WIND POWER IN DENMARK

TECHNOLOGY, POLICIES AND RESULTS

SEPTEMBER 1999

1
2
Contents
1 Introduction 5
1.1 Early Use of Wind Power Electricity in Denmark 5
1.2 Wind Power in Denmark Today 6

2 Wind Power in Danish Energy Policy 7

2.1 Wind Energy in Energy 21 7
2.2 CO2 and Renewable Energy (RE) Quotas for Electricity Production 7

3 Regulatory Conditions for Wind Power in Denmark 8

3.1 Ownership of Wind Turbines 8
3.1.1 Private Involvement 8
3.1.2 Utility Involvement 9
3.2 Financial Incentives 10
3.2.1 Direct Subsidies 10
3.2.2 Taxation 11
3.3 Utility and Grid-Related Issues 11
3.3.1 Electricity Production 11
3.3.2 Tariffs 12
3.3.3 Payment for Wind-Generated Electricity 12
3.3.4 Grid Connection Costs 12
3.4 Spatial Planning Legislation 13
3.5 Regulation of Offshore Wind Power 13
3.6 Environmental Protection Legislation 14
3.7 Building Legislation 14
3.8 Replacement of Old Wind Turbines 14
3.9 Certification 14
3.9.1 Type Approvals 15
3.9.2 Administration of the Approval Scheme 16
3.10 R&D Programmes 16
3.10.1 Overview 16
3.10.2 Research Programme - EFP 16
3.10.3 Development Programme - UVE 17
3.10.4 Test Station for Wind Turbines 17
3.10.5 Other Programmes and Projects 18
3.10.6 International R&D Co-operation 18
3.10.7 Database on R&D Projects 18

4 Organisations in the Wind-Energy Field 18

5 Wind Power Economics 19

5.1 Cost of Wind Turbines and Projects 19
5.2 Operation Costs 19
5.3 Cost of Offshore Projects 20
5.4 Energy Balance 20

6 The Impact of Wind Turbines on the Environment 21

6.1 External Costs 21

7 Wind Resources 22

3
8 Wind-Turbine Technology 23
8.1 Generations of Technology 23
8.2 Increase in Size and Productivity 25
8.3 Reduced Noise Emission 25
8.4 Cheaper Wind Turbines 26
8.5 Manufacturing and Quality 26
8.6 Improved Resource Assessment Tools 26

9 Industry and Services 26

10 International Programmes 28

11 Useful Web Addresses 28

12 Statistical Tables 29

13 General Information about Denmark 32

4
1 Introduction utilisation which was to form the basis for Juul’s design
of a modern electricity-producing wind turbine - the
well-known 200 kW Gedser machine. The Gedser machi-
1.1 Early Use of Wind Power Electricity ne was installed in 1957 and was in operation until
in Denmark 1967. In 1977, when data for large wind turbines were
needed, the refurbished Gedser turbine was used for a
With no other natural energy sources (no water for hy- measurement programme.
dropower, no coal, no known oil or gas resources, etc.), it The oil embargoes of 1973 and 1979 and the awa-
was natural that Denmark should become one of the first kening green movements sat the stage for the present era
countries in which scientists and engineers began a dedi- of wind power. The oil embargoes, moreover, promoted
cated effort to implement wind technology as a basis for exploration of the offshore oil and gas fields in the Da-
electrification. This started in 1891, when Poul la Cour nish part of the North Sea and a switch-over from oil
and a team of scientists built a test windmill, funded by based to coal based power generation. Today, Denmark is
the Danish government, at Askov Folk High School. La a net exporter of oil and gas, and most power is gene-
Cour drew on the results of two contemporary Danish rated at coal-fired combined heat and power (CHP)
engineers and scientists, H. C. Vogt and J. Irminger, who plants. Furthermore, Denmark has some of the European
together with the American scientist, P. S. Langley, parti- Union’s lowest fossil-fuel based power generation costs.
cipated in formulating the modern theory of aerodyna- As a consequence, security of supply and cost of energy
mic lift and drag. are not urgent political problems. However, Denmark
Shortage of imported fossil fuels during World War I has one of the highest per capita CO2 emissions in the
provided a powerful incentive for utilising wind energy world, and the prospect of climate changes is the main
for electricity production. By 1918, as a result of la reason for the present focus on wind energy utilisation.
Cour’s work, a quarter (120) of all Danish rural power
stations was using wind turbines for power generation.
Most turbines had a rated capacity of 20-35 kW. After the
war, with a sufficient supply of fossil fuels, these machi-
nes rapidly became outdated, and in 1920 only 75 turbi-
nes were left.
World War II also caused a shortage of imported fossil
fuels, renewing interest in wind power. Towards the end
of the inter-war period and during World War II, Danish
industrial wind power development was undertaken by
two companies in particular: Lykkegaard and F. L.
Smidth & Co. A/S. By 1943, Lykkegaard had installed 90
turbines; most of them of the 30 kW type. F. L. Smidth &
Co. developed two types: a 2-bladed 60 kW turbine and a
3-bladed 70 kW turbine. 21 of these were installed du-
ring World War II.
After World War II, the Organisation for European
Economic Co-operation started to examine Europe’s fut-
ure access to fossil fuels on the international level. One
of the results of these deliberations was the initiation in
1950 by the Association of Danish Electricity Utilities of
an investigation of the possibilities of utilising wind po-
wer in the Danish electricity supply system. By the end
of the war, J. Juul, a Danish engineer at the SEAS power
utility embarked on an R&D programme on wind energy The Gedser Wind Turbine (Photo: Flemming Hagensen, Risø)

Table 1. Status for wind turbines in Denmark at the end of 1998. Source: Danish Association of Electricity Utilities (DEF).

Owner type Number of machines Capacity in MW Production in GWh

1997 1998 1997 1998 1997 1998
Utility 672 684 222 238 384 477
Private 4111 4524 908 1205 1548 2302
Total 4783 5208 1130 1443 1932 2779

5
 3000
140
Utilities
Private
2500 120

100
2000

80

Index
1500

GWh
60

1000
40

500
20

0 0
78 82 86 90 94 98 78 80 82 84 86 88 90 92 94 96 98

Figure 1. Electricity production from wind turbines. Source: Figure 2. Index of the content of energy in wind. Source:
Danish Association of Electricity Utilities (DEF). Energi & Miljø Data.

1.2 Wind Power in Denmark Today

The Association of Danish Electricity Utilities has esti-

mated the total electricity production from wind turbi-
nes in 1998 as 2779 GWh: (477 GWh from utility-owned
turbines and 2302 GWh from privately owned turbines)
(Table 1 and Figure 1). This equals 8.6 % of total electrici-
ty consumption in Denmark. Since the wind energy in-
dex in 1998 was 100,8% this production equals the pro-
duction in a “normal wind year” (figure 2).
According to the Danish Association of Electricity
Utilities, 5208 turbines with a capacity of 1442 MW were
connected to the grid at the end of 1998 (figure 3). 424
turbines and 313 MW were added in 1998, the largest
capacity increase ever. These are net figures and include
dismantled machines. The actual sale of turbines was a
bit higher, reflecting the fact that not all machines sold
in 1998 were installed that year. New machines were
mostly 600 kW and 750 kW. A few 1000 kW machines
were installed on a commercial basis, but yet no 1500
kW have been installed in Denmark in 1998.

Figure 3. Siting of the more than 5200 wind turbines in Den-

mark. Source Energi & Miljø Data.

6
 gross energy consumption by 2005. It is also estimated
2 Wind Power in Danish that renewable energy will increase its share of the ener-
Energy Policy gy supply to about 35% (235 PJ).
Today, the most recent large wind turbines are so
competitive that using electricity from wind turbines is
Denmark has a long tradition of implementing vigorous one of the cheapest ways of reducing CO2 emission from
energy policies with broad political support and invol- power production.
ving a broad range of actors: energy companies, industry, As a result of the actions taken in Energy 21 the
municipalities, research institutions, NGO’s and consu- Government estimated that 1500 MW of wind turbines
mers. would be installed by the year 2005, corresponding to 10
The aim of the first energy strategy, Danish Energy % of the electricity consumption. Because the installati-
Policy 1976, was to safeguard Denmark during internatio- on of wind turbines has taken place more quickly than
nal energy crises such as those of 1973-74. The following anticipated, this has been achieved already in the first
plan, Energy 81, could go further, given the drastic price half of 1999. In the long term, the Government is expec-
rises in energy following the embargoes in 1979-80; it ting 5,500 MW wind power by 2030 (out of which 4,000
also emphasised socio-economic and environmental con- MW is expected to be offshore).
siderations. After a period during which large-scale pro- Total power production from the 1,500 MW will be
jects for facilities and markets for natural gas and combi- approx. 3.3 TWh corresponding to reducing CO2 emissi-
ned heat and power generation were developed, the acti- on by 2.8 million tons. By way of comparison, the coun-
on plan, Energy 2000, followed in 1990, introducing the try’s total CO2 emission was 58.6 million tons in 1996.
goal of sustainable development of the energy sector. The 1500 MW of wind power provides one quarter of the
Denmark’ Energy Futures, a discussion paper published in national target of a 20% reduction of the CO2 emissions
December 1995, contains a technical analysis of future by 2005.
scenarios for energy consumption and supply in Den- The most economical way is still to erect wind turbi-
mark. It was followed and expanded by Energy 21, the nes on land. But area resources on land in Denmark are
fourth of the energy strategies, which lays down the limited when housing, nature, and landscape considerat-
energy-policy agenda for the years to come. ions are to be taken into account. Furthermore, wind
Development and implementation of wind energy conditions at sea are considerably better than at sites on
have been included in all four energy strategies. Both land, and therefore wind turbines erected offshore are
demand pull-policy instruments (financial and other expected to become competitive in step with the de-
incentives) and technology push-policy instruments (cer- velopment of technology.
tification schemes and R&D programmes) have been The Government expects that part of the expansion
used as tools in these strategies. still will take place on land. However as wind turbines
become larger and hence more difficult to place in
landscapes, the number of new sites will be limited. The
2.1 Wind Energy in Energy 21 increase of wind turbine capacity on land therefore will
happen, among other things, by renovating wind turbi-
In 1996 the Danish Government’s new Plan of Action - ne areas as well as by removal or replacement of old
Energy 21 - was published. One important issue in Energy smaller wind turbines in accordance with regional and
21 was that the Government set a national target for municipal planning. In the longer term the main part of
reducing CO2. By 2005, Denmark will fulfil its internatio- new development will take place offshore.
nal obligations by reducing the total Danish CO2 emissi- In order to provide individual households outside
ons into the atmosphere by 20% from the 1988 levels. areas with district heating and natural gas supplies with
Furthermore as a result of the Kyoto-conference EU has better opportunities to contribute to the use of cleaner
accepted 8 % reduction in CO2 from 2008 to 2012 com- energy, the Government has supported the development
pared to 1990. According to an agreement between EU- of small wind turbines (household turbines) producing
member states to fulfil that goal Denmark has accepted a electricity for heat and power. The small wind turbines
21% reductions in that period. A condition for the are seen as a supplement to the general development of
Government’s decision to aim at halving CO2 emissions wind power.
before 2030 is that international efforts in both techno-
logical development and design of market conditions
and mechanisms support this Danish endeavour. 2.2 CO2 and Renewable Energy (RE)
In arriving at these reductions, renewable energy and Quotas for Electricity Production
wind energy play an important role. In Energy 21 the
government estimates that domestic renewable sources In the spring 1999 an electricity reform has been intro-
of energy will contribute some 12-14% (100 PJ) of total duced and a number of new bills for the Danish electrici-

