Signals and Systems

Ibrahim Sadek, Ph.D.,

ibrahim_sadek@h-eng.helwan.edu.eg
Biomedical Engineering Dept., Faculty of Engineering, Helwan University
What is Signal? 1D Signal: ECG

• A signal is a function of independent variables that

carry some information.
• For a function 𝑓 𝑡1 , 𝑡2 , ⋯ , 𝑡𝑛 , each of the {𝑡𝑘 } is
called an independent variable, while the function
value itself is referred to as a dependent variable.
• Some examples of signals include:
 A voltage or current in an electronic circuit, 2D Signal: Brain MRI Scan
 The position, velocity, or acceleration of an object,
 A force or torque in a mechanical system,
 A flow rate of a liquid or gas in a chemical process,
 A digital image, digital video, or digital audio,
 A stock market index.

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Classification of Signals
• Number of independent variables (i.e., dimensionality):
A signal with one independent variable is said to be one
dimensional (e.g., audio).
A signal with more than one independent variable is said
to be multi-dimensional (e.g., image).
• Continuous vs. Discrete time variables:
A continuous-time signal (function) is a function of the
form 𝑥(𝑡), where 𝑡 ranges over all real numbers (i.e., 𝑡
∈ ℝ).
A discrete-time signal (sequence) is a function of the form
𝑥[𝑛], where 𝑛 takes on only a discrete set of values (e.g., 𝑛
∈ ℤ).
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What is a system?
• A system is an entity that processes one or more input signals to
produce one or more output signals.

System
Input Signal Output Signal
Number of inputs Number of outputs
A system with one input a single input A system with one output single output
A system with more than one input multiple A system with more than one output multiple
input output

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 Properties of Signals

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Even Symmetry

• A function is even if it satisfies

𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑥(−𝑡) for all 𝑡
• A sequence is even if it satisfies
𝑥[𝑛] = 𝑥[−𝑛] for all 𝑛
• Geometrically, an even signal is
symmetric about the origin.

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Odd Symmetry

• A function is odd if it satisfies

𝑥 𝑡 = −𝑥(−𝑡) for all 𝑡
• A sequence is odd if it satisfies
𝑥 𝑛 = −𝑥[−𝑛] for all 𝑛
• Geometrically, an odd signal is
antisymmetric about the origin.

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 𝑥 𝑡 + 𝑥 −𝑡 𝑥 𝑡 − 𝑥 −𝑡
Even and Odd Symmetry 𝑥 𝑥 =
2
+
2

• We can reduce any signal into a sum of two signals,

one of which is even and one of which is odd.
𝑥 𝑡 = ℰ𝑣 𝑥(𝑡) + 𝛰𝑑 𝑥(𝑡) ,
• The even part of a signal 𝑥(𝑡) is defined as
1
ℰ𝑣 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑥 𝑡 + 𝑥(−𝑡) ,
2
• The odd part of a signal is defined as
1
𝛰𝑑 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑥 𝑡 − 𝑥(−𝑡) ,
2
• The even part of a signal 𝑥(𝑡) is even signal and likewise for the odd part.

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Even and Odd Symmetry
• If 𝑥(𝑡) is odd, then 𝑥(0) = 0.
𝑎 𝑎
• If 𝑥(𝑡) is even, then ‫׬‬−𝑎 𝑥 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 2 ‫׬‬0 𝑥 𝑡 𝑑𝑡.
𝑎 • Even + Even = Even
• If 𝑥(𝑡) is odd, ‫׬‬−𝑎 𝑥 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 0.
• Odd + Odd = Odd
• Even x Even = Even.
• Even + Odd is neither even nor odd, provided
• Even x Odd = Odd.
that neither of the function is identically zero.
• Odd x Odd = Even.
• That is, the sum of functions with the same type
• That is, the product of functions with the same of symmetry also has the same type of symmetry.
type of symmetry is even, while the product of
functions with opposite types of symmetry is
odd.
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Conjugate Symmetry
• A function 𝑥 is said to be conjugate symmetric if it satisfies
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑥 ∗ −𝑡 for all 𝑡 (where 𝑡 is a real number).
• A sequence x is said to be conjugate symmetric if it satisfies
𝑥[𝑛] = 𝑥 ∗ [−𝑛] for all 𝑛 (where 𝑛 is an integer).
• The real part of a conjugate symmetric function or sequence is even.
The imaginary part of a conjugate symmetric function or sequence is
odd.
• An example of a conjugate symmetric function is a complex sinusoid
𝑥 𝑡 = cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝑗 sin 𝜔𝑡, where 𝜔 is a real constant.

