Business Research Methods
Business Research Methods
March 2023
Adama Ethiopia
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Table of Content
Contents
CHAPTER ONE CONCEPTS AND ELEMENTS OF RESEARCH ........................................................................ 1
1.1 The Nature of Research: Introductions to Research ................................................................................ 1
1.1.1 Some Characteristics of Research ............................................................................................................ 4
1.1.2 Classification of Research ........................................................................................................................ 5
1.1.3 Social Research ........................................................................................................................................ 5
1.1.4 Characteristics of Social Research ........................................................................................................... 6
1.1.5 Motivating factors of Social Research ......................................................................................................8
A. Curiosity about Unknown .................................................................................................................................8
B. Desire to understand the cause and effect Relation ship of social problems. ................................................... 8
C. Appearance of new and unexpected situations ................................................................................................. 8
D. Desire to discover new and test old scientific procedures ................................................................................ 8
1. 2 Types of Research ......................................................................................................................................... 9
A. Basic research ...................................................................................................................................................9
B. Applied Research ............................................................................................................................................10
1.2.1 Is Research Always Problem – Solving Based? ..................................................................................... 10
1.2.2 What is A Good Research? .....................................................................................................................10
CHAPTER TWO ............................................................................................................................................................12
RESEARCH METHODS AND TECHNIQUES ......................................................................................................12
Classification of Research Methods ............................................................................................................... 12
2.1. Historical Method .......................................................................................................................................12
2.1.1 Definition ............................................................................................................................................... 12
2.1.2 Significance of Historical Method ..........................................................................................................13
2.1.3 Sources of Historical Data ......................................................................................................................14
2.1.4 Advantages ............................................................................................................................................. 14
2.1.5 Limitations ............................................................................................................................................. 15
2.1.6 Steps Involved in Historical research ..................................................................................................... 16
2.2 The case study Method ............................................................................................................................... 17
2.2.1 Definition ............................................................................................................................................... 17
2.2.2 Characteristics of case study Method ..................................................................................................... 17
2.2.3 Advantages ............................................................................................................................................. 18
2.2.4 Limitations ............................................................................................................................................. 18
2.2.5 Basic assumptions of the case study Method ......................................................................................... 19
2.2.6 Steps Involved in case study ...................................................................................................................19
2.3 Survey Method ........................................................................................................................................... 20
2.3.1 Definitions of social survey ....................................................................................................................20
2.3.2 Types of surveys .....................................................................................................................................20
i. General or specific surveys .............................................................................................................................21
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ii. Regular and Ad hoc surveys ...........................................................................................................................21
iii. Preliminary and Final surveys .................................................................................................................... 21
iv. Census and sample survey ..........................................................................................................................21
2.3.3 Advantages ............................................................................................................................................. 22
2.3.4 Limitations ............................................................................................................................................. 22
2.3.5 Steps of a social survey .......................................................................................................................... 22
2.4 The Experimental Research Method .......................................................................................................... 23
2.4.1 In dependent and dependent variables .................................................................................................... 24
Have you identified it? of course, it is gender. The researcher will take male and female and compare their
professional attitudes. In this case the independent variable is a classifying .........................................................24
? What is the dependent variable in the second example? .....................................................................................25
Mathematically, Experimental group = control group ........................................................................................... 25
2.4.3 Advantages of Experimental method ..................................................................................................... 26
2.4.4 Problems of Social Experiments .............................................................................................................26
2.5 Other Methods ............................................................................................................................................ 26
2.5.2 ex-post facto Research ............................................................................................................................27
2.5.3 Laboratory Research ...............................................................................................................................29
2.5.4 Action Research ......................................................................................................................................30
CHAPTER THREE ........................................................................................................................................................ 32
FORMULATION OF RESEARCH PROBLEM ANDHYPOTHESIS ..................................................................... 32
3.1 Research problem ....................................................................................................................................... 32
How to proceed? .............................................................................................................................................33
Three principle components in the formulation of a problem ........................................................................ 33
1. The originating Questions .............................................................................................................................. 33
2. Rationale of Questions ................................................................................................................................... 34
3. Specifying Questions ......................................................................................................................................34
3.1.1. Necessary Conditions for Formulating a Research Problem .................................................................. 34
B. Study of Relevant Literature on the Subject. ..................................................................................................34
C. Discussions with persons having rich practical experience in the filed of study. ...........................................35
3.1.2 Sources of Research Problem ................................................................................................................. 35
3.1.3 Criteria of a Good Research Problem .....................................................................................................36
Feasibility issue of research includes the following: ...................................................................................... 37
3.1.4. Formulating and stating the problem ............................................................................................................37
-Posing question (s) ................................................................................................................................................ 38
3.1.5 Definition of the problem ....................................................................................................................... 38
3.1.6 Common Errors in Formulating Research Problem. ...............................................................................38
3.2 Hypothesis ..................................................................................................................................................39
3.2.1. Importance of Hypothesis .......................................................................................................................39
3.2.2 Characteristics of a Usable Hypothesis .................................................................................................. 40
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3.2.3 Difficulties in the formulation of Hypothesis ......................................................................................... 41
4.1 Basic Functions of a Research ProposalA research proposal serves: ........................................................ 42
4.1.2 As a plan .................................................................................................................................................43
4.1.3 As a contract ........................................................................................................................................... 43
4.2 Characteristics of a Good Research Proposal .............................................................................................43
4.2.1 Objectivity .............................................................................................................................................. 44
4.2.2 Reliability ............................................................................................................................................... 44
4.2.3 Validity ...................................................................................................................................................45
4.3 General Formulation and Elements of the Research Proposal ....................................................................45
4.3.1 The Preliminaries ....................................................................................................................................45
The title should ....................................................................................................................................................... 46
Kinds of title ................................................................................................................................................... 46
B. Hanging title ................................................................................................................................................... 46
C. Question Title ................................................................................................................................................. 47
2. Abstract .......................................................................................................................................................... 47
4.3.2 The Body Parts ....................................................................................................................................... 47
k. Research Objectives (Objectives of the Study) .............................................................................................. 49
l. Significance of the study ................................................................................................................................ 50
m. Delimitations of the Study .........................................................................................................................50
n. Limitations of the Study ................................................................................................................................. 51
o. Definition of used Terminologies. ..................................................................................................................51
9. Review of the Related Literature ....................................................................................................................53
The major Purpose and importance of Literature Review .............................................................................. 54
Guidelines to begin a search for Related Literature ....................................................................................... 55
How to Write to Section on the Related Literature ........................................................................................ 55
1. Review the literature; do not reproduce it ...................................................................................................... 55
2. Summarize what you have said ...................................................................................................................... 55
3. Get the proper Psychological orientation ....................................................................................................... 56
Reference Styles ............................................................................................................................................. 57
6 Gibson and Hodgetts, loc. Cit .........................................................................................................................59
4.3.3 The supplemental ....................................................................................................................................60
10.1 Cost Budget ................................................................................................................................................ 60
10.2. Budget of Time (Schedule) ............................................................................................................................60
11. Reference Section .......................................................................................................................................61
Unpublished works are ........................................................................................................................................... 61
CHAPTER FIVE RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ...................................................................................................... 63
5.1 Sampling Design .........................................................................................................................................63
Definition of population ......................................................................................................................................... 64
Sample size .............................................................................................................................................................64
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Representative ness of the sample .......................................................................................................................... 64
5.1.1 Factors that determine the size of the sample Nature of the study ........................................................ 65
Nature of units ........................................................................................................................................................ 65
Size of questionnaire .............................................................................................................................................. 65
Practical considerations .......................................................................................................................................... 66
5.1.2 Methods of sampling .............................................................................................................................. 66
1. Simple Random Sampling .............................................................................................................................. 66
Merits of the simple Random Technique ........................................................................................................67
Demerits of the simple Random Technique ................................................................................................... 67
2. Complex Random Sampling ...........................................................................................................................67
1. Systematic Random sampling ........................................................................................................................ 67
Steps Involved in systematic random sampling ......................................................................................................68
Merits of systematic random sampling ...........................................................................................................68
Demerits of systematic Random sampling ..................................................................................................... 68
2. Stratified sampling method .............................................................................................................................68
Processes Involved in stratified sampling .......................................................................................................69
Merits of stratified sampling .......................................................................................................................... 69
Demerits of stratified sampling ...................................................................................................................... 70
3. Cluster sampling .............................................................................................................................................70
Principles of cluster sampling .........................................................................................................................71
Merits of cluster sampling .............................................................................................................................. 71
Demerits of cluster method .............................................................................................................................71
II. Non-probability sampling ...............................................................................................................................72
Types of Non-Probability sampling ............................................................................................................... 73
2. Purposive sampling ........................................................................................................................................... 73
Merits of Quota sampling Method ..................................................................................................................74
Demerits of Quota sampling Method ............................................................................................................. 75
5.2 Data Collection ...........................................................................................................................................75
5.2.1 The source of Data ..................................................................................................................................76
5.2.2 Choices between Primary and Secondary Data ...................................................................................... 76
5.2.3 Qualitative vs. Quantitative Data ............................................................................................................78
Quantitative Research is:- .......................................................................................................................................78
Pluralistic Research ................................................................................................................................................ 79
5.3 Types of Data Collecting Tools ..................................................................................................................80
1.1. Close Ended Questionnaire ........................................................................................................................ 81
Can you mention some advantages of presenting close- ended questions? ............................................................81
Can you mention the major limitations related to close-ended questions? .............................................................82
1.1 Open-ended Questionnaires ........................................................................................................................82
How do you make preference between close – ended and open- ended questions? ............................................... 83
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Developing a Good Questionnaire ......................................................................................................................... 84
5.3.2 Interviews ............................................................................................................................................... 86
A. Merits ............................................................................................................................................................. 87
B. Limitations ..................................................................................................................................................... 88
Structured and Unstructured Interview ...........................................................................................................88
5.3.3. Observation Method ............................................................................................................................... 90
The observer- Subject Relation Ship ...................................................................................................................... 90
CHAPTER SIX .............................................................................................................................................................. 95
ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA ...................................................................................................95
6.1 Editing the primary data ............................................................................................................................. 95
6.1.1 Editing for consistency ........................................................................................................................... 95
6.1.2 Editing for completeness ........................................................................................................................ 96
6.1.3 Editing for accuracy ................................................................................................................................96
6.1.4 Editing for uniformity .............................................................................................................................96
6.1.5 Editors for competitions ......................................................................................................................... 97
6.2 Coding ........................................................................................................................................................ 97
6.3 Classification .............................................................................................................................................. 98
6.3.1 Objects of Classification ........................................................................................................................ 99
6.3.2 Characteristics of Classification ............................................................................................................. 99
6.4 Statistical series ........................................................................................................................................ 100
Types of series ..............................................................................................................................................100
Rules for Determining class interval ............................................................................................................ 102
6.5 Tabulation .................................................................................................................................................103
6.5.1 Definition of Tabulation ....................................................................................................................... 103
6.5.2 Objects of Tabulation ........................................................................................................................... 104
6.5.3 Advantages of Tabulation .....................................................................................................................104
6.5.4 Limitations of Tabulation ..................................................................................................................... 105
6.6 Analysis and Statistical Techniques ......................................................................................................... 106
6.6.2 Data analysis .........................................................................................................................................107
6.6.3 Characteristics of Analysis of Data ...................................................................................................... 108
6.6.4 Statistical Methods in analysis .................................................................................................................... 110
A. Types of statistical methods .............................................................................................................................110
I. Descriptive statistical methods ..................................................................................................................... 110
II. Analytical statistical Method ........................................................................................................................110
III. Basic statistical Techniques ......................................................................................................................111
CHAPTER SEVEN ...................................................................................................................................................... 117
STYLE AND FORMAT OF REPORT WRITING ................................................................................................. 117
7.1 Research Report ........................................................................................................................................117
7.1.1. Conclusion ............................................................................................................................................119
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7.1.2. Summary .............................................................................................................................................. 120
7. 1. 3. Recommendations ................................................................................................................................... 120
7.2 Steps in Report Writing ............................................................................................................................ 121
7.3 Format of the Research Report ................................................................................................................. 122
A. Preliminary Section or front matter .............................................................................................................. 122
B. Main Body of the Report .............................................................................................................................. 123
C. Reference Section ......................................................................................................................................... 124
7.4 How to make Bibliography .......................................................................................................................124
Form of the bibliographic Entry ................................................................................................................... 124
Books ............................................................................................................................................................124
Gupta, Santosh. 1993. Research Methodology and statistical Techniques. New-Delhi: General Publishing House.