7
ty sector has been approved by the Parliament. The re- 3 Regulatory Conditions
form contributes to ensuring the fulfilment of the long-
term, international environmental commitments in for Wind Power in
2008-2012. The agreement covers the first four years Denmark
from 2000 to 2003 and is a framework for CO2 emissions
from the electricity sector and for development of renew-
able energy. From the very first policies in the late 1970s, both dem-
For the period 2000-2003 a ceiling has been establis- and pull instruments and technology push instruments
hed for the total electricity sector’s CO2 emission of 23 have been used. Different forms of direct subsidies and
million tons in 2000, 22 million tons in 2001, 21 million regulatory incentives have been implemented.
tons in 2002 and 20 million tons in 2003. The ceiling is
to be expressed in CO2 quotas, which will be split among
the electricity production companies. The ceiling will 3.1 Ownership of Wind Turbines
make it possible to incorporate environmental commit-
ments in the electricity companies planning of future Different groups own wind turbines: private individuals,
investments and operational dispositions. If the annual private co-operatives and electricity utilities. In addition,
quota is exceeded, the production companies must pay a few wind turbines are owned by private industrial en-
to the state the sum of 40 DKK/ton CO2. terprises and by municipalities (Figure 4 & 5).
A rising share of electricity consumption will in the
future be covered by electricity produced from renewable 3.1.1 Private Involvement
energy sources and a more competition-based market Private enthusiasm and entrepreneur-ship has played a
mechanism that can ensure the cost-effective develop- very important role in developing wind power utilisation
ment of renewable energy production has been introdu- in Denmark. When the first wind turbines were in stalled
ced. in Denmark in the early 1970s, it was not due to govern-
This means certification of electricity from renewable mental programmes and subsidies but to the enthusiasm
energy sources, which creates a basis for the gradual de- of private individuals and their willingness to take risks.
velopment of a market for electricity from renewable Because private enthusiasm has been a driving force
energy sources. Also from now on, RE-quotas are to be in the development of wind power in Denmark, local
announced by the Government and all consumers will private ownership of wind turbines has been promoted
be obliged to purchase an increasing share of electricity politically by the Government and the Parliament.
from renewable energy. In the first instance, a quota will Another reason is that the environmental advantages of
be laid down meaning that 20 % of the electricity con- wind power are on the global or national level, whereas
sumption should be covered by RE at the end of 2003. its environmental disadvantages are on the local or
Since wind power is the most developed and one of the neighbourhood level, associated with the presence and
cheapest ways to save CO2 a major part of the RE is go- operation of wind turbines. Such local disadvantages can
ing to be wind power. lead to a lack of public acceptance of wind farms. Local
ownership of wind turbines (i.e. allowing local farmers,
co-operatives or companies to benefit from the wind

Table 2. Policy instruments used to promote wind-turbine technology and installations.

Demand pull instruments Technology push instruments

Incentives Incentives
• Direct subsidies • R&D programmes
• Taxation • Programme for household turbines
• Replacement of small and old turbines • Test station for wind turbines
• Aid programmes • International co-operation

Other regulation Other regulation

• Resource assessment • Approval scheme
• Local ownership • Standardisation
• Agreements with utilities
• Regulation of grid connection
• Electricity purchase arrangements / green
certificates
• Information programmes
• Spatial planning procedures

8
 600 wind turbines. This development is due to several fac-
tors: general interest rates have decreased, payment for
Cooperatives wind power electricity has increased slightly, and wind
Individuals
500 Utilities turbines have become less expensive.
Others
3.1.2 Utility Involvement
400 Danish utilities have been involved in wind power utili-
Number of turbines

sation from the beginning. As early as the 1950’s SEAS, a

private owned electricity utility, experimented with wind
300
turbines. When the first wind power programme was
initiated in the 1970s, Danish electricity utilities partici-
pated in the utility scale research programme.
In 1985 an agreement was reached between the
200
Government and the Danish electricity utilities, commit-
ting the utilities to install 100 MW of wind turbines over
a five-year period. This agreement was fully implemented
100
by the end of 1992. A second 100 MW agreement bet-
ween Government and utilities, entered in 1990, was
finally implemented in 1996. According to an Executive
0
Order from the Government, a third utility phase of an
78 82 86 90 94 98
additional 200 MW is to be installed by 2000. These
Figure 4. Annual installations (in number of machines) of three phases have primarily focused on land-based wind
wind turbines, by types of owner. Source: Energi & Miljø Data turbines, but the two offshore 5 MW demonstration
for the Danish Energy Agency. wind farms, Vindeby (1991) and Tunø Knob (1995), are
also results of the agreements between the Government
350 and the utilities.

Cooperatives
300 Individuals
Utilities
Others
250

200
MW

150

100

50
Tunø Knob offshore wind farm (Photo: Midtkraft)

0 Several investigations of the offshore wind resources

78 82 86 90 94 98 have been conducted since 1977 resulting in the final-
isation of the two demonstration projects. In July 1997 a
Figure 5. Annual installations (in rated capacity) of wind
plan of action for offshore wind farms was submitted to
turbines, by types of owner. Source: Energi & Miljø Data for
the Minister of Environment and Energy. The plan was
the Danish Energy Agency.
drawn up by the two electricity utility associations, El-
turbines) can ensure local acceptance of projects. In par- kraft and Elsam, together with the Danish Energy Agen-
ticular, co-operatives spreading ownership of a wind tur- cy and the National Forest and Nature Agency. The plan
bine between 20 to 100 families in the vicinity of the of action includes eight areas with water depths of up to
wind turbine has been stimulated. 15 metres. The total theoretical installed capacity of the-
During the 1980s and early 1990s most new turbines se areas is 28,000 MW, and it was estimated that about
were installed by co-operatives. Since mid 1990s it is 12,000 MW realistically could be utilised in four major
primarily farmers who have installed individually owned areas. These are west of Horns Rev in the North Sea,

9
The Vindeby offshore wind farm (Photo: Jan Kofod Winther)

south of the island of Laesoe in “Kattegat”, south of the “Middelgrunden” close to the Copenhagen harbour.
island of Omoe in “Smaalands Havet” and south of Lol- Middelgrunden at 40 MW, half of which will be owned
land Falster (“Roedsand” and “Gedser” in “Oestersoen” by small investers, is expected to be erected in year 2000
(the Baltic Sea). The wind speeds in the areas allow 3530 and the two first large scale farms, Horns Rev and Roeds-
“net-full load hours” in the North Sea (Horns Rev) and and, each at approximately 150 MW, in 2002.
between 3000 and 3300 hours in interior Danish waters.
(Hub height of 55 m and rotor diameter of 64 m are anti-
cipated). This corresponds to an annual electricity produ- 3.2 Financial Incentives
ction of 12 - 14 TWh. For comparison, the total Danish
electricity consumption in 1997 was 32 TWh. 3.2.1 Direct Subsidies
The main conclusion of the action plan was that the In 1979 the Government introduced a renewable energy
technology for a commercial offshore development could programme that included installation and production
be expected to be available after year 2000. Also the eco- subsidies. An installation subsidy of 30% of total project
nomical prospects looked good in comparison with on costs was granted to wind turbines. As the industry ma-
land installations. It was recommended that steps were tured, and wind turbine prices started to decrease, the
taken for a first face of a development meaning that a installation subsidy was gradually reduced until it was
150 MW demonstration offshore wind farm should be finally abolished in 1989. A total of 2567 turbines recei-
erected in each of the selected areas. After that approx. ved installation subsidies of DKK 275.72 million in cur-
150 MW would have to be built each year over the next rent prices between 1979 and 1989.
25 years to fulfil the above mentioned offshore action Direct production subsidies have continued to be
plan. granted in different versions over the years. Until the
On 29 September 1997 Svend Auken, Minister for end of 1999 a production subsidy of DKK 0.27/kWh is
Energy and Environment, published an agreement with granted to private wind-turbine owners. Power utilities
the Danish utilities to develop the first 750 MW offshore have received DKK 0.10/kWh in subsidy as reimburse-
wind power by the period from 2001 to 2008. The 750 ment of the general CO2 tax on electricity. After 1999 the
MW is expected to be installed in five large wind farms. new green marked will start to come into force. There
Together, these five wind farms will produce about 8% of will however be a transition period for existing turbines
Denmark’s consumption of electricity. erected before the end of 1999 depending on the age of
The Governmental approvals of the specific sites for the turbines. After that the whole payment to the wind
the five large scale offshore wind farms were given in turbines owners will come from the consumers.
June 1999 together with an approval of a small site

