machines

Review
Review of Automated Operations in Drilling and Mining
Athanasios Kokkinis 1 , Theodore Frantzis 1, * , Konstantinos Skordis 1 , George Nikolakopoulos 1,2
and Panagiotis Koustoumpardis 1

1 Robotics Group, Department of Mechanical Engineering and Aeronautics, University of Patras,

26504 Patras, Greece; up1072366@ac.upatras.gr (A.K.); up1097472@ac.upatras.gr (K.S.); geonik@ltu.se (G.N.);
koust@upatras.gr (P.K.)
2 Robotics and AI Team, Luleå University of Technology, 97187 Luleå, Sweden
* Correspondence: theodfrantzis@ac.upatras.gr

Abstract: Current advances and trends in the fields of mechanical, material, and software engineering
have allowed mining technology to undergo a significant transformation. Aiming to maximize the
efficiency and safety of the mining process, several enabling technologies, such as the recent advances
in artificial intelligence, IoT, sensor fusion, computational modeling, and advanced robotics, are
being progressively adopted in mining machine manufacturing while replacing conventional parts
and approaches that used to be the norm in the rock ore extraction industry. This article aims to
provide an overview of research trends and state-of-the-art technologies in face exploration and
drilling operations in order to define the vision toward the realization of fully autonomous mining
exploration machines of the future, capable of operating without any external infrastructure. As the
trend of mining at large depths is increasing and as the re-opening of abandoned mines is gaining
more interest, near-to-face mining exploration approaches for identifying new ore bodies need to
undergo significant revision. This article aims to contribute to future developments in the use of fully
autonomous and cooperative smaller mining exploration machines.

Keywords: drilling robots; mining; mining sensors; autonomous mining

Citation: Kokkinis, A.; Frantzis, T.;

Skordis, K.; Nikolakopoulos, G.;
1. Introduction
Koustoumpardis, P. Review of
Automated Operations in Drilling and
Rock ores have an integral role in product manufacturing. It is widely accepted
Mining. Machines 2024, 12, 845.
that modern society’s needs and ore extraction requirements are highly correlated. It
https://doi.org/10.3390/ is without a doubt that traditional methods, which require the participation of human
machines12120845 personnel, will not be sufficient to satisfy production demand, since they have a high
downtime and may cause harm to the personnel in hazardous environments [1,2]. It is also
Academic Editor: Raul D. S. G.
important to consider that the inefficiency of human-curated processes may cause harm to
Campilho
the environment. Lastly, it is becoming increasingly more important to reduce the overall
Received: 9 October 2024 environmental impact, whenever possible [3,4].
Revised: 20 November 2024 The aforementioned problems underline a need for a radical transformation in the way
Accepted: 21 November 2024 the mining industry undergoes exploration and production drilling, as well as extraction
Published: 25 November 2024 processes. This transformation can be observed through an already developing trend,
as there is an increase in automation and the use of robots in these fields. Regarding
software implementations, from human-assisted monitoring systems to remotely operated
or fully autonomous mining operations, the boundaries of automation have substantially
Copyright: © 2024 by the authors.
expanded within the mining engineering field. This article reviews automation in drilling
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
and mining, focusing on trends and state-of-the-art technologies for face exploration and
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
production drilling. In other words, this review focuses on fully autonomous, smaller, and
conditions of the Creative Commons
cooperative mining machines.
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// The mapping of knowledge domains for automated operations in drilling and mining
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ referenced in this article can be examined in Table 1. The rest of this article is structured as
4.0/). follows. Section 2 will briefly describe the current state of the mining industry, focusing on

Machines 2024, 12, 845. https://doi.org/10.3390/machines12120845 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/machines

Machines 2024, 12, 845 2 of 19

the current challenges that it faces and how fully automated mining can be the main route
to overcoming those challenges. Section 3 will provide an overview of drilling approaches,
focusing on conventional methods used in the mining industry. Section 4 will present
the state of the art in automated mining and intelligent systems, summarizing current
advancements and research trends. In Section 5, the technological infrastructure utilized
in automated mining will be presented, including various sensors and software crucial to
these processes. Section 6 will touch upon potential advancements in intelligent mining
systems, such as the integration of artificial intelligence (AI) and neural networks, aiming
to enhance safety, efficiency, and precision in automated operations. Finally, Section 7 will
conclude the article by sharing additional research visions, particularly emphasizing the
development of infrastructure-less systems adaptable to various deep mine and abandoned
mine situations.

