is 24
M R 3
3 hours or 24 × 60 × 60 seconds.
2. The satellite appears to be at rest, because its speed relative
2G 4 3 to the earth is zero, hence it is called as geostationary or
ve   R 
R 3 geosynchronous satellite.

12.1 Uses of the communication satellite

2G
ve  2R 1. For sending TV signals over large distances on the earth’s
3
surface.
11.4 The escape velocity of a body from the surface of the 2. Telecommunication.
earth is 2 times its critical velocity when it 3. Weather forescasting.
revolves close to the earth’s surface 4. For taking photographs of astronomical objects.

Let M and R be the mass and radius of the earth and m be 5. For studying of solar and cosmic radations.
the mass of the body. When orbiting close to the earth’s
13. WEIGHTLESSNESS
surface, the radius of the orbit is almost equal to R. If vc is
the critical velocity of the body, then for a circular orbit. 1. The gravitational force with which a body is attracted
Centripetal force = Gravitational force towards the centre of earth is called the weight of body.
Weightlessness is a moving satellite is a feeling. It is not
GMm due to weight equal to zero.
 mv c2 
R2 2. When an astronaut is on the surface of earth, gravitational
force acts on him. This gravitational force is the weight of
GM astronaut and astronant exerts this force on the surface of
 vc  ...(i)
R earth. The surface of earth exerts an equal and opposte reaction
and due to this reaction he feels his weight on the earth.
If ve is the escape velocity from the earth’s surface,
3. for an astronaut in an orbiting satellite, the satellite and
K.E. of projection = Binding energy astronaut both have same acceleration towards the centre
 GRAVITATION

of earth and this acceleration is equal to the acceleration due to (The shaded areas are equal). Naturally the planet has to
gravity of earth. move faster from C to D.
4. Therefore astronaunt does not produce any action on the
floor of the satellite. Naturally the floor does not exert any
force of reaction on the astronaut. As there is no reaction,
the astronaut has a feeling of weightlessness. (i.e. no sense
of his own weight).

1. The sensation of weightlessness experienced by an

aastronaut is not the result of there being zero gravitational area swept
Areal velocity 
acceleration, but of there being zero difference between time
the acceleration of the spacecraft and the acceleration of
1
the astronaut. rrd
1 d
 2  r2  cosntant
2. The most common problem experienced by astronauts in dt 2 dt
the initial hours of weightlessness is known as space 1 2
adaptation snydrome (space sickness). Hence r  = constant.
2
14.3 Law of Periods
14. KEPLER’S LAWS
The square of the time for the planet to complete a
14.1 Law of Orbit revolution about the sun is proportional to the cube of
semimajor axis of the elliptical orbit.
Each Planet move surround the sun in an elliptical orbit
with the sun at one of the foci as shown in figure. The
eccentricity of an ellipse is defined as the ratio of the
SO
distance SO and AO i.e. e 
AO
SO
 e SO  ea
a i.e. Centripetal force = Gravitational force

mv 2 GMm GM
 2
  v2
R R R

Now, velocity of the planet is

Circumference of the circular orbit 2R

v 
Time period T

The distance of closest approach with sun at F1 is AS. Substituting Value in above equation
This distance is called perigee. The greatest distance (BS)
of the planet from the sun is called apogee. GM 4 2 R 2 2 4 2 R 3
  or T 
Perigee (AS) = AO – OS = a – ea = a (1 – e)
R T2 GM

apogee (BS) = OB + OS = a + ea = a (1 + e)  4 2 
Since   is constant,

14.2 Law of Area  GM 
The line joining the sun and a planet sweeps out equal
areas in equal intervals of time. A planet takes the same T2
 T 2  R 3 or  constant
time to travel from A to B as from C to D as shown in figure. R3
GRAVITATION

14.4 Gravity Astronomical Data

Gravity is the force of attraction exerted by earth towards is

centre on a body lying on or near the surface of earth. Gravity
is merely a special case of gravitation and is also called
earth’s gravitational pull.
Weight of a body is defined as the force of attraction exerted
by the earth on the body towards its centre.
The units and dimenstions of gravity pull or weight are the
same as those of force.

LAUNCHING OF AN ARTIFICIAL SATELLITE AROUND EARTH

The satellite is placed upon the rocket which is launched from the earth. After the rocket reaches its maximum vertical height
h, a spherical mechanism gives a thrust to the satellite at point A (figure) producing a horizontal velocity v. The total energy
of the satellite at A is thus,

1 GMm
E mv2 
2 Rh
The orbit will be an ellipse (closed path), a parabola, or an hyperbola depending on whether E is negative, zero, or positive. In all cases
the centre of the earth is at one focus of the path. If the energy is too low, the elliptical orbit will intersect the earth and the satellite will
fall back. Otherwise it will keep moving in a closed orbit, or will escape from the earth, depending on the values of v and R.
Hence a satellite carried to a height h (<< R) and given a horizontal velocity of 8 km/sec will be placed almost in a circular orbit
around the earth (figure). If launched at less than 8 km/sec, it would get closer and closer to earth until it hits the ground. Thus
8 km/sec is the critical (minimum) velocity.

14.5 Intertial mass GM m G F F

F or m G  
Inertial mass of a body is related to its inertia in linear motion; R 2
GM / R 2
 I 
and is defined by Newton’s second law of motion.
The mass mG of the body in this sence is the gravitational
Let a body of mass mi move with acceleration a under the mass of the body. The intertia of the body has no effect on
action of an external force F. According to Newton’s second the gravitational mass of the body.
law of motion, F = mi a or mi = F/a
mG = F
Thus, inertial mass of a body is equal to the magnitude of
Thus, Gravitational mass of a body is defined as the
external force required to produce unit acceleration in the
magnitude of gravitational pull experienced by the body in
body.
a gravitational field of unit intensity.
14.6 Gravitational mass
14.7 Centre of Gravity
Gravitational mass of a body is related to gravitational pull
Centre of gravity of a body placed in the gravitational field is
on the body, and is defined by Newton’s law of gravitational.
that point where the net gravitational force of the field acts.
 Mechanical Properties of Solids

1. Introduction If a body does not regains its original size

and shape completely and immediately
A rigid body generally means a hard solid after the removal of deforming force, it is
object having a definite shape and size. But said to be a plastic body and this property is
in reality, bodies can be stretched, called plasticity.
compressed and bent. Even the appreciably
rigid steel bar can be deformed when a 6. Perfectly plastic body
sufficiently large external force is applied on
That body which does not regain its original
it. This means that solid bodies are not
configuration at all on the removal of
perfectly rigid. A solid has definite shape
deforming force are called perfectly plastic
and size. In order to change (or deform) the
bodies.Putty and paraffin wax are nearly
shape or size of a body, a force is required.
perfectly plastic bodies.
2. Deforming Force
7. Stress
A force which produces a change in
If a body gets deformed under the action of
configuration (size or shape) of the object
an external force, then at each section of
on applying it, is called a deforming force.
the body an internal force of reaction is set
3. Elasticity up which tends to restore the body into its
original state.
Elasticity is that property of the object by
virtue of which it regains its original 7.1 Definition
configuration after the removal of the
The internal restoring force set up per unit
deforming force.
area of cross section of the deformed body
For example, if we stretch a rubber band is called stress.
and release it, it snaps back to its original
7.2 Mathematical Form
length.
Applied Force
4. Perfectly Elastic Body Stress =
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
Those bodies which regain its original Its unit is N/m2 or Pascal.
configuration immediately and completely
Its dimensional formula is [ML-1T -2 ].
after the removal of deforming force are
called perfectly elastic bodies. The nearest 7.3 Types of stress
approach to a perfectly elastic body is
quartz fibre. There are three different types of stress

5. Plasticity 1. Longitudinal Stress

1
 Mechanical Properties of Solids

If deforming force is applied normal to the area 8.1 Mathematical Equation

of cross section, then the stress is called
longitudinal stress. It is further categorized in change in dimension
Strain =
two types original dimension

(a) Tensile stress If there is an increase It has no unit and it is a dimensionless

in length of the object under the effect quantity.
of applied force, then stress is called
According to the change in
tensile stress.
configuration, the strain is of three
(b) Compressional stress If there is a
types
decrease in length of the object under
the effect of applied force, then stress is change in length
(1) longitudinal strain=
called compression stress. original length

change in volume
(2) Volumetric strain = Original volume

(3) 𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 tangential applied force

Area of face

9. Hooke’s Law

Robert Hook found that within the

elastic limit, the stress is directly
2. Tangential or Shearing Stress proportional to strain. Thus we have

If deforming force acts tangentially to 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 ∝ 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏

the surface of a body, it produces a
or
change in the shape of the body. The
𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 = 𝑲. 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏
tangential force applied per unit area is
called tangential stress. where K is the constant of
proportionality called “Elastic Modulus”
3. Normal Stress
of the material.
If a body is subjected to a uniform force
There are some materials that do not
from all sides, then the corresponding
obey Hooke’s law like rubber, human’s
stress is called hydrostatic stress.
muscle.
8.Strain
9.1 Types of Modulus of rigidity
When a deforming force acts on a body,
9.1.1 Young’s Modulus of rigidity (Y)
the body undergoes a change in its
shape and size. The fractional change in
configuration is called strain.

2
 Mechanical Properties of Solids

It is defined as the ratio of normal stress Compressibility

to the longitudinal strain within the
Compressibility of a material is the
elastic limit.
reciprocal of its bulk modulus of elasticity.
𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 Compressibility (C) = 1 / k
Y=
Longitudinal strain Its SI unit is N-1m 2 and CGS unit is dyne-1
It has same units as stress because cm2 .
strain does not have any unit. Y is 9.1.3 Modulus of rigidity or shear
measured in N/m2 or Pa. Modulus (𝜼)
Metals generally have large values of 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
Young’s modulus compare to other 𝜼=
shear strain
materials. In scientific terms, the higher
𝐹
the Young’s modulus of the material the 𝐹
𝜼= 𝐴 =
more elastic it is. ϒ 𝐴ϒ

9.1.2 Bulk Modulus of Rigidity 𝐹

𝜼=
Aϒ
𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
κ=
Volumetric strain
−𝐹/𝐴
or κ= = - pV/∆𝑉
∆V/V

The SI unit of bulk modulus is N/m2

The SI unit of shear modulus is N/m2

The shear modulus of a material is

always considerably smaller than the
Young’s modulus for it.

10. Limit of elasticity

The maximum value of deforming force for
which elasticity is present in the body is
called its limit of elasticity.

3
 Mechanical Properties of Solids

11.Stress- strain Curve zero, a residual strain equal to OE is left in

the wire. The material is said to have
acquired a permanent set. The fact that
stress-strain curve is not retraced on
reversing the strain is called elastic
hysteresis.