10
 There are still limitations on the wind-farm develop- incentive for owners of small shares in a wind turbine.
ments to which the above incentives apply. Private indi- The smaller the share, the larger the relative incentive.
viduals, for example, are only allowed to grid-connect This is used as an instrument to spread the ownership of
one turbine, and this must be placed on the owner’s wind turbines to as many citizens as possible.
land. Similarly, each shareholder in private co-operatives
is limited to owning shares equal to 30.000 kWh. The
shareholders must live in the same municipality as whe- 3.3 Utility and Grid-Related Issues
re the turbine is installed.
3.3.1 Electricity Production
3.2.2 Taxation The electricity net production capacity (excluding wind
Favourable taxation schemes have been utilised to stimu- turbines) was 9,348 MW by the end of 1998 and net sale
late private wind turbine installations. These taxation of electricity in 1998 was 35,539 GWh1.
schemes have changed over time. Today, income from A large part of Denmark’s electricity is produced in
wind turbines by and large is taxed like other income. combined heat and power plants (CHP). The ex-works
Private persons and companies can chose between two heat production from CHP plants was 81,082 TJ in 1998.
models for taxation of their income from wind turbines Fuel for the electricity and CHP sector was 218.8 PJ from
or shares in wind turbines. For owners of turbines ac- coal, 12.3 PJ from oil, 39.6 PJ from N-gas, and 44.7 PJ
quired before the present taxation rules, a number of from other sources1 .
other rules exist. The structure of the Danish electricity companies is
Owners of individually-owned or company-owned changing as a result of the new electricity reform and
turbines often chose to pay income tax in the same way bill. Liberation and competition will come into the sec-
as income from other investments, i.e. full tax on the tor, which ownership up to now have been controlled by
income but with deductions for the annual depreciation consumers and municipalities and regulated by the
of the investment and expenditures on operations and Government. In 1998 there were 104 companies out of
maintenance costs, according to the usual tax regulation. which most have been city or municipality owned. Some
Shareholders in private co-operatives can chose a “sim- have been owned by co-operatives or by private share-
plified model”, according to which the first DKK 3000 of holders. The distribution companies have owned the
income from sale of wind power is tax free and 60 % of production utilities, and there have been two co-operati-
the rest is taxed with the usual marginal income tax per- ons ELSAM and Elkraft on the production side.
centage: usually more than 60%. No deductions are allo- By 1 January 1998 the western part of the ELSAM
wed. The simplified income-tax model provides a tax utilities was divided into a production company, ELSAM,

The Avedøre Power Station (Photo: Risø)

1
Dansk Elforsyning Statistik 1998, Danske Elværker Forening.

11
and a grid operator, I/S Eltra. The eastern part has estab- price of electricity from private wind turbines was appro-
lished Elkraft System as grid operator. ximately DKK 0.6/kWh.
With the new regulation from year 2000 the whole
3.3.2 Tariffs payment will come from the electricity consumers. The
In 1998 the price of electricity from power distribution price the distribution companies pay after a transition
utilities have been approximately DKK 0.37 - 0.45/kWh period will be the actual market prices on conventional
(Figure 6). electricity. On top of that the producers of electricity
For private consumers (connected to the 400/230-Volt from wind will receive green certificates which all consu-
distribution grid), a number of taxes are added to this mers are obliged to buy. A special market for these certifi-
price. The electricity tax was DKK 0.46/kWh in 1998. cates will be established and the turbine owners are gua-
The CO2 tax is DKK 0.10/kWh. The SO2 tax is DKK ranteed a price between 0.10 and 0.27 DDK/kWh.
0.009/kWh. On top of this, 25% VAT is added. In 1998 At the same time a transition period is introduced for
the average consumer price for Danish low-voltage custo- existing turbines erected before the end of 1999 to ens-
mers was DKK 1.28/kWh. ure reasonable depreciation terms for investment already
made. A settlement price of 0.33 DDK/kWh is laid down
3.3.3 Payment for Wind-Generated Electricity (corresponding to the present 85% rule) until a well-
The utilities are obliged by law to connect private wind functioning market for renewable energy has been estab-
turbines to the grid, and to receive and pay for wind- lished or for a fixed period of 10 years. In addition wind
generated electricity different arrangements have existed turbines will continue to get the so-called “CO2 10-øre”.
over the years. Since 1993 the payment for wind-gene- Also depending on the size and the age of the turbi-
rated electricity has been related to the utilities’ produc- nes an additional price subsidy of 0.17 DDK/kWh is paid
tion and distribution costs (tariffs). A law has obliged to wind turbines in the transition period. For turbines
power utilities to pay wind turbine owners a kWh rate of with a capacity up to 200 kW a time period correspon-
85% of the utility’s production and distribution costs ding to 25,000 full-load hours has been given, and for
(85% of DKK 0.37-0.45/kWh in 1998). Up to now, the turbines from 600 kW and upwards 12,000 full-load
Government has reimbursed wind-turbine owners the hours have been given. Turbines between get 15.000 full-
DKK 0.10/kWh CO2 tax and added DKK 0.17/kWh in load hours.
direct subsidy. As a result, in 1998 the average selling Production from turbines owned by utilities and fi-
nanced by allocations under present rules are not inclu-
35 ded, and will not receive green certificates.
New turbines erected before the end of 2002 will re-
ceive the settlement price of 0.33 DDK/kWh for a 10-
30 year period plus the value of the certificates. Special rules
for owners of small-scale technology and for owners of
turbines, which are decommissioned in favour of new
25
wind turbines, will be established.
Number of Companies

20 3.3.4 Grid Connection Costs

In accordance with an Executive Order, the costs of grid
connection of wind turbines are split between the owner
15
of the wind turbine and the electricity utility. The wind-
turbine owner must bear the costs of the low voltage
10
transformer and connection to the nearest connection
point on the 10/20 kV distribution grid, while utilities
must carry the costs for reinforcement of the 10/20 kV
5 distribution grid when such is needed.
The connection point is usually the closest distance
between the turbine and the grid. However, the distribu-
0
tion companies have the right to reject the connection if
0.28

0.3

0.32

0.34

0.36

0.38

0.4

0.42

0.44

0.46

0.48

0.5

it can prove that it will become very expensive and no

Electricity prices DDK/kWh planning have been made (i.e. a municipal plan) in the
area for installations in the future. In this case, the utility
Figure 6. Denmark has 104 electricity distribution utilities. has to present another solution.
Each one has its own electricity price. The average in 1998 Single wind turbines are usually connected to the 10
was DKK 0.38/kWh – not weighted with size of each utility. kV grid, whereas wind farms are often connected to the
Source: Danish Association of Electricity Utilities (DEF). closest 10/60 kV transformer. In several cases, clusters of

12
only 3 turbines have their own 10 kV line to a 10/60 kV Decisions made by planning authorities can be appea-
transformer. led to the Nature Protection Board of Appeal, an inde-
pendent body under the Minister of Environment and
Energy.
3.4 Spatial Planning Legislation

Spatial planning establishes a framework for siting wind 3.5 Regulation of Offshore Wind Power
turbines in the open land, and balances the interest of
wind energy against other interests, including the way in Up to 1999 on the two small offshore demonstration
which existing urban features and landscapes can best be wind farms each of 5 MW at Vindeby and Tunø have
protected. Tasks relating to environmental protection are been built by the utilities and the permissions have been
increasingly integrated in the work of spatial planning. granted by the Government based on existing regulati-
Spatial planning in Denmark is carried out at three le- ons. Other applications have been refused with the argu-
vels: local and municipal planning in the municipalities, ment that further investigations were needed in connec-
regional planning in the counties and national planning, tion with the earlier mentioned large scale demonstrati-
co-ordinated by the Ministry of Environment and Ener- on projects before any other permissions could be
gy. granted.
The Ministry can influence planning through regula- The Danish Government have supported several stu-
tion, national planning directives and the dissemination dies investigating the possibilities and a Governmental
of information. The location of wind turbines and high- Committee has been appointed to look at the regulatory
voltage transmission lines in rural landscapes are two conditions for offshore wind power installations. This
examples of areas where the Spatial Planning Depart- committee has reported twice in 1987 and 1995. Beyond
ment influences planning. selecting the sites for the small demonstration farms and
County’s issue zoning permits and installation per- the new large scale farms all interest in Danish waters
mits in pursuance of the Act on Spatial Planning. All have been mapped. Also a set of recommendations for
counties have prepared guidelines for regional planning future installations has been given based on the input
which lay down the overall conditions for wind turbine from authorities and different surveys carried out over
deployment in each particular region/county. the past years.
Municipalities (the local planning authority) prepare The conditions for future offshore farms have now
local wind-turbine plans. Typically, these plans prescribe been laid down in the new electricity bill approved by
where turbines are to be installed and how (individual the Parliament in May 1999 as a result of the reformati-
machines, clusters, parks), tower type and colour and on of the Danish electricity sector. It is now laid down
distances to roads, dwellings, etc. that the right to exploit energy from water and wind

Wind turbines in the landscape (Photo: N.E.G. Micon)