Table 1. The mapping of knowledge domains for automated operations in drilling and mining.

Type Topic References

Cable tool drilling [5,6]
Auger drilling [5–7]
Drilling approaches Rotary drilling [5,6]
Diamond drilling [5,6]
Directional drilling [8]
Rotary Steerable Drilling Systems [9–11]
Automated mining Longwall [12–15]
intelligent machines Automated hauling [16]
Charging robots [16,17]
Intelligent Rock-Drilling Jumbo and DTH Drill [16]
LIBS [18–20]
Sensors in automated mining LIDAR [21–25]
TFS [26,27]
Light-based localization systems [16,28,29]
Localization systems Daisy chaining of fiducial markers [30,31]
Magnetic induction [21,32,33]
WiFi [21,24]
Communication systems
LoRaWAN [21,34,35]
Digital model DT [36,37]
e-Drilling’s software suite [38,39]
Draco [40–42]
Software in intelligent systems
Forestall [43,44]
TIMining Aware [44,45]
Caterpillar’s MineStar Command
[46–49]
for Underground Systems (AHS)
EH-RemoteHeadControl
Collaborative robotics [15]
v2 by Elgór-Hanses S.A.
UGVs [50]
UAVs [50–54]
Drill piston control [55]
Research about intelligent Photogrammetry [25,56–59]
mining machines Neural networks [60,61]
VR simulation for multi-agent
[57,62]
system action planning
Machines 2024, 12, 845 3 of 19

Table 1. Cont.

Type Topic References

AI-assisted DTs [63–65]
Optimized haulage
[66]
scheduling using RL
Controlling equipment using DRL [67,68]
Using DRL in mine
[69]
production scheduling
Development and research
[70,71]
Research about intelligent for environmental monitoring
mining machines Monitoring of the drilling rig [72]
Intelligent control of drilling [72]
MWD and machine
[72]
learning for rock monitoring
AI and big data
[72]
technology in ventilation systems
Intelligent rock stress monitoring [72]
Quantum computing for
[73–75]
open-pit profile optimization

2. Problem Statement and Motivation

Assessing the current state of the mining industry, it can be observed that an important
part of the operations is conducted sub-optimally, while the need for resource extraction
is constantly increasing. In the meantime, the quality of ore grades located on the surface
is decreasing, which leads to the extraction of ores from deeper depths [69]. Furthermore,
the increasing focus on net-zero emission policies encourages mining companies to adopt
more environmentally friendly policies that require the acquisition of different equipment and
raises the need for more effective ways of mining [66,76–79]. Society’s interest in worker health
and safety also requires companies to protect their workers from extreme mining conditions,
such as dust, dirt, poorly lit areas, and areas with a high potential for rock tumbling [78].
The current issues that the rock ore mining industry is facing can be resolved or
at least mitigated by fully automating the processes of mining and drilling while utilizing
intelligent systems [77,79]. Intelligent systems can increase efficiency if they are used for
the scheduling and monitoring of the operation of fully autonomous machines such as
hauling fleets. This efficiency can be translated into a reduction in machine wait time, a
reduction in equipment energy consumption and resource usage, and the ability to adapt
to random events that would normally cause disruptions in the ore extraction process [78].
Additionally, fully automating the mining industry can aid in the protection of workers,
who can observe machines operating in hazardous areas such as blasting zones with the
use of proper sensors from virtually identical environments (DTs) [77].
The fully automated and intelligent approaches discussed in this paper cannot be
implemented immediately. There are plenty of specifications that need to be met in order
for the proposed technologies to be mature enough to be implemented in raw material
production. For instance, the intelligent methods that are currently being researched are
characterized by high computational intensity and increasing learning time depending on
the project’s complexity [66]. Additionally, both fully automated processes and intelligent
systems need to be robust, flexible, and adaptable, incorporating uncertainties that are
a result of insufficient data or unpredictable events that might occur during the mining
operation [78]. Furthermore, for intelligent systems to be implemented, maintenance and
operational costs must be considered, along with the large variety of smart sensors needed
for the collection of proper data. Finally, the reliability of these sensors under difficult
conditions, such as environments with high dust concentration, humidity, and a lack of
proper lighting, should be considered [77].
Machines 2024, 12, 845 4 of 19

3. Overview of Drilling Approaches

Drilling has been the subject of significant change throughout history, providing many
different approaches when it comes to mining. To date, the approaches described below
have appeared in the mining industry.