(d) If the load is increased beyond the point

C, there is large increase in the strain or the
length of the wire. In this region, the
constrictions ( called necks and waists)
develop at few points along the length of
the wire and the wire breaks ultimately at
Figure shows the stress-strain curve for a the point D, called the fracture point.
metal wire which is gradually being loaded. In the region between B and D, the length
(a) The initial part OA of the graph is a of the wire goes on increasing even without
straight line indicating that stress is any addition of load. This region is called
proportional to strain. Upto the point A, plastic region and material is said to
Hooke’s law is obeyed. The point A is called undergo plastic flow or plastic deformation.
the proportional limit. In this region, the The stress corresponding to the braking
wire is perfectly elastic. point is called ultimate strength or tensile
strength of the material.
(b) After the point A, the stress is not
proportional to strain and a curved portion 12. Elastic after Effect
AB is obtained. However, if the load is
The bodies return to their original state on
removed at any point between O and B, the
the removal of the deforming force. Some
curve is retraced along BAO and the wire
bodies return to their original state
attains its original length. The portion OB of
immediately after the removal of the
the graph is called elastic region and the
deforming force while some bodies take
point B is called elastic limit or yield point.
longer time to do so. The delay in regaining
The stress corresponding to B is called yield
the original state by a body on the removal
strength.
of the deforming force is called elastic after
(c) Beyond the point B, the strain increases effect.
more rapidly than stress. If the load is
removed at any point C, the wire does not
13. Elastic Fatigue
come back to its original length but traces The property of an elastic body by virtue of
dashed line. Even on reducing the stress to which its behavior becomes less elastic

4
 Mechanical Properties of Solids

under the action of repeated alternating When a deforming force is applied at the
deforming force is called elastic fatigue. free end of a suspended wire of length 1
and diameter D, then its length increases by
14. Ductile Materials ∆l but its diameter decreases by ∆𝐷. Now
two types of strains are produced by a
The materials which have large plastic range
single force.
of extension are called ductile materials.
Such materials undergo an irreversible ∆𝑙
(i) Longitudinal strain =
increase in length before snapping. So they 𝑙

can be drawn into thin wires. For e.g. −∆𝐷

(ii) Lateral strain = – D
copper, silver, iron, aluminium etc.
𝐿𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
∴ Poisson’s Ratio (σ) = 𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛=
15 Brittle Materials
−∆𝐷
The materials which have very small range D 𝑙∆𝐷
= ∆𝑙 =− 𝐷∆𝑙
of plastic extension are called brittle 𝑙

materials. Such materials break as soon as

The negative sign shows that longitudinal
the stress is increased beyond the elastic
and lateral strains are in opposite sense.
limit. For e.g. cast iron, glass, ceramics etc.
As Poisson’s ratio is the ratio of two strains,
16. Elastomers it has no units and dimensions.
The materials for which strain produced is The theoretical value of Poisson’s ratio lies
much larger than the stress applied, with in between – 1 and 0.5. Its practical value lies
the limit of elasticity are called elastomers, between 0 and 0.5
e.g., rubber, the elastic tissue of aorta, the
large vessel carrying blood from heart. etc. 19. Applications of elasticity
Elastomers have no plastic range.
The elastic behavior of materials plays an
17. Elastic Potential Energy of important role in everyday life. All
stretched wire engineering designs require precise
knowledge of the elastic behavior of
When a wire is stretched, interatomic materials. For example while designing a
forces come into play which opposes the building, the structural design of the
change. Work has to done against these columns, beams and supports require
restoring forces. The work done in knowledge of strength of materials used.
stretching the wire is stored in it as its
elastic potential energy. A bridge has to be designed such that it can
withstand the load of the flowing traffic, the
18. Poisson’s Ratio force of winds and its own weight. Similarly,
in the design of buildings use of beams and

5
 Mechanical Properties of Solids

columns is very common. In both the cases,

the overcoming of the problem of bending
of beam under a load is of prime
importance. The beam should not bend too
much or break. Let us consider the case of a
beam loaded at the centre and supported
near its ends as shown in Fig.

A bar of length l, breadth b, and depth d

when loaded at the centre by a load W sags
by an amount given by δ = W l 3/(4bd3Y)

Bending can be reduced by using a material

with a large Young’s modulus Y. Depression
can be decreased more effectively by
increasing the depth d rather than the
breadth b. But a deep bar has a tendency to
bend under the weight of a moving traffic,
hence a better choice is to have a bar of I-
shaped cross section. This section provides
a large load bearing surface and enough
depth to prevent bending. Also this shape
reduces the weight of the beam without
sacrificing its strength and hence reduces
the cost.

6
FLUID MECHANICS

FLUID MECHANICS

1. FLUID MECHANICS and tan T = a/g, where T is the angle which the liquid’s free
surface is making with horizontal.
i The liquids and gases together are termed as fluids, in
other words, we can say that the substances which can (d) Pressure at two points within a liquid
flow are termed as fluids. at vertical separation of h when the
liquid container is accelerating up are
i We assume fluid to be incompressible (i.e., the density of
related by expression
liquid is independent of variation in pressure and remains
constant) and non-viscous (i.e. the two liquid surfaces in p2 – p1 = U (g + a) h
contact are not exerting any tangential force on each other). If container is accelerating down, then p2 – p1 = U(g – a) h.
1.1 Fluid Statics
1.1.2 Atmospheric Pressure
1.1.1 Fluid Pressure
i It is the pressure of the earth’s atmosphere. Normal
Pressure p at every point is defined as the normal force atmospheric pressure at sea level (an average value) is 1
5
per unit area. atmosphere (atm) that is equal to 1.013 × 10 Pa.
i The excess pressure above atmospheric pressure is called
dFA gauge pressure, and total pressure is called absolute
p
dA pressure.
2
The SI unit of pressure is the Pascal and 1 Pascal = 1 N/m i Barometer is a device used to measure atmospheric
i Fluid force acts perpendicular to any surface in the fluid, pressure while U–tube manometer or simply manometer is
no matter how that surface is oriented. Hence pressure, a device used to measure the gauge pressure.
has no intrinsic direction of its own, it is a scalar. 1.1.3 Pascal’s Law
Pressure
i A change in the pressure applied to an enclosed fluid is
(a) Pressure at two points in
transmitted undiminished to every portion of the fluid and
a horizontal plane or at
to the walls of the containing vessel.
same level when the fluid
is at rest or moving with i There are a lot of practical applications of Pascal’s law one
constant velocity is same. such application is hydraulic lift.

(b) Pressure at two points which 1.1.4 Archimedes Principle

are at a depth separation of h
i When a body is partially or fully dipped into a fluid, the
when fluid is at rest of moving
fluid exerts contact force on the body. The resulatant of all
with constant velocity is
these contact forces is called buoyant force (upthrust).
related by the expression
i F = weight of fluid displaced by the body.
p2 – p1 = Ugh, where U is the density of liquid.
i This force is called buoyant force and acts vertically
(c) Pressure at two points in a upwards (opposite to the weight of the body) through the
horizontal plane when fluid centre of gravity of the displaced fluid.
container is having some
F = VVg
constant horizontal acceleration
are related by the expression where, v = volume of liquid displaced
p1 – p2 = lUa V = density of liquid.
 FLUID MECHANICS

i Apparent decrease in weight of body = upthrust = weight

of liquid displaced by the body. C P2
A2 v2
i Floation :
(a) A body floats in a liquid if the average density of the body P1 B
v1 h2
is less than that of the liquid.
A1
h1
(b) The weight of the liquid displaced by the immersed part of
body must be equal to the weight of the body.
(c) The centre of gravity of the body and centre of buoyancy
i Bernoulli’s equation is valid only for incompressible
must be along the same vertical line.
steady flow of a fluid with no viscosity.

1.2 Fluid Dynamics i Application of Bernoulli’s Theorem.

(a) Velocity of Efflux

i Steady Flow (Stream Line Flow)
The flow in which the velocity of fluid particles crossing a
particular point is the same at all the times. Thus, each
particle takes the same path as taken by a previous particle h C
v 2 gh
H
through that point. U

i Line of flow
x
It is the path taken by a particle in flowing liquid. In case of a
steady flow, it is called streamline. Two steamlines can never
intersect. Let us find the velocity with which liquid comes out of a
hole at a depth h below the liquid surface.
1.2.1 Equation of Continuity Using Bernoulli’s theorem,

In a time 't, the volume of liquid entering the tube of flow 1 1

PA  UV  Ugh A PB  UV  Ugh B
2 2

in a steady flow is A1 V1 't. The same volume must flow 2 A 2 B

out as the liquid is incompressible. The volume flowing
1 1
out in 't is A2 V2 't. Ÿ Patm  UV  Ugh
2
Patm  UV  0
2

2 A 2
(Note: PB = Patm, because we have opened the liquid to
atmosphere)
2 2
Ÿ V = VA + 2gh
Using equation of continuity
AVA = aV
i A1 V1 = A2 V2
i mass flows rate = UAV A: area of cross-section of vessel

(where U is the density of the liquid.) a: area of hole

1.2.2 Bernoulli’s Theorem a2

Ÿ V2 2
V 2  2gh
A
In a stream line flow of an ideal fluid, the sum of pressure
energy per unit volume, potential energy per unit volume 2gh
Ÿ V | 2gh (if the hole is very small)
and kinetic energy per unit volume is always constant at 1 a2 / A2
all cross section of the liquid.
(b) Venturi Meter
ρV 2
P+ρgh+ =Constant
2 This is an instrument for measuring the rate of flow of
fluids.
FLUID MECHANICS

i The viscous drag on a spherical body of radius r, moving with

velocity v, in a viscous medium of viscosity K is given by
D Fviscous = 6SKrv
h
E This relation is called Stoke’s law.
A C
i Importance of Stoke’s law
B
a1 a2 (a) This law is used in the determination of electronic charge
v2 with the help of milikan’s experiment.
v1
(b) This law accounts the formation of clouds.
(c) This law accounts why the speed of rain drops is less
If PA is pressure at A and PB is pressure at B,
then that of a body falling freely with a constant velocity
PA – PB = hUg [h : difference of heights of liquids of density from the height of clouds.
U in vertical tubes]
(d) This law helps a man coming down with the help of a
If V1 is velocity at A and V2 is velocity at B parachute.
Q = A1V1 = A2 2
[equation of continuity]
1.3.2 Terminal Velocity
2 2
V V It is maximum constant velocity acquired by the body while
PA  U 1
PB  U 2
[Bernoulli’s Theorem]
2 2 falling freely in a viscous medium.

2r U  U0 g
2
2 2 2 2
Ÿ V2  V1 PA  PB hUg vr
U U 9K

Q
2
Q
2 1.3.3 Poiseuille’s Formula
Ÿ 2
 2
2 hg (Q = AV)
A 2 A
1 Poiseuille studied the stream-line flow of liquid in capillary
tubes.
2hg Volume of liquid coming out of tube per second in given by
Ÿ Q A1A 2 2 2
A1  A 2 S Pr
4

8KA
1.3 Viscosity

The property of a fluid by virtue of which it opposes the 1.3.4 Reynold Number
relative motion between its different layers is known as i The stability of laminar flow is maintained by viscous
viscosity and the force that is into play is called the viscous forces. It is obverved, however that laminar or steady flow
force. is disrupted it the rate of flow is large. Irregular, unsteady
Viscous force is given by : motion, turbulence, sets in at high flow rates.
i Reyonlds defined a dimensionless number whose value
dv
F KA gives one an approximate idea, whether the flow rate would
dx be turbulent.
where K is a constant depending upon the nature of the This number, called the Reynolds number Re is defined as,
liquid and is called the coefficient of viscosity and velocity
gradient = dv/dx UvD
Re
–2 K
S.I. unit of coefficient of viscosity is Pa.s or Nsm .
CGS unit of viscocity is poise. (1 Pa.s = 10 Poise) where, U = the density of the fluid flowing with a speed v.
D = the diameter of the tube.
1.3.1 Stoke’s Law
K = the coefficient of viscosity of the fluid.
i When a solid moves through a viscous medium, its motion
i It is found that flow is streamline or laminar for Re less
is opposed by a viscous force depending on the velocity
than 1000. The flow is turbulent for Re > 2000. The flow
and shape and size of the body.
becomes unsteady for Re between 1000 and 2000.
 FLUID MECHANICS

1.4 Surface Tension this action is termed as capillarity.

The surface tension of a liquid is defined as the force per
unit length in the plane of the liquid surface at right angles
to either side of an imaginary line drawn on that surface.