13
within the territorial waters and the economical zone 3.8 Replacement of Old Wind Turbines
(up to 200 nautical miles) around Denmark belongs to
the Danish Government. In 1994 the Government introduced a three-year replace-
The bill lay down the procedures for the approval of ment programme for old and/or malplaced wind turbi-
electricity production from water and wind and pre- nes. The replacement programme had two objectives.
investigation of such within the national territorial wa- First, replacement of existing, old small turbines (usu-
ters and within the economical zone belonging to Den- ally 55 kW machines) by new large ones (usually 600-750
mark. Permission will be given for a specific area and if kW) would increase the total potential of wind power
the constructions are expected to have environmental resources. An investigation carried out for the Danish
impact an environmental assessment must be carried Energy Agency concluded that replacement of turbines
out. up to a size of 75 kW would increase the resource poten-
To ensure the optimal development in the best areas tial by between 150 and 250 MW. Including sizes up to
a central tender procedure will be established. But also 130 kW would add another 117 MW to this potential.
an alternative procedure will be followed allowing ap- Second, the first generations of wind turbines were
proval of project without previous call for tenders espe- often sited with no official planning and zoning restric-
cially for smaller projects closer to the coasts. tions. These turbines were often located in areas where
wind-power utilisation is restricted today, for example,
nature reservation areas or near residual areas. In additi-
3.6 Environmental Protection on, some older turbines are noisier than modern ones,
Legislation and noise gives rise to public disapproval. By replacing
such turbines with new ones on more suitable sites, so-
Previously, installation of land-based wind turbines re- me public disapproval can be mitigated. As a spin-off
quired no specific environmental assessment. The balan- effect, the replacement programme could relieve pioneer
cing of the interests of wind-energy utilisation against wind turbine owners financially.
other interests in the open land was usually contained Over the programme period, DKK 5.6 million was
in the legislation on each area. Today, environmental used on subsidies. Only 36 turbines have been replaced
assessments are more often required for wind farms and with 31 new larger ones. The subsidy scheme has not
clusters of wind turbines. been sufficiently attractive and other measures are being
One example of legislation regulating siting of wind considered.
turbines is the Environmental Protection Act. This law Turbines have been taken down for reasons other
lay down some proximity guidelines; such as distance than the replacement programme. In 1998 the wind
between wind turbine and coastline: 300 m; lakes and farm of Syltholm owned by the electricity utility, SEAS,
streams: 150 m; forests: 300 m; ancient monuments: was replaced. 24 400 kW turbines installed in 1988 were
100 m; churches: 300 m. replaced by 25 new 750 kW turbines. No subsidy or pub-
Noise emission is another example. The noise emissi- lic incentive was involved in this replacement.
on of a wind turbine must be verified according to the
rules in Ministry of Environment and Energy Executive
Order no. 304. According to this, noise from wind turbi- 3.9 Certification
nes must not exceed 45 dB(A) outdoors at the nearest
habitation in rural areas and 40 dB(A) in residential are- The Danish approval scheme for wind turbines has been
as and other noise-sensitive areas. A simple method for established to fulfil a common desire expressed by wind-
calculating the noise emission of a wind turbine is speci- turbine manufacturers, owners and authorities for a co-
fied in the Executive Order. herent set of rules for approval of turbines installed in
Denmark. An approval is partly based on a type approval
of the turbine and partly on a certified quality system
3.7 Building Legislation which, as a minimum, describes the production and in-
stallation of the turbine. Today all manufacturers have
The installation of wind turbines does not presuppose an ISO 9000 quality system.
permission in terms of building codes. The rules in this A set of rules have been developed and adopted in
legislative complex are comprised by a type approval. “Teknisk Grundlag for Typegodkendelse og Certificering
af Vindmøller i Danmark” (Technical Criteria for Type
Approval and Certification of Wind Turbines in Den-
mark). Several recommendations are affiliated to the
Technical Criteria:

14
 Table 3. Bodies authorised by the Danish Energy Agency to provide services under the Danish scheme for
certification and type-approvals for wind turbines.

Service Authorised body

Production and installation Dansk Standard
certification Germanischer Lloyds Certification GmbH
Det Norske Veritas Certification of Mgt. Systems
Bureau Veritas Quality Insurance
Type approvals Risø, Approval Secretariat
Germanischer Lloyd AG
Det Norske Veritas
Basic tests Risø, Test & Measurements
Tripod Consult Aps
WindTest, Kaiser-Wilhelms-Koog GmbH
Power curve measurement Risø, Test & Measurements
Tripod Consult Aps
DEWI, Wilhemshafen
Wind Consult GmbH
WindTest, Kaiser-Wilhelms-Koog GmbH
Noise measurement DELTA Akustik & Vibration + bodies approved by
DELTA
DEWI, Wilhemshafen
WindTest, Kaiser-Wilhelms-Koog GmbH
Wind Consult GmbH

· A recommendation for fulfilling the demands in the and tests and measurements. This market is open to in-
Technical Criteria (general recommendation) ternational competition and several foreign enterprises
· A recommendation for Basic Tests are active. (See the table 3).
· A recommendation for Power Curve Measurements
· A recommendation for Foundations 3.9.1 Type Approvals
Type approval is required for wind-turbine types in serial
In the future the recommendations are to be replaced by production. Type approval is a verification of the wind
IEC or CENELEC standards, and the Technical Criteria turbine design according to an approval scheme. This
are to be harmonised on a European level. scheme may be extended to cover specific national re-
Since 1979, Risø has been authorised by the Danish quirements.
Energy Agency to issue licenses or type-approvals for The Danish scheme for type-approvals define three
wind turbines, including the tests and measurements approval classes: A, B and C.
required for the approvals. Today the market for these To obtain an A-Type-approval the manufacture must
services has been liberalised, and private enterprises can have a production and installation certificate. For A-
be authorised to perform type approvals, certifications Type-approval, loads and strength/service life must be
documented for all load-carrying components. The docu-
mentation must be in the form of calculations or calcula-
tions and measurements. Outstanding items2 are not
allowed in an A-Type Approval.
To obtain a B-Type Approval, production and installa-
tion certificates are required. The safety requirements
are the same as for an A-Type Approval. But for a B-Ap-
proval items judged to have no essential influence on
primary safety could be listed as outstanding items to be
documented after the approval is issued.
C-Approvals are used for test and demonstration wind
turbines in connection with development of a new wind
turbine type - and in special cases for renovation of old
wind turbines in connection with tests. A C-Approvals is
Test of a large blade for a windturbine at Risoe Testcenter in issued based on documentation of the safety aspects of
Sparkaer. (Photo: Risø)
2
Items to be confirmed later. For example a measured power curve.

15
the wind turbine. Quality and energy aspects are not
verified. A C-Approval is time limited, normally to 3 ye- 300 14

ars. 12
250
For small scale domestic turbines below 25 kW a sepa-
rate set of approval scheme can be applied. 10
200

Millions USD
8

%
3.9.2 Administration of the Approval Scheme 150
Danish Energy Agency. The Danish Energy Agency is 6

responsible for the administration of the approval sche- 100

4
me. On behalf of the Danish Energy Agency, Risø Natio-
50 2
nal Laboratory acts as secretariat and information centre
for the approval scheme. 0 0

74
76
78
80
82
84
86
88
90
92
94
Advisory Committee. To assist the Danish Energy
Agency, an advisory committee has been formed with
OECD Denmark DK in % of OECD
representatives from the Danish Wind Turbine Manufac-
turers Association, the Danish Wind Turbine Owners
Figure 7. Government budgets for wind-energy related R&D
Association, insurance companies and the electricity
in the IEA/OECD countries 1974 - 1995. 1995 price level.
utilities.
Source: IEA Energy Technology R&D Statistics 1974 - 1995,
Technical Committees. For discussion of technical
OECD, Paris 1997.
and administrative matters regarding the approval sche-
me, a technical committee has been formed consisting of
the authorised bodies. As several authorised bodies are ment of the Test Station for Wind Turbines at Risø Natio-
non-Danish enterprises, the meetings of the technical nal Laboratory were results of these projects. Based on
committee are held in English. Minutes and other experience from these projects the Energy Research Pro-
communications from the committee are primarily di- gramme (the EFP programme) has financed wind-energy
stributed in Danish. A separate technical committee has related research projects since 1980. At the beginning,
been set up for household turbines. two lines existed within the research programme for
Information about the Danish Approval Scheme can wind power. One line was the research programme of the
be found on, www.risoe.dk/ens-vindmoellegodkendelse. electricity utilities and the Danish Energy Agency focu-
sing on large-scale wind turbines. The other line focused
on small-scale wind turbines, and financed the research
3.10 R&D Programmes section of the Test Station for Small Wind Turbines, as
the Test Station was named during its first years. The two
3.10.1 Overview lines were merged in 1989.
According to a recent OECD/IEA survey, a total of USD The Ministry of Environment and Energy’s Energy
2363 million has been spent on wind-energy related Research Programme (EFP) covers several technology
R&D from 1976 to 1995 of which Danish Government areas, one being wind-energy technology. The Advisory
programmes amount to USD 100 million3 . That repre- Council on Energy Research (REFU) advises the Ministry
sents 4.2 % of the total efforts in the world during the of Environment and Energy and its Energy Agency. This
period. Compared to most other countries, Denmark has REFU plays a key role in the overall strategic planning of
had relatively stable budgets for wind energy R&D (figure the programme and it advises on the relative priorities
7). between the programme areas.
The Danish Government has sponsored several R&D For each programme area, REFU and the Energy Agen-
programmes on wind energy over the years. Today, cy are advised by a Research Committee, which repre-
government-sponsored R&D on wind energy comprises sents a source of experience and technical competence
two programmes: the Energy Research Programme (EFP) within their fields of interest. The main role of the Re-
and the Renewable Energy Development Programme search Committee is to develop detailed work plans and
(UVE). As a part of the latter, the Danish Energy Agency strategies against which individual projects can be asses-
partly finances the Test Station for Wind Turbines at Risø sed prior to initiation. Shareholders holders from the
National Laboratory. An overview is given in table 4. wind-turbine industry, wind-turbine owners, utilities,
research, etc. have seats on the Research Committee for
3.10.2 Research Programme – EFP Wind Energy.
The first wind energy research projects were initiated and The Energy Agency administers the programme. Prac-
financed by the former Ministry of Trade (EM 1 and EM tically all projects within the wind energy area are initi-
2). For example, the two Nibe turbines and the establish- ated through the annual call for proposals issued by the