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Periodicity
• A function is considered periodic with
period 𝑇 if, for some strictly-positive real
constant 𝑇, the following condition holds:
𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑥(𝑡 + 𝑇) for all 𝑡 (where 𝑡 is a real
number).
• A sequence is considered periodic with
period 𝑁 if, for some strictly-positive real
constant 𝑁, the following condition holds:
𝑥[𝑛] = 𝑥[𝑛 + 𝑁] for all 𝑛 (where 𝑛 is an
integer number).
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Periodicity Cont’d.
1
• A 𝑇-periodic function 𝑥 is said to have frequency and angular
𝑇
2𝜋
frequency 𝜔 = .
𝑇
1
• An 𝑁-periodic sequence 𝑥 is said to have frequency and angular
𝑁
2𝜋
frequency 𝜔 = .
𝑁
• If 𝑥(𝑡) is a constant, the fundamental period is undefined, since 𝑥(𝑡) is
periodic for any choice of 𝑇 (so there is no smallest positive value).
• A signal 𝑥(𝑡) that is not periodic will be referred to as an aperiodic
signal.

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Periodicity Cont’d.
• The period of a periodic signal is not unique. That is, a signal that is periodic
with period 𝑇 is also periodic with period 𝑘𝑇, for every (strictly) positive
integer 𝑘.
• The smallest period with which a signal is periodic is called the fundamental
period and its corresponding frequency is called the fundamental frequency.

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 A Rational

Periodicity Cont’d. Number can be made

by dividing an integer
by an integer

𝜔0
• A sequence 𝑥[𝑛] is periodic only if is an element of a rational value 𝜃 and
2𝜋

is aperiodic otherwise; where 𝜔0 = 2𝜋𝑓 is the angular frequency measured

in radians per seconds and 𝑓 is the frequency measured in Hertz (Hz).
𝜔0
• For to be rational, 𝜔0 must contain the factor 𝜋.
2𝜋

𝜔0 𝜔0
• If ∈ 𝜃 (periodic), we can calculate the fundamental period by writing
2𝜋 2𝜋
𝑚
= , where 𝑁 ∈ ℤ
𝑁

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Periodicity Cont’d.
• Example:
8𝜋
𝑥 𝑛 = cos[ 𝑛]
31
• Solution:
8𝜋 𝜔0 8 4 𝒎 4
• 𝜔0 = ⟹ 𝑓0 = = = = , ∈ 𝜃 ⟹ rational value. Hence, the
31 2𝜋 62 31 𝑁0 31
signal is periodic with a fundamental period, 𝑁0 = 31.
• Each 𝑚 = 4 periods of cos 𝜔0 𝑛 make one period of cos 𝜔0 𝑛 .

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Periodicity Cont’d.

• Example:
𝑛
𝑥 𝑛 = cos[ ]
6
• Solution:
1 𝜔0 1 1
• 𝜔0 = ⟹ 𝑓0 = = , ∉ 𝜃 ⟹ irrational value. Hence, the
6 2𝜋 12𝜋 12𝜋
signal is aperiodic.