F
So, S where S = surface tension of liquid.
A
2
Unit of surface tension in MKS system : N/m, J/m
2
CGS system  Dyne/cm, erg/cm
1.4.1 Surface Energy 2Scos T 2S
h
In order to increase the surface area, the work has to be rUg RUg
done over the surface of the liquid. This work done is
where, S = surface tension,
stored in the liquid surface as its potential energy. Hence
the surface energy of a liquid can be defined as the excess T = angle of contact,
potential energy per unit area of the liquid surface. r = radius of capillary tube,
R = radius of meniscus, and
U = density of liquid.
i Capillary rise in a tube of insufficient length :
If the actual height to which a liquid will rise in a capillary
tube is ‘h’ then a capillary tube of length less than ‘h’ can
W = S'A, where 'A = increase in surface area. be called a tube of “insufficient length”.
In such a case, liquid rises to the top of the capillary tube
1.4.2 Excess Pressure
of length l (l < h) and adjusts the radius of curvature of its
i Excess pressure in a liquid drop or bubble in a liquid is meniscus until the excess pressure is equalised by the
pressure of liquid column of length l. (Note liquid does
2T not overflow).
P
R
2V
4T Ÿ AUg ... (i)
i Excess pressure in a soap bubble is P rc
R
If r were the actual radius of curvature,
(because it has two free surfaces)
2V
1.4.3 Angle of Contact Ÿ h Ug ...(ii)
r
i The angle between the tangent to the liquid surface at the Comparing (i) and (ii)
point of contact and the solid surface inside the liquid is
called the angle of contact.
i If the glass plate is immersed in mercury, the surface is
curved and the mercury is depressed below. Angle of
contact is obtuse for mercury.
i If the plate is dipped in water with its side vertical, the
water is drawn-up along the plane and assumes the curved
shape as shown. Angle of contact is acute for water.
2V
1.4.4 Capillary Tube and Capillarity Action Ar c hr
Ug
i A very narrow glass tube with fine bore and open at both
ends is known as capillary tube. When a capillary tube in hr
Ÿ rc i.e. radius of curvature r’ can be calculated.
dipped in a liquid, then liquid will rise or fall in the tube, A
FLUID MECHANICS

Adhesion > Cohesion Adhesion = Cohesion Adhesion < Cohesion

1. Liquid will wet the solid. Critical. Liquid will not wet the solid.
2. Meniscus is concave. Meniscus is plane. Meniscus is convex.
3. Angle of contact is acute T = 90°). Angle of contact is 90°. Angle of contact is obtuse T = 90°).
4. Pressure below the meniscus is Pressure below the Pressure below the meniscus
lesser than above it by (2T/r), meniscus is same as more then above it by (2T/r),

2T . 2T .
i.e. P P0  above it, i.e. P = P0. i.e., P P0 
r r
5. In capillary there will be ascend. No capillarity. In capillary there will be descend.
 HEAT & THERMODYNAMICS

HEAT & THERMODYNAMICS

tF
1. THERMAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER
212
In this topic, we discuss various phenomenas involving

Temperature (°F)
thermal and how does a matter behave on experiencing the
flow of thermal energy. Primarily we study tF=180

• Thermal Expansion
• Heat & Clariometry
• Heat Transfer
O
1.1 Temperature and Heat Temperature (°C) 100 tC

Temperature : Temperature is a relative measure of hotness 1.2.2 Absolute Temperature Scale

or coldness of a body.
It is kelvin scale
SI Unit : Kelvin (k)
Ice point  273.15 K
Commonly Used Unit : °C or °F
Steam point  373.15 K
Conversion : t(k) = t°C + 273.15
Comparing it with the celcius scale, number of scale division
Heat : Heat is a form of energy flow (i) between two bodies
in both the scales is same.
or (ii) between a body and its surroundings by virtue of
temperature difference between them t c  0C t k  273.15

SI Unit : Joule (J) 100 100
Commonly Used Unit : Calorie (Cal) • Kelvin scale is called as absolute scale, because it is
Conversion : 1cal = 4.186 J practically impossible to go beyond OK in the negative
• Heat always flows from a higher temperature system side.
to a lower temperature & system. Steam
373.15 K 100°C 212.0°C
Point
1.2 Measurement of Temperature
Ice
273.15 K 0°C 0°C
Principle : Observation of Thermometric property with the Point
change in temperature and comparing it with certain
reference situations.
• Reference situation is generally ice point or steam point. Absolute
OK –27315°C –27315°C
zero
1.2.1 Celcius and Fahrenheit Temperature Scales Kelvin Scale Celcius Scale Fahrenheit Scale

In Celsius Scale In Fahrenheit Scale 1K 1°C 1.8°F

Ice point  0°C Ice point  32°F Comparison of Temperature Scales

Steam point  1000°C Steam point  212°F
1.2.3 Thermometers
It implies that 100 division in celcius scales is equivalent to
Instrument used to measure temperature of any system is
180 scale divisions in fahrenheit scale.
called as thermometer.
t f  32 t Examples : Liquid in Glass thermometer, Platinum Resistance
Hence   c
180 100 Thermometer, Constant Volume Gas Thermometers.
 HEAT & THERMODYNAMICS

• Liquid in Glass thermometer and Platinum Resistance • All gases converge to absolute zero at zero pressure.
thermometer give uniform readings for ice point & steam point
but go non uniform for different liquids and different materials. 1.3 Thermal Expansion
• Constant volume gas thermometer gives same readings
It is widely observed, that most materials expand on heating
respective of which gas. It is based on the fact that at low
and contract on colling.
pressures and constant volume, P × T for a gas.
This expansion is in all dimensions.
Pressure
Experimentaly it has been observed that fractional change
Gas A
in any dimension is proportional to the change in
temperature.
Gas B

–273.15°C 0°C Temperature

(°C)

x
 KT constant (k)
x

L
Linear Expansion   T Coefficient of Linear expansion () :
L
Increase in length per unit length per degree rise in temp.
L

A
Area Expension   T Coefficient of Area Expansion () :
A
L
Increase in area per unit area per degree rise in temp.

V
Volume Expansion   T Coefficient of volume expansion () :
V
Increase in area per unit volume per degree rise in temp.

V

Units of ,, = /°C or /K

• In general with change in volume the density will also
6
change.
•  for metals generally higher than  for non-metals –5
r(10 K )
–1

• is nearly constant at high temperatures but all low temp

it depends on temp.
250 500
T(K)
 HEAT & THERMODYNAMICS

Coefficient of volume expansion of Cu as a function of we know

temperature.
V
• For ideal gases  is inversely propertional to temp. at  T  compressive strain
V
constant pressure
nRT V T ol
v   Also    Thermal stress
P V T V
 T  T ...(3)
 
T
• Practical applications in railway tracks metal tyres of cart
• As an exception, water contracts on heating from 0°C to
wheels, bridges and so many other applications.
4°C andhence its density increases from 0°C to 4°C. Thus
is called as anamolous expansion 1.4 Heat & Calorimetry

When two systems at different temperatures are connected

1 gm/cc
together then heat flows from higher temperature to lower
Density
temperature till the time their temperatures do not become
same.
Principle of calorimetry states that, neglecting heat loss to
surroundings, heat lost by a body at higher temperature is
4°C 4°C equal heat gained by a body at lower temperature.
(a) (b)
heat gained = heat lost
• In general Whenever heat is given to any body, either its temperature
changes or its state changes.
3
  3  
2 1.4.1 Change in Temperature
Proof : Imagine a cube of length, l that expands equally in When the temp changes on heating,
all directions, when its temperature increases by small T; Then
We have Heat supplied change in temp (T)
l = lT amount of substance (m/n)
Also nature of substance (s/C)
3 3 3 2 2 2 3
V = (l l) – l = l + 3l l + 3ll + l – l  H = msT
2
= 3l l ...(1) m = Mass of body
2 3
In Equation (1) we ignore 3ll & l as l is very small as s = specific heat capacity per kg
compared to l.
T = Change in temp
So
or H = nCT
3V V n = Number of moles
V  l = 3VT [Using  l2 ] ...(2)
l l
C = Specific/Molar heat Capacity per mole
V
 3T T = Change in temp
 V
• Specific Heat Capacity : Amount of heat required to raise
  = 3 the temperature of unit mass of the substance through one
degree.
Similarly we can prove for area expansion coefficient
Units
• In case, thermal expansion is prevented inside the rod by
fixing its ends rigidly, then the rod acquires a compressive SI  J/KgK SH Oe = 1 cal/g°C
2
strain due to external fones at the ends corresponding stress
set up in the rod is called thermal stress. Common  Cal/gC° SH O ice = 0.5 cal/g°C
2
 HEAT & THERMODYNAMICS

• Molar Heat Capacity : Amount of heat required to raise the On heating.

temperature of unit mole of the substance through one degree Step - 1 : Temp changes to 0°C first
Units Step - 2 : Ice melts to H2O(l) keeping the temp constant
SI  J/mol K Step - 3 : Temp. inverses to 100°C
Common  Cal/gc° Step - 4 : H2O(l) boils to steam keeping the temp constant
• Heat Capacity : Amount of heat required to raise the Step - 5 : Further temp increases
temperature of a system through one degree
 H = ST Temp

where S = Heat Capacity

Units
SI  J/K
Common  Cal/C°
• For H2O specific heat capacity does change but fairly very Heat
less.
• The slope is inversely proportional to heat capacity.
• Materials with higher specific heat capacity require a lot of
• Length of horizontal line depends upon mL for the process.
heat for some a given in temperature
1.4.3 Pressure dependence on melting point and boiling point
1.4.2 Change in state
• For some substance melting point decreases with increases
When the phase changes on heating
pressure and for other melting point increases
Then
• Melting poing increases with increase in temperature. We
Heat supplied  amount of substance which changes the can observe the above results through phaser diagrams.
state (M)
 nature of substance (L) P B P B
(atm) (atm)
 H = mL C C
Liq Liq
Where L = Latent Heat of process Solid Solid

• Latent Heat : Amount of heat required per mass to change O Vapour O Vapour
the state of any substance.
A A
T(°C) T(°C)
Units For H2O For CO2
SI  J/Kg
Common  Cal/g Line AO  Sublimation curve
• The change in state always occurs at a constant Line OB  Fusion curve
temperature. Line OC  Vapourization curve
For example Point O  Triple Point
Solid  Liq Lf Point C  Critical temperature
Triple Point : The combination pressure and temperature
Liq  Gas Lv at which all three states of matter (i.e. solids, liquids gases
Lf = Latent Heat of fusion co-exist.
Lv = Latent heat of vaporization For H2O it is at 273.16K and 0.006 Atm.
• In case any material is not at its B.P or M.P, then on heating Critical Point : The combination of pressure & temp
the temperature will change till the time a particular state beyond which a vapour cannot be liquified is called as
change temperature reaches. critical point.
For Example : If water is initially at –50°C at 1 Atm pressure Corresponding temperature, pressure are called as critical
in its solid state. temperature & critical pressure.
 HEAT & THERMODYNAMICS

• From the phasor diagram, we can see that melting point • Larger the thermal conductivity, the greater will be rate of
decreases with increases in pressure for H2O. heat energy flow for a given temperature difference.
Based on this is the concept of reglation. • Kmetals > Knon metals
Reglation : The phenomena of refreezing of water melted • Thermal conductivity of insulators is very low. Therefore,
below the normal melting point due to addition of pressure. air does not let the heat energy to be conducted very easily.
• It is due to this pressure effect on melting point that cooking • For combinations of rods between two ends kept at different
is tough on mountains and lasier in pressure cooker. temperatures, we can use the concept of equivalent thermal
conductivity of the composite rod.
1.5 Heat Transfer
For example :
There are three modes of heat transfer.
• Conduction
T1 L1, K 1, A L2, K 2, A T2  T1 Leq, 2L, A T2
• Convection
• Radiation

1.5.1 Conduction where Keq for equivalent thermal conductivity of the

compositive.
Thermal conduction is the process in which thermal energy
is transferred from the hotter part of a body to the colder T C
 TD 
• The term in the above equation is called as
one or from hot body to a cold body in contact with it L
without any transference of material particles. Temperature Gradient.
TC > TD Temperature Gradient : The fall in temperature per unit
TC TD
L length in the direction of flow of heat energy is called as
Temperature Gradient
A
Units
Direction of
heat flow SI  K/m
• The term Q, (i.e.) rate of flow of heat energy can also be
At steady state,
named as heat current
The rate of heat energy flowing through the rod becomes
• The term (L/KA) is called as thermal resistance of any
constant.
conducting rod.
T  TD  Thermal Resistance : Obstruction offered to the flow of
This is rate Q  kA
C
...(i) heat current by the medium
L
for uniform cross-section rods Units  K/W

where Q = Rate of heat energy flow (J/s or W) 1.5.2 Convection

2
A = Area of cross-section (m ) The process in which heat is transferred from one point to
TCTD = Temperature of hot end and cold end respectively another by the actual movement of the heated material
(°C or K) particles from a place at higher temperature to another place
L = Length of the rod (m) of lower temperature is called as thermal convection.