Indian Research Association. ............................................................................................................................... 125
E.g., 2 March, James G. and Herbert A. Simon. 1958. Organizations. Newyork: Wiley ....................................125
E.g. 4. The Wind . Newyourk : Harper, 1995 .......................................................................................................125
E.g. 5 . Hliday Magazine. Spain. Newyork : Random House,1994 ..................................................................... 125
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CHAPTER ONE
CONCEPTS AND ELEMENTS OF RESEARCH
1.1 The Nature of Research: Introductions to Research
Some of definitions of Research are quoted here
methods in order to discover the relation ship among them and to deduce from
having as its aim the revision of accepted conclusions in the light of new
discovered facts.
of how it is help full to acquire knowledge you need to know about its meaning and
characteristics.
Further Emory and cooper defined Research as, “It is any organized inquiry carried out to
in order to discover new facts, get additional information, etc. In general research can be
defined as an inquiry in to the nature of, the reasons for, and the consequences of any
recorded just as they occur. Research can be a means to an end or an end in it self.
Both are perfectly valid uses, but each entails a rather different approach to the definition of
In simple words research can be defined as any scholarly investigation in search for truths, for facts,
for certainties. (Gupta,S. ----) human being do not operate under controlled conditions, on the
contrary, they are always under the diverse influences such as environmental, psychological and
Social and these influences freely interaction with each other and seldom operate in isolation. The
complexity is further in testified by the uniqueness of each individual’s behavior. Trial and error
method can no longer be appreciated and decision is to be accurate and timely and should be based
on facts and realities. It is in this context that business decisions are now tremendously influenced by
While searching for a definition of research the novice research is Likely to get various
definitions. This is because the term is used in different ways by different authorities Let us
Research can be defined as any scholarly investigation in search for truths, or forcertainties.
verifiable methods in order to discover the relation ship among them and to deduce
experimentation having as its aim the revision of accepted conclusion in the light of
Research is the activity of solving problems which leads to new knowledge using methods
The terms systematic and controlled in this definition refer to the degree to which
the observations are controlled and alternative explanations of the outcome are
ruled out. On the other hand the terms empirical and critical point to the
requirements for the researcher to test subjective beliefs against objective reality
and have the findings open to further scrutiny (detailed examination) and testing.
In general, a synthesis of the above definitions indicates that research is structured inquiry
that utilizes acceptable scientific methodology to solve problems and creates newly
applicable knowledge.
Research involves gathering new data from primary or first hand sources or using existing
Research requires expertise. The researcher knows what is already known about the
Research Strives to be objective and logical, applying every possible test to validate the procedure
Physical Science deal with things, which can be put to laboratory tests under guided
conditions.
These researches deal with physical phenomena upon which man has complete control.
Researches in social sciences are based on human behavior, which is influenced by so many
factors such as physical, social, temperamental, psychological, and economic. We can never
hope to put such human beings to laboratory testes. Even, if it is done, their responses would
and correct the misconceived facts of social Life. The complexity of human or social data
To have knowledge for the sake of knowledge is termed as pure research, but gathering
knowledge that could aid in the better meat of human destiny is known as applied research.
It is very difficult to draw demarcation between these two types of research, as each is
Social research can be defined as; the part of research which studies human behavior as a
part of society.
with improving his understanding of social orders, groups, institutions and ethics.
(Rummel). Systematized investigation to gain new knowledge about social phenomena and
From the above few, but more, accepted definitions the following characteristics of social
i) Social research deals with social phenomena It studies the behavior of human being
as a members of a social and their feelings, responses and attitudes under different
political, Social, educational, administrative and related aspects of social Life also
the Social groups and institutions. Thus, the social research was born out to solve
man’s problem.
ii) Social research aims at discovering of new facts. The scientific research techniques
are applied to find out truth reasoning or relationship of various kinds of human
behavior.
techniques are used. Social research also develops new scientific tools and concepts
iv) Social research assists in the understanding of evolution of new theories. Every
research highlights some broad principles, establishes some scientific truth and
concerned.
vi) Social research must be objective. Researcher should not take his own interest
because any personal bias vitiates (lowers the quality of) the universality criterion of
a scientific preposition.
vii) Since in social research, we study social phenomena or human behavior, therefore,
viii) In social research inter – relationship between variables understudy is must. Besides
it, the variables of social research study can not be measured correctly; only rough
ix) Social research is of dynamic nature; therefore, what was true of past might not be
true of present.
x) Social research in any field is inter-related. Therefore, we can not draw water – tight
compartments for each sector or we can not say whether it is purely political,
xi) Social research fells that the social events are also governed by the rules and
actually both branches of knowledge help each other and the way to progress. In this
context Good and Scats states. “ The good life makes demand on all fields of
science. The problems of producing a good life are in part Physiological in part
biological and in part physiological or sociological. Man finds his need distribution
through all areas of knowledge and he like wish finds his satisfaction arising from
In his own words “Curiosity is an intrinsic trait of human mind and a compelling drive in the
curious about the unknown and mysterious objects that he notices around him and tries to
B. Desire to understand the cause and effect Relation ship of social problems.
According to P.V. Yong “the research of cause and effect relationship has been more
relentless than almost any other scientist effort up on which human energies have been spent
people want not only the results of the events but also want to know how they havehappened.
What was their cause and what was their effect? The research is undertaken to remove doubts
problems. It is the duty of the social scientist to find out their real cause and suggests
It concerns with the technique or methods used in social research. Social scientists have been
busy in devising and developing new methods and techniques in place old ones for dealing
with social problems. In order to make research results more definite and precise, the use of
1. 2 Types of Research
The two type of research that deserve description at this point are Basic Research and
Applied research
A. Basic research
Basic research that is sometimes known as “pure research “or “fundamental research” has as
its main purpose the disclosure of its fundamental truths or principles. It us usually bent
towards the testing and development of theory and are not immediately concerned with direct
application. Thus in basic research control and precision are emphasized while less attention
is paid to direct application of the outcomes in field situation. Basic research in the business
arena might involve a researcher for an advertising agency who is studying the results of the
use of coupons versus rebates (discounts) as demand stimulation tactics, but not in a specific
theories, principles, and laws that are found in different subjects (areas) and helps to extend
B. Applied Research
Applied research or filed research deals mainly with determining relationships and testing
theories in the field situation. Because transfer of the research out - come directly to a field
practical is often the purpose of applied research; control and precision must be sacrificed to
a certain degree in order to conduct the study in a situation identical to that in which the
outcomes will be applied. Applied research may be directed at the testing of theoretical
constructs.
Applied research has a practical problem solving emphasis. The problem – Solving nature of
Pure or basic research is also problem solving based, but in a different sense. It aims to solve
perplexing (puzzeling) problems or questions of a theoretical nature that have little direct
Thus, both applied research and pure research are problem based, but applied research is
h) Conclusions Justified.
and designed.
Limitations frankly revealed Desired procedure is compared with actual procedure;
High ethical standards applied Safe guards are in place to protect study participants,
Adequate analysis for decisions makers needs Sufficiently detailed findings are tied to collection
Different authors have given different classification of research methods in social science,
several methods are used. Any method based on scientific approach is suitable for social and
economic research but it must be carried out on a set pattern and its result should be reliable
Generally, under social and economic research importance is given to the following methods:
historical approach. The main aim of historical research is to apply the method of reflective
thinking to social and economic problems still unsolved by means of discovery of past
triends of events; facts and attitudes. It traces lines to development in human thought and
action intruder to reach some basis for social activity. Historical research method like all
other research methods is not merely concerned with collection of data and facts but editing
analysis, evaluation and interpretation of data are integral parts of it. The historical research
should conduct critical evaluation and interpretation of historical documents and records in
such a manner that general law, treads or hypothesis can be framed. Historical research is
2.1.1 Definition
According to Walter R. Borg, “Historical Research is the systematic and synthesis objective
location, evaluation synthesis of evidence in order to establish facts and draw conclusions
meaning and significance of these events to correct the wrong notions so long prevalent, if
any, and to elaborate analyse, synthesise and philosophies the ideas in the light of the
knowledge we possess
Robert G. Murdik says that “Historical research is concerned with establishing the
occurrence of unique events”. Although one phase of historical research consists only of
determining of past events the ultimate phase deals and present the establishment of pattern
In the simple words, “Historical method seeks to find explanation of questions of current
interest by an intensive study of the past. Past always contains elements of the present. Past,
present and future are all well inter-linked. Infect every project of research has more or less
historical approach. In discussing any problem we must know the history of the problems and
only then the problem can be solved easily, quickly and accurately. To quote P.V. Young,
“The past, if it can be located, contains the key to the present, though today is different from
yesterday, it was shaped by yesterday. Today and yesterday will probably influence
tomorrow.
Historical research is useful both for theoretical and practical purposes. It has made important
contribution to various branches of natural as well as social sciences. Some problems are so
typical that they can only be investigated by this approach. Thus this method fills a gap of
making the research possible and meaningful and some problems other wise would have
remained unexplored with out it. Many a times it is of considerable interest to use time series
researcher:
Autobiographies
Scared Archives
Diplomatic Agreements
Statistical materials
2.1.4 Advantages
i. Some problems are such which can be investigated only by this method and may
not offer other methods. Therefore, historical method fills in the big gap of
making the research possible and also meaningful on the problems that would
ii. Historical data is not repeatable under any circumstances and there fore, historical
method serves a needy hand method to the researchers whose problems depend on
Historical method, therefore, has an advantage to offer the past data under the
iii. Historical records provide very useful information that goes a long way towards
fall back up on past data since he can to create these afresh and hence it is highly
advantageous to follow historical method where the use of time series data is
2.1.5 Limitations
Historical method is not free from limitations. The main draw backs are:-
i. Non-Matching situations
ii. Over-generalization
Limitations may also arise in the writing of history itself because (1) Historians can not write
history life-sizes (2) not all happenings in time and space can be known at the time of writing
(3) personal biases and private interpretations often enter unconsciously, even when honest
attempts are made to select pertinent facts, to arrange them consistently, and to place them in
However, it should be observed that this approach can not be dispensed with as large number
of problems can not be investigated in the absence of historical research many a times even
c. Formulation of hypothesis
e. Testing of hypothesis
f. Evaluation of data
g. Organization of data
number of cases. Thus the field of study in the case study method is limited but it aims at
studying all aspects of a social unit. It also seeks to determine social process; it reveals the
complexity of factors and indicates their sequences and their relationships. It is also a
diagnostic study oriented towards finding out what is happening and why is it happening and
what can be done about it. Case study says Charles H. Colley, “depends on our perception
2.2.1 Definition
Important definition of the case study method is
P.V young- “case study is method exploring and analyzing the life of a social unit, apersonal,
Goode and Hatt- “Case study is a way of organizing social data so as to preserve the unitary
F.I. Whitney –“Case study is a complete analysis and report of the status of an individual
- Although hypothesis is often used, the reliance on qualitative data makes support or
- An insight on detail provides valuable insight for problem solving, evaluation, and
because they do not meet minimal design requirements for comparison, they none the
less have a significant scientific role. Thus, a single, well-designed case study can
provide a major challenge to a theory and can provide source of new hypothesis and
constructs simultaneously.
2.2.3 Advantages
Since the case study method makes an in depth study of a particular unit of investigation and
is always approached with an open mind, it bestows upon the researcher further exploration
2.2.4 Limitations
Though the case study method has contributed much to the social research, some social
scientists have raised some objections against the value and validity of case study. The case
study method has often criticized on the basis of the following limitations.
It develops false sense of confidence which is detrimental to any scientific out look.
Every thing about the subject can’t be known although each unit is studied.
researcher.
in scientific procedure.
II. It is assumed that in the fact of apparent diversity among different units, there is an
underlying unit. A particular unit has its uniqueness. But it is not different from
III. Under this method it is assumed that a unit selected is the representative of a group.
IV. It is also assumed that the study of a particular unit is help ful in the prediction and
V. A unit is indivisible whole and can not be studied piece-meal and in fragments. We
must study its life history and its back ground and to explain the behavior at a
c. interpretations of data,
d. report writing,
Copy © Rift Valley University College of Open and Distance Education
Business Research Methods (MGMT-3212)
19
2.3 Survey Method
The term survey is used for the technique of investigation by a direct observation of a
and interviews when an adequate information about a certain problem is not available in
records, files and other sources. It is currently being used in those investigations also where
A.F Wells- “Social survey is fact-finding study dealing chiefly with working class,
C.A. Moser- “The sociologists should look up on surveys as way and a supremely
useful one of exploring the field of collection data around as well as directly on the
subject of the study so that problem is brought in to focus and points worth studing
are suggested”
Mark Abrams- “A social survey is process by which quantitative facts are collected
Survey method is, thus, the technique of investigation by direct observation of phenomena or
institution or phenomena without any hypothesis while specific surveys are conducted for
If the survey is repeated for regular intervals to obtain continuous information, it is known as
regular survey. It helps in the study trend of the effect of time on the phenomena under the
study for regular surveys permanent machinery for collecting information has to be set up.