3
The OECD statistics use other definitions on R&D expeditures than in
the following in this text.

16
Advisory Committee on Wind Energy; the deadline for Table 4. Budgets for Danish Government activities. Current
project proposals is normally at the beginning of Sep- prices. Figures are based on budgets from the Danish Energy
Agency’s annual report on the Energy Research Programme,
tember. Projects normally run over two or three years
the report “Status og Perspektiver for Vindkraftudbygningen i
and funding will be given by the end of each year. Al- Danmark”, and the Test Station for Wind Turbines annual
most all projects have several partners and industrial budget agreements.
participation and co-financing is encouraged. The Da-
Year Research Development Test Station
nish Energy Agency typically finances 50% to 85% of
programme programme at Risø
the total costs. In the 1998 round (processed in 1997) of EFP UVE
the energy research programme (EFP), nine projects we-
1976-79 28.700 N/A.
re initiated with a total of DKK 15.11 million in support
1980 6.600 N/A.
from the Danish Energy Agency.
1981 9.990 N/A.
Project titles in the 1998 round of the research pro-
1982 17.150 N/A.
gramme were:
1983 17.100 N/A.
· Rotor investigation (Vestas)
1984 13.000 N/A.
· Programme for research in aeroelastics 98-99 (Risø)
· Determination of dampening of edge-wise vibrations 1985 16.365 N/A.
(Risø) 1986 12.600 38.600 3.673
· Investigation of wind climates in connection with 1987 10.505 3.832
double stall on blades (ElsamProjekt) 1988 11.435 4.629
· Validity of the assumption of Gaussian Turbulence 1989 9.000 8.510
(Risø) 1990 9.910 8.758
· The numerical wind atlas – the KAMM/WAsP method 1991 9.000 7.539 10.500
(Risø) 1992 9.585 11.895 11.468
· Power Quality and grid-connection of wind farms on 1993 9.350 15.640 10.481
weak grids (Risø) 1994 9.336 14.942 8.600
· Direct current connection of wind farms (Elsam) 1995 12.300 8.749 7.900
· Simplified connections of offshore wind turbine 1996 14.915 6.338 7.500
foundations (LIC-Consult). 1997 13.350 26.763 7.900
1998 15.110 14.450 7.900
3.10.3 Development Programme - UVE
The Development Programme for Renewable Energy
(the UVE programme) was established in 1982 under the between DKK 8 and 14 million in recent years. In 1998
Danish Technology Board (Danish Industry and Trade the budget was DKK 14.45 million.
Agency) and as per January 1 1990 the programme was The overall aims of the wind section of the Renewable
transferred to the Danish Energy Agency under the Mi- Energy Development Programme are:
nistry of Environment and Energy. · To promote the technical potential for utilising wind
The Advisory Council on Energy and Environment power in Denmark through research, development
(Energy Environment Council) advises the Ministry of and demonstration of new, improved wind power
Environment and Energy and the Energy Agency. The technology.
Energy Environment Council has a more political role · To support the optimum utilisation of the available
than the Advisory Council on Energy Research and its sites.
members are more active in public debate on renewable · To participate in removing barriers to sustainable utili-
energy. sation of wind energy.
The same Technical Advisory Committees advise the · To enhance the Danish contribution in international
ministry and the Energy Agency for the programme area co-operation.
of wind energy as under the research programme (EFP). · To stimulate Danish industrial development and ex-
This ensures efficient co-ordination of the activities wi- port.
thin the two programmes.
Thus far, the programme has been renewed every 3.10.4 Test Station for Wind Turbines
three years. In the present period projects are initiated The Danish Energy Agency operates test stations for dif-
through a standing call for proposals. There is no dead- ferent renewable energy technologies as part of the UVE
line for project proposals, but they are discussed at the programme. One is the Test Station for Wind Turbines,
regular meetings of the Technical Advisory Committee. established at Risø National Laboratory in 1978. At the
Projects are always shorter than three years. The typical beginning it was financed as a three-year project under
total budget for wind-energy related projects have been the Energy Research Programme. The Test Station has

17
subsequently received an annual budget through the Active Danish participation in international standard-
development programme and it has submitted proposals isation in the IEC and CEN/CENELEC is highly prioriti-
to the EFP programme on an equal basis with other insti- sed in the plan of action of the Danish Energy Agency on
tutions. The figures listed in table 5 are budgets for the wind-energy R&D, and R&D efforts supporting internati-
test station activities alone and not additional budgets onal standardisation are encouraged.
for R&D activities, which are included in the EFP and
UVE programmes. 3.10.7 Database on R&D Projects
The activities and the budget of the Test Station for All projects from the EFP and the UVE programmes are
Wind Turbine are negotiated each year. In 1998 the Test listed in a database available via the Internet: Nordic Ener-
Station budget was DKK 7.9 million, and the activities gy Index. The database comprises an abstract, informati-
comprised: on on project management, budget, project participants,
· Information activities list of available reports, etc. The database is organised
· Ad hoc assistance to the Danish Energy Agency under the Nordic Council covering similar information
· International co-operation with other test stations for from Norway, Finland and Sweden. The address is
wind turbines ”www.risoe.dk/nei”. A search guide is available on the
· Secretariat for the Danish certification and type-appro- Danish Energy Agency’s server: “www.ens.dk/forskning/
val scheme nei_tips.htm”.
· Spot-check of type-approved turbines
· Inspections of major break-down of turbines
· International standardisation
· Development of test methods for wind turbines
· Development of test methods for blades 4 Organisations in the
· Participation on the IEA annex on Round Robin test of
a wind turbine.
Wind-Energy Field
3.10.5 Other Programmes and Projects There is no “Danish Wind Energy Association”. Wind
The programme entitled New Energy Technologies (Nye turbine owners and wind turbine manufacturers have
Energiteknologier) was established in 1980 with the aim each formed an association to represent them.
of stimulating ongoing commercial manufacturing of The Danish Wind Turbine Owners Association was
new energy technologies. The budgets were used on in- established in May 1978 and had 10,570 members at the
dustrial development projects and, in a few cases, as ca- end of 1997. Among its members are both wind-turbine
pital in new companies (e.g. the Danish Wind Technolo- owners and people with a general interest in promoting
gy company). Between 1980 and 1990 the Danish wind wind energy. Since 1979 the association’s member maga-
turbine industries received approximately DKK 42 milli- zine “Naturlig Energi” has been published each month.
on from this programme4 . “Naturlig Energi” contains energy-policy debates, stati-
Between 1982 and 1989, the Individual Energy Projects stics on production and failures from 2,619 turbines
(Energiøkonomiske enkeltprojekter) programme sup- (574.5 MW), an annual rating of consumer satisfaction
ported a number of demonstration wind farms, such as with wind-turbine manufacturers, and news stories5 .
Masnedø (3.8 MW), Lynæs (0.9 MW), Oddesund Nord “Naturlig Energi” has made the Danish wind-turbine
(1.1 MW), Ebeltoft (0.1 MW) and Tønder (0.7 MW for market very transparent and facilitated efficient competi-
training purposes). DKK 24 million was granted in 1982- tion between manufacturers.
85 and DKK 2 million in 1986-89. The association represents private wind-turbine ow-
In addition to these programmes, the Danish Energy ners in negotiations with the government, utilities, insu-
Agency has initiated a number of individual projects on rance companies, etc. The association employs several
wind-energy economy, project evaluation, etc. wind-energy consultants available to advise wind-turbine
owners and others on wind resource assessments, finan-
3.10.6 International R&D Co-operation cial and taxation matters, etc. The association carries out
International co-operation on wind-energy R&D is emp- information activities for promoting wind energy. Activi-
hasised by the Danish Energy Agency. Denmark has par- ties such as statistics and general information activities
ticipated in international co-operation in IEA R&D Wind are partly financed by the Danish Energy Agency. As
since its establishment. subsections of the association, a number of “manufactu-
Danish universities, research centres, power utilities rer-groups” (a group for Bonus, a group for Vestas, etc.)
and the manufacturing industry participate in the Euro- exchange experience and participate in discussions with
pean Union RTD programmes. No quantitative data are “their” manufacturer if needed. The organisation’s web
available. address is: www.danmarks-vindmoelleforening.dk.

4
Source: Status og Perspektiver for Vindkraftudviklingen i Danmark.
5
Energistyrelsen, December 1991. Figures as of early 1998.

18
 The Danish Wind Turbine Manufacturers Association 5.1 Cost of Wind Turbines and Projects
(DWTMA) was established in 1981. By the end of 1998,
DWTMA had 6 A-members (Bonus Energy A/S, LM Glas- The ex-works cost of wind turbines has decreased signifi-
fiber A/S, NEG Micon A/S, Nordex A/S, Vestas Wind Sy- cantly with the latest 600 kW and 750 kW generation
stems A/S, WindWorld A/S), 29 B-members (major com- (44-48 meter rotor diameter). For 600 kW machines in-
ponent and service suppliers) and 34 C-members (small stalled in 1997 and 1998, the ex-works cost was, typical-
suppliers, consultants and service companies). The asso- ly, DKK 3.1-3.5 million, and for 750 in 1998 it was DKK
ciation publishes information about wind energy and it 3.4-4.1 million depending on rotor diameter and tower
is engaged in energy-policy issues, economics, and stan- high.
dardisation. DWTMA has established a comprehensive Additional costs depend on local circumstances, such
web-site: www.windpower.dk. as the condition of the soil, road conditions, proximity
to electrical grid sub-stations, etc. Additional costs at
typical sites can be estimated as 20% of total project
costs for the 500 kW to 750 kW generation machines.
5 Wind Power Economics The cost of land has however increased during recent
years and has raised the percentage of additional costs.
The figures in table 5 are the result of a statistical ana-
Today, wind energy is commercially competitive at speci- lysis of a number of projects of 600 kW wind-turbine
fic sites with favourable wind conditions. If external/ technology. The turbines in the analysis were sited indi-
social costs are included, it is estimated that wind power vidually or in clusters of up to 8 machines.
already is competitive with fossil fuel based power.

Table 5. Cost and standard deviation of typical 600 kW

5.2 Operation Costs
wind-turbine projects. Based on a statistical analysis. Source:
Risø National Laboratory. The technical life time or design lifetime for modern
Danish turbines is typically 20 years. Individual compo-
Component Average St. dev.
nents are replaced or renewed at shorter intervals. Con-
DKK DKK
sumables such as oil in the gearbox, braking clutches,
Turbine ex-works 3,146,000 161,000 etc. are often replaced at intervals of 1 to 3 years. Parts of
Foundation 149,000 20,000 the yaw system may be replaced at intervals of 5 years.
Grid connection 288,000 70,000 Vital components exposed to fatigue loads (such as main
Electrical installations 20,000 13,000 bearings and bearings in the gearbox) might be replaced
halfway through the total design lifetime. This is dealt
Tele communication 14,000 9,000
with as re-investment.
Land 103,000 84,000
Operation and maintenance costs include service,
Roads 39,000 44,000 consumables, repair, insurance, administration, lease of
Consulting 36,000 49,000 site, etc. Risø National Laboratory has developed a model
Finance 20,000 27,000 for annual operation and maintenance costs based on
statistical surveys and analyses in 1991, 1994 and 1997.
Insurance 94,000 53,000
The model includes a large re-investment after the 10th
Total 3,909,000
operational year of 20% of the cost of the wind turbine.