3.1. Cable Tool Drilling

Cable tool drilling was the first developed drilling technique, and it was used to extract
salt from salt quarries [5]. Its modern implementation follows the same principle: a drilling
bit is lifted through a mechanism to a great height and is then allowed to fall down the
borehole to break the rock formation [5,6], and after that, a bailer collects the fragments [6].

3.2. Auger Drilling

Auger drilling utilizes a screw-like drill bit to break the formation [5]. This method
does not usually include the use of mud; instead, it uses the helical path of its bit, called a
flight, to force the fragments to the surface [6,7].

3.3. Rotary Drilling

Rotary drilling is a technique that utilizes the rotational motion of the drill bit to
deepen the borehole [5]. It uses a motor and a long shaft to rotate the drill bit and a mining
fluid, called mud, to force the fragments to the surface, and it then sieves through the fluid
to separate the solid materials [6].

3.4. Diamond Drilling

Diamond drilling applies the same principle of operation that the rotary drilling
technique uses. The main difference between the two is that diamond drilling relies on
the abrasive wear its drill bit causes to produce an uninterrupted cylindrical output of
whatever ore it is drilling. This is achievable because its bit is actually a metallic matrix
with embedded synthetic industrial diamonds with high hardness [5,6].

3.5. Directional Drilling

Directional drilling allows the boring procedure to be performed at a controlled angle
and normally features a down-the-hole motor. The system may or may not have the ability
to change its angle multiple times [8]. Normally, this can be accomplished in a multitude of
ways, such as the following:
• Whipstock: A special geometry that allows the drill bit to slide off its surface. The ge-
ometry’s angle is what directs the drilling bit [8].
• Bent-house PDM: The motor’s housing is at an angle, allowing the motor to drill at a
specific, predefined trajectory [8].
• Best sub: In this configuration, there are hubs that connect two different bent subs at
different angles. It provides a greater degree of freedom when drilling [8].

4. Automated Mining and Intelligent Machines

4.1. Rotary Steerable Drilling Systems
The evolution of directional drilling systems led to Rotary Steerable Drilling Systems
(RSDSs). These systems can change the drill bit’s trajectory mid-operation, allowing the
implementation of complex trajectory planning and exploration, as reported in [9,10].
These systems are primarily down-the-hole motor systems that can be divided based on
the method they employ to affect the bit’s direction and can be roughly divided into the
following types:
• Push-the-bit systems: Push-the-bit systems have a pump that pushes actuators fixated
on the system’s external housing. These pneumatic systems utilize the polar array of
these actuators, normally pads, to push the bit to the desired direction [10], as can be
Machines 2024, 12, 845 5 of 19

seen in Figure 1. The most famous implementations are the Schlumberger PowerDrive
and Baker-Hughes Autotrak systems, as in [9,11].

Figure 1. The Schlumberger PowerDrive system. Figure taken from [8].

• Point-the-bit systems: These systems vary from the push-the-bit systems in that the
actuators reside on the inside of the configuration [10,11]. The most well-explored
example of this is the Halliburton Sperry-sun Geo-Pilot system [9]. In these cases,
the control of the direction of the bit is possible by using two eccentric rings, changing
its angle directly using motors, as shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2. The Halliburton Sperry-sun Geo-Pilot system. Figure taken from [8].

• Hybrid systems: Hybrid systems are, in essence, a combination of the previous two
systems. They have multiple actuators that assist them in better controlling every
aspect of the drilling procedure. In the Schlumberger PowerDrive Archer system,
the bit’s shaft uses a universal joint and internal actuators to push to orient it at the
desired angle [9,11].

4.2. Longwall
Longwall systems (Figure 3) are large robotic systems that combine the drilling and
hauling operations through the use of a conveyor belt system and several horizontal motors
with drill bits that perform the drilling [12,13]. Famur’s MIKRUS longwall system features a
cutting and loading head, which has two cutting drums that can break coal and a conveyor
Machines 2024, 12, 845 6 of 19

belt that can retrieve it from the mine [14]. It also has a multitude of sensors that allow the
process to be even more automated [15].