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Periodicity Cont’d.
• Example:
𝑥(𝑡) = cos 4𝑡 + 2sin(8𝑡)
• Solution:
𝜔1 4 2 𝜋
• 𝜔1 = 4 ⟹ 𝑓1 = = = ∴ 𝑇1 =
2𝜋 2𝜋 𝜋 2
𝜔2 8 4 𝜋
• 𝜔2 = 8 ⟹ 𝑓2 = = = ∴ 𝑇2 =
2𝜋 2𝜋 𝜋 4
𝑇1 𝜋Τ
• = 𝜋Τ
2
= 2 ∈ 𝜃 ⟹ rational value.
𝑇2 4
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
• The signal is periodic with a fundamental period 𝑇, LCM , =
2 4 2
• LCM is the Least Common Multiple.
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Periodicity Cont’d.

• Quiz: Determine whether the following function is periodic. If it is, what

is the fundamental period?

𝑥 𝑡 = 3 𝑠𝑖𝑛 3 2 𝑡 + 𝜃 + 7 𝑐𝑜𝑠 6 2 𝑡

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Energy and Power of Function
• Energy of 𝑥(𝑡) or 𝑥[𝑛] is defined as:
∞
𝐸𝑥 = ‫׬‬−∞ |𝑥 𝑡 |2 𝑑𝑡 or σ∞
𝑛=−∞ |𝑥 𝑛 |2

• If the signal is finite, it is meaningful to use power of 𝑥(𝑡) or 𝑥[𝑛] which

is defined as:
1 𝑇/2 2 1
𝑃𝑥 = lim ‫׬‬−𝑇/2 |𝑥 𝑡 | 𝑑𝑡 or lim σ∞
𝑛=−∞ |𝑥 𝑛 |2
𝑇→∞ 𝑇 𝑁→∞ 2𝑁+1
• Signal power is the time-average of signal energy.
• Note that for a real signal |𝑥 𝑡 |2 = 𝑥 2 (𝑡) , while |𝑥 𝑡 |2 = 𝑥(𝑡)𝑥 ∗ (𝑡)
for a complex signal.

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Energy and Power of Function Cont’d.

• A signal is said to be energy signal if 0 < 𝐸𝑥 < ∞, indicating 𝑃𝑥 = 0.

• A signal is said to be power signal if 0 < 𝑝𝑥 < ∞, indicating 𝐸𝑥 = ∞.
• Example. Determine if the following signal is energy or power signal and then compute its
energy or power.
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃
• Solution. We know that 𝑥(𝑡) is periodic with 𝑇 = 2𝜋/𝜔; hence, we can just use one period:
1 𝑇/2 1 𝑇 2
• 𝑃𝑥 = lim ‫׬‬−𝑇/2 |𝑥 𝑡 |2 𝑑𝑡 = ‫׬‬0 𝑥 (𝑡) 𝑑𝑡
𝑇→∞ 𝑇 𝑇
𝜔 𝑇 2 2 𝐴2 2𝜋/𝜔 1 𝜔 𝐴2 2𝜋 𝐴2
• ‫׬‬ 𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ωt + θ 𝑑𝑡 = ‫׬‬ 1 + cos 2𝜔𝑡 + 2𝜃 𝑑𝑡 = . . = < ∞
2𝜋 0 2𝜋 0 2 2𝜋 2 𝜔 2
• Hence it is a periodic signal with power 𝐴2 /2.

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Energy and Power of Function Cont’d.

• Quiz. Determine if the following signal is energy or power signal and

then compute its energy or power.
𝑥 𝑛 = 10 𝑒 𝑗2𝑛

• Remember: |𝑥 𝑡 |2 = 𝑥(𝑡)𝑥 ∗ (𝑡) for a complex signal.

• The complex conjugate of 𝑒 𝑗2𝑛 is 𝑒 −𝑗2𝑛 .

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 Independent-Variable
Transformations

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Time Shifting (Translation)

• Time shifting maps the input function 𝑥 to the output function 𝑦 as

given by:
𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑥(𝑡 − 𝑏); where 𝑏 is a real number.
• Such a transformation shifts the function (to the left or right) along the
time axis.
− If 𝑏 > 0, 𝑦 is shifted to the right by |𝑏|, relative to 𝑥 (Delayed in Time).
− If 𝑏 < 0, 𝑦 is shifted to the left by |𝑏|, relative to 𝑥 (Advanced in Time).