K = coefficient of thermal conductivity • If the medium is forced to move with the help of a fan or a
pump, it is called as forced convection.
Coefficient of Thermal Conductivity : It is defined as
amount of heat conducted during steady state in unit time If the material moves because of the differences in density
through unit area of any cross-section of the substance of the medium, the process is called natural or free
under unit temperature gradient, the heat flow being normal convection.
to the area. • Examples of forced convection
Units Circulatory system, cooling system of an automobile heat
SI  J/mSk or W/mK. connector
 HEAT & THERMODYNAMICS

• Examples of natural convection On integrating

Trade winds, Sea Breeze/Land Breeze, Monsoons Burning log (T2 – T2) = –Kt + C
of Tea. or T2 = T1 + C1e
–Kt
where C1 = e
c
...(6)
1.5.3 Radiation equation (6) enables you to calculate the time of cooling of
a body through a particular range of temperature.
It is a process of transmission of heat in which heat travels
directly from one place to another without the agency of
any intervening medium.
T
• This radiation of heat energy occurs in the form of EM (°C) log
(T2–T1)
waves.
• These radiators are emitted by virtue of its temperature, like
the radiation by a red hot iron or light from a filament lamp.
Time (minute) Time
• Every body radiates energy as well as absorbs energy from
surroundings. • For small temp diff, the rate of cooling, due to conduction,
• The proportion of energy absorbed depends upon the colour convection & radiation combined is proportional to
of the body. difference in temperature.
(a) Newtons Law of cooling • Approximation : If a body cools from Ta to TB in t times in
medium where surrounding temp is T0, then
Newton’s Law of cooling states that, the rate of loss of heat
d Ta  Tb  T  Tb 
of the body is directly proportional to the differenct of  K a  T0 
dt t  2 
temp difference
• Newton’s Law of cooling can be verified experimentally.
 ds
Now  k  T2  T1  ...(4)
dt
T2 T1
where k is a positive constant depending upon area and
nature of the surface of the body. Suppose a body of mass loge (T2-T1)
m, specific heat capacity s is at temperature T 2 & T1 be the
temp of surroundings if dT2 the fall of temperature in time
C
dt. V
Amount of heat lost is
t
dcs = msdT2 (a) (b)
 Rate of loss of heat is given by

dcs dT Set Up : A double walled vessel (v) containng water in

 ms 2 ...(5) between two walls.
dt dt
A copper calorimeter (c) containing hot water placed inside
From Equation 4 and 5
the double walled vessel. Two thermometers through the
dT2 carbs are used to not the temperature T 2 of H 2O in
 ms  k  T2  T1 
dt calorimeter T 1 of water in between the double walls
respectively.
dT2 k Experiment : The temperature of hot water in the calorimeter
  dt   Kdt
T2  T1 ms after equal intervals of time.
Result : A graph is plotted between log (T2 – T1) and time
k (t). The nature of the graph is observed to be a straight line
where K 
ms as it should be from Newton’s law of cooling.
 HEAT & THERMODYNAMICS

The energy that is transferred from one system to another

2. THERMODYNAMICS
by force moving its point of application in its own direction
It is the study of interelations between heat and other forms is called work.
of energy
dx
Thermodynamic System : A collection of large number of
molecules of matter (solid, liquid or gas) which are so
arranged that these posses certain values of pressure, System
volume and temperature forms a thermodynamic system. Fs = PsA

• The parameters pressure, volume, temperature, internal

energy etc which determine the state or condition of system
are called thermodynamic state variables.
In thermodynamics we deal with the thermodynamic systems Work done by the system   F dx
as a whole and study the interaction of heat & energy during
the change of one thermodynamic state to another.   Ps Adx

2.1 Thermal Equilibrium

  Ps dV
The term ‘equilibrium’ in thermodynamics implies the state
Where Ps Pressure of system on the piston. This work done
when all the macroscopic variables characterising the
by system is positive if the system expands & it is negative
system (P, V, T, mass etc) do not change with time.
if the system contracts.
• Two systems when in contact with each other come to
• Work and Heat are path functions whereas internal energy
thermal equilibrium when their temperatures become same. is a state function.
• Based on this is zeroth law of thermodynamics. According • Heat & work are two different terms through they might
to zeroth law, when the thermodynamics systems A and B look same.
are separately in thermal equilibrium with a third
thermodynamic system C, then the systems A and B are in 2.3 Important Thermodynamics Terms
thermal equilibrium with each other also. State Variables : P, V, T, moles
2.2 Heat, Work and Internal Energy They can be extensive or intestive.

Internal Energy is the energy possessed by any system Equation of State : The equation which connects the
due to its molecular K.E. and molecular P.E. Here K.E & P.E pressure (P), the volume (V) and absolute temperature (T)
of a gas is called the equation of state.
are with respect to centre of mass frame. This internal
energy depends entirely on state and hence it is a state PV = constant (Boyle’s Law)
variable. For 1 real gases internal energy is only by virtue
V
of its molecular motion. = constant (Charle’s Law)
T
nf RT  PV = NRT
Units for ideal gases where
3
Thermodynamic Process : A thermodynamic process is
n = number of moles said to take place when some changes occur in the state of
f = Degree of fredom a thermodynamic system, i.e., the thermodynamic
parameters of the system change with some important time.
R = Universal Gas Constant
Types of these thermodynamic process are Isothermal,
T = Temperature in Kelvin Adiabatic, Isobaric and Isocboric
Internal Energy can be change either by giving heat energy Quasi Static Process : A thermodynamic process which is
or by performing some work. infinitely slow is called as quasi-static process.
Heat Energy is the energy transformed to or from the system • In quasi static process, system undergoes change so slowly,
because of the difference in temperatures by conduction, that at every instant, system is in equilibrium, both thermal
convection or radiation. and mechanical, with the surroundings.
 HEAT & THERMODYNAMICS

• Quasi-static process is an idealised processed. We generally 2.5.1 Isothermal Process

assume all the processes to be quasistatic unless stated.
Description : A thermodynamic process in which
Indicator P-V, Diagram : A graph between pressure and
temperature remains constant
volume of a gas under thermodynamic operation is called
P-V. diagram. Condition : The walls of the container must be perfectly
conducting to allow free exchange of heat between gas
P and its surroundings.
The process of compression or expansion should be slow
a
so as the provide time for exchange of heat.
b
These both conditions are perfectly ideal.
d c
v Equation of State : T = Constant or Pv = Constant
Indicator Diagram :
a Isobaric
b Isothermal P P
c Adiabatic
d Isochoric
• Area under P – V diagram gives us work done by a gas.
st v
2.4 1 Law of Thermodynamics T

Let Q = Heat supplied to the system by the surroundings

W = Work done by the system on the surroundings P
Slope of P  V at any point.
U = Change in internal energy of the system. V

First law of thermodynamics states that energy can neither U = 0 (Temperature remains constant)
be created nor be destroyed. It can be only transformed v2
from the form to another.
W=  P dV
g
Mathematically : Q = U + Q v2

Sign Conventions : v2
nRT dV
• When heat is supplied to the system, then Q is positive =  V V [Using PV = nRT)
and when heat is withdrawn from the system, Q is v2

negative.
v2
• When a gas expands, work done by the gas is positive & = nRT l n v
when a gas contracts then w is negative 1

• U is positive, when temperature rises and U is negative, First Law of Thermodynamics

when temperature falls.
Q = U + W
Remember here we always take work done by the system.
In chemistry, work done on the system is considered. Hence v2
st
there is some different look of 1 law of Thermodynamics in  Q = nRT l n v
1
chemistry.
Q + W = U Remarks : All the heat supplied is used entirely to do work
against external sorroundings. It heat is supplied then the
where Q, U have same meanings but W stands for work
gas expands & if heat is withdrawn then the gas contracts.
done on the system
Practical Examples :
2.5 Application of the First of Law of Thermodynamics
Melting of ice at 0°C
st
Here we see how 1 Law of Thermodynamics is applied to
Boiling of H2O at 100°C
various thermodynamic processes.
 HEAT & THERMODYNAMICS

2.5.2 Adiabatic Process

cons tan t  1 1 
Description : When there is not heat exchange with =  r 1  r 1 
1 r  V2 V 
surroundings
1

Conditions : The walls of the container must be perfectly Also we know

non-conducting in order to prevent any exchange of heat
between the gas and its surroundings. P1 V1r  P2 V2r  cons tan t

The process of compression or expansion should be rapid

so there is no time for the exchange of heat. 1  P2 V2 r P1 V1r 
   
1  r  V2r 1 V1r 1 
These conditions are again ideal condition and are hard to
obtain
P2 V2  P1 V1 nR  T1  T2 
Equation of State : W = 
r
1 r r 1
Pv = constant
r –1 First Law of Thermodynamics
or TV = constat
Q = UT + W
r
or PT 1 r
 cons tan t Substituting the values

Indicator Diagram We get Q = 0

Q = 0 is as expected
P Remarks : It gas expands adiabatically then its temp
decreases & vice vers a
isotherm Practical Example
• Propagation of sound waves in the form of compression &
v rarefaction
• Sudden bursting of a cycle tube.

 rp 2.5.3 Isochoric Process

Slope of adiabatic curve 
V
Description : Volume remains constant
• As shown in graph adiabatic curve is steeper than Condition : A gas being heated  or cooled inside a rigid
isothermal curve. container.

nfRDT nR  T2  T1  P2 V2  P1 V1 P
U    Equation of State : V = constant or = constant
2 r 1 r 1 T
Work Done by Gas : If a gas adiabatically expands from V1
to V2 P P P

V2
dV
W = V
V1
r

V2
v T T
dV
= cons tan t  Vr
V1
n f R T
U =
2
 PV r  cons tan t 
 
  p  cons tan t  n R  T2  T1 
 V r
 =
r 1
V2
 V  r 1  P2 V2  P1 V1 nR T
= cons tan t    U = 
 1 r V 1 r 1 r 1
 HEAT & THERMODYNAMICS

Work First Law of Thermodynamics

W = O as gas does not expands Q = U + W
First Law of thermodynamics
nfRT
Q = U + W  Q =  nRT
2
n f R T
 Q= ...(7)  fR 
2  Q =   R  T ...(10)
 2 
Remarks : Since we have studied earlier, that when heat is
supplied to any process. its temp increases according to Remarks : Similar to CV, we can define molar heat capacity
relation at constant pressure

Q = nCT Q 
 CP = nT  ...(11)
P
Q
 C=
nT From equation 10 & 11
Now this C depends upon external conditions for gases.
fR
We get CP = R ...(12)
Q  2
Here it is refered as nT  ...(8)
v From equation 9 & 12

i.e. Molar heat capacity at constant volume fR

Replacing by CV we get
Comparing equation 7 and 8 2
CP = CV = R ...(13)
fR
We getCv = ...(9) which is also called as Mayer’s Relation.
2
• Similar to molar specific heat at constant pressure and molar
2.5.4 Isobaric Process specific heat at constant volume, we can define molar
Description : When pressure remains constant specific heat for any process.
Condition : When in one container, the piston is free to For example :
move and is not connected by any agent. C adiabatic = 0
Equation of State : P = constant C isothermal = 

V Basically gas does not possess a unique specific heat.