Ad hoc surveys are conducted once for all and are non-repetitive. Such surveys may also be
Preliminary survey is the plot study to get the first hand knowledge of the universe under
study. It helps the researcher in preparing schedule or questionnaire and organizing the
survey on proper lines. Final surveys are made after the pilot study has been completed.
Census survey deals with the investigation of entire population. Under this method the
information is collected from each and every unit of the universe. Money, material, time and
labour required for carrying out a census survey are bound to be extremely large but its
results are no more accurate and reliable. In case of sample survey only a small part of the
universe which is representative of the whole population is taken and the information is
collected. Thus the sample surveys are more economical and less time and labour consuming.
Unsuitable if the number of persons to be surveyed is very large or where they are
It lacks flexibility.
It is only useful for current problems and is not suitable for the problem that requires
Does not permit more comprehensive and dynamic study of the society.
Under this method most of the surveys are conducted on sample basis.
of Greenwood, “An experiment is the proof of a hypothesis which seeks to look up two
factors in a causal relationship through the study of contracting situations which have been
controlled on all factors except the one of interest the later being either the hypothetical case
controlled observation of a succession of events the aim is to search for casual connection”
This research method goes by various names, the experimental methods, the cause and effect
method, the pretest- post test control group design and the laboratory method. The basic idea
behind this method is to attempt to account for the influence of a factor or, as in the case of
In its simplest form, the experimental method attempts to control the entire research
situation, except for certain input variables which then become suspect as the cause of what
ever change has taken place with in the investigation design. The experimental research
method requires us the understanding of different variables. But what are variables?
The term variable is used by scientists and researchers as a synonym for the
The numerical value assigned to a variable is based on the variable properties. For example,
referred to as being dichotomous, have only two values reflecting the presence or absence of
a property: employed- unemployed or male- female have two values. Variables can be seen
in to two categories:
researcher so that its effect can be seen. Independent variables can also be classifying
variables.
For example (1) in a study about the effect of assignment provision on the academic
can control the situation of assignment provision. He/she may or may not provide assignment
Consider the following example (2) a researcher wants to study about “Gender differences in
professional attitudes.”
What is the independent variable that can be varied by a researcher in the above example?
Have you identified it? of course, it is gender. The researcher will take male and female
and compare their professional attitudes. In this case the independent variable is a
classifying
variable.
independent variable. It is a measure of the effect of the independent variable. In the first
Have you identified it? Yes, it is the professional attitude of the subjects.
Generally, if the investigator has control over the variable and is able to manipulate it or
change it at will, then we say that variable is an Independent variable. If, on the other hand,
the investigator has no control over the variable and it occurs as the result of the influence of
the independent variable, then the variable is known as the dependent variable.
The matter of control is central to the experimental method. We frequently refer to this
means for searching for truth as the control group experimental group design. At the out set,
we assume that the forces and dynamics with in both groups are equisetic. We begin, as far
as possible with matched groups. These groups are randomly selected and paired so that,
each group will resemble the other in as many characteristics as possible and, certainly, with
I. The experimental method deals with the phenomenon of cause and effect. Thus, we
have two situations and we assess each to establish comparability. We attempt to alter
situation after the intervening attempt at alteration. What ever change is noticed is
II. Experimental research needs to be planned. This planning is called the designing of
the experiment. Experimental design refers to the architectonics and planning of the
This approach is more rigorous. It has the advantage of scientific and vigor and
mathematical logic in so far as the entire piece of research work is based on a well
founded model.
In comparison to other methods, this approach permits the determination of cause and
respondent is always under the in thecae diverse social organism and it all depends on
the type of mental frame that he has at the time the researcher approaches him for
information.
Difficulty of co-operation
Difficulty of setting
Difficulty of control
Errors of Measurement
the situations will permit. Where the laboratory experiment has a maximum of control, most
field studies must operate with less control a factor that is often a severe handicap to the
experiment. The weakness of field experiment, therefore, is of practical nature. The control
may at times be faced with unpleasant situations and the independent variables may got
A field experiment is generally credited with a few virtues which are supposed to be
unique to this category of a research. This virtues may be listed as: (1) the variables in a
field experiment. This is because of the fact that field situation takes stock of realistic
natural operations. (2) field experiments have the advantage of investigating more
fruitfully the dynamics of inter- relationships of small groups of variables. (3) Field
experimental studies are as so ideal to testing of the theory and the solution of the real
world problems
variables, because they have already been manifested. Ex-post facto researches systematic
empirical inquiry in which the scientist does not have direct control of independent variables
because their manifestations have already occurred or because they are in hearth not
manipulability.
Inferences about relations among variables are made, with out direct intervention, from
This kind of research is based on a scientific and analytical examination of dependent and
independent variables- Independent variables are studied in retrospect for seeking possible
and plausible relations and the likely effects that the changes in independent variables,
Some of the weaknesses of ex-post facto research are summarized here under.
The inability to control the charging patterns of independent variables.
The ex-post facto research findings owe the risk of improper interpretations
The ex-post facto research may not have any particular hypothesis as there is a likely
such research is that there exists a possibility of exercising control over independent
A laboratory experiment is a research study in which the variance of all or nearly all of the
possible influential independent variables not pertinent to the immediate problem of the
This is done by isolating the research in a physical situation apart from the or ordinary living
This type of research has a limited application in social sciences as it extremely difficult to
However, it may, at times be possible to create a situation; where in a maximum control can
be exercised to keep the variations among the independent variables at a maximum. In such
cases laboratory experiment types of research may find its applicability in social research as
well.
actual study may consist of a number of phases, say, base-line survey, systematic action,
periodical assessment, etc. A good example of action research is a study of test marketing. A
base line survey is initially conducted and the informants are identified; and this is followed
by the distribution of the product under study, and then an assessment of survey.
It is very useful method in consumer product. Even in the case of industrial products,
machinery and consumer durables, the action research method is used when, instead of
Action research is also termed as applied research because it is a type of research that will be
By its very definition, it is research through launching of a direct action with the objective of
In conducting research through launching of actions, this type of research has the quality of
adapting itself to the changes take place in a given population. Action research is spread over
different phases such as a base line survey, where all the possible information of research
interest is collected to enable the researcher to acquaint him self with the existing operational
situations. This also aims at collecting information from the other sources that have direct or
planned action is particularly launched and then at the next phase action research carries out
At subsequent stage, changes, modifications and other improvements are made in the
functional aspect of the project and finally the whole process culminates in the evaluation of
The method used for this type of research is usually personal interviews method and the
survey method. Some times attitude measurement techniques are also made use of some
problems associated with action research are the personal values of the personal values of the
individuals, lack of social scientists interest and exclusion locations with the respondent.
Generally, action research is directed to the solution of immediate, specific and practical
problems. The findings of action/ applied research will be evaluated in terms of local
improve certain contextual problem and helps to add greater effectiveness in a certain
practical manner. It focuses on the solution of day-to- day problems at the local level.
The beginner is likely to take a very long time in making his choice. In this first step of any
research the research worker should not take a hasty decision. Every problem which comes to
his mind or even that suggested by a more experienced person may not be a fit research
itself. Identification of a research problem is the first step in scientific inquiry. A problem in
The problem defines the goal of the researcher in clear terms. Thus, without a problem,
research cannot proceed because there is nothing to processed from and proceed toward. In
social sciences, quite a number of researchers may be faced with this problem, i.e., the
Personal values play an important role in the selection of a topic for research. Social
scientists with different values tend to choose different topic for investigation. Of course,
personal values are not the only determinants in selecting a topic for inquiry. Social
conditions do often shape the preference of investigators in a subtle and imperceptible way.
There are also a number of powerful and overt inducements to selection of one topic rather
than another. Societies differ in respect of premium they place on the work in different fields.
These differential premia affect the choice of research topics. In a given society, it may bring
greater prestige to do research on a deadly disease rather than on say, the patterns of
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socialization.
How to proceed?
The formulation of the problem consists in making various components of the problem
explicit.
Says John Dewey: It is a familiar and significant saying that a problem well put is half-
solved. To find out what the problem or problems are which a problematic situation
subsequent enquiry to be irrelevant. Without a problem there is blind grouping in the dark.
The rational- theoretical or practical (why one wants to have the questions answered?)
Are formulated in such specific indicate where exactly the answers to them
theory.
2. Rationale of Questions
States what will happen to other parts of knowledge or practice if the question
posed is answered, i.e., how the answer to the question will contribute to
trivial questions.
3. Specifying Questions
The researcher must immerse him/her self in the subject – matter area with I which he/ she
wishes to pose specific problem. This exercise helps a great deal in suggesting to the
researcher the specific questions that may be posed for the study to answer. This process is
This would help the researcher to know if there are certain gaps in the theories (his/her
research will then be to bridge this gap) or whether the prevailing theories applicable to the
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problem are in consistent with theoretical expectations and so on. This is also an aspect of
exploration.
C. Discussions with persons having rich practical experience in the filed of study.
This is often known as an experience survey, which again is an exercise at exploration. These
people help in sharpening the focus of attention on specific a spects with in the field.
Daily problems;
Technological changes;
considerable interest. In such situations the researcher must have thorough knowledge of that
Research problem can also be selected on the basis of daily experience of a researcher.
Everyday problems constantly present something new and worthy of investigation and it
depends on the worthy of investigation and it depends on the sharpness of the researcher
Technological changes in a fast changing society are constantly brought forth new problems
and new opportunities for research. What is the impact of a changed technology on the
existing socio – economic set up, always interests the researcher and tempts him to under
system.
Research problems can be both abstract and of applied interest. These may also be selected
from those areas which have not been explored so far. Such area may be theoretical or
empirical in nature.
Some times the researcher while discussing the interest with some other people may come
across a problem that can be researched by the investigator. The problem may relate to any
source as discussed above. In the same way reading assignments in text books, special
assignments, research reports and term papers may also suggest some additional areas of
needed research. Many research articles suggest some additional areas of needed research.
Many research articles suggest problem for further investigation that may prove fruitful .
personal. External criteria involve such issues as newness and significance for the area,
availability of data and method and administrative and institutional cooperation personal
criteria include such consideration as interest, training, cost and time. The following are
duplication. Ignorance of prior studies may lead a student to spend time a problem already
investigated. The study should also employ the most recent data. Although originality is an
important consideration, there is also a constant need for verification of the findings of the
previous investigations, using newer and better devices and procedures. There is also a need
interested in to, he will be able to face and overcome the obstacles which come at every step
in research. His interest should be purely intellectual and should not be there only for a
Importance : If it is not worth while, if adds to neither knowledge nor lead to any
Immediate Application : The investigator should ask himself question, “will my research
is the matter of its feasibility. The investigator should be able to carry it to a successful
should be skillful enough to develop, administer, and interpret the necessary data – gathering
-Availability of data
-Availability of cooperation
-Availability of guidance
terms. The type of statement to be employed depends on the preference of the worker and the
nature of the problem. There are two alternative ways of stating a problem
One may choose any of these ways remembering that the question form has an advantage in
sharpening and focusing the issue, but the declarative form is perhaps more common and
to put a fence around it, to separate it by careful distinction from like questions found in
To decline a problem means to specify it in detail and with precesion. Each question and
formulate the point of view or educational theory on which the investigation is to be based. If
It is important to define and elucidate the problem as a whole and further define all the
makes no justification .
extent that it becomes too small and insignificant from research point or view.
Proposed to be used in data collection and analysis are no precise enough, they may result in
3.2 Hypothesis
The derivation of a suitable hypothesis goes hand in hand with the selection of a research
problem. Hypothesis is a statement temporarily accepted as true in the light of what is, at the
time, known about the phenomenon, and it is employed as a basis for action in the search of
new truth.
A hypothesis is a tentative assumption drawn from knowledge and theory which is used as a
guide in the investigation of other facts and theories that are yet unknown.
relationship relative to some phenomenon which serves to explain such facts as ready are
know to exist in a given area of research and to guide the search for new truth.
A hypothesis states what we are looking for. A hypothesis looks forward. It is a proposition
Thus it prevents the review or irrelevant literature and the collection useless or excess
data.