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Time Shifting (Translation)

Advanced Version of x(t) Delayed Version of x(t)

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Time Reversal (Reflection)

• Time reversal maps the input function

𝑥 to the output function 𝑦 as given by

𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑥(−𝑡).

• Geometrically, the output function 𝑦

reflects the input function 𝑥 about the
(vertical) line, i.e., 𝑡 = 0.

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Time Scaling (Compression/Expansion)
• Time compression/stretching maps the input function 𝑥 to the output
function 𝑦 as given by
𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑥(𝑎𝑡), where 𝑎 is a strictly positive real number.
• Such a transformation is associated with a compression/stretching
along the time axis.
• If 𝑎 > 1, 𝑦 is compressed along the horizontal axis by a factor of 𝑎,
relative to 𝑥.
• If 𝑎 < 1, 𝑦 is expanded (i.e., stretched) along the horizontal axis by a
1
factor of , relative to 𝑥.
𝑎
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Time Scaling (Compression/Expansion) Cont’d.
• Time scaling maps the input function x to the output function y as given by
𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑥 𝑎𝑡 , where a is a nonzero real number.
• Such a transformation is associated with a dilation (i.e., compression/expansion along the
time axis) and/or time reversal.
• If 𝑎 > 1, the function is compressed along the time axis by a factor of |𝑎|.
1
• If 𝑎 < 1, the function is expanded (i.e., stretched) along the time axis by a factor of .
|𝑎|

• If |𝑎| = 1, the function is neither expanded nor compressed.

• If 𝑎 < 0, the function is also time reversed.
• Dilation (i.e., expansion/compression) and time reversal commute.
• Time reversal is a special case of time scaling with 𝑎 = −1; and time compression/expansion
is a special case of time scaling with 𝑎 > 0.
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Time Compression/Stretching (Dilation)

Compression Expansion

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Combined Time Scaling and Time Shifting
• Consider a transformation that maps the input function 𝑥 to the output
function 𝑦 as given by
𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑥(𝑎𝑡 − 𝑏), where 𝑎 and 𝑏 are real numbers and 𝑎 ≠ 0.
• The above transformation can be shown to be the combination of a time-
scaling operation and time-shifting operation.
• Since time scaling and time shifting do not commute, we must be particularly
careful about the order in which these transformations are applied.
• The above transformation has two distinct but equivalent interpretations:
1. First, time shifting 𝑥 by 𝑏, and then time scaling the result by 𝑎;
2. First, time scaling 𝑥 by 𝑎, and then time shifting the result by 𝑏/𝑎.
• Note that the time shift is not performed by the same amount in both cases.
• Note that when time scaling is applied first followed by time shifting, the
time shift is by 𝑏Τ𝑎, not 𝑏.
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Combined Time Scaling and Time Shifting

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 Elementary Functions

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Real Sinusoidal Functions

• A real sinusoidal function is a function

of the form:
• 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝐴 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃) where 𝐴, 𝜔,
and 𝜃 are real constants.
• Such a function is periodic with
2𝜋
fundamental period 𝑇 = and
|𝜔|
fundamental frequency |𝜔|.

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Complex Exponential Functions

• A complex exponential function is a function of the form

𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑒 𝜆𝑡 , where 𝐴 and 𝜆 are complex constants.
• A complex exponential can exhibit one of a number of distinct modes of
behavior, depending on the values of its parameters 𝐴 and 𝜆.
• For example, as special cases, complex exponentials include
1. Real Exponential Functions
2. Complex Sinusoid Functions

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Relationship Between Complex Exponentials
and Real Sinusoidal Functions
• From Euler’s relation, a complex sinusoid can be expressed as the sum of
two real sinusoids as:

𝐴 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 = 𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡 + 𝑗 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡

• Moreover, a real sinusoid can be expressed as the sum of two complex

sinusoids using the identities:
𝐴 𝑗(𝜔𝑡+𝜃)
𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃 = 𝑒 + 𝑒 −𝑗(𝜔𝑡+𝜃)
2
𝐴 𝑗(𝜔𝑡+𝜃)
𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃 = 𝑒 − 𝑒 −𝑗(𝜔𝑡+𝜃)
2𝑗
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Real Exponential Functions

• A real exponential function is a special case of a complex exponential

𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑒 𝜆𝑡 , where 𝐴 and 𝜆 are restricted to be real numbers.
• A real exponential can exhibit one of three distinct modes of behavior,
depending on the value of 𝜆, as illustrated below.
a) If 𝜆 > 0, 𝑥(𝑡) increases exponentially as 𝑡 increases (i.e., a growing
exponential).
b) If 𝜆 < 0, 𝑥(𝑡) decreases exponentially as 𝑡 increases (i.e., a decaying
exponential).
c) If 𝜆 = 0, 𝑥(𝑡) simply equals the constant A.

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Real Exponential Functions Cont’d.

𝜆<0
𝜆>0
A

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Complex Sinusoidal Functions
• A complex sinusoid is a special case of a complex exponential 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑒 𝜆𝑡 ,
where 𝐴 is complex and 𝜆 is purely imaginary (i.e., 𝑅𝑒 𝜆 = 0).
• That is, a complex sinusoid is a function of the form
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 , where 𝐴 is complex and 𝜔 is real.
• By expressing 𝐴 in polar form as 𝐴 = 𝐴 𝑒 𝑗𝜃 (where 𝜃 is real) and using
Euler’s relation, we can rewrite 𝒙(𝒕) as
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐴 cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃 + 𝑗 |𝐴| sin 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃
𝑅𝑒{𝑥(𝑡)} 𝐼𝑚{𝑥(𝑡)}
• Thus, 𝑅𝑒{𝑥(𝑡)} and 𝐼𝑚{𝑥(𝑡)} are the same except for a time shift.
2𝜋
• Also, 𝑥 is periodic with a fundamental period 𝑇 = and a fundamental
|𝜔|
frequency |𝜔|.
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General Complex Exponential Functions
• In the most general case of a complex exponential function 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑒 𝜆𝑡 , 𝐴 and 𝜆 are
both complex.
• Letting 𝐴 = |𝐴|𝑒 𝑗𝜃 (polar form) and 𝜆 = 𝜎 + 𝑗𝜔 (rectangular form) (where 𝜎, 𝜃, and 𝜔
are real), and using Euler’s relation, we can rewrite 𝑥(𝑡) as
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐴 𝑒 𝜎𝑡 cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃 + 𝑗 |𝐴| 𝑒 𝜎𝑡 sin 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃
𝑅𝑒{𝑥(𝑡)} 𝐼𝑚{𝑥(𝑡)}
• Thus, 𝑅𝑒{𝑥(𝑡)} and 𝐼𝑚{𝑥(𝑡)} are each the product of a real exponential and real
sinusoid.
• One of three distinct modes of behavior is exhibited by x(t), depending on the value of 𝜎.
• If 𝜎 = 0, 𝑅𝑒{𝑥} and 𝐼𝑚{𝑥} are real sinusoids.
• If 𝜎 > 0, 𝑅𝑒{𝑥} and 𝐼𝑚{𝑥} are each the product of a real sinusoid and a growing real
exponential.
• If 𝜎 < 0, 𝑅𝑒{𝑥} and 𝐼𝑚{𝑥} are each the product of a real sinusoid and a decaying real
exponential.
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General Complex Exponential Functions

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 Unit Impulse Function
• The unit-impulse function (also known as the Dirac delta function or delta function),
denoted 𝛿, is defined by the following two properties:
1/Δ −1/Δ < 𝑡 < +1/Δ
𝛿 𝑡 = lim ቊ
Δ→0 0 otherwise
• The result is an impulse with zero width and infinite height, but a consequence of
defining it in this way is that the area under the curve is unity.
Area under a rectangle = ∆ . (1/∆) = 1
∞
Stated in another way, ‫׬‬−∞ 𝛿 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 1.
• Technically, 𝛿 can be viewed as a limiting case of a rectangular pulse where the pulse
width becomes infinitesimally small, and the pulse height becomes infinitely large in
such a way that the integral of the resulting function remains unity.
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Unit-Impulse Function Cont’d.