= constant Mainly we have CP & CV
T
Indicator Diagram : Specific Heat at Constant Volume : It is defined as the
amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1g of a
P P gas through 1C°, when its volume is kept constant. It is
denoted as CV.
Specific Heat at Constant Pressure : It is defined as the
amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1g of a
v T gas through 1C° keeping its pressure constant. It is denoted
as CP.
nf RT • Please Note CP, CV means Molar heat Capacity & CP, CV
U = same as always means specific heat capacity
2
• CV = MCV & CP = MCP where M stands for molar mass of any
W =  PdV  PV sample.
(as pressure is constant) R
• CP  CV 
= PV2 – PV = nRT M
 HEAT & THERMODYNAMICS

2.5.5 Melting Process 2.7 Heat Engines

In any case first law is always applicable It is a device that converts heat energy into mechanical
energy.
Q = mLf as learned earlier.
Key Elements :
W=0
• A source of heat at higher temperature
(In the change of state from solid to liquid we ignore any
expansion or contraction as it is very small) • A working substance

According to first law of thermodynamics • A sink of heat at lower temperature.

U = Q – W Working :

U = mLf • The working substance goes through a cycle consisting of

several processes.
Remark : The heat given during melting is used in
increasing the internal energy of any substance • In some processes it absorbs a total amount of heat Q1 from
the source at temperature T 1.
2.5.6 Boiling Process
• In some processes it rejects a total amount of heat Q2 to the
Here sink at some lower temperature T2.
Q = mLV • The work done by the system is a cycle is transferred to the
environment via some arrangement.
W = P[V2 – V1]
Schematic Diagram
(Pressure is constant during boiling and it is equal to
atmospheric pressure) W
 U = Q – W
U = mLf – P(V2 – V1)
Source or Q1 Working Q2 Sink or
2.5.7 Cyclic Process Hot Reservoir Substamnce Cold Reservoir

A cyclic process is one is which the system returns to its

T1 T2
initial stage after undergoing a serves of change
Example Indicatgor Diagram First Law of Thermodynamics
P  Energy is always conserved
A  Q1 = W + Q 2 ...(14)
Thermal Efficiency of a heat engine is defined of the ratio
B
of net work done per cycle by the engine to the total amount
V of heat absorbed per cycle by the working substance from
the source. It is denoted by .
U = mLV O
W = Area under the loop. W
= Q ...(15)
Q = W as per First Law of thermodynamics 1

Here W is positive if the cycle is clockwise & it is negative Using equation 14 and 15 we get
if the cyclic is anti clockwise.
Q2
2.6 Limitations of the First Law of Thermodynamics  = 1 Q ...(16)
1

• The first law does not indicate the direction in which the Ideally engines shuld have efficiency = 1
change can occur. Remarks : The mechanism of conversion of heat into work
• The first law gives no idea about the extent of change varies for different heat engines.
• The first law of thermodynamics gives no information about • The system heated by an external furnace, as in a steam
the source gives no information about the source of heat. engine. Such engines are called as external combustion
i.e. whether it is a hot or a cold body. engine.
 HEAT & THERMODYNAMICS

• The system is which heat is produced by burning the fuel Though all the statements are the same in their contents,
inside the main body of the engine. Such an engine is called the following two are significant.
as Internal Combustion Engine. Kelvin Pnek Statement : No process is possible whose
2.8 Refrigerator and Heat Pumps sole result is the absorption of heat from a reservoir and the
complete conversion of the heat into work.
A refrigertor or heat pump is a device used for cooling
Calcius Statement : No process is possible whose sole
things.
result is the transfer of heat from a colder object to a hotter
Key Elements : object.
• A cold reservoir at temperature T 2. Significance : 100% officiency in heat engines or infinite
• A working substance. CoP in refrigerators is not possible.
• A hot reservoir at temperature T1 2.10 Reversible and Irreversible Process
Working
Reversible Process : A thermodynamic process taking a
• The working substance goes through a cycle consisting of system from initial state i to final state f is reversible, if the
several process. process can be turned back such that both, the system and
• A sudden expansion of the gas from high to low pressure the surroundings return to their original states, with no
which cool it and converts it into a vapour-liquid mixture. other change anywhere else in the universe.
• Absorption by the cold fluid of heat from the region to be Conditions for reversibility :
cooled converting it into vapour. 1. Process should proceed at an extremely slow rate, i.e.,
• Heating up of the vapour due to external work done on the process is quasistatic so that system is in equilibrium with
working substance. surroundings at every stage.
• Release of heat by the vapour to the sorroundings bringing 2. The system should be free from dissipative forces like
it to the initial state and completing the cycle. friction, inelasticity; viscosity etc.
Sychematic Diagram. Examples : No process exactly reversible, though a slow
expansion of an ideal gas is approximately reversible.
W
Irreversible Process : A process which does not satisfy
any of the conditions for reversible is called an irreversible
Hot Reservoir Q1 Q2 Cold Reservoir process.
T1 T2
Causes :
• Spontaneous process
First Law of Thermodynamics
• Presence of friction, viscosity and such dissi-ptive forces
Q2 + W = Q 1 ...(17)
Significance of Reversibility :
Coefficient of Performance of refrigerator () is defined as
• Main concern of thermodynamics is the efficiency with
the ratio of quantity of heat removed per cycle from contents
which the heat is converted into Mechanical Energy.
of the refrigerator (Q2) to the energy spent per cycle (W) to
remove this heat • Second Law of Thermodynamics rules out the possibility
of a perfect heat engine with 100% efficiency.
Q2 • It turns out that heat engine based on idealised reversible
 ...(18)
W processes achieves the highest possible efficiency.
Using equation 17 and 18 we get
2.11 Carnot Engine
Q2 Sadi Carnot devised on ideal cycle of operation for a heat

Q1  Q 2 engine called as carnot cycle.

Ideally heat pumps should have  =  Engine used for realising this ideal cycle is called as carnot
heat engine.
2.9 Second Law of Thermodynamics
Constructions : The essential parts of an ideal heat engine
There are number of ways in which this law can be stated. or Carnot heat engine are shown in figure.
 HEAT & THERMODYNAMICS

Consider one gram mole of an ideal gas enclosed in the

cylinder. Let V1, P1, T1 be the initial volume, pressure and
temperature of the gas. The initial state of the gas is
represented by the point Aon P–V. diagram, We shall assume
Cylinder
Ideal that all the four processes are quasi-static and non
Gas dissipative, the two conditions for their reversibility.
Steps
Source at Insulating Sink at
Temp. T1 Pad Temp. T2 1. Isothermal Expansion :
The cylinder is placed on the source and gas is allowed to
(i) Source of heat : The source is maintained at a fixed higher expand by slow outward motion of piston. Since base is
temperature T1, from which the working substance draws perfectly conducting therefore the process is isothermal.
heat. The source is supposed to possess infinite thermal
Now
capacity and as such any another of heat can be drawn
from it without changing its temperature. U1 = O
(ii) Sink of heat : The sink is maintained at a fixed lower
V2
temperature T2, to which any amount of heat can be rejected q1 = W1 = RT1l n . V = Area ABmKA
by the working substance. It has also infinite thermal 1

capacity and as such its temperature remains constant at q1  Heat absorbed by gas
T2, even when any amount of heat is rejected to it.
w1  work done by gas
(iii) Working substance : A perfect gas acts as the working
substance. It is contained in a cylinder with non-conducting 2. Adiabatic Expansion :
sides but having a perfectly conducting-base. This cylinder The cylinder is now removed from source and is placed on
is fitted with perfectly non-conducting and frictionless the perfectly insulating pad. The gas is allowed to expand
piston. further from B(P2, V2) to C (P3, V3). Since the gas is thermally
Apart from these essential parts, there is a perfectly insulated from all sides, therefore the processes is adiabatic
insulating stand or pad on which the cylinder can be placed. q2 = 0
It would isolate the working substance completely from the
surroundings. Hence, the gas can undergo adiabatic R  T2  T1 
U 2 
changes. r 1
The Carnot cycle consists of the following four stages :
R  T3  T1 
1. Isothermal exdpansion W2  = Area BCNMB
r 1
2. Adiabatic expansion
3. Isothermal Compression :
3. Isothermal compression
The cylinder is now removed from the insulating pad and is
4. Adiabatic compression.
placed on the sink at a temperature T 2. The piston is moved
The cycle is carried out with the help of the Carnot engine slowly so that the gas is compressed until is pressure is P4
as detailed below : and volume is V4.
U3 = 0
P

V4
Pressure (P)

A(V1, P1) W2  RT2 l n

V3 = – Area CDLNC
B(V 2, P 2)
Q1 T1
D(V4, P4) V4
C(V 3, P 3) q 3  RT2 l n
T2
V3
Q2

O K L M N
X q3 = Heat absorbed in this process
Volume (V) w3 = Work done by Gas
 HEAT & THERMODYNAMICS

4. Adiabatic Compression : Q1 T1

The cylinder is again placed on the insulating pad, such Q 2 T2
that the process remains adiabatic. Here the gas is further
compressed to its initial P1 and V1. T2
 Carnot  1 
T1
R  T1  T2 
U 4  Division
r 1
• Carnot engine - depends only upon source temperature nd sink
R  T2  T1  temperature.
W4  = – area DAKLD
r 1 • Carnot engine =1 only when T 2 = 0 K or T 1 =  which is
impossible to attain.
q4 = 0
w4 = work done by the gas • If T2 = T1   =  Heat cannot be converted to mechanical
energy unless there is same difference between the
Analysis : temperature of source and sink.
Total work done by the engine per cycle.
2.12 Carnot Theorem
= W1 + W2 + W3 + W4
Statement :
= W1 + W3
(a) Working between two given temperatures, T 1 of hot
V2 V reservoir (the source) and T2 of cold reservoir (the sink, no
W = RT1l n  RT2 l n 4 engine can have efficiency more than that of the Carnot
V1 V3
engine.
Q1 = Total heat absorbed = q1 (b) The efficiency of the Carnot engine is independent of the
nature of the working substance.
V2
= RT1l n ...(19) Engine used for realising this ideal cycle is called as carnot
V1
heat engine.
Q2 = Total heat released = –q3 Proof :
[q3 = Heat absorbed & not heat released] Step - 1 : Imagine a reversible engine R and an irreversible
engine-I working between the same source (hot reservoir T1)
V3
= RT2 l n ...(20) and sink (cold reservoir T2).
V4
Step - 2 : Couple two engines such that I acts like heat
We can see that for heat engine engine and R acts like refrigerator.
W = Q 1 – Q2 Step - 3 : Let engine I absorb Q1 heat from the source deliver
1 1
= Area under ABCDA work W and release the balance Q1 – W to the sink in one
cycle.
Efficiency of Carnot Engine
W1
W Q
  1 2
Q1 Q1 Q1 Q1–W1
1
Now steps 2 is adiabatic 2 step 4 is also adiabatic T1
Q1 Q 1–W
T2
R
 T1 V2r 1  T2 V3r 1

and T1 V1r 1  T2 V4r 1 Step - 4 : Arrange R, such that it returns same heat Q, to
the source, taking Q 2 from the sink and requiring work
V2 V3 W = Q1 – Q2 to be done on it.
  ...(21)
V1 V4 Step - 5 : Supppose R < I (i.e.) If R were to act as an
engine it would give less work output than that of I (i.e.)
From equation 19, 20 and 21 we get 1
W < W for a given Q1 and Q1 – W > Q1 – W
1
 HEAT & THERMODYNAMICS

Step - 6 : In totality, the I-R system extracts heat (r1 – W) – • There is no force of attraction or repulsion amongst the
1 1
(Q1 – W ) = W – W & delivers same amount of work in one molecules of an ideal gas.
cycle, without any change in source or anywhere else. This
3.2.2 Real Gas
is against second Law of Thermodynamics. (Kelvin - Planck
statement of second law of thermodynamics) All gases are referred to as real Gases.