Table 6. Annual operational and maintenance costs in % of the investment in the wind turbine. Source: Risø
National Laboratory.

Machine size Year 1 - 2 Year 3 - 5 Year 6 – 10 Year 11 - 15 Year 16 - 20

Annual O&M as % of cost of turbine
150 kW 1.2 2.8 3.3 6.1 7.0
300 kW 1.0 2.2 2.6 4.0 5.0
5 – 600 kW 1.0 1.9 2.2 3.5 4.5

19
 excluding extraordinary costs such as the R&D-part of
kWh price development the project, investigation of the impact on fish etc. An-
nual production is estimated at 12,000 GWh and operati-
1.4 on and maintenance cost amounted to DKK 0.0686/
kWh.
1.2 In 1995 Midtkraft in the Elsam area installed a 5 MW
wind farm at Tunø Knob, consisting of 10 Vestas 500 kW
1 turbines. The total cost of this project was DKK 73.8 mil-
lion, excluding such extraordinary costs as removal of
DKK/kWh

0.8 mines, investigation of the impact on birds, etc. Annual

production is estimated at 15,000 GWh and operation
0.6 and maintenance costs amount to DKK 0.055/kWh.
The earlier mentioned plan from July 1997 prepared
by the two utility associations, Elkraft and Elsam, toget-
0.4
her with the Danish Energy Agency and the National
Forest and Nature Agency estimated the key figures for
0.2
five offshore wind farms. See table 7. The report conclu-
des that electricity production costs for these five wind
0
farms are on the same level as those for turbines on less
1981 1985 1989 1993 1997 favourable sites on land.

Figure 8. Estimates costs of wind generated electricity. Based

on 20 years' depreciation, 5% interests rates and siting in 5.4 Energy Balance
roughness class 1 (A=5.6 and k=1.74). For actual siting see
chapter 7. Several investigations have shown that the energy inve-
sted in production, installation, operation & maintenan-
This re-investment is distributed over the operational ce and decommissioning of a typical wind turbine has a
years 11 to 20. See table 6. “pay-back” time (energy balance) of less than one year of
The development of the cost of wind generated elec- operation. According to the Danish Wind Turbine Manu-
tricity is shown in figure 8. facturers’ Association, manufacturing a state-of-the-art
600 kW wind turbine takes 3.2 TJ taking into account
everything from producing raw material to installing a
5.3 Cost of Offshore Projects finished machine and including 20 years of operation
and maintenance and decommissioning. In suitable loca-
In 1991 Elkraft inaugurated the Vindeby offshore wind tions, the wind turbine will generate 1.1 to 1.3 million
farm which had 11 Bonus 450 kW turbines. Today, the kWh per year in its projected 20-year useful life. The
farm is owned and operated by the electricity utility, SE- energy invested in a state-of-the-art 600 kW wind turbi-
AS. The total cost of this project was DKK 66 million, ne is, therefore, repaid over 3-4 months.

Table 7. Key figures for five planned offshore wind farms. Production costs based on 20 years’ depreciation, 5% interest rate and
DKK 0.08/kWh in service and maintenance costs. 97 % availability and 2.5 % grid loss are assumed. Water depth 3.9 m to 8.6 m.
January 1997 price level.

Key figures Unit Gedser Rødsand Omø Læsø Horns Rev

Installed capacity MW 144 144 144 117 120
Net full load hours Hours/year 3287 3330 3014 3380 3530
Investment MDKK/MW 12.4 11.5 11.0 11.7 11.7
Production cost DKK/kWh 0.38 0.36 0.37 0.36 0.35
Cost breakdown
Turbines MDKK 850 850 850 700 720
Foundations MDKK 270 270 270 220 225
Grid connection and MDKK 440 310 230 240 250
reinforcement
Others MDKK 230 230 230 205 205
Total MDKK 1790 1660 1580 1365 1400

20
 6 The Impact of Wind outside of EU bird sanctuaries, but there are also impor-
tant areas for birds in several of the sites. Studies have
Turbines on the already been conducted of possible impact on sea birds
Environment at the Tunø Knob installation. The studies reveal that the
eider has not been frightened away from the Tunø Knob
area by the establishment of an offshore wind farm. The
Utilising wind power is one of the cheapest methods of eider ducks that winter there are much more influenced
reducing CO2 emissions from electricity production. Ac- by the presence of food than by the presence of the wind
cording to a Danish study, a 100 MW offshore wind farm turbines. For the common scoter, the studies were incon-
will reduce CO2 emissions by almost 0.3 million tons per clusive due to the relatively small number present.
year, when substituting power from conventional coal-
fired power plants. The costs will be approximately USD
5 per ton of CO2 for offshore wind farms situated near 6.1 External Costs
the coast.
The nuisance caused by turbine noise is one of the A European research project has established a compre-
important limitations on siting wind turbines close to hensive and comparable set of data on external costs of
inhabited areas. Although modern wind turbines fulfil different power generation technologies6 . In the Danish
current regulations concerning noise, their size alone National Implementation Project, the external costs of
means that it is not appropriate to install them too close wind power are compared with other energy technologi-
to inhabited areas. As there are very few open areas in es7 . Offshore and land-based wind farms have been com-
Denmark without dwellings, utilising the open sea has pared with combined heat and power (CHP) plants fuel-
great advantages. led with natural gas and biogas. All plants are situated in
The possible impact on wildlife is often an important Denmark.
matter in the public discussion. Danish studies of land- The life-cycle analysis of a wind farm includes resour-
based wind farms conclude that wind turbines do not ce extraction, resource transportation, materials proces-
pose any substantial threat to birds and other wildlife. sing, component manufacture, component transport,
All of the appointed areas for offshore wind farms lie turbine construction, decommissioning and turbine pro-

Observation tower for investigation of offshore wind turbine impact on birds at Tunø Knob (Photo: Midtkraft)

6
Nick Eyre, Externalities of Fuel Cycles. "Externe" Project Report Number 7, Wind Fuel Cycle, European Commission, DG II, 1994.
7
L. Schleisner and P.S. Nielsen, External Costs Related to Power Produc tion Technologies, Risø-R-1033(EN), December 1997. 21
duct disposal. Atmospheric emissions from the produc- Table 9. Wind resources in Denmark.
tion of the wind turbines have a major impact on the
Planned Planned % of annual
total external costs for wind farms. Accidents involving
capacity production electricity
the public as well as occupational health play a minor consumption
role. Impact from noise and visual amenity is very small in 1998
for offshore wind farms, but larger for the land-based On land 1,500 MW 3.3 TWh 10 – 12 %
ones. A comparison of these external cost for wind po-
Offshore 4,000 MW 12 - 14 TWh ~ 40 %
wer with combined heat and power, shown in table 8.

Table 8. External costs of offshore and land-based wind

farms compared with combined heat and power (CHP) plants for new machines. So far statistics do not support this
fuelled with natural gas and biogas. Source: L. Schleisner and point of view (see figure 9). On average, over the last 10
P. S. Nielsen, External Costs Related to Power Production years wind turbines have been sited in roughness class
Technologies, Risø-R-1033(EN), December 1997. 1.47 (referring to the Beldringe data in the European
Technology External Costs Wind Atlas). This corresponds to an average annual wind
mECU/kWh speed at a height of 50 meter of 6.6 m/s (or 4.7 m/s in 10
meter). The trend during the period is flat indicating that
Offshore wind farm 0.67 – 3.65
good sites are still available. This is partly due to better
Land-based wind farm 0.59 – 2.55
micro-siting of the turbines, as the wind resource assess-
Natural gas CHP plant (el) 7.11 – 80.00 ment tools and the knowledge of how to use them have
Natural gas CHP plant (heat) 1.87 – 18.50 improved. In 1999 a new detailed and reliable wind re-
Biogas CHP plant (el) 4.36 – 16.12 source atlas covering the entire land of Denmark has
Biogas CHP plant (heat) 1.32 – 4.57 been developed (see picture of map). The atlas can be
generated for different heights and is available on CD-
ROM and Internet. It can be obtained from
www.emd.dk.

2.0

7 Wind Resources 1.8

1.6
Denmark has one of the best climates in Europe for uti-
lising wind for power production. Only countries with a
1.4
coastline direct to the Atlantic Ocean have better condit-
Average roughness class

ions in general. Wind energy could, in theory, provide

1.2
more energy than is consumed in Denmark today. Howe-
ver, economic viability and siting difficulties limit this
1.0
vast theoretical potential.
The wind resources in Denmark that can be utilised
0.8
are partly on land and partly offshore in Danish waters.
As Denmark is a relatively densely populated country,
0.6
Danish land-based wind resources are limited primarily
by zoning restrictions and the balance between wind-
0.4
energy development and other claims or interests in the
open land.
0.2
The Danish Energy Agency has analysed the results of
local planning, and on this basis has estimated the land-
0.0
based wind energy potential at between 1,500 MW and 80 82 84 86 88 90 92 94 96 98
2,600 MW. It is estimated that 1,500 MW of installed Installation year
wind-turbine capacity can produce 10 - 12 % of the elec-
tricity consumption in Denmark (see table 9). Figure 9. Average roughness class of sites by year of installati-
Scarcity of available land-based sites has led to the on. The term “roughness class” refers to the Beldringe data in
belief that wind turbines must be located on less and less the European Wind Atlas. For 10 meter height and roughness
favourable sites. The best sites were often developed first, class 1: A=5.6 m/s and k=1.74, for roughness class 2: A=4.9
leaving only inland sites with moderate wind conditions m/s and k=1.74.