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Properties of the Unit Impulse Function

• Equivalence property. For any continuous function 𝑥 and any real

constant 𝑡0 ,
𝑥 𝑡 𝛿 𝑡 − 𝑡0 = 𝑥(𝑡0 )𝛿 𝑡 − 𝑡0
• Sifting property. We may consider 𝛿 𝑡 as the building block of any
continuous-time signal. For any continuous function 𝑥 and any real
constant 𝑡0 ,
∞
න 𝑥 𝑡 𝛿 𝑡 − 𝑡0 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑥(𝑡0 )
−∞
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 Unit Step Function
• The unit step function (also known as the
Heaviside function), denoted 𝑢, is defined as
1 𝑡≥0
𝑢 𝑡 =ቊ
0 𝑡<0
• 𝑢(𝑡) can be expressed in terms of 𝛿 𝑡 :
∞ ∞
•𝑢 𝑡 = ‫׬‬−∞ 𝑢 𝜏 𝛿 𝑡 − 𝜏 𝑑𝜏 = ‫׬‬0 𝛿 𝑡 − 𝜏 𝑑𝜏
• Conversely, we can use 𝑢 𝑡 to represent
𝛿 𝑡 :
𝑑𝑢(𝑡)
𝛿 𝑡 =
𝑑𝑡
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 Systems Overview
• They can be classified as continuous-time and discrete-time:

Continuous-time y(t)
x(t) system

discrete-time Y[n]
X[n] system

• In a continuous-time/discrete-time system, the input and output are

continuous-time/discrete-time signals.
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Systems Overview
• A system is an operator which maps input into output:

𝑦 𝑡 = Τ𝑥 𝑡 or 𝑦[𝑛] = Τ 𝑥[𝑛]

• Systems can be connected/combined to form a “bigger/overall” system,

e.g., break down a big task into several sub-tasks and each system
handles one sub-task.

x(t) System 1 System 2 y(t)

2/19/2024 A) Series Interconnection 45

 Systems Overview Cont’d.

System 1

x(t) + y(t)

System 2

B) Parallel Interconnection

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 Systems Overview Cont’d.

x(t) + System 1 y(t)

System 2

C) Feedback Interconnection
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 Basic System Properties

2/19/2024 48
Memoryless

• A system is memoryless if its output at a given time is dependent only

on the input at that same time, i.e., 𝑦(𝑡) at time 𝑡 depends only on 𝑥(𝑡)
at time 𝑡; 𝑦[𝑛] at time 𝑛 depends only on 𝑥[𝑛] at time 𝑛.
• A memoryless system does not have memory to store any input values
because it just operates on the current input.
• If a system is not memoryless, we can call it a system with memory.

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Memoryless Cont’d.

• Examples. Determine if the following systems are memoryless or not

 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑥 2 (𝑡)
 𝑦 𝑛 =𝑥 𝑛 +𝑥 𝑛−2
 The system is memoryless because the output at time 𝑡 depends only on
the input at time 𝑡.
 The system is not memoryless because 𝑦[𝑛] also depends on 𝑥[𝑛 − 2],
which is a previous input, and thus it needs memory to store 𝑥[𝑛 − 2]
when processing the input at time 𝑛.

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Causality
• A system is causal if the output 𝑦(𝑡) (or 𝑦[𝑛]) at time 𝑡 (or 𝑛) depends
on input 𝑥(𝑡) (or 𝑥[𝑛]) up to time 𝑡 (or 𝑛).
• In casual system, output does not depend on future input.
• On the other hand, in a non-causal system, the output depends on
future input.
• Examples. Determine if the following systems are causal or not
 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑥 2 (𝑡)
 𝑦 𝑛 =𝑥 𝑛 +𝑥 𝑛+2
 𝑦 𝑛 = σ𝑛𝑘=−∞ 𝑥[𝑘]
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Causality Cont’d.