It sensitizes the investigator to certain aspects of situations which are relevant from
the stand point of the problem in hand. It spells the difference between precision and
It focuses research with out it research would be like a random and aimless
wandering.
It places clear and specific goals before us. These clear and specific goals provide the
investigator with a basis for selecting samples and research procedures to meet these
goals.
knowledge. Hence, a “good” useable hypothesis is the one which satisfies many of the
following criteria.
A good hypothesis does not conflict with any law of nature which is know to be true.
It should be so designed that its test will provide an answer to original problems
It must be stated in final form early in the experiment before any attempt at
verification is made.
orientation.
future research and an explanation of how it will be achieved. The document is prepared for
both requesting authorization and funds to under take a specific research project. It is an
activity that incorporates decision made during early research – project planning phases of
the study including management – research question hierarchy and exploration. The proposal
thus incorporates the choices the investigator makes in the preliminary steps.
It systematically outlines the particular research methodology and details the process that will
A written proposal is often required when a study is being suggested. It ensures that the
parties concur on the projects purpose and on the proposal method of investigations.
Depending on the needs and desires of the investigator, substantial background detail and
It is also the road map of the research which reveals about the what, who, who, why, how of
disburse fund.
flows. A good proposal set out the plan in step by step detail and provides an inventory of
what must be done and which materials have to be collected as preliminary step.
4.1.3 As a contract
A complete proposal approved for execution and signed by all parties constitute a bound of
The length and complexity of research proposals range widely. Business research proposal
normally range from one to ten pages. Applicants for foundation or government research
grants typically file a proposal request of a few pages, often in standardized format specified
by the granting agency. A research proposal may also be oral, where all aspects of the
research are discussed but not codified writing. This is more when a manager directs his own
research.
without confusion clearly. The proposal will demonstrate whether you possess that quality.
Your reputation as a researcher more often than not rest squarely up on the quality of the
the delimitation of the problem and its solution must be eliminated. Remember the
architects drawing: Clean, Clear and economical. It contains all that is necessary; not
for literary composition, for verbal extravagance. The language must be clear,
precise, and sharp, A proposal provides a chance to show with what ultimate clarity
and precision the researcher can state a problem, delineate the treatment of the data,
4.2.1 Objectivity
The objectivity of the findings pertains to the methods of collection of data and scoring of
the responses. The objectivity of the procedure (either collection of data or scoring of the
response or both) may be judged by the degree agreement between the final scores assigned
to different individuals by more that one independent observer. The more “subjective” the
observation, recording and evaluation of the responses, the less different observes agree.
Thus any research design should permit the use of measuring instruments which are fairly
objective in which every observer or judge seeing a performance arrives at precisely the same
report. This ensures the objectivity of the collected data which will be used for the analysis,
4.2.2 Reliability
respondent gives out a response to a particular item, he is expected to gives the same
response tot hat item when ever he is asked subsequently. On the contrary, if the respondent
investigator will be facing a difficulty in considering which one of these responses is the
genuine response of the respondent. So the investigator should frame his item in such a way
that the respondent can not but give only one genuine response. There are different methods
in determining the reliability of the response give out by a respondent. Some of these
methods are using ‘chick item’ administering the same test repeatedly; using a series of
4.2.3 Validity
Any measuring instrument is said to be valid when it measures what it purports to measure.
For example, an intelligence test, constructed for measuring intelligence should measure only
intelligence and noting else. As in the case of reliability there are a good number of
procedures for establishing the validity of test. Some such procedures are validating the
Proposal follows a simple, logical form of presentation. Although there are many ways to
arrange the items with in the proposal, the following serves as a check list of items in your
writing a proposal. Though format varies, the essence expressed in the different formats
The title, which reflects the research under consideration, must be chosen based on the
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criteria the relevance it has, the feasibility of undertaking the study, the applicability of the
Capture and reflect the content of the proposal. It should enable the readers to
Title may sometimes be too short to be clear for instance, the title’ Credit and Poverty’ may
suffice as a text book title but it needs to be explicit and say more if it is to serve usefully as a
research title. On the other hand, title may be too long to be readily and easily compressible.
Excessive length in titles is often attributable to ‘waste’ or fat words such as ‘an investigation
on …’ or ‘studies to example….’and the use of the words that should appear in the main text.
Kinds of title
A. Inductive Title
This type of title states the subject of the research (proposal) rather than the expected out
come.
Eg. ‘The role of agricultural credit in Alleviating poverty in low-Potential Areas of Ethiopia’
B. Hanging title
The hanging title has two parts a general first part followed by a more specific second part. It
is useful in rewording another wise long, clumsy and complicated indicative title.
Credit’
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C. Question Title
Question title is used less than indicative and hanging titles. It is, however acceptable where
E.g ‘Does Agricultural Credit Alleviate Poverty in low- Potential Areas of Ethiopia?
2. Abstract
An abstract is known by different names like executive summary, synopsis, and epitome. It
gives executives the chance to grasp the essentials of the proposal with out having to read the
details. It should also include a brief statement of the problem, the research objectives/
It is the section which reflects the whole content of the proposal. It should be concise,
informative and should provide brief information on about the whole problem to be
investigated.
An effective abstract should present highlight, of the main aspects of the proposal concisely
and clearly. A good informative abstract starts by stating the problem to be solved through
the purpose, expected outcomes, beneficiaries, expected impact of the work being proposed
The problem statement contains the need for the research project. The problem is usually
Once the investigator is able to collect different studies conducted in his field of investigation
from various source and examine each one of them critically for the points mentioned above,
the problem of investigation is stated in two ways – (a) in the form of a statement or (b) in
question form. In some cases the problem is stated with the help of more than one statement
or question.
Thus, in this part of your work, you have to explain what the problem is all about. Problem
statement must do better than produce merely a splutter of wordy and meaningless fragments.
Accordingly, it you know the problem, state it clearly. Each word of the problem should be
expressive, sharp, indispensable and definitive. Always state the problem in a compute
grammatical sentence. Your problem should be stated so well, infect that any one (who
understand English) could read it and react to if with out benefit of your presence If, for any
reason, your problem is not stated with such clarity, then you are merely deciving your self
that you, yourself know what the problem is such deception will merely cause you trouble
later on.
Clarity in statement of the problem is import ant for the following three basic reasons
i, It is the foundation for the development of research problems which aare necessary
ii, It enables the researcher to describe the problem practically, to think about its
importance, its priority and to point out all the necessary points
iii. It provides the research with the basis for discussion with people in the community,
the relevant government \agency, and /or the potential funding agency.
As a general rule in research proposal writing, the other possible approach is to have an
the study topic is the first major section of the research proposal.
The investigator will spell out the objectives of the present study in the form of statement and
while doing so, he takes care that the objectives mentioned are well with in the scope of the
Recall that the research question can be further broken down in the investigative questions. If
the proposal is for a descriptive or casual study, then the objectives can be restated as a
hypothesis.
The objective flows naturally from the problem statement, giving the sponsor specific,
Realistic and Time- bound). It is best to list the objective either in order of importance or in
general terms first, moving to specific term. (i.e, research question followed by underlying
investigative questions). The general objectives of a research provide a short statement of the
specific goal being pursued by the researcher. The research questions (or hypothesis, if
appropriate) should be set off from the flow of the text so they can be found easily. The
1. They should be stated in a form which shows the relations between variables
2. Must clearly state the target of the research activity, i.e, what kind of results are expected
The research objectives section is the basis for judging the remainder of the proposal and,
objective is discussed in the research design, data analysis, and results sections.
In this section, the researcher indicates the importance of the research and there by convinces
the reader. The researcher is, thus, required to indicate what his research will contribute
whether the research is to provide solution or to shed light on the nature of the problem or
both. Some researches extend the frontier of knowledge. This section, therefore, enable the
Also, if the particular study is exploratory in nature, its importance to serve as an input for a
The significance of the study is usually stated as follows. The purpose of the research is
This part indicates the scope – coverage-of the study. Your study should be delimited to a
manageable size. This should be done in relation to the area coverage as well as to the extent
In this section you (as a researcher) indicate the boundary of the study. The problem should
be reduced to a handy (manageable) way. The rule is “Don’t bite more than what you can
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chew”. The motto of the researcher is “this one thing I do; this one area I investigate; this one
Delimitation is done to solve the problem using the available financial, labor and time
resources. This does not, however, mean that we should delimit the research topic to
particular issue and/ or organization or place because it is less costly and take less time.
Delimitation is done not to necessarily reduce the scope of the study for the sake of
minimizing the effort to be exerted. This means that we should not sniff the life of the topic
in the name of making it manageable. Thus, there should be a balance between manageability
This is a part that you will include some constraints or difficulties you think that they
have influence on the weaknesses in the methodology , lack of access to data, faulty
Generally, limitations are difficulties the researcher faced during doing the research.
Even though the researcher designs and plans his study carefully, there could still be
certain constraints that might hinder the researcher from doing the research as it should
be.
This is usually written after the work is completed because it is known only then. Thus, it
It is importance to give meanings of different terms used in the investigation. The researcher
the other investigators, respondents and readers of the research report in understanding the
different terms with out any ambiguity. Normally these concepts are explained either in the
Nominal definitions are used in cases where a given word is synonymous with certain other
the steps in its observation or measurement are clearly stated. Thus an operational definition
of concepts helps the investigator in obtaining reliable results, with out which he can not
establish any fact scientifically which in its turn makes the problem of investigator much
more complex in his attempt to accept or refuse the hypothesis under consideration with
more authenticity.
Sometimes, the investigators even define a variable operationally with the help of items in
The investigator usually engager himself in the following exercises before arriving at the
The investigator will:(a) discover the various dimensions involved with in the concept, (b)
correlate these different dimensions so that all possible types can be discerned, (c) reduce the
number of types to be studied, (d) translate those types selected for study in to operational
It is always advisable to define each concept both: (i) in abstract terms giving the general
This section examines recent (historically significant) research studies, company data or
reports, book, magazines, and other written documents that act as a basis for the related
literature and relevant secondary data from a comprehensive perspective, moving to more
specific studies that are associated with your problem. If the problem has a historical
It is recommended that you should avoid the extraneous detail of the literature by doing a
brief review of the information, not a comprehensive report. Emphasize the important results
and conclusions of other studies, the relevant data and trends from previous research, and
particular methods or designs that could be duplicated or should be avoided. Discuss how the
literature applies to the study you are proposing; show the weakness or faults in the design,
discussing how you would avoid similar problems. Close the literature section by
summarizing the important aspects of the literature and interpreting them in terms of your
problem. The review of related literature should give readers the context for the present study.
The review should not merely summarize a series of books and articles; rather, it should call
attention to the most important previous work, identify the place of your study in relation to
other research, and delineate areas of agreement and disagreement in the field. The review
should evaluate and interpret existing research rather than simply repeat it. Organizing the
review by topic rather than by author and avoiding un necessary direct questions can help
do, you do because it aids and assists you in attacking your problem. And when you know
what others have done, you are better prepared to attack with deeper insight and more
complete knowledge the problem you have chosen to investigate. But this is only the
principle reason for investigating the literature. Briefly such a review can provide you with
many benefits
i. It can reveal investigations germane to your own, and it can show you how the collateral
ii. It can suggest a method or a technique of dealing with problematic situations, which may
also suggest avenues of approach to the solution of similar difficulties you may be facing.
iii. It can reveal to you sources of data, which you may not have know existed.
iv. It can introduce you to significant research personalities of whose research effort and
v. It can help you to see your own study in historical and associational perspective and in
vi. It can provide you with new ideas and approaches, which may not have occurred to you
vii. It can assist you in evaluating your own research effort, by comparing them with related
Go to the library armed with data gathering tools. You will need bibliography cards
and container to carry them in. Bibliography cards are valuable to gather and record
information. It also helps in locating it again with out continual return trips to the
library.
Be systematic and thorough “make haste slowly” is a sound rule for the researcher.
It would be much better to take the required care and to give proper attention to
The competent researcher never forgets that everything be does serves only one
Long direct questions are the last resort use them only for a very good reason.
At the end of the presentation and processing of data in the research report, in the final
Too many students consider the related literature as an unnecessary appendage standing in
the way of their goal. They are eager to get on with the research. To the contrary, a
conscientious and through review of the literature review related to the problem can open to
any researcher possibilities of which he was un aware, can open his eyes to new ways of
4. Have a plan:- begin your discussion of the related literature from a comprehensive
like as inverted pyramid broad and first. Then you can deal with more and more
specific or more localized studies which focus closer and closer on your specific
problem.