Hence the assertion q1 > qR is wrong. All real gas near the ideal gas behaviour at low pressures
and temperatures high enough, where they cannot be
• Similar argument can be put up for the second statement of
liquified.
carnot theorem, (ie) Carnot efficiency is independent of
working substance. 3.2.3 Ideal Gas Laws
 We use ideal gas to else are calculating but the relation. Avogadro Hypothesis : Equal volumes of all gas under
identical conditions of pressure and temperature would
Q1 T1 contain equal number of molecule.

Q 2 T2 will always hold true for any working substance
Perfect Gas Equation :
used in a carnot engine. PV = nRT

3. KINETIC THEORY OF GASES SRT

and P
M
In this topic, we discuss the behaviour of gases and how
are the various state variable like P, V, T, moles, U are inter- where n = Number of moles.
related with each other r = Universal Gas constant = NxkB
where ND = Avagadro No.
3.1 Molecular Nature of Matter
kB = Boltzman constant
Same as Atomic Theory given by Delton. According to
R = 8031 J/mol K.
him, atoms are the smallest constituents of elements. All
atoms of one element are identical, but atoms of different R = 1.98 Cal/mol K.
element are different. Boyle’s Law : When temperature of a given mass of gas is
In solids : Atoms tightly packed, interatomic spacing about kept constant, its pressure varies inversely as the volume
of gas.
Å . Interatomic force of attraction are strong.
(i.e.) PV = constant
In liquids : Atoms are not as rigidly fixed as in solids.
Interatomic spacing is about the same 2Å. Interatomic for a Charles Law : When pressure of a given mass of kept
attraction are relative weaker. constant, volume of the gas varies directly as the
temperature of the gas.
In Gases : Atoms very free. Inter atomic spacing is about
tens of Angstroms. Interatomic forces are much weaker in (i.e.) V T
gases than both in solids and liquids. Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures : The total pressure of a
mixture of ideal gases is the sum of partial pressures exerted
In this chapter, we mainly focus on gases.
by the individual gases in the mixture.
3.2 Molecular Nature of Matter P–V = (n1 + n2 + n3 + ...)RT

3.2.1 Ideal Gas RT

 P = (n1 + n2 + n3 + ...)
V
That gas which strictly obeys the gas laws, (such as Boyle’s
Law, Charles, Gay Lussac’s Law etc.) P = P1 + P2 + ......
Characteristics
n1 RT
• The size of the molecule of an ideal gas is zero. where P1 = Pressure of gas
V
 HEAT & THERMODYNAMICS

Neviation of Real Gas from Ideal Gas : volume occupied by the molecules is negligible in
comparison to the volume of the gas.
Ideal Gas 4. The molecules do not exert any fore of attraction or
1
repulsion on each other, except during collision.
T1
5. The collisions of the molecules with themselves and with
T2 T1 > T2 > T3 > the walls of the vessel are perfectly elastic. As such, that
momentum and the kinetic energy of the molecules are
T3 conserved during collisions, though their individual
velocities change.
0 200 400 600 800 6. There is not concentration of the molecules at any point
P (atm)
inside the container i.e. molecular density is uniform
throughout the gas.
1.6
7. A molecule moves along a straight line between two
1.4
successive collisions and the average straight distance
P 1.2
covered between two successive collisions is called the
1.0 T1 mean free path of the molecules.
T1 > T2 > T3
0.8 8. The collisions are almost instantaneous, i.e., the time of
T1 collision of two molecules is negligible as compared to time
0.6
interval between two successive collisions.
0.4 T2 T2
T3
3.4 Pressure of an Ideal Gas and its Expression
0.2
T3 Pressure exerted by the gas is due to continuous
0
20 60 100 140 160 220 bombardment of gas molecules against the walls of the
V container.
Expression :
1.2 Consider a gas enclosed in a cube of side 1. Take the axes
P1 > P2 > P3
1.0 to be parallel to the sides of the cube, as shown in figure. A
T 0.8
molecule with velocity (x, y, z) hits the planar wall parallel
P1 2
to yz-plane of area A (= l ). Since the collision is elastic, the
0.6 molecule rebounds with the same velocity; its y and z
P2 components of velocity do not change in the collision but
0.4
P3 the x-component reverses sig. That is, the velocity after
0.2 collision is (–x,vz, vy). The change in momentum of the
0 molecule is : –mx – (mx) – 2mx. By the principle of
0 100 200 300 400 500 conservation of momentum, the momentum imparted to the
V
wall in the collision = 2mx.

3.3 Kinetic Theory Postulates To calculate the force (and pressure) on the wall, we need
to calculate momentum imparted to the wall per unit time, if
1. A gas consists of a very large number of molecules (of the it is within the distance x t from the wall. that is, all
23
other of Avogadro’s number. 10 ), which are perfect elastic
molecules within the volume, Ax t only can hit the wall in
spheres. For a given gas they are identical in all respects,
time T is 1/2A x t n where n is the number of molecules
but for different gases, they are different. per unit volume. The total momentum transferred to the
2. The molecules of a gas are in a state of incessant random wall by these molecules in time t is :
motion. They move in all directions with different speeds.,
Q = (2mx) (1/2 n Avxt)
( of the order of 500 m/s) and obey Newton’s laws of motion.
The force on the wall is the rate of momentum transfer Q/t
3. The size of the gas molecules is very small as compred to
and pressure is force per unit area :
the distance between them. If typical size of molecule is 2 2
Å, average distance between the molecules is  20 Å. Hence P = Q/(A t) = nm x
HEAT & THERMODYNAMICS

Actually, all molecules in a gas do not have the same 1

velocity; there is a distribution in velocities. The above  PV  M  2 ...(23)
3
equation therefore, stands for pressure due to the group of
with equation 23 and Ideal gas equation
molecules with speed x in the x-direction and n stands for
the number density of that group of molecules. The total 1
nRT  M  2
pressure is obtained by summing over the contribution due 3
to all groups:
1
 nRT  Nm  2
P  nm 2
x
3

where  2x is the average of  2x . Now the gas is isotropic, n 3RT 1

  m 2
N 2 2
i.e. there is no preferred direction of velocity of the molecules
in the vessel. Therefore by symmetry, Also N = nNA

3 R 1
 2x   2y   z2   m 2
2 NA 2

1 1 3
    2x   2y   2z      2 Average KE of translation per molecule of the gas k BT
3
     3 2

where  is the speed and  2 denotes the mean of the squared 3.5 Kinetic Interpretation of Temperature

speed. Thus From above equations, we can easily see that KE of one
molecule is only dependent upon its Temperature.
1  KE of molecule will cease if, the temperature of the gas
P    nm 2
3 molecules become absolute zero.
 Absolute zero of a temperature may be defined as that
1 2 1M 1 2
P mn    S ...(22) temperature at which the root mean square velocity of the
2 2V 2
gas molecule reduces to zero.
M = Total mass of gas moleculus All the ideal gas laws can be derived from Kinetic Theory
V = Total volume fo gas molecules of gases.

3.4.1 Relation between Pressure and KE of Gas Molecules 3.6 Derivation of Gas Laws from Kinetic Theory

From equation 22 3.6.1 Boyle’s Law

1 2
P  S 2 We know that PV  NK
3 3

2 where K is the average kinetic energy of translation per

 P E
3 gas molecule. At constant temperature. K is constant and
 Pressure exerted by an ideal gas is numerically equal to two for a given mass of the gas. N is constant.
third of mean kinetic Thus, PV = constant for given mass of gas at constant
temperature, which is the Boyle’s Law.
3.4.2 Average KE per molecule of the Gas
3.6.2 Charle’s Law
From equation 22
We know 2
We know that PV  NK
3
1M 2
P 
3  For a given mass of gas, N is constant.
 HEAT & THERMODYNAMICS

3 r rms
Since K  k B T, K  T and as such PV  T.
2
3P 3P 1
If P is constant, V  T, which is the Charles’ Law. But as  rms  ,r or r 
  
3.6.3 Constant Volume Law
Therefore, if r1 and r2 are the rates of diffusion of two gases
2 of densities 1 and 2 respectively,
We know that PV  NK
3
r1 2
For a given mass of gas, N is constant. Since 
r2 1
3
K k B T, K  T The rates of diffusion of two gases are thus inversely
2
proprotional to the square roots of their densities which is
Thus, PV  T Graham’s Law of diffusion.
If V is constant, P  T, which the constant volume law.
3.6.7 Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures
3.6.4 Ideal Gas Equation
The kinetic theory of gases attributes the gas pressure to
2 3 the bombardment of the walls of the containing vessel by
As PV  NK and K  k B T
3 2 molecules. In a mixture of ideal gases, we might therefore
expect the total pressure (P) to be the sum of the partial
2 3 
PV  N  k B T  or PV = Nk T pressures (p1, p2, ...) due to each gas, i.e.,
3 2  B

which is the ideal gas equation. 2 N1 2 N2

P  p1  p 2  ...  K1  K 2  ...
3 V1 3 V2
3.6.5 Avogadro’s Law

Consider two gases 1 and 2. We can write 2  N1 N 

or P  K1  2 K 2  ... 
3  V1 V2 
2 2
P1 V1  N1 K1 , P2 V2  N 2 K 2
3 3 In equilibrium, the average kinetic energy of the molecules
If their pressures, volumes and temperatures are the same, of different gases will be equal, i.e.,
then
3
K1  K 2  ...K  k BT
P1 = P2, V1 = V2, K1  K 2 . 2
Clearly, N1 = N2 Thus : Thus,
Equal volumes of all ideal gases existing under the same
2 3
conditions of temperature and pressure contain equal P  n1  n 2  ...  k B T    n1  n 2  ... k B T ...(24)
3 2 
number of molecules which is Avogadro’s Law or
hypothesis.
N1 N2
This law is named after the Italian physicist and chemist, where n1  V , n 2  V ...
1 2
Amedeo Avogadro (1776–1856).
Equation (24) represents Dalton’s Law of partial pressures
PV
Alliter : As PV  Nk B T, N  which states that :
k BT
The resultant pressure exerted by a mixture of gases or
If P, V and T are constants, N is also constant. vapours which do not interact in any way is equal to the
3.6.6 Graham’s Law of Diffusion sum of their individual (i.e., partial) pressures.
Figures shows a model explaning kinetic theory of gases. It
The rate (r) of diffusion of a gas through a porous pot or
has been constructed in accordance with theory on one
into another gas is determined by the rms speed of its
molecules, i.e., hand and real experimental observations on the other hand.
 HEAT & THERMODYNAMICS