 The system is causal because it does not depend on future input.

 The system is not causal because it depends on future input, i.e., 𝑥[𝑛
+ 2].
 𝑦 𝑛 = σ𝑛𝑘=−∞ 𝑥 𝑘 = ⋯ 𝑥 𝑛 − 2 + 𝑥 𝑛 − 1 + 𝑥[𝑛] , we see that
the output 𝑦[𝑛] at time 𝑛 depends on input 𝑥[𝑛] up to the time 𝑛,
Hence, the system is causal.

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Stability
• A system is stable if every bounded input 𝑥(𝑡) or 𝑥[𝑛] produces a bounded
output or for all time or 𝑛. That is:
 𝑦 𝑡 < 𝐵 if 𝑥 𝑡 < 𝐴, 𝐴 <∞, 𝐵 <∞
 𝑦[𝑛] < 𝐵 if 𝑥[𝑛] < 𝐴, 𝐴 <∞, 𝐵 <∞
• If a bounded input produces an unbounded output, then the system is
unstable.
• Examples. Determine if the following systems are stable or not
 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑥 2 (𝑡)
 𝑦 𝑛 =𝑥 𝑛 +𝑥 𝑛+2
1
 𝑦𝑛 =
𝑥[𝑛]

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Stability Cont’d.

 If 𝑥(𝑡) is bounded, say, |𝑥(𝑡)| < 𝐴 for all 𝑡, we easily get 𝑦 𝑡 < 𝐴2 .
Hence, the system is stable.
 The system is stable because: 𝑦 𝑛 = 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑥 𝑛 + 2 ≤ |𝑥 𝑛 |
+ |𝑥 𝑛 + 2 | < 2𝐴 for a bounded input 𝑥 𝑛 < 𝐴 for all 𝑛.
 The system is not stable. It is because for a bounded input, viz. 𝑥[𝑛]
= 0, the output is unbounded.

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Stability Cont’d.
• A Bounded-input bounded-output (BIBO) stable system guarantees to always produce a
bounded output if its input is bounded.
• To show that a system is BIBO stable, we must show that every bounded input leads to a
bounded output.
• To show that a system is not BIBO stable, we only need to find a single bounded input that leads
to an unbounded output.
• In practical terms, a BIBO stable system is well behaved in the sense that, if the system input is
finite everywhere (in its domain), the output will also be finite everywhere.
• Usually, a system that is not BIBO stable will have serious safety issues.
 Example. A portable music player with a battery input of 3.7 volts and headset output of ∞ volts
would result in one vaporized human (and likely a big lawsuit as well).

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Time-Invariance
• A system is time-invariant if the behavior and characteristics of the
system are fixed over time.
• A system is time-invariant if a time shift in the input signal results in an
identical time shift in the output signal. That is, if 𝑦[𝑛] is the output of a
discrete-time, time-invariant system when 𝑥[𝑛] is the input, then 𝑦[𝑛
− 𝑛0 ] is the output when 𝑥[𝑛 − 𝑛0 ] is applied.
• Example. Determine whether the following system with input 𝑥 𝑛 and
output 𝑦[𝑛], is time-invariant or not:
 𝑦[𝑛] = 3𝑥[3𝑛]

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Time-Invariance Cont’d.

• From the given input-output relationship 𝑦[𝑛 − 𝑛0 ], is of the form:

𝑦 𝑛 − 𝑛0 = 3𝑥 3 𝑛 − 𝑛0 = 3𝑥[3𝑛 − 3𝑛0 ]
• Let 𝑥1 = 𝑥[𝑛 − 𝑛0 ], its system output is:
𝑦1 [𝑛] = 3𝑥1 [3𝑛] = 3𝑥 3𝑛 − 𝑛0 ≠ 𝑦[𝑛 − 𝑛0 ], as a result, the system is
time-variant.
• Quiz. Determine whether the following systems with input and output,
is time-invariant or not:
𝑛
• 1) 𝑦 𝑛 = 𝑘=−∞ 𝑥 𝑘 and 2) 𝑦[𝑛] = 𝑛𝑥[𝑛]
σ