5. Emphasize relatedness keep your reade constantly aware of the manner in which the
literature you are discussing is related to your problem. Point out precisely what the
relationship is. When ever you cite a study, make your self account for that particular
6. Use proper Citation Style Citation refers to indicating the source of borrowed or
quoted idea “ Plagiarize” is defined as to steal and pass off (the ideas or word of
another) as ones owns to use(a created production ) with out crediting the source. The
Paraphrasing some one else’s words at length with out giving him/her credit
Copying some one else’s word or sentence- verbatim with out quoting
Paraphrasing is taking some one else’s word and putting it in to own word.
Quoting is copying taking some one else’s word or sentences variation. If the question
appears as part of a paragraph, it should be preceded and followed by quotes. If the quotation
is longer that four typed lines, it should be set off as a paragraph of its own, single spaced,
and typed with out quotation make. Both paraphrased and quoted materials should be
reference carefully.
Reference Styles
Three of the most commonly used referencing styles are the APA (American Psychological
Association), MLA (Modern Language Association of America), and Turbian (named for its
creator, kate L. Turbian) Styles. The APA style relies on in text mention of the author’s name
Examples:
1. Grapevine communications are much more accurate than most people think. Typically,
2. Davis (1981) reports that grapevine communications are more accurate than most
people realize. Typically, 75-85% of the information the grapevine carries is true.
3. The underlining show the alternative referring styles. If the writer quotes Davis directly
as in the following except, then the page number might be added to the reference
employees are so disinterested in their work that they do not engage in shop talk, they
the PAP will cite the authors’ name and date of publication, where as the MLA will
provide the authors last name, Title of work, and page numbers.
Example.
Universality of management suggest that the manger uses the same managerial skills and
management,”64)
What ever the writer chooses, he should be careful to maintain consistency. When the
author of the referenced material are two or three, the last name of each of the authors
should be indicated.
However, if the authors are more than three, only the name of the first author is written
followed by rt.al., which means “ and other”, the abbreviation et. al. should be
Example
According to Thompson et.al., there is a general agreement that once a training program
Under the Turbian style, each citation is given a number starting with 1 and proceeding
consecutively through the paper. The number are typed slightly above the line to
distinguish them from the text. Corresponding foot notes may be typed as endnotes or at
the bottom of the page. If typed at the end of the page, a line about 1 and ½ inches long
should be typed to separate the text from the footnotes. Here is an example of a
Grapevine communications are much more accurate than most people think. Typically 15-
cited and are now being cited again.4 consider the example that follows. The turbian using
The notion Ibid is the abbreviation fort he lation ibidem, meaning “ in the same place”, It is
In the case where other references come between the original and the repeated citation of a
given reference, the author’s last name and the latin op.cit. (Operacitato, in the work cited)
The notation Loc.cit is the abbreviation for the Lafin loc citamus, meaning, the work cited
earlier the same place (page). When the page is the same, we use loc.cit and when the page
It is advisable, under the APA and MLP styles, to use the any reference list once under
first author’s surname for foreign names. However, under the Turbian methods, as can
clearly be seen from the examples, the names are not transposed as in the case of
bibliographic presentation.
Moreover, in the case of bibliography, the first line of bibliographic entry starts from the left
margin and the subsequent lines of that entry are indented 10 spaces In the case of footnote
or end notes, however, is the first line of the reference that should be indented and the
a, To elaborate the ideas or information presented in the text. If discussing some thing with in
the body is difficult (or not necessary), one can type the number slightly above the term (s) to
one to two pages. But if should contain all the costs needed.
Most proposals put together with the expectation that funding will be necessary and an
itemized list of the items needed to carry out the research is listed in some detail. A carefully
developed budget reflects the seriousness of the proposal and the degree to which it is a
realistic assessment of what is needed. A detailed, carefully through out budget will, be
useful in planning, implementing and monitoring the project. The following points should
Specify for each activity in the work plan what resources are required.
Determine for each resource the unit cost and the total cost.
the important phases will be completed is help full to both the researcher and the reviewer. It
A work plan is a Schedule, chart or graph that summarizes in a clear fashion, various
components of a research undertaking and how they fit together. The plan includes the
Task to be performed
Your schedule also include the major phases of the project (study), their time tables, and
milestones that signify completion of a phase. For example, major phases may be
(1) exploratory interviews, (2) final research proposal (3) questionnaire revision, (field
interviews, (5) editing and coding, (6) data analysis, and (7) report generation. Each
All works cited in the proposal are listed here. The sources are many, i.e., text books,
Journal, articles, etc…., Published and/or unpublished, could be possible to cite, quote, or
Unpublished data
Organization’s reports
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Public speeches
Conferences
The researcher should not put such unpublished work in reference list. Such reference should
Example
12. Appendices: - materials which may help the reader to get some more knowledge about
It is not mandatory to have this section. IF the researcher thinks that having this section will
increase the quality of the proposal, he is free to do so. Information types provided in this
section are those additional details, which are difficult to accommodate with in the standard
headings. Staffs to be included in the appendix are: details questionnaires are interview
schedule survey and other geographic maps, photographs and statistical procedures and
formulas.
Research methodology constitutes two major elements. These are (1) the sampling
procedures, (2) the source and collection of data. The methodologies are the core and the
largest part of a scientific research proposal which are largely descriptive in nature. This
section is an essential prerequisite for validating the results and hence acceptability of the
proposal. Methodologies should give full details to show how the research activity is going to
be carried out. Since this section is the largest and the most important of the research
proposal, researchers are advised to split it in to sub-sections. Such effort makes the proposal
transparent and clear to the readers as well as to the sponsor and therefore, minimizes the
conclusion may be drawn about the entire population. An element is the subject in which
measurement is being taken. It is the unit of the study. A population is total collection of
elements about which we wish to make some information. A census is a study including all
It is needless to say that no investigator can study the entire population and hence selects a
few individuals belonging to a population for the purpose of his investigation. These selected
individuals form a sample and while selecting these individuals the investigation should
The investigator should define population in operational terms, describing it with all the
necessary identifiable characteristics. This helps the investigator in selecting the sample
depicting the same characteristics with more case and further helps the investigator in
generalizing his findings of the present investigation with more authenticity. Thus the only
difference between the population and the sample is their size and except for that, the sample
Sample size
Depending on the mode of research the sample size varies. For example, in experimental
research the sample size is very small compared to that of descriptive research. It is always
advisable to collect data from more number of individuals than required by sample size, to
take care of any causality, particularly in the case of problems where the data is to be
collected from the same sample repeatedly at different times. Sample size is usually
determined by estimating the reliability of static tics calculated form the data collected from
When a sample is selected, it is assumed that it represents the population for which it stands.
Failure of this is failure of entire research study. This is fundamental and critical in any
research design to give sense to any research study undertaken. Thus the investigator should
use his ingenuity in carefully selecting the appropriate technique of sample selection.
The different techniques usually complied by the investigators in selecting the sample varies
accordingly- the one selected depends on the requirements of the project, its objectives, and
funds available. Furthermore, the members of a sample are selected either on a probability or
chance of selection. Non- probability sampling, on the other hand, is subjective and each
member does not have a known non zero chance of being included.
sampling is representative if it generates a result that would be reached it the research were
conducted on the whole population. In order to be representative, a sample should possess all
Nature of the study affects the size of a sample for intensive and continuous study small
sample will be suitable, because such study in a large sized sample will require more
resources. For general survey, the size of the sample should be large, but for technical studies
Type of sampling
In random sampling, greater accuracy in results will be achieved only in a large sample. In a
properly drown stratified sampling, a small sample can give more accurate results.
Nature of units
Where it is expected that a large number of unit will not respond, then a large sample should
be taken
Size of questionnaire
If the size of the questionnaire is large and it contains difficult questions, the size of the
The availability of finance, time and trained personnel are other practical considerations,
I. Probability Sampling
In this type of sampling each member of a population has a predetermined chance
A simple random sampling is one in which each item in the universe has an equal or known
large groups. Three methods are generally used for drawing out a sample on simple random
basis.
Lottery Method:- a simple method to do this is to list numbers and to drew lotteries or
Use of Tables of Random Numbers:- These numbers are very widely used in all the
sampling techniques and have proved to be quite reliable as regards accuracy and
representative ness.
Every member should be accessible units once selected should not be ignored or
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replaced by any other unit of the universe
The sample drawn under this method is true representative of the universe
It requires complete list of the universe that restrict the use of this method
For a given degree of accuracy, this method usually requires large samples as
Simple random sampling is often impractical. It requires a population list that is often not
available. The design may also be wasteful because it fails to use all the information about a
population. In addition, the carrying out of a simple random design may be expensive in time
and money. These problems have led to the development of alternative designs that are
superior to the simple random design in statistical and /or economical efficiency. In the
discussion that follows, four alternate probability sampling approaches are discussed;
Under this method a sampling is taken from a list prepared on a systematic arrangement
either on the basis of alphabetic order or on house number on the basis of alphabetic order or
on house number or any other method. In this method only the first sample unit is selected at
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random and the remaining units are automatically selected in a definite sequence at equal
1- Arrange population in serial numbers from 1 to N and determine the size of the
sample,
2- Determine the sample interval by dividing the population by sample size as follows.
N/n=K
N= Sample size
N= Population size
3. Select any number at random from the first sampling interval. The subsequent
- Any hidden periodicity in the list will adversely affect the representative ness of
the sample.
study, then the techniques of stratified sampling is used to obtain more efficient and accurate
Divide the universe in to sub-groups. Then the required units are selected at random
Conduct the stratification in such a way that item in one stratum should be similar to
Each and every unit in the population must belong to one and only one stratum, i.e.,
The size of each stratum in the universe must be large enough to provide selection of
Size of the sample from each stratum can be proportional or disproportional to the
If a correct stratification has been made even a small number of units will form a
representative sample.
It is the only sampling plan, which enables us to achieve different degrees of accuracy
Replacement of case is early in this method if the original case is not accessible to
study
It is a very difficult task to divide the universe in to homogeneous strata the universe
in to homogeneous strata
factor in the sample and under weighting makes the sample unrepresentative.
3. Cluster sampling
population can also be divided in to groups of elements with some group randomly selected
for study.
This is cluster sampling. An immediate question might how does this differ from stratified
1. In stratified sampling, we divide the population in to a few sub- groups, each with
many elements according to some criterion that is related to the variable under study;
while in cluster sampling, we divide the population in to many sub- groups, each with
a few elements in it. The sub groups in the later are selected according to some
between subgroups; while in the later one, we try to secure heterogeneity with in sub
group and homogeneity between sub- groups, but we usually get the reverse.
3. In the former one, we randomly choose elements from with in each group; while in
the later one, we randomly choose a number of the sub-groups, which we then
When properly done, cluster sampling also provides an unbiased estimate of population
parameters. Two conditions foster the use of cluster sampling are (1) the need for more
economic efficiency than can provided by simple random sampling and (2) the frequent un
Cluster should be as small as possible with the cost and limitation of the survey
The number of sampling units in the cluster should be approximately the same
It is easier and more practical method, which facilitates the field work
Probability and the representative ness of the sample are sometimes affected if the
The results obtained under this method are likely to be less accurate if the number of
appropriate or desirable. There are a number of reasons why simple random sampling may
not be appropriate. For example, a researcher may not have access to the whole group. Also
it may be economically difficult and time consuming to take samples from the possible study
population. In non- probability sampling method there is no assurance that every member has
some chance of being included in a sample. This can be employed in different ways.
Non-probability sampling, also called judgmental sampling method is based on the personal
judgment. Under this method a desired number of sample units are selected deliberately or
purposely depending up on the object of the inquiry so that only the important items
representing the true characteristics of the population are included in the sample. Under such
conditions, there is greater opportunity for bias to enter the sample selection procedure and to
distort the findings of the study. If this is so, why would anyone choose it?
There are some practical reasons for using these less precise methods. These are:
It is appropriate for exploratory types of researches where one may wish to contact
only certain persons or cases that are clearly non-typical. This is the case when there
It saves time and money probability sampling clearly calls for more planning and
While probability sampling may be superior in theory, there are break downs in its
application.
Non probability samples that are unrestricted are called convenience samples. They are the
least reliable design but normally the cheapest and easiest to conduct. Researchers or field
workers have the freedom to choose whomever they find, thus the name convenience.