N = Number of degrees of freedom of the system

1
mv2  K N = 3A– R
I PV = nRT 2 III
3
 kBT 3.8.1 Monoatomic Gases
2
Based on Based on combining The molecules of a monoatomic gas (like neon, argon,
experimental two mathematical
observations Based on models of a gas in helium etc) consists only of one atom.
of gases Newtonian boxes I and II
1  Nm  2  A=1
II P  v mechanocal
3 V  treatment of
R=0
gas as
collection of
particles  N=3
Here 3 degrees of freedom are for translational motion
2
PV  NK 3.8.2 Diatomic Gases
3
= NkBT A=2
Based on substituting Assuming the distance between the two molecules is fixed
and rearranging the expression
for K back into equation in box II then R = 1

The above piece of logic is tempting but false. This is due  N=3×2–1=5
to the reason that though the equation in box IV is useful, Here 5 degrees of freedom implies combination of 3
it does not tell us anything new, since it results from translational energies and 2 rotational energies.
combining equations in boxes II and III.
3.7 Internal Energy
As studied in thermodynamics, Internal Energy of any
substance is the combination of Potential Energies &
Kinetic Energies of all molecules inside a given gas.
• In real gas
Internal Energy = P.E of molecules + K.E of Molecules
Y Y
• In real gas
Internal Energy = K.E of Molecules A1
X X A1 A2
Here PE of molecules is zero as assumed in Kinetic theory A2
postulates; There is no interaction between the molecules
Z Z (i) (ii)
hence its interactional energy is zero.
(a) (b)
Y
3.8 Degree of Freedom
A1
The number of degrees of freedom of a dynamical system is
defined as the total number of coo-ordinates or independent A2 A3
X
quantities required to describe completely the position &
configuration of the system. Z
(c)
Example : If vibrational motion is also considered then [only at very
• A particle moving in straight line, say along X-axis need high temperatures
only x coordinate to define itself. It has only degree of N=7
freedom.
where 3 for translational
• A particle in a plane, needs 2 co-ordinates, hence has 2
degree of freedom. 2 for rotational

In general if 2 for vibrational

A = number of particles in the system 3.8.3 Triatomic Gas

R = number of independent relations among the particles
 HEAT & THERMODYNAMICS

Linear
dy
A=3 where  vibrational velocity
dt
R=2
 N=3×3–2=7 ky 2
and = Energy due to configuration
2
Non-Linear
According to Law of Equipartition

1
Energy per degree of freedom  k BT
2

1 1
  k B T  K B T  K B T is energy for
2 2

A=3 complete one vibrational mode.

R=2 3.10 Specific Heat Capacity

 N=3×3–3=6 With the knowledge of law of equipartition, we can predict
• Here again vibrational energy is ignored. the heat capacity of various gases.

3.8.4 Polyatomic Gas 3.10.1 Monoatomic Gas

A polyatomic gas has 3 translational, 3 rotational degrees Degree of freedom = 3.

of freedom. Apart from them if there v vibrational modes  Average Energy of a molecule at temperature T
then there will be additional 2v vibrational degrees of
freedom. 1 
 E  3  k BT 
 Total degree of freedom 2 
n = 3 + 3 + 2V = 6 + 2V Energy for one mole  E × NA
3.9 Law of Equipartition of Energy 3
 U  k B NA  T
Statement : According to this law, for any dynamical system 2
in thrmal equilibrium, the total energy is distributed equally
amongst all the degrees of freedom, and the energy 3
 U RT
associated with each molecule per degree of freedom is 2

1 In thermodynamics, we studied
k B T , where kB is Boltzman constant and T is temperature
2
Q  U
of the system. CV    [ W = O for constant v]
T  V T
k BT
Application : U  f where = Total degree of freedom. 3R
2  CV 
This law is very helpful in determining the total internal 2
energy of any system be it monoatomic, diatomic or any
5R CP 5
polyatomic. Once the internal energy is know we can very  CP  & r 
easy predict Cv & CP for such systems. 2 CV 3 .

Remark : In case vibrational motion is also there in any 3.10.2 Diatomic Gases
system, say for diatomic molcule, then there should be When no vibration
energy due to vibrational as well given by
Degree of freedom = 5
2
1  dy  1 2
EV  m    ky 5
2  dt  2 Average energy for one mole = RT
2
 HEAT & THERMODYNAMICS

U 5 Therefore the atoms do not possess any translational or

 CV   R rotational degree of freedom.
T 2
On the other hand, the molecules do possess vibrational
7R
CP  motion along 3 mutually perpendicular directions.
2
Hence for 1 mole of a solid, threre are NA number of atoms.
C 7
r P  The energy associated with every molecule
CV 5
 1 
When vibration is present.  3  2  k B T   3K B T
 2 
There is only one mode of vibration between 2 molecules.
 U = 3 Rt for one mole
 Degree of freedom = 7
Q U
7  C   3R
 U  RT T T
2
• The above equation is called as Dulong & Petit’s Law.
7 • At low temperatures the vibrational made may not be that
 CV  R
2 active hence, heat capacity is low at low temperatures for
9 solids.
and CP  R
2 C
3R
9
and r
7
3.10.3 Polyatomic Gases
T
Degree of freedom 300 K
= 3 for translational 3.10.5 Specific heat capacity of Water
+ 3 for rotational
Water is treated like solid.
+ 2v for vibrational
Water has three atoms, 2 of hydrogen and one of oxygen
= 6 + 2v
 Total degree of freedom for every atom
if v = Number of vibrational modes
=3×2=6
RT  Total degree of freedom for every molecule of water
 U   6  2v  K
2 = 3 × 2 = 18
 CV = (3 + V)R
 1 
18  RT 
CP = (4 + V) R
 Q U  2 
C  
T T T
4V
and r
3 V C = 9R

3.10.4 Specific heat capacity of solids 3.11 Maxwell Law of Distribution of Molecular
• In solids, there is very less difference between heat capacity Assumptions of Maxwell Distribution
at constant pressure or at constant volume. Therefore we
• Molecules of all velocities between 0 to  are present.
do not differentiate between CP & CV for solids.
• Velocity of one molecule, continuously changes, though
Q U fraction of molecules in one range of velocities is constant.
 C 
T T Result
{As solids hardly expand or expansion is negligible} 3/ 2 mv 2
 M  
Now in solid the atoms are arranged in an array structure N V  4N   V2e 2k BT

and they are not free to move independently like in gases.  2k B T 
 HEAT & THERMODYNAMICS

Expression :
dN V
Where NV  Mean Free Path
dV

Where d N

V
= Total number of molecules
with speeds between V & V + dV
V  t

N = Total number of molecules.

NV
d

V
Vmp Vav Vrms

Based on this we define three types of speed f molecules of

gas Suppose the molecules of a gas are spheres of diameter d.
Focus on a single molecule with the average speed <v>. It
1/ 2

  1  will suffer collision with any molecule that comes within a

1/ 2
Vrms  V 2    V 2 dN  V  
N  distance d between the centres. In time t, it sweeps a
volume d2 <v> t wherein any other molecule will collide
3RT with it (as shown in figure). If n is the number of molecules
Vrms 
M per unit volume, the molecule suffers nd2 <v> t collisions
in time t. thus the rate of collisions is nd2 <v> or the time
Where M = Molecular Mass of Gas
between two successive collisions is on the average.
1  = 1/(n <v> d2)
N
Similarly Vav  V  VdN V
The average distance between two successive collisions,
called the mean free path 1, is :
8RT
 l = <v> = 1/(nd2)
M
In this derivation, we imagined the other molecules to be at
dN V rest. But actually all molecules are moving and the collision
But VMP is velocity at which 0 rate is determined by the average relative velocity of the
dv
molecules. Thus we need to replace <v> by <vr> in equation.
A more exact treatment.
3RT
 VMP 
M 1
l=
Physically VMP is velocity possessed by Maximum number  2nd 2 
of molecules. Result
Remarks : 1
l=
Vrms > Vav > VMP >  2nd 2 
3.12 Mean Free Path Remark : Mean free path depends inversely on the number
density and size of the molecule.
The path tranversed by a molecule between two successive
collisions with other molecule is called the free path 3.13 Brownian Motion

The irregular movement of suspended particles like tiny

Total distance travelled by a molecule
l dust particles or pollen grains in a liquid is called Brownian
No. of collisions it makes with other molecules.
Motion.
 OSCILLATION AND WAVES

OSCILLATION & WAVES

1. INTRODUCTION 2 m m
Time period (T) =  2 as  
(1) A motion which repeats itself over and over again after a  k k
regular interval of time is called a periodic motion.
3. Frequency
(2) Oscillatory or vibratory motion is that motion in which a
The frequency of a particle executing S.H.M. is equal to
body moves to and fro or back and forth repeatedly about
the number of oscillations completed in one second.
a fixed point in a definite interval of time.
(3) Simple harmonic motion is a specific type of oscillatory  1 k
v 
motion, in which 2 2 m
(a) partical moves in one dimension, 4. Phase
(b) particle moves to and fro about a fixed mean position The phase of particle executing S.H.M. at any instant is its
(where Fnet = 0), state as regard to its position and direction of motion at
(c) net force on the particle is always directed towards that instant. it is measured as argument (angle) of sine in
means position, and the equation of S.H.M.
(d) magnitude of net force is always proportional to the Phase = (t + )
displacement of particle from the mean position at that At t = 0, phase = ; the constant  is called initial phase of
instant. the particle or phase constant.
So, Fnet = –kx 1.2 Important Relations
where, k is known as force constant
1. Position
 ma = – kx
k
 a x or a  2 x +a
m
where,  is known as angular frequency. T/2 T
O
d2 x
  2 x –a
dt 2
This equation is called as the differential equation of If mean position is at origin the position (X coordinate)
S.H.M. depends on time in general as :
The general expression for x(t) satisfying the above x (t) = sin (t + )
equation is :
 At mean position, x = 0
x (t) = A sin (t + )
 At extremes, x = + A, –A
1.1 Some Important terms
2. Velocity
1. Amplitude
The amplitude of particle executing S.H.M. is its maximum Vmax
displacement on either side of the mean position.
T/2 T
A is the amplitude of the particle. O
2. Time Period
Time period of a particle executing S.H.M. is the time taken
to complete one cycle and is denoted by T.  At any time instant t, v (t) = A  cos (t + )
 OSCILLATION AND WAVES

At any position x, v (x) = ±  A 2  x 2 1 2 1

 Ux  kx  mA 2 2 sin 2  t   
2 2
 Velocity is minimum at extremes because the particles
is at rest.
i.e., v = 0 at extreme position. U max

 Velocity has maximum magnitude at mean position.

T/2 T
|v|max = A at mean position.