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Linearity
• If an input consists of the weighted sum of several signals, then the output is the
superposition. That is, the weighted sum-of the responses of the system to each of
those signals. More precisely, let 𝑦1 𝑡 be the response of a continuous time system
to an input 𝑥1 𝑡 , and let 𝑦2 𝑡 be the output corresponding to the input 𝑥2 𝑡 . Then
the system is linear if:
① The response to 𝑥1 𝑡 + 𝑥2 𝑡 is 𝑦1 𝑡 + 𝑦2 𝑡 [Additivity Property]
② The response to 𝑎𝑥1 𝑡 is 𝑎𝑦1 𝑡 [Homogeneity Property]
• The two properties defining a linear system can be combined into a single statement:
Continuous time: 𝑎𝑥1 𝑡 + 𝑏𝑥2 𝑡 → 𝑎𝑦1 𝑡 + 𝑏𝑦2 𝑡
Discrete time: 𝑎𝑥1 [𝑛] + 𝑏𝑥2 [𝑛] → 𝑎𝑦1 [𝑛] + 𝑏𝑦2 [𝑛]

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Linearity Cont’d.
• Example. Determine whether the following system with input and output , is linear or
not:
 𝑦 𝑛 = 3𝑥 2 𝑛 + 2𝑥[𝑛 − 3]
• The system output for 𝑥1 [𝑛] and 𝑥2 [𝑛] are 𝑦1 𝑛 = 3𝑥12 𝑛 + 2𝑥1 [𝑛 − 3] and 𝑦2 𝑛
= 3𝑥22 𝑛 + 2𝑥2 𝑛 − 3 . Assigning 𝑥3 𝑛 = 𝑎𝑥1 𝑛 + 𝑏𝑥2 𝑛 , its system output is
then:
• 𝑦3 𝑛 = 3𝑥32 𝑛 + 2𝑥3 [𝑛 − 3]
• = 3(𝑎𝑥1 𝑛 + 𝑏𝑥2 𝑛 )2 +2𝑎𝑥1 𝑛 − 3 + 𝑏𝑥2 𝑛 − 3
• = 3 𝑎2 𝑥12 𝑛 + 𝑏 2 𝑥22 𝑛 + 2𝑎𝑏𝑥1 𝑛 𝑥2 𝑛 + 2𝑎𝑥1 𝑛 − 3 + 2𝑏𝑥2 𝑛 − 3
• ≠ 𝑎 3𝑥12 𝑛 + 2𝑥1 𝑛 − 3 + 𝑏 3𝑥22 𝑛 + 2𝑥2 𝑛 − 3 = 𝑎𝑦1 𝑛 + 𝑏𝑦2 [𝑛]
• As a result, the system is non-linear.
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Invertibility

• A system is invertible if distinct inputs lead to distinct outputs, or if an

inverse system exists.
• That is, if we can get back the input 𝑥(𝑡) or 𝑥[𝑛] by passing the output
𝑦(𝑡) or 𝑦[𝑛] through another system, then the system is invertible,
otherwise it is non-invertible.
• Example. Determine if the following systems are invertible or not
 𝑦 𝑡 = 2𝑥 𝑡
 𝑦 𝑛 =0

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Invertibility Cont’d.

• The system is invertible because we can pass 𝑦(𝑡) using another system
to produce 𝑤(𝑡) = 0.5𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑥(𝑡).
• Any inputs will give the same output of zero and hence the system is
not invertible.
• Quiz. Determine if the following systems are invertible or not
 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑥 2 (𝑡)

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References

1) Oppenheim, Alan V., Alan S. Willsky, Syed Hamid Nawab. Signals &
systems. Systems-Prentice Hall, 1997.
2) Adams, Michael D. Signals and Systems (Edition 3.0). Michael Adams,
2020.

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