While a convenience sample has no controls to ensure precision, it may still be a useful
procedure. In the early stages of exploratory research when you are seeking guidance, you
2. Purposive sampling
There are two major types- judgment sampling and quota sampling.
conform to some criterion. In a study lab our problem, for example, you may want
When one wishes to select a biased group for screening purposes, this sampling method is
ii. Quota sampling:_ the second type of purposive sampling. We use it to improve
representative ness. The logic behind quota sampling is that certain relevant
meet two tests(1) it should have a distribution in the population that we can estimate, and (2)
it should be pertinent to the topic studied. We may relieve that responses to a question should
responses from both men and women. We may also feel that diploma and TVET students
Quota sampling is a special type of stratified sampling. Here, th population id firest stratified
on some basis, preferably on the basis of the characteristics of the po0pulation under study.
After this the number of sample units be selected from stratum is decided by the researcher in
advance. This number is known as quota which may be fixed according to some specific
characteristics such as in come groups, sex, occupation, political/ religious affiliations, etc.
The choice of the particular units for investigating is left to the investigators themselves. The
investigators try to get required in formation quickly by applying their judgment in the choice
of the sample
the benefits of both methods and hence is both practical and convenient.
If proper controls or checks are imposed on the investigator, quota sampling is likely
personal beliefs and prejudice of the investigator in selection of the unit under study.
Since quota sampling is not based on random sampling, the sampling error can’t be
estimated.
The bias may also occur due to substitution of unlike sample units.
In general purposive sampling (embraces judgment and quota sampling) is the situation
where the researcher deliberately selects certain units for study from the universe and nothing
is left to chance.
hypothesis. The investigator himself may have to construct these instruments or he may have
to adopt the readily available instruments to suit the local conditions. In the later case, the
investigator may make certain necessary changes in the format, etc., with the help of the feed
Besides using the instruments, like questionnaires, interview schedules, projector techniques,
attitude scales, etc…, the investigator may adopt other methods like observation, examination
of records and so forth for data collection each of these various methods has its own
research questions. Primary data are Original observations collected by the researcher or his
agents for the first time for any investigation and used by them in the statistical analysis.
Secondary data Studies made by other for their own purposes represent secondary data. The
different between primary and secondary data is only the degree of detachment with the
original source. Once the primary data have been used, it loses its original character and
becomes secondary. Such secondary data are mostly published in news papers, periodicals
and Journals.
and scope of inquiry, availability of time and money, degree of accuracy desired and the
The primary data are more reliable on the face, but the secondary data can be relied only be
examining the source from which they have been obtained. Their true significance,
The following points are note worthy for the preference of primary source in comparison to
secondary sources:
The primary source gives data in greater details compared to secondary source. The
made then the figures were copied from the primary source.
The primary source also includes a copy of the schedule used in data collection
together with the prescription of the procedure used in selecting the sample and the
size of a sample.
The availability of time at the disposal of investigations also affects the choice of the
method to be adopted in the collection of data. If the data are needed immediately,
we have to depend on the secondary source. On the other hand, if the time is
sufficient it is recommended to use primary method of data are more accurate and
The availability of finance also influences the method to be adopted in the collection
of data. If the data collecting authority has vast financial resources at its disposal it
is better to adopt primary method. On the contrary, it the data collecting agency has
less financial resources, secondary source should be adapted even though the
The availability of trained investigators also affects the choice of the method to be
collection.
The objective and the scope of the inquiry also determine the method to be adapted in
the collection of data. The selected method must suit the objective and the scope of
the inquire.
known as positivistic) that focuses on scientific sampling and the analysis of numerical data,
and qualitative research (also known as interpretative) that focuses on less rigorous (or
convenience based) sampling and gathering textual information for non-statistics analysis.
Often, however, more mixed approaches (pluralistic) are used in which both quantitative and
qualitative approaches are blended and used to inform the findings of each other.
There are vast differences between the first two methods, and it is necessary to understand
as”survey Research”
questions where the response options have been predetermined and a large
- The purpose of quantitative research is very specific, and this research is used
when the manager and researcher have agreed that precise information is needed.
- Data format and source are clear and well defined, and the compilation and
numerical in nature.
and say.
- Because of this, qualitative data can be quantified but only after a translation
process has taken place. For example if you asked five people to express their
problem get five different statements, but after studying each response, you could
characterize each one as “positive”,” negative”, or” neutral”, This translation step
Pluralistic Research
Although there are proponents of both types of research, many social researchers
- The qualitative phase serves as a foundation for the quantitative phase of the
research project because it provided the research problem. Armed with this
invariably superior to what it might have been without the qualitative phase.
- With pluralistic research, the qualitative phase serves to frame the subsequent
quantitative phase.
- Qualitative input is especially useful in helping to select areas for surveying. The
key participants in the social relationship often helps to surface important new
- And in some case, a qualitative phase is applied after a quantitative study to help
5.3.1 Questionnaires
The collection of data through questionnaire is one of the most popular methods used these
days. A questionnaire contains many questions pertaining to the field of inquiry and
supposed to posses it by making them record their replies to a number of questions. It may be
sent to the informants by mails or delivered at hand. The informant’s sends back the
or introductory lines.
research. It is a highly structured method of data collecting tool. It is a format containing a list
of questions sequentially ordered to obtain information relevant to the objective of the study.
Questionnaires can be classifies in terms of the nature of questions that are used: You might
have employed true/ false, multiple choice, matching, short answer questions. In this case, “X”
or “V” on some alternatives provides provided or by writing responses in words. Here while
the question that require you to put a mark are called close-ended questions; those which
require you to write your responses, in words, are known as open-ended questions.
These are also called restricted or structured type. Here respondents are given a set of
alternatives from which they are asked to choose the one that most closely represents their
view. They are categorical questions, which offer a list of options or answers from which
the respondent selects the one fits his/her situation. They are objective type in their nature.
- An extensive field may be surveyed and information elicited from persons living
- Very economical both in time and money because it is usually a one – person job.
The researcher should strive to include all possible choices. However, sometimes, the list of
possible choices could be very long. Under such Circumstance, only the major options
should be included by making intelligence questions. For minor ones, put the option “others”
Some questions are not mutually excusive. To be effective, but the items in the
Some questions that are asked might be defective that demand other questions be
Preparing close –ended questions is time consuming . More over, all thought
questions are good and convenient for busy respondents and enhances or
A questionnaire consisting of questions that are not followed by and kind of specified choice
Direct questions dealing with motives rarely elicit useful answers. Instead of approaching the
respondents with a fixed list of questions, the researcher attempts to get respondents to talk
freely about the subject of interest. By doing so, the researcher hopes to put respondents at
ease and to in coverage them to express any ideas which they have on the subject.
Open- ended questions invite free responses. Here the respondent is not provided with a list
of answers and is given n opportunity is not provided with a list of answers and is given an
They provide the opportunity for an in depth and detail treatment of questions for the
respondents none the less, because it takes much of the respondents time and requires deep
knowledge, many of such questions practically may not given answers. The task of tabulating
How do you make preference between close – ended and open- ended questions?
The preference between close-ended and open-ended questions depends on the following
points.
- The aim of the researcher: - If the objective is to categorize subjects, close ended
- The subject level of knowledge on particular issue. If the subject has through
knowledge on the issue, open-ended questions are preferred and vice versa
- The extent of structure that features subject open ion on the Tssue – If the respondents,
views on the particular issue, are properly formulated, we should opt for closed-end
- The convenience with which the material can be communicated. If there are no
researcher is knowledgeable about the subject, the best option would be to make close
Mean while, the types of questions can not mutually exclusive, i.e, we can use both of them
at the same time. However, it is preferable to use many close-ended questions and to include
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Business Research Methods (MGMT-3212)
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few open ended questions.
of the study. The topic areas to be covered or the content of the questionnaire value out of
what the researcher wants to accomplish from the proposed project. The types of questions or
items to be included in the questionnaire and the questionnaire and the format depend to a
large extent on the types of data sought and the questionnaire design concepts and alterative.
The researcher can not develop a good questionnaire simply by increasing down what he
thinks will provide him the type of data for which he is looking. Various steps are involved in
developing a questionnaire that will provide the researcher with needed data. These steps are.
In determining the contents of the questionnaire, the researcher should consider the problem
he wants to investigate the objectives or the hypothesis to be tasted. Once these are specific
and clear, the researcher should determine the contents of the questionnaire.
Once the researcher decides up on the content areas for the questionnaire, the next step in to
develop items with which to obtain data related to the content areas. The items can be
questions or statements. They can be in the form of (a) structured or non-structured question,
(b) rank-ordered questions, (C) rating Scales, and (d) attitude scales, seldom are all these
types put in any one questionnaire It is common, how ever, to have a combination of one or
Based on decisions made on item to be included in the questionnaire, the researchers do not
develop the initial draft. This phase used a trial and error approach with regard to the
sequencing or arranging of items or questions and reviewing and revising until the researcher
Sequencing items in a proper order is necessary because the questions included in the
questionnaire, should be organized into logical groups. Grouping can be made on the basis of
questionnaire content or on type of format of the items. Each section in every items or
question must be reviewed to determine the type of instruction that should be given to the
The revised draft should be tested before data are collected. The revised questionnaire should
be pre-tested to determine how well it serves the purpose of obtaining needed data. Pretesting
respondents under conditions that are identical in all respects to those under which final
How much and to what extent a questionnaire subjected to pre test should be revised is
Organization of the testing procedure and control are essential to reap the full benefits of per-
testing and arrive at a questionnaire which will accomplish the objectives of the study. After
preparing the final questionnaire, the researcher must take in to account every aspect of the
5.3.2 Interviews
Interviews are the process of interaction or communication in which a sample subject gives
the needed information verbally in a face to face situation. Interviewer involves intraction so
that there will be at least two individuals- the interviewer and interviewee.
Interview is to be conducts verbally, the interviewer and the interviewee being in a face to
There are various types of interviews, and person administered interviews such as, (1) the in-
home interview, the mall intercept interview, the in-office interview, and the telephone
interview, and their variations are largely based on the location of the interview.
Using interview will enable a researcher to get I –depth information by clarifying questions
information from respondents; the consequences of the event are usually insignificant for the
respondent the respondent is asked to provide information with little hope of receiving any
immediate or direct benefit from this cooperation. Yet if the interview is carried off
Using direct personal interviews data are collected by the investigator personally by asking
questions pertaining to the enquiry from persons from whom the information is to be
obtained. Thus, if a person wants to study the spending habit of the students of a university
factory, the investigator may interview the workers and collect the information necessary for
his investigation.
A. Merits
- The results obtained by this method are generally accurate and reliable as the
enquiry id intensive and is conducted personally. The investigator can remove the
doubts of the informant about certain questions. Also if the investigator has any
doubt about the answer to a question he can get it removed from the informants
- The interviewer establishes personal contact and can twist the questions keeping
the informant.
interpretation of data
persons to be interviewed is large and they are spread over a wide area, these
methods can not be useful as it requires the personal attention of the investigator.
- If the inquiry is a bigger one, then it can not be completed with in a reasonable
- The interviewers have to be thoroughly trained and supervised, other wise results
conducting the interview. The same type of questions is presented in the same order
to each subject. The interviewer has no freedom to rephrase or modify the questions,
Presenting similar questions to all subjects in the same sequence will enable the
attributed not due to variations in the interview but due to actual differences between
alternative responses. For example in a study to discover the types of conflict between
parents and teenagers, a researcher may raise the following question to the
interviewee.
Have you ever had any disagreement with either of your parents (father or Mother)
because 8
a, drinking?
b, too many friends ?/
c, dating with opposite sex?
d, smoking ?
Then following this question other subsequent questions may follow to get more elaboration
of the response.
On the other hand, unstructured interview, like open-ended questionnaire, provides greater
flexibility- Although the series of questions to be asked and the procedure to be followed are
decided before hand; the interviewer is largely free to arrange the form and filming of the
questions. He can thus rephrase the questions, modify them, and add some new questions to
allows the respondent to express his\her view in the way he\she likes. It permits much
freedom to the interviewees to talk about the problem under investigation. And as a result we
will be able to get in depth information. But unstructured interview is not with out
of behavior and characteristics of living beings, objects or other phenomena. In our every day
life we are all observers. We constantly observe the physical environment and the people
around it. Observation involves watching but information from sight is supported by that
received through other senses: through hearing, smelling, touching, and tasting. The
information from these various senses are usually combined, processed and interpreted in
complex ways to form our observations our mental images of the world and what is going on
in it.