22
 The second generation started with the very popular
55 kW turbine, which had a 15 meter rotor and was
upscaled to a 75 kW machine with a 17 meter rotor. This
generation was developed in the late 1970s and the first
versions were designed with a 45 kW generator, but only
very few of these early 45 kW versions were actually
sold. The second generation of turbines was based on a
7.5 meter blade from the ‘Alternegy’ company, and it
dominated the Danish and the international wind-turbi-
ne market in the first half of the 1980s. Vestas started
producing its own blades from the 7.5 meter generation.
The third generation consisted of turbines based on
the 9 meter blade with generators in the range of 90 to
100 kW. Rotor diameter was between 18 to 20 metres.
From this generation, LM Glasfiber A/S has dominated
blade manufacturing together with Vestas, which produ-
ced blades for its own machines. For private wind-turbi-
ne owners, the maximum permitted machine size was
limited to less than 100 kW in the late 1980s. That is
why several manufacturers sold 95 kW and 99 kW ma-
chines during these years. The sales of this generation
peaked in 1987.
The fourth generation of Danish wind turbines covers
a range of turbines between 150 and 250 kW and was
Wind ressource map of Denmark

Several investigations of the offshore wind resources

have been conducted since 1977. According to the plan
of action for offshore wind farms the wind speeds in the
areas selected for offshore installations allow 3530 “net-
full load hours” in the North Sea (Horns Rev) and bet-
ween 3000 and 3300 hours in interior Danish waters. (A
hub height of 55 m and rotor diameter of 64 m are anti-
cipated). This corresponds to an annual electricity produ-
ction of 12 - 14 TWh. For comparison, total Danish elec-
tricity consumption in 1997 was 32 TWh.

8 Wind-Turbine
Technology
8.1 Generations of Technology

Wind-turbine technology has developed dramatically in

the period between the late 1970s and today. A large
variety of machines has been produced and sold during
the last 20 years (see figure 10).
The first generation of industrially produced turbines
was based on a 5 meter blade such as the blade produced
by “Økær Vind-Energi”. The turbines had rotor diameters
of 10 to 11 meters and they were equipped with a 22 kW
or a 30 kW generator. Machines from this generation
were primarily sold from 1978 to 1981. New 2 MW N.E.G. Micon turbine (Photo: Flemming Ha-
gensen)

23
 100
22 - 30 kW
55 - 75 kW
90 90 - 100 kW
150 - 250 kW
300 - 400 kW
80 450 - 750 kW
1 MW >
70
% of annual sales in numbers

60

50

40

30

20

10

0
78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98

Figure 10. Market share of seven generations of wind turbine technology. Source: Energi & Miljø Data for the Danish Energy
Agency.

based on 11 and 12 meter blades. This size range domi- 8.2 Increase in Size and Productivity
nated the market from the late 1980s to the early 1990s.
The 150 kW machines (23 – 25 meter rotor diameter) Average generator size has increased from 35 kW in 1981
and the 200 – 250 kW machines (25 – 29 meter rotor to near 700 kW in 1998 (see figure 11). The development
diameter) have been among the best selling wind turbi- in productivity of the turbines is often used as a techno-
nes over the years. logy indicator. The productivity is measured as annual
An intermediate fifth generation of machines covers
300 kW and 400 kW with a rotor diameter of 30 – 31
metres and was based on 13 and 14 meter blades. The 8 00

fifth generation started in the late 1980s with the early

Bonus 450 kW machines, which had a rotor diameter of 7 00

35 metres. This generation gathered pace with the 500

kW machines with 37 to 39 metres in the early 1990s. 6 00

During the mid 1990s, this generation was up-scaled to

5 00
600 kW with rotor diameters of 43 and 44 metres.
Avg. size in kW

Based on the fifth generation, an intermediate size

4 00
range (a sixth generation) has been developed between
the 500/600 kW and the MW size turbines. These are
3 00
machines of 600 kW, 660 kW, 750 kW and 1000 kW ge-
nerators and 47 to 54 meter rotor diameter.
2 00
A seventh generation comprises the MW generation
of turbines. This generation is partly the result of the
1 00
European WEGA R&D programme. The first Danish pro-
totype machines were installed by Danish utilities. These
0
are machines in the range of 1000 kW to 1650 kW with 80 82 84 86 88 90 92 94 96 98
In stallat ion y ear
rotor diameters of 54 to 66 metres. The size of this gene-
ration is expected to increase to about 2 MW. Very few Figure 11. Average size of turbines increased from less than
machines of this generation have been sold in Denmark 50 kW in the early 1980s to near 700 kW in 1998. Source:
but several have been exported. Energi & Miljø Data for the Danish Energy Agency.

24
 1 00 0 104

9 00

102
8 00

7 00
Productivity [kWh/m2]

100
6 00

Reference noise emission Lwa,ref [dB]

5 00
98
4 00

3 00 96

2 00

94
1 00

0
80 82 84 86 88 90 92 94 96 98 92
In stallat ion y ear
1997 technology
1992 technology
Figure 12. Productivity of Wind turbines in kWh per m2
swept rotor area. Electricity production has been normalised 90
to a "normal wind year". Source: Energi & Miljø Data for the 0 25 50 75
Rotordiameter [m]
Danish Energy Agency.
Figure 13. Comparison of reference noise emission (LWA,ref)
from turbines available on the market in 1992 and in
electricity production divided by the rotor area of the 1997. The flatter trend for the 1997 technology indicates
machine. This productivity increased from less than 500 that modern, large wind turbines have relatively lower
kWh/m2 to approx. 900 kWh/m2 between 1981 to 1998 noise emission than older ones. Source: Vindmølleoversig-
(see figure 12). This development is a result of improved ten 1992 and 1998.
technology (including better micro-siting methodologi-
es) and higher hub heights.
Turbine P rice
9000 Other costs 30
Others/total
8.3 Reduced Noise Emission 8000
25
Apart from cost reduction and improvement of reliabili-
7000
ty, the reduction of the noise emission from wind turbi-
nes has been the most important issue for technological
6000 20
development. As a rule of thumb, noise emission from
wind turbines increases with increased turbine size (see
5000
DKK/kW

figure 13). Compared with earlier technology, noise

emission from modern turbines increases less steeply in 15
relation to size (see figure 13). This indicates that new 4000
%

turbines are relatively less noisy that older ones.

3000 10

8.4 Cheaper Wind Turbines 2000

5
The ex-factory price of wind turbines of the fourth gene- 1000
ration (1991, 150 kW - 225 kW) to the sixth generation
(1997, 600 kW) level has decreased by 20% (measured in 0 0
DKK/kW). Other investment costs related to a wind farm
150 225 300 500 600 750
(foundation, grid connection, roads, consulting, etc.)
Turbine size kW
have decreased 50% (from 28% to 20% of total invest-
ment) exept for the last year, where the cost of land ha- Figure 14. Development of installation costs for different ge-
ve risen heavely (see figure 14). The electricity produc- nerations and sizes of machines. Price level 1999. Based on
tion costs have decreased by approximately 30%. Becau- statistical analyses. Source: Risø National Laboratory

25
 3.2 8.6 Improved Resource Assessment
225 kW Tools
300 kW
500 kW Resource assessment tools have also improved over the
3.0
600 kW
750 kW years. Electricity production from wind turbines in a
typical Danish landscape can be predicted quite accurate-
ly. Since the beginning of the 1980s, wind turbines on
2.8
average have produced 3% more than predicted. See figu-
re 16.
DKK/kWh/year

2.6 1.2

2.4 1.0

Actual/predicted production
0.8
2.2

0.6
2.0
91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98

Installation year 0.4

Figure 15. Development of specific investment defined as

ex-works turbine price divided by annual production in
roughness class 1. Price level 1999. Based on list prices of 0.2
leading manufacturers.

0.0
80 82 84 86 88 90 92 94 96 98
se technological development and manufacturing impro- Installation year
vements have taken place together with an up-scaling of
the machines and an increasing of the market volume, it Figure 16. Development in the ability to predict annual elec-
is difficult to determine from which of the sources cost tricity production. Average over the years is a 3% deviation
reduction comes. However it has been generally acknow- between predicted and actual production. Source: Energi &
ledged that the introduction of a new generation (or size) Miljø Data for the Danish Energy Agency.
of turbines has reduced turbine prices significantly -
especially for the 600 kW generation (see figure 15).

8.5 Manufacturing and Quality 9 Industry and Services

Over the last 20 years, the manufacturing of commercial
wind turbines has become increasingly more industria- Denmark has a large wind-turbine industry with a wide-
lised. The increased volume in each manufacturing spread net of Danish and international vendors. Danish-
company has affected “economies of scale”. Develop- based manufacturers of large commercial wind turbines
ment and design of blades and machines increasingly in the 150 kW to 2,000 kW range are: Bonus Energy A/S,
includes the manufacturing process (as well as transport NEG Micon A/S, Nordex Balke-Dürr GmbH, Vestas Wind
and installation) from the drawing board. Because of the Systems A/S, Wind World of 1997 A/S (now part of NEG
Danish certification and type-approval scheme, all Da- Micon), Wincon (Vestfrost A/S). In addition, two compa-
nish wind turbine manufacturers have implemented nies produce smaller turbines in the 5 kW to 25 kW ran-
quality assurance systems (the ISO9000 system), and ge: Gaia Wind Energy A/S and Calorius-Westrup A/S.
their suppliers’ qualifications have been up-graded accor- In 1995 the owners of Nordex A/S sold 51% of the
dingly. shares to Balcke-Dürr AG. A new company is named Nor-