3. Acceleration
1 2
 U is maximum at extremes Umax = kA
2
Amax
 U is minimum at mean position
T/2 T
O Total Energy

T.E.
 At any instant t, a (t) = – 2 A sin (t + )
 At any position x, a (x) = – 2x
 Acceleration is always directed towards mean position.
 The magnitude of acceleration is minimum at mean
position and maximum at extremes. 1 2 1
T.E.  kA  mA 2 2
|a|min = 0 at mean position. 2 2

|a|max = 2 A at extremes. and is constant at all time instant and at all positions.
4. Energy Energy position graph

Kinetic energy
Energy
1 1
 K  mv 2  K  m2 A 2  x 2
2 2
  Total energy (E)

Potential energy (U)

1
 m2 A 2 cos 2  t   
2
Kinetic energy (K)
x=–a x=0 x=+a
K max

2. TIME PERIOD OF S.H.M.

T/2 T
To find whether a motion is S.H.M. or not and to find its
time period, follow these steps :
 K is maximum at mean position and minimum at extremes. (a) Locate the mean (equilibrium) position mathematically by
balancing all the forces on it.
1 1
 K max  m 2 A 2  kA 2 at mean position (b) Displace the particle by a displacement ‘x’ from the mean
2 2
position in the probable direction of oscillation.
 Kmin = 0 at extemes. (c) Find the net force on it and check if it is towards mean
Potential Energy position.
If potential energy is taken as zero at mean position, (d) Try to express net force as a proportional function of its
then at any position x, displacement ‘x’.
 OSCILLATION AND WAVES

 If step (c) and step (d) are proved then it is a simple

m
harmonic motion.  Time period : T  2
k
(e) Find k from expression of net force (F = – kx) and find time
(c) Combination of springs :
m
period using T  2 . 1. Springs in series
k
2.1 Oscillations of a Block Connected to a Spring When two springs of force constant K 1 and K2 are
connected in series as shown, they are equivalent to a
(a) Horizontal spring :
single spring of force constant K which is given by
Let a block of mass m be placed on a smooth horizontal
surface and rigidly connected to spring of force constant 1 1 1
 
K whose other end is permanently fixed. K K1 K 2

K1 K 2
K
K1  K 2

block in equilibrium

mean position
K1 K
x

block displaced K2
K1K2
K = ––––––
K1 + K2
 Mean position : when spring is at its natural length.

m
 Time period : T  2 2. Springs in parallel
k
For a parallel combination as shown, the effective
(b) Vertical Spring : spring constant is K = K1 + K2
If the spring is suspended vertically from a fixed point
and carries the block at its other end as shown, the
block will oscillate along the vertical line.

elongation block elongation

=d displaced =d+x
downwards
by x K1 K2

block in equilibrium
K1 + K2

mg
 Mean position : spring in elongated by d 
k
OSCILLATION AND WAVES

2.2 Oscillation of a Cylinder Floating in a liquid R

 Time period : T  2 = 84.6 minutes
Let a cylinder of mass m and density d be floating on g
the surface of a liquid of density . The total length of where, R is radius of earth.
cylinder is L.
2.5 Angular Oscillations

Instead of straight line motion, if a particle or centre of

mass of a body is oscillating on a small arc of circular
L path then it is called angular S.H.M.
l l +x For angular S.H.M., = – k
 I = –k

cylinder in equilibrium cylinder displaced downwards I

 Time period, T  2
by a distance x k
Ld 2.5.1 Simple Pendulum
 Mean position : cylinder is immersed upto  

Ld  
 Time period : T  2  2  Time period : T  2
g g g

 Time period of a pendulum in a lift :

2.3 Liquid Oscillating in a U–Tube

Consider a liquid column of mass m and density  in a U- 

T  2 (if acceleration of lift is upwards)
tube of area of cross section A. ga


T  2 (if acceleration of lift is downwards)
x ga
x
 Second’s pendulum
Time period of second’s pendulum is 2s.
Length of second’s pendulum on earth surface  1m.

In equilibrium liquid displaced by x 2.5.2 Physical Pendulum

 Mean position : when height of liquid is same in both I

Time period : T  2
limbs. mg

m L
 Time period : T  2  2
2Ag 2g
O
where, L is length of liquid column.

2.4 Body Oscillation in tunnel along any chord of earth l

mg
 Mean position : At the centre of the chord
 OSCILLATION AND WAVES

where, I is moment of inertia of object about point of  is the density of the solid.
suspension, and Speed of longitudinal wave in fluid is given by
l is distance of centre of mass of object from point of
suspension. B
v

3. DAMPED AND FORCED OSCILLATIONS
where, B is the bulk modulus,
1. Damped Oscillation :
 is the density of the fluid.
(i) The oscillation of a body whose amplitude goes on
(b) Newton’s formula
decreasing with time is defined as damped oscillation.
Newton assumed that propagation of sound wave in
(ii) In this oscillation the amplitude of oscillation gas is an isothermal process. Therefore, according to
decreases exponentially due to damping forces like
frictional force, viscous force etc. P
Newton, speed of sound in gas is given by v 

+a where P is the pressure of the gas and  is the density
of the gas.
According to the Newton’s formula, the speed of sound
O t
x in air at S.T.P. is 280 m/s. But the experimental value of
t h e s p e e d o f
–1
s. Newton could not
o u n d i n a i r i s 3 3 2 m s

–a explain this large difference. Newton’s formula was

corrected by Laplace.
(iii) Due to decrease in amplitude the energy of the (c) Laplace’s correction
oscillator also goes on decreasing exponentially. Laplace assumed that propagation of sound wave in
2. Forced Oscillation : gas in an adiabatic process. Therefore, according to
(i) The oscillation in which a body oscillates under the Laplace, speed of sound in a gas is given by
influence of an external periodic force are known as
P
forced oscillation. v

(ii) Resonance : When the frequency of external force is
equal to the natural frequency of the oscillator, then According to Laplace’s correction the speed of sound
this state is known as the state of resonance. And this in air at S.T.P. is 331.3 m/s. This value agrees farily well
frequency is known as resonant frequency. with the experimental values of the velocity of sound
in air at S.T.P.
4. WAVES
5. WAVES TRAVELLING IN OPPOSITE DIRECTIONS
(a) Speed of longitudinal wave
Speed of longitudinal wave in a medium is given by When two waves of same amplitude and frequency
travelling in opposite directions
E y1 = A sin (kx – t)
v
 y2 = A sin (kx + t)
where, E is the modulus of elasticity, interfere, then a standing wave is produced which is
given by,
 is the density of the medium.
y = y1 + y2
Speed of longitudinal wave in a solid in the form of rod
is given by  y = 2A sin kx cos t
Hence the particle at location x is oscillating in S.H.M.
Y with angular frequency  and amplitude 2A sin kx. As
v
 the amplitude depends on location (x), particles are
oscillating with different amplitude.
where, Y is the Young’s modulus of the solid,
 OSCILLATION AND WAVES

Nodes : Amplitude = 0
L L
2A sin kx = 0
x = 0, /k, 2/k.......
A A A
x = 0, /2, , 3/2, 2........ N N
N N N
Antinodes : Amplitude is maximum.
sin kx = ± 1
x = /2k, 3/2k Fundamental frequency (x = 1)
x = /4, 3/4, 5/4
v
0 
Nodes are completely at rest. Antinodes are oscillating 2L
with maximum amplitude (2A). The points between a
It is also called first harmonic.
node and antinode have amplitude between 0 and 2 A.
Second harmonic or first overtone
Separation between two consecutive (or antinodes)
= /2. 2v

Separation between a node and the next antinode=/4. 2L

Nodes and antinodes are alternately placed. The nth multiple of fundamental frequency is known
as nth harmonic or (n – 1)th overtone.

t=0 t = T/2 2. Fixed at one end

Transverse standing waves with node at fixed end and
t = T/8 t = 3T/8 antinode at open end are formed.


t = T/4 So, length of string    2n  1 if there are n nodes
N1 N2 t = T/4 N N 4
and n antinodes.
t = 3T/8 t = T/8 Frequency of oscillations

t = T/2 t=0 v  2n  1 v
  
 4
It is clear from the figure that since nodes are, at rest Fundamental frequency, (n = 1)
they don’t transfer energy. In a stationary wave, energy
v
is not transferred from one point to the other. 0 
4L
5.1 Vibrations in a stretched string It is also called first harmonic.
1. Fixed at both ends. First overtone or third harmonic.
Transverse standing waves with nodes at both ends 3v
  3 0
of the string are formed. 4

n Only odd harmonics are possible in this case.

So, length of string,   if there are (n + 1) nodes
2 5.2 Vibrations in an organ pipe
and n antinodes.
1. Open Organ pipe (both ends open)
Frequency of oscillations is
The open ends of the tube becomes antinodes because
v nv the particles at the open end can oscillate freely.
  
 2 If there are (n + 1) antinodes in all,
 OSCILLATION AND WAVES

n Let us consider net effect of two waves of frequencies

length of tube,    1 and  2 and amplitude A at x = 0.
2
nv y1  A sin 21 t
So, Frequency of oscillations is  
2 y 2  A sin 2 2 t

 y = y1 + y2

 y = A  sin 21 t  sin 2 2 t 

y   2A cos   1   2  t  sin   1   2  t

Thus the resultant wave can be represented as a

   2 
travelling wave whose frequency is  1  and
 2 
amplitude is 2A cos  ( 1–  2) t.
As the amplitude term contains t, the amplitude varies
periodically with time.
2. Closed organ pipe (One end closed) For Loud Sounds : Net amplitude = ± 2A
The open end becomes antinode and closed end  cos  ( 1 –  2) t = ± 1
become a node.   ( 1 –  2) t = 0, , 2, 3 .......
If there are n nodes and n antinodes,
1 2 ........
L = (2n – 1) /4  t  0, ,
1   2 1   2
So frequency of oscillations is
Hence the interval between two loud sounds is given as :
v  2n  1 v
  1
 4L 
1   2

 the number of loud sounds per second =  1 –  2

 beat per second =  1 –  2
Note that 1 – 2 must be small (0 – 16 Hz) so that sound
variations can be distinguished.

Filling a tuning form increases its frequency of vibration.

Loading a tuning for k decreases its frequency of vibration.

6. DOPPLER EFFECT
There are only odd harmonics in a tube closed at one end.
According to Doppler’s effect, whenever there is a relative
5.3 Waves having different frequencies motion between a source of sound and listener, the apparent
frequency of sound heard by the listener is different from
Beats are formed by the superposition of two waves of
the actual frequency of sound emitted by the source.
slightly different frequencies moving in the same
direction. The resultant effect heard in this case at any Apparent frequency,
fixed position will consist of alternate loud and weak v  vL
  
sounds. v  vs
 OSCILLATION AND WAVES

Sing Convention. All velocities along the direction S

to L are taken as positve and all velocities along the v   vL  v  vL
    i.e. v’ > 
direction L to S are taken as negative. v v
When the motion is along some other direction the
(e) If the source and listener are approaching each other,
component of velocity of source and listener along the
then v s is positive and v L is negative (figure e).
line joining the source and listener is considered.
Therefore,
Special Cases :
(a) If the source is moving towards the listener but the v   vL   v  vL 
listener is at rest, then v s is positive and vL = 0 (figure      i.e. ’ > 
v  vs  v  vs 
a). Therefore,
(f) If the source and listener are moving away from each
v
    i.e. ’ >  other, then vs is negative and vL is positive, (figure f).
v  vs
Therefore,
(b) If the source is moving away from the listener, but the
v  vL v  vL
listener is at rest, then v s is negative and vL = 0 (figure     i.e. ’ < 
b). Therefore, v    vs  v  vs

v v (g) If the source and listener are both in motion in the

    i.e. ’ <  same direction and with same velocity, then v s = vL = v’
v    vs  v  vs
(say) (figure g). Therefore,
(c) If the source is at rest and listener is moving away from
the source, the vs = 0 and v L is positive (figure c).  v  v 
   i.e. ’ = 
Therefore,  v  v 

It means, there is no change in the frequency of sound

heard by the listerner.
Apparent wavelength heard by the observer is
  s
 


If case the medium is also moving, the speed of sound

 
with respect to ground is considered. i.e.    m

7. CHARACTERISTICS OF SOUND
Loudness of sound is also called level of intensity of
sound.
In decibel the loudness of a sound of intensity I is

 I 
 v  vL  given by L = 10 log10   . (I0 = 10 –12 w/m2)
   i.e. ’ <   I0 
v
Pitch : It is pitch depends on frequency, higher the
(d) If the source is at rest and listener is moving towards frequency higher will be the pitch and shriller will be
the source, then vs = 0 and vL is negative (figure d). the sound.
Therefore,