Observation in research, similarly, fulfils more or less &similar purposes. But there are some
important differences. Also the aim of observation in research is to collect information about
the world, how ever, observation in enable the researcher to improve his participation in the
world. Its aim is the production of knowledge about specific issues, which can be used by
others in a variety of ways. Hence, in observation type of data collection, the researcher’s eye
is the most important research tool, and the method is the most straight forward approach of
The relationship between observer and subject may be viewed from three perceptive: (1)
whether the observation is direct or indirect, (2) whether the observers presence is known or
unknown to the subject, and (3) what role the observer plays.
personally monitors what takes place. This approach is very flexible because it allows the
observer to react to and report subtle aspect or events and behaviors as they occur
A weakness of this approach is that observers perception circuts may become overloaded as
event move quietly. Also, observe fatigue, boredom, and distracting events can reduce the
Indirect observation is the study in which the recording is done by mechanical, photographic,
or electronic means. Such methods are less flexible than direct observation, but they are
much les biasing and may be less erratic in accuracy. The permanent record can also be
reanalyzed to include many different aspects of the event. It is also less costly in time and
money.
2. Concealment
A second factor affecting the observer –subject relationship concerns whether the presence of
the observer should be known to the subject, when the observer is known, there is a risk of a
typical activity by the subjects. The potential bias from subject awareness of observers
from the object of their observation. Often technical means are used such as one-way mirror,
hidden cameras, or microphones. These methods reduce the risk of observer bias but bring up
a question of ethics. Hidden observation is a form of spying, and the property of this action
must be reviewed carefully. A modified approach is partial concealment. The presence of the
observer is not concealed, but the objective and subject of interest are.
observation, exists when the observer enter the setting and acts both as an observer and a
other times the true role is concealed. While reducing the potential for bias, this again rises
an ethical I Often subjects will not have given their consent and will not have knowledge of
or access to the findings. After being deceived and having their privacy invaded, what further
damage could come to the subjects if the results become public? This needs to be addressed
Participant observation makes a dual demand on the observer. Recording can interfere with
participation, and participation can in interfere with observation. The observer’s role may
influence the way others act. Because of these problems, participant observation is less used
may conduct observations in order to form a research question. This is what we call
exploratory research.
or interview.
The behavior of the observer can influence the situation of the observation leading
the subject to pretend and might not enable to see the reality.
There are problems with reliability and generalizability. Reliability refers to the
extent that observations can be replicated seeing behaviors occur over and over again
Generalizability (external validity) is described as the extent that the study findings would
also be true for other people, in other places, and at other times. In observational research,
finding may only reflect a unique population and therefore, can not be generalized to others.
With direct observation, typically, only small numbers of subjects are studied and
The major of all observational methods is the researcher’s inability to see beneath the
behavior observed and to interrogate the person on motives, attitudes, and all of the
assumed that the researcher may “see what they want to see”. Bias, however, can
questionnaire, interview or observation, we have to establish the validity and reliability of the
crucial stages in a scientific research. Data collected during the research is processed with a
view to reducing them to manageable proportions. A careful and systematic processing will
highlight the important characteristics of the data, facilitates comparisons and render it
suitable for further statistical analysis and interpretations. A brief discussion of some broad
After the data have been collected by the primary method, the next step is to edit the filled
publication; therefore, it has become an established practice to avail the services of trained
editors who check the schedules for accuracy as well as for consistency.
Editing is always done in the office, far away from the place of data collection. In many
cases it is not possible to check all schedules. In such cases, a sample of required size is
sufficient to ascertain the degree of accuracy of filled schedules. The duty of editing the
schedules must be entrusted to honest, efficient and sincere editors who are committed to the
job. Negligence on the part of an editor may do a lot of harm to the findings of the study.
Therefore, an editor should be a person of unquestionable integrity. The editors are required
the editors are required to send such schedules to respective supervisors for recording the
correct answers from concerned informants. For illustration, an informant might enter as
‘unmarried’ in one column, while the second column he may enter ‘two children’. Such
contradictory replies are to be corrected. Some is the case with age and date of birth
It is the duty of the editor to examine whether all questions in the schedule or questionnaire
are answered or not. In many cases, important questions are not answered and the analysis of
the problem is not possible due to such unanswered questions. The editor should send such
The Job of the editor is highly specialized; therefore, he must know the nature of information
which is to be supplied by the informants. The accuracy and the reliability of the findings
depend up on accurate information, there fore, the editor has to examine whether all
questions are answered correctly or not. In case, any doubt develops about any question in
the mind of the editor, he must seek clarification from the supervisor or from the informants.
The problem under study can be rationally analyzed when there is a uniformity in the
whether all questions are interpreted in the same sense by all informants or not. If the
questions are interpreted in different ways by different informants then the data supplied
It is advised not to ask the investigators or the respondents supplying information to make
any computation. This additional work may give risk to errors computations, if necessary,
6.2 Coding
After editing of the collected data, the next step to follow is coding. Coding refers to
Goode and Halt defines coding as “An operation by which data are organized in to classes
and number of symbol is given to each item according to the class in which it falls.”
The need of coding arises more in the case of quantitative data which is a pre- requisite for
any meaningful interpretation of social data. Coding in the modern age of computers is done
after translating the information collected in the usual manner in to language of machine.
In most surveys, certainly whenever results are to be put in quantitative form, the
intermediate stage is the coding of the answers. Some times this and the initial editing are
The purpose of coding is to classify the answers to a question in to meaning full categories,
The process involves two distinct steps. The first is to decide on the categories to be used, the
referred to as the coding frame. The set of coding frames covering all the information to be
The coding frame:- A coding frame relates to a single question. In cases where there are
only a few possible answers to the questions, the preparation of the frame raises on problems.
The question:- “Have you smoked any cigarettes today”? Admits only of the answers “yes”
or “No” together with ‘Don’t remember,’ ‘Refuse to answer’, ‘Not applicable’, so that the
frame decides itself. Where the frame does not determine it self automatically, it is a matter
of deciding how detailed a grouping to allow for in the coding, which in turn depends on how
the answers are expected to be distributed and what analysis is being planned.
6.3 Classification
Once the data is collected and edited, the first task of the statistician is the organization of the
figure in such a form that their significance, for the purpose in hand, may be appreciated that
comparison with masses of similar data may be felicitated, and that further analysis may be
possible. This is done through classification and tabulation. But be for tabulating the data in
to different homogeneous classes, it is necessary to sort out the relevant and significant
features from the irrelevant and insignificant ones. The process of arranging the data in to
according to some precisely defined differing characteristics possessed by all the elements of
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the category.(- Tuttle A.M)
Thus classification impress up on the ‘arrangement of the data in to different classes which
are to be determined depending up on the nature, objective and scope of the enquiry.
Stability is crucial- classification must proceed at every stage in accordance with one
A good classification should be flexible and should have the capacity of adjustment to
The classification should conform to the object of enquiry- i.e., suitability of the
classification scheme.
Types of series
Following are the main types of statistical series relating to a quantitative phenomena
i. Individual series:- when the measurement of individual items are arranged either
ii. Discrete series:- When we count the number of items (frequency) each value of
the variable occurs, it is known as a discrete series. The discrete series consists of
two (columns) i.e., (1) the size of measurement of variables, and (2) frequency.
The frequencies are counted through the technique of tally marks or tally bars.
iii. Continuous series: - the presentation of data in to continuous series along with the
the case of some variables which can take any fractional value and in whose case
an exact measurement is not possible and when discrete series is liked to be too
long to handle.
groups according to the size of value these groups are called class intervals.
2. Class limits:- Each is specified by two extreme values, called the class limits, the
smaller one being called as the lower limit and the larger one the upper limit. The
i. Inclusive type of series:- In such types of series the overlapping of class intervals
is avoided, both the lower and upper class limits are included in the class
intervals.
0-9 50
10-19 70
20-29 120
30-39 90
40-49 70
Total 400
ii. Exclusive type of series:- Exclusive type is that a value equal to the lower limit
should be included in the class interval and a value equal to the upper limit shoud
0-10 50
11-20 70
31-40 90
41-50 70
Total 400
No hard and fast rules can be given but the following few facts must be taken in to account in
The range is the difference between the largest and smallest observation in the given
intervals.
The choice of the number of class intervals basically depends upon the number of
items to be classified, the magnitude of items and the accuracy desired. It also
The actual number of class intervals would also depend on the size of class intervals
because the number of classes and size of class intervals are inversely related. If one
According to F.C Hills ‘In deciding up on the size of class intervals (which is
mind viz the classes should be so arranged that there will be no material departure
from an even distribution of cases with in each class. This is necessary because
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interpreting the frequency table and in subsequent calculations based up on it the mid-
value of each class is taken to represent the value of all cases falling with in that class.
frequencies it secured.
Classes with zero frequency should neither be added with other classes nor should
they be omitted.
A general rule for determining the classes is to have 5- to-15 classes. The choice of
actual number of classes will depend on the number of observations and the size of
6.5 Tabulation
After the data has been classified, the next step is to arrange them in form of table. It is an
intermediate process between the collection of data on one hand and statistical analyses on
the other. Tabulation is regarded as the last stage in processing of data and forms the gate
L.R Connor has said, “Tabulation involves the orderly and systematic presentation of
According to A.M Tuttle, “A statistical table is the logical listing of related quantitative data
in vertical columns and horizontal rows of numbers with sufficient explanatory and
According to D.W Paden and E.F Linduist, “The purpose of table is to summarize a mass of
numerical information and to present it in a simplest possible form consistent with the
purpose for which it is to be used. In a very real sense, the statistical table serves the
statistician in much the same fashion that poetry serves the writer -it is a medium of
communication of great economy and effectiveness for which ordinary prose is inadequate.
In addition to its function in simple presentation, the statistical table is also a useful tool of
Tabulation is an important process between collection and classification of data and their
interpretation. The tabular presentation of data has several distinct advantages. They are:-
For calculating average, dispersion, correlation, etc. data must be presented in tables
classifying data the characteristics of different classes are not clear till they are placed
in a suitable table.
tabulated data make it easy to present the facts in graphical and diagrammatic form.
A table contains only figures and not their description. It is not easy to understand it
It requires a specialized knowledge to understand a table. A layman can not drive any
Therefore, the tables should be used as complementary to textual reports. Inspire of these
limitations, it is to be admitted that tabulation is essential for statistical analysis, and hence an
aspect of a set of data. A special knowledge and skill is necessary to present this story. A
good statistical table is not a more careless grouping of columns and rows of figures; it is a
triumph of ingenuity and technique, a master piece of economy of space combined with a
To quote prof. Wilkinson and Bhandarkar, “Analysis of data involves a number of closely
related operations that are performed with the purpose of summarizing the collected data and
organizing these in such a manner that they will yield answer to the research questions or
suggest hypothesis or questions if no such questions or hypothesis had initiated the study.”
Some scholars are of the opinion that processing of data is one under analysis of data.
Prof. John Gating had made distinction between analysis of data and the processing of data.
He is of the opinion that processing of data refers to concentrating, recasting and dealing with
the data so that they are amenable to analysis as possible, while analysis of data refers to
seeing the data in the light of hypothesis or research questions and the prevailing theories and
Goods, Barr and Scates write-“ Analysis is a process which enters in to research in one form
or another from the beginning…. It may be fair to say that research consists in general of two
larger steps- the gathering of data, and the analysis of these data, but no amount of analysis
can validly extract from the data factors which are not present.”
become significant only as interpreted in the light of accepted standards and assumptions,
and these standards in the final analysis are not succeptible to scientific determination. In
ordinary life we seldom deal with bare facts but facts interpreted. This interpretation or
The data may be adequate, valid and reliable to any extent, it does not serve and worth while
Analysis of the data is the most skilled task of all the stages of the research. It is a task
calling for the researcher’s own judgment and skill. It should be done by researcher himself
and should not be entrusted to any other person. Proper analysis enquires a familiarity with
the background of the survey and with all its stages. The analysis does not necessarily
The aim of analysis, eg., if it is in regard to election study is: (1) to characterize what is
typical in a votes group, (2) to indicate how widely individuals in a group vary, (3) to show
other aspects of how the individuals are distributed with respect to the variable being
measured, (4) to show the relation of the variables in data to one another, and (5) to describe
The steps envisaged in the analysis of data vary depending on the types of study. If there
exists a set of clearly formulated hypothesis to start the study with, then each hypothesis can
be seen as a work prescribing a certain action to be taken vis-a- vis the data. The more
specific the hypothesis, the more specific the action. In such a study, the analysis is almost
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completely a mechanical procedure. The task of analysis is reduced just to getting the
appropriate combinations of data and reading them off against the instructions for
Part of analysis is a matter of working out statistical distribution, constructing diagrams, and
etc. Thus, statistical analysis form part of survey analysis. The case of complicated statistical
techniques in survey often stems up from the desire to establish and interpret multivariate
precision and simplicity, analysis presents very few problems since the statement of
hypothesis and the elaboration of the experimental design will automatically provide for the
Analysis of data is one of the most important aspects of research, carried out by the
Data, facts and figures are silent and they never speak for themselves. It is through
systematic analysis that the important characteristics which are hidden in the data
properly sorted, facts and figures are placed in their appropriate settings, and
draw in up. So that general inferences can be derived from them for showing
The data to be analyzed and interpreted should (i) be reproducible, (ii) be readily
generalization
If the data are collected according to vague clues rather than according to the
specific hypothesis, in such cases the data are analyzed inductively or invested
during the process and not by means of any prescribed set of rules.