26
Assemply plant for wind turbines (Photo: N.E.G. Micon)

dex Balke-Dürr GmbH. In 1997 the Nordtank Energy Other industrial service enterprises have created im-
Group A/S and Micon A/S merged and formed the portant businesses in servicing the wind-power industry,
company NEG Micon A/S. After this merger, NEG Micon for example companies that specialise in providing cra-
A/S acquired a number of other companies: the control- nes for installation of wind turbines and providing trans-
ler manufacturer, Danish DanControl A/S, the British port of turbines, towers and blades, insurance services,
blade manufacturer, Taywood Aerolaminates Ltd., and etc. The major Danish consultants on wind energy utili-
three wind-turbine manufacturers: the British Wind sation are BTM Consult Aps, E&M Data, ELSAMPROJEKT
Energy Group, the Dutch NedWind, and the Danish A/S, WEA Aps and Tripod Aps. There is one major inde-
Wind World of 1997 A/S. pendent developer of wind farms in Denmark, Jysk Vind-
The shares of Vestas Wind Systems A/S and NEG Mi- kraft A/S, which sells turnkey projects to farmers and co-
con A/S are listed on the Copenhagen Stock Exchange. operatives. For type approvals, certifications, and test
A number of industrial enterprises have developed im- services see paragraph 3.9.1.
portant businesses as suppliers of major components for According to their association, the wind-turbine ma-
wind turbines. LM Glasfiber A/S is a world leading pro- nufacturers had a turnover of more than DKK 7 billion
ducer of fibre glass blades for wind turbines; Mita Teknik in 1998. Total production in Denmark was 1216 MW of
A/S and KK Electronic A/S produce controllers and which 319 MW was sold domestically and 385 MW in
communication systems; and Svendborg Brakes A/S is a Germany. Other large markets are Spain (197 MW), USA
leading supplier of mechanical braking systems. In addi- (49 MW), Italy (84 MW), Sweden (38 MW) and China
tion, Danish subsidiaries of large international industries (35 MW). Increasingly more production takes place in
such as Siemens, ABB, SKF, FAG, etc. have developed foreign subsidiaries and joint-ventures. Danish wind-
businesses in the wind-power industry. turbine manufacturers employed 2,800 workers by the
Service and maintenance of the more than 5,200 end of 1998. An additional 10,000 are estimated to be
wind turbines in Denmark is carried out by the manufac- employed domestically by suppliers and business services
turers’ service departments, but a number of indepen- of the industry.
dent service companies have also been established. These
include companies such as DWP Mølleservice A/S and
DanService A/S.

27
10 International 11 Useful Web Addresses
Programmes
The following Internet addresses give more information
Danish aid programmes and international parts of env- on wind power in Denmark.
ironment and energy research and development pro-
grammes have been used to stimulate wind-energy de- International Wind Energy Development, World Market
velopment in developing countries. The Danish Environ- Update 1998 and Forecast 1998-2002. BTM Consult Aps.
mental Protection Agency under the Ministry of Environ- http://home4.inet.tele.dk/btmcwind/
ment and Energy runs the DANCED (Danish Co-operati-
on for Environment and Development) programme. The The Danish Wind Turbine Manufacturers Association:
DANCED organisation has been involved in projects in www.windpower.dk
Asia and Southern Africa. Some of these projects also
comprise clean energy technologies such as wind energy. The Danish Wind Turbine Owners Association:
Wind turbines and wind-turbine technologies have www.danmarks-vindmoelleforening.dk
been included in bilateral aid projects under DANIDA,
the Danish Ministry for Development. Small demonstra- The Danish Energy Agency: www.ens.dk
tion projects have been established in countries such as
Cape Verde, Egypt and India. Transfer of wind technolo- Risø National Laboratory: www.risoe.dk
gy and manufacturing capability has been important
elements in aid projects in, for example, India and Egypt. Nordic Energy Index: www.risoe.dk/nei
Like its sister organisations in the USA, the UK, France,
Germany, Sweden, etc. DANIDA also runs a mixed-credit Tips for search on Nordic Energy Index: www.ens.dk/
programme. A Danish mixed credit is partially tied to forskning/nei_tips.htm
interest-free or low interest loans with from 8 to 15 year
maturity, aimed at financing development projects exe-
cuted by Danish exporters in creditworthy developing
countries. Mixed credits may be granted to creditworthy
developing countries on the OECD’s Development Com-
mittee’s List for Developing Countries. The granting of
such subsidised credits is regulated by the OECD Consen-
sus Agreement on Export Credits. The rules imply that
tied-aid credits should “provide needed external resources to
countries, sectors or projects with little or no access to market
financing”.

28
12 Statistical Tables

Table A1. Annual installed turbines in numbers and capacity distributed by ownership. Source: Energi- og MiljøData, Aalborg.
Figures are based on manufacturers’ sales and corrected for decommissioned turbines.

Others Individuals Co-operatives Utilities Total

Year Number MW Number MW Number MW Number MW Number MW
1976 2 44 2 44
1978 1 1000 11 312 12 1312
1979 17 330 1 22 2 1260 20 1612
1980 5 209 136 3076 8 440 5 3750 154 7475
1981 5 242 106 3096 18 990 129 4328
1982 9 715 107 3025 27 1485 143 5225
1983 7 367 70 2300 54 2946 131 5613
1984 16 840 79 2603 66 3750 161 7193
1985 21 1264 114 7625 224 15515 1 300 360 24704
1986 6 510 89 7763 233 19175 328 27448
1987 4 484 55 5984 253 26488 36 3456 348 36412
1988 2 745 80 11698 255 38962 101 18036 438 69441
1989 0 0 69 12154 233 40196 90 17836 392 70186
1990 0 0 81 12.229 206 37.778 79 26.850 366 76.857
1991 1 150 85 15.892 239 43.699 69 17.720 394 77.461
1992 2 375 30 4.754 134 25.500 57 16.052 223 46.681
1993 1 99 34 8.135 81 18.645 51 19.545 167 46.424
1994 1 37 51 16.691 46 13.550 38 18.600 136 48.878
1995 0 275 81 37.257 32 11.235 80 43.775 193 92.542
1996 1 975 346 180.858 29 13.370 41 21.125 417 216.328
1997 8 4.425 436 245.220 44 24.950 39 20.600 527 295.195
1998 323 218.155 97 65.455 40 28.000 460 311.610
TOTAL 90 12.712 2.402 799.201 2.280 404.151 729 256.905 5.501 1.472.969

Decommis- 17 1.231 138 6.202 22 2.973 48 19.100 225 29.506

sioned
Existing 73 11.481 2.264 792.999 2.258 401.178 681 237.805 5.276 1.443.463
Percentage 1,4% 0,8% 42,9% 55,0% 42,8% 27,8% 12,9% 16,5% 100,0% 100,0%

29
 Table A2. Stock of wind generating capacity (in numbers and MW) by the end of the year and annual production. Source:
Association of Danish Electricity Utilities. Figures based on grid-connected turbines.

Year Private Utilities Total Private Utilities Total Private Utilities Total
No. No. No. MW MW MW GWh GWh GWh
78 8 1,2
78 24 2,7
80 132 9,0 0 0
81 227 12,4 0 0
82 330 16,3 0 0
83 507 3 510 18 1,5 19,5 26 1 27
84 633 3 636 25,2 1,5 26,7 32 1 33
85 958 4 962 47 1,8 48,8 50 1 51
86 1311 9 1320 75,9 5,6 81,5 124 2 126
87 1623 8 1631 109,7 4,8 114,5 169 5 174
88 1907 181 2088 162,8 33,7 196,5 260 32 292
89 2255 302 2557 214,8 47,4 262,2 268 61 429
90 2537 352 2889 262,9 80,3 343,2 502 108 610
91 2847 396 3243 320,3 93,1 413,4 595 147 742
92 2999 443 3442 351,4 106,7 458,1 715 187 902
93 3080 468 3548 377,5 114,2 491,7 825 227 1052
94 3151 519 3670 399,1 138,7 537,8 842 241 1083
95 3240 590 3830 439 180 619 889 285 1174
96 3613 637 4250 639 203 842 912 315 1227
97 4112 672 4784 907 222 1129 1548 384 1932
98 4525 684 5209 1205 237 1442 2302 477 2779

Table A3. Annual market share in percent of selected generations of turbines. Based on numbers of turbines. See chapter 8. Source Energi-
og Miljødata.

Year 76 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98
22-30 kW 100% 58% 40% 40% 39% 17% 8% 6% 2% 1% 1% 1% 1%
55-80 kW 8% 5% 11% 33% 44% 65% 66% 87% 51% 11% 3% 3% 1% 1% 1%
90-100kW 1% 2% 8% 44% 66% 23% 2% 4% 2% 2% 1%
150-250kW 3% 21% 68% 92% 73% 90% 83% 60% 34% 16% 14% 13%
300-400kW 4% 2% 21% 3% 12% 28% 17% 13% 9% 4% 1%
450-750kW 10% 3% 1% 3% 2% 9% 46% 70% 76% 83% 95%
1MW> 8% 1% 1% 3%

30
Table A4. Characteristics of added turbines year by year. See chapter 7. Source: Energi- og Miljødata.

TOTAL installed/year
2
Year Goodness kWh/kW kWh/m Antal Effekt(kW) Ave.(kW)
78 858 220 12 1312 109
79 0,86 964 362 20 1612 81
80 0,96 1.244 342 154 7475 49
81 0,95 1.539 405 129 4328 34
82 0,98 1.662 443 143 5225 37
83 1,01 1.777 491 131 5613 43
84 1,00 1.902 519 161 7193 45
85 0,99 2.025 623 360 24704 69
86 0,95 2.139 677 328 27448 84
87 0,91 2.110 704 348 36412 105
88 0,93 2.007 777 438 69441 159
89 0,97 2.064 768 392 70186 179
90 0,98 2.245 787 366 75.682 207
91 0,99 2.317 785 394 77.461 197
92 1,00 2.314 800 223 46.681 209
93 1,01 2.203 855 167 46.424 278
94 1,03 2.218 855 136 48.878 359
95 1,05 2.311 936 193 92.542 479
96 1,04 2.362 947 417 216.328 519
97 1,07 2.315 920 527 295.195 560
98 1,04 2.166 878 460 311.610 677

31
13 General Information about Denmark

Geography Population
Area: 43,094 km2 Population: 5.2 million
Coastline: 7,314 km Population density: 122 per km2
Number of islands: 405
Number of lakes: 1,008 Economics
Forest area: 4,450 km2 GNP: DKK 1,014 billion
Preserved areas: 1973 km2 Exports: DKK 351 billion
Imports: DKK 306
Climate
Average temperature (1961-1990) Currency
o
January: 0 C 1 krone (DKK) = 100 øre
July: 15.6 oC 1 USD (July 1998) = 7.01 DKK
Sunshine (average per year): 1,670 hours 1 DEM (Oct. 1997) = 3.81 DKK
Degree-days on average: 3,175 1 GBP (Oct. 1997) = 11.14 DKK

32