The task of analysis is incomplete with out interpretation. In fact analysis of data
and interpretation of data are complementary to each other. The end product of
analysis the setting up of certain general conclusions while the interpretation deals
Since analysis and interpretation of data are interwoven, the interpretation should
operation.
are expressed in the findings and why such relation ship exists.
For any successful study the task of analysis and interpretation should be designed
before the data are actually collected with the exception of formulative studies
where the researcher had no idea as to what kind of answer he wants. Other wise
there is always a danger of being too late and the chances of missing important
relevant data.
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6.6.4 Statistical Methods in analysis
Statistics is not merely for collecting numerical data but as a means of sound techniques for
their handling, analysis and drawing valid inferences from them. When the data are collected,
edited, classified, and tabulated, they are analyzed and interpreted with the help of various
statistical techniques and tools depending up on the nature of the investigation. Thus, the
basic knowledge about statistics becomes inevitable for research workers for systematic
analysis and accurate and precise interpretation of data.
Those methods, which are employed primarily to describe what has been observed are called
descriptive statistical methods. Their role purpose is to describe the behavior of a variable
and no attempt is made to analyze and interpret the data. The data are collected, organized,
and presented either by tables or by diagrams to describe the behavior of the data.
Those methods, which are employed to analyze and to interpret what has been observed, are
These two categories of statistical method are not mutually exclusive but analytical statistical
methods are based up on and make use of descriptive methods for analyzing and interpreting
data. In some of the investigations, the sole purpose is to analyze and interpret what has been
observed rather than describing it, while in special studies conducted by government such as
population census per acre-yield etc., the data are collected and reported in order to describe
the situation and they are analyzed and interpreted to determine trends and possible future
developments.
statistical methods widely employed with research data are the following.
2) Average:- holds a very important place in all types of statistical work because they
Averages are of different kinds but we will consider five, namely, arithmetic mean, median,
understand and calculate. If the measure of each item in a series is known, the mean can be
derived by adding the measures together and dividing by the number of items. In Economics
it is used where all the items are of equal importance. It takes in to consideration of all items
Where M= Mean
N
N= Total no of scores
II. The Median:- is another simple average more frequently used where the extreme item is
to be eliminated. Medium is that value of variable which divides the group in to two equal
parts, one part comprising all the values greater and the other , all values tess than medium.
Thus the medium is the value of the variable which exceeds and is exceeded by the same
number of observations. It is very useful in the case of skewed (twisted) distribution such as
In short, the median refers to the middle value that divides a distribution in to two
equal parts when the scores are arranged in ascending or descending order.
Median
III. The mode:- In simple series the mode is the size of the measurement that occurs
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corresponding to the maximum frequency. It is very easy to calculate and
while daring with extreme observations whenever complete data is not available,
The mode is the most frequent or most common value in the distribution
Bimodal- having two modes. For the following distribution “12” and
IV. Geometric Mean:- is more mathematical and complicated than mean, median or
mode. Geometric mean of different items of a series is that root of the product of
the item values as there are items. In short, it is the root of the product of the item
values. It is mostly used in such cases where the data has to be put for further
frequency
4 3 12 3
5 2 10 5
6 5 30 10
8 10 80 20
10 8 80 28
12 4 36 32
14 2 28 34
N=34 EXifi=276
M= 276/34 = 8.12
time, rate and price. It is most suitable average when it is desired to give greater
(N.B.: For Detailed and brief accounts of Basic statistical techniques, please refer
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Business Research Methods (MGMT-3212)
CHAPTER SEVEN
STYLE AND FORMAT OF REPORT WRITING
Report writing is a basic task of the researcher, since no research can be completed without
its report, in fact, a research without a report can be considered as a house without roof. Any
amount of observation or data analysis would be in vain from the manager’s point of view, if
its report is not made available in aid of his decision-making process. Hence report writing
various aspects of the study; the problem or topic investigated, the method employed to
investigate, the objective, scope and limitations. However, prior to writing the report, its
proper planning is essential. Report planning should take in to account such details as
defining the material collected, identifying the purpose of the report, etc. The ability to write
effective reports is one of the most useful skills a researcher can acquire. In this connection,
Briwn observes: We say it as simply as we possibly can, and this that is, that a report is a
communication from someone to another who wants to use that information. The report may
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Business Research Methods (MGMT-3212)
be elaborately formal it may be a letter,… it is simply memorandum; but it is always planned
for use,’’ The usefulness of a report is the chief aspect of any report writing. The report
identifies areas for further research, if any, and for fresh hypothesis. Analysis and inferences,
suggestions and observations, footnotes and appendices, etc; should also find a place in the
report. It should include specific recommendations for a course of action. While all the
should be purposeful and should take in to account the reader and his tastes and preferences
when it is written. In the normal course, the report writer should consider such questions as:
An effective report stimulates the interpersonal relationships in the given target area. In
this connection, Arthur D. Little observes; “… remember that the reader is a human being
not corporation. He is not omniscient; if he were, he wouldn’t have asked for your help.
Remember also that he doesn’t want to devote his whole career to deciphering what you
have to say. The project you are reporting on is undoubtedly only one of many that
require his attention. Your report should provide answers, not create more problems.
- Step-by-step reports;
The Inductive Patterns of report writing is one of the olderst patterns of presenting
ones thoughts. Aristotle had pointed out long ago:” A whole is that which has a
beginning, middle, and an end.” This type of report goes from the specific – facts,
7.1.1. Conclusion
In this section, the conclusions are given based on the findings put in the summary section
discussed above. Findings (summary) state fact, while conclusions represent inferences
drawn from the findings. A writer is sometimes reluctant to make conclusions and leave the
task to the reader. Avoid this temptation when possible. As a researcher you are the one best
informed on the factor that critically influences the findings and conclusions.
The conclusions are the generalizations one makes from the findings, and contribute to the
body of knowledge. They must have one to one equivalence in answering basic questions
posed in the first chapter (proposal stage) and it is the past in which you give answer to your
basic questions.
In drawing conclusion, the researcher should make sure that the conclusion drawn is with in
the frame work of the study or data presented over under generalization should be avoided no
new data must be introduced at this stage and wordiness should be minimized.
summary is a brief statement of essential findings. Sectional summaries may be used if there
are many specific findings. These may be combined in an overall summary. In simple
The purpose of a summary is to provide the major findings on a nut shell. It should, thus
enable the reader understand the major findings of the study with out going to the details.
distill the essence from a large quantity of material without destroying or changing the
essence.
7. 1. 3. Recommendations
This part culminates the research Activity. Recommendations are meant to be suggestion by
way of providing solutions to the problem to the study. Recommendations should, however,
be feasible. They should take in to account objective reality of the situation. This should not
further study suggestions that broaden or test understanding of the subject. Area. In applied
research the recommendation will usually be for managerial action rather than research
The Deductive pattern of report writing is the most accepted type of report writing in the
business world. It is known as the executive report, the management report or the
action – getting report. This is the pattern of presentation that goes from general to
specific, i.e. from the more important to the less important. It ends to become more
detailed or more specialized in its last pages because it is designed for a reader whose
A step – by –step presentation doesn’t follow any hard and fast rule, it simple presents
frequently following one another in a point of time. But the steps need not necessarily
The time – sequence pattern of report writing is almost like that of the step-by-step
presentation; but it lays greater emphasis on the time element. It is an easy way of writing
a report by merely following the pattern the research material it self offers in a sequence
of time.
and moil to complete the project successfully. Many a time they lose heart when they start
their reports, because they realize that their effort is not up to the mark.
They may be task-maters, but they fail to complete their task. Some may be ‘good’
researchers, who may be painstaking but easy-going. They may keep on waiting until the
eleventh hour. In the process, their over confidence may be fatal to whole mission. At last
Taking in to account all these realities, A few steps may be suggested, which would enable
the researcher to complete his task of writing a report clearly and cogently.
(i) Plan the project well in advance; fix the target and the final data of completing the
project.
and implemented.
(iii)The time for report writing should be planned, and the task of report writing should
not be put off till the last minute. At least one –of the total project time should be
(iv) Select the structure for the report, arrange in groups of data, documents, bibliography,
(v) Prepare an outline based on the structure, which should cover the main points in
detail.
(vi) Prepare a rough point-by-point skeleton for each chapter theme, and crystallize the
(viii) Put the completed rough draft away for several days until you can bring a fresh
- Title page
- Approval sheet
- Abstract (preface)
- Table of contents
- Tables
- Figures
use the recommendations as a spring board for further research activities may be involved
bibliographic format required by the sponsor. If none is specified, standard styles that may be
used, including MLA style, APA style and Turabian style . Either of the three is correct.
But the question is keeping consistency in employing one and the same format amongst of
facts of publication. Such as time, place of publication and name of publisher. Each of
these category may contain more than one peace of information. A book may have more than
one author and the facts for some materials may be complicated. A period follows each
category of information in a bibliography entry, i.e., a period follows the author , the title,
and the facts of publication. Because an entry in a bibliography (unlike an entry in a note)
refers to the complete work rather than to a specific passage. A bibliographic entry doesn’t
enclude page numbers A bibliography entry for an article lists the inclusive pages of the
entire article rather than specific pages from which material selected for action.
Books
The author for a book may include one or more authors, editors, compilers, and translators,
or a corporate author or institution. The title category includes the title and subtitle. The facts
of publication category identify the series in which the work appears the place (city) of
Notice that the name of the author is inverted name, the title of the source
martial underlined and period marks used after the name of the author, the title
Newyork: Wiley
Eg.3. Ebbit, Wilam R. and David, E. 1990. Writers Guide and Index of
English.
reference source.
When no authors name appears on a work or when the title page lists
When the author is a group or corporation, then the publication is listed under
When the corporate author is also the publisher, the name does not need to be
author, you have to decide under which name you should alphabetize the work, as:
E.g.,7 : Hayes, W.C. Most Ancient Egypt. Ed., Keith c.s Chicago: Univ. of
When you want to emphasize an article or chapter in the collection, palce the
name of the author of the article or chapter first. Titles of articles or chapters with in a
E.g Miller, Arthur. “The playwright and the Atomic World.” In Theatre in the twenty
Title
The title of a book should appear in the bibliography exactly as it is on the title page.
Capitalization, however, may be changed. Any subtitle should be separated from the main
title with a colon followed by one space. In notes subtitles are optional, but is must appear in
E.g, 9: Walker, Ronald. Internal Pardise: Mexice and the Modern English
Factors about publications: the facts of publication are the place of publication, the name of
the publishing house and the data of publication. The city name alone (wojt out the sate
When a paper bound book is original edition, it is listed just as nay other book
would be. But when it is reprint of the original hand cover edition, the entry indicates the
date of publication of the hand cover edition. This information generally appears on the
volume may either have its own title or be identified by volume number only. When you
wish to refer to a complete multivolume work rather than to any specific volume, the
bibliography entry should include the total number of volumes and the inclusive dates of
publication, if applicable.
periodicals intended for the general public are called magazines. The bibliography entry
for periodical includes the author’s complete name, the title of the article, and the facts of
publication.
Journals: Most journals paginate continuously through each volume; the basic
Magazines: Issues of magazines are most often by data only, even when they
have volume numbers. Page numbers are separated from the data by a comma (rather
E.g. 12. Tuchman, Barbara. “ The Deline of Quality” Newyork Times Magazines,
2Nov.1980,38-57
News papers: The bibliography raphy entry for a news paper should include the
E.g., Rasky, Susa, Susa “ Senate Calls for Revision in New tax Health
Reference
1. Anderson, T.R. & Zelditch. Basic Cause in Statistical Methods. NewYork: Halt.
2. Bajpai, S.R. Methods of social survey and Research. NewDdhi Ramputr Rampur,.
KitabGhar, 1960.
3. Connolly, T.G. & Sluckin, W. Introduction to social Research and Statistical Method.
:1979
10. Pellur, V.V. Marketing Research theory and practice. NewYork: McGraw Hill
12. Westfall Boyd and Stasch. Marketing Research. Bombay: Himalayas Publishing
House. 1989