Figure 3. A longwall system with most of its parts. Figure taken from [12].

4.3. Automated Hauling

Automated hauling is the process in which the drilled formations are reclaimed
automatically. The state-of-the-art choice for such a process is a robotic hauler, also called
a scraper.
Scrapers are intelligent systems that can transport ore fragments from the drilling
point to a preset point. They utilize sensors to understand their position and orientation in
the world and use weight sensors while digging the ore fragments to provide data about
the extracted ore [16]. Additionally, they can be operated autonomously or remotely by a
human. Such a system is shown in Figure 4.

Figure 4. Autonomous scraper with human-control capability. Figure taken from [16].

These robots are designed with a dual capability to handle various challenges in
complex environments. They can operate autonomously, adjusting to issues like limited
signal propagation in underground areas, or be controlled by human operators when direct
guidance is needed.
Aside from scrapers, there are also automatic mining trucks that are used for the same
purpose as the scrapers, but they have a much larger capacity than the scrapers and are
used to retrieve extracted ore [16].

4.4. Charging Robots

In mining, a controlled explosion can be used to break the rock formation. This process
may prove dangerous due to the possible cave-in of the mine. Instead of using humans to
transport and charge explosives, robots are used to carry, secure, and charge them [16,17].

4.5. Intelligent Rock-Drilling Jumbo and DTH Drill

Rock drilling is a process that is implemented during excavation procedures or during
the production of ore through blasting. Depending on the method of drilling, different
Machines 2024, 12, 845 7 of 19

machines are used. Such machines are the hydraulic rock-drilling jumbo and the down-the-
hole (DTH) drill. Intelligent and unmanned versions of these machines allow for efficient
ore mining and accurate blasting. This efficiency stems from systems that incorporate
smart blockage prevention mechanisms for the drilling pipes, alongside a fully automated
drill-pipe bank that oversees the management of the drilling tubes based on the drill’s wear
status. The accuracy in blasting is supported by systems that utilize anti-deviation control
technology that controls the drilling pipes in real time [16].
By observing the trends mentioned in this section on the automation process of mining
operations, it can be noticed that there are different automated systems that can partially
fulfill the tasks needed for mining without the need for a human presence on site. Given
the fact that the collapse of rocks in mines is one of the common causes of fatal accidents [1],
it seems that removing human workers from these sites can lead to an important increase
in the safety of the overall mining industry.

5. Technological Infrastructure in Automated Mining

5.1. Sensors Used in Automated Mining
Aside from the sensors used by specific robotic systems to perform tasks, there are
sensors that orchestrate the coordinated action of several systems and provide analytics
regarding the mining progress.

5.1.1. LIBS
Laser-Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy is a method of examining the contents of the
core extracted by a mining machine. It utilizes a laser to emit photons onto the cylinder’s
surface, which creates plasma that excites electrons, and a spectrometer measures the
response photons. This technology was recently adapted as an integrated system in down-
the-hole equipment after being exclusively used in the laboratory [18–20].

5.1.2. LIDAR
Lidar technology has always been an important technology when the mapping of
an area is required. There are currently systems that employ this technology to map and
navigate entire caves and mines through the application of SLAM algorithms [21–24], such
as automatic loading trucks [25]. An example of the sensor’s output is shown in Figure 5.

Figure 5. Obtaining a point cloud map using a LIDAR sensor using a quadruped robot. (a) A visual
representation of the experimental environment (mine). (b) The estimated pose in the global point
cloud map as perceived by the sensors on the robot. The estimated pose is depicted in the form of
XYZ-axis (X-axis in red, Y-axis in green and Z-axis in blue). (c) The created point cloud map. Figures
taken from [80].
Machines 2024, 12, 845 8 of 19

5.1.3. Time-of-Flight Camera

A time-of-flight camera (TFC) or sensor (TFS) uses human-made signals of light, which
can be created by either a laser or an LED [26,27]. The laser TFC is a scanner-less LiDAR
type of sensor. The main difference that separates these sensors from LiDARs is that only
one pulse is needed to capture the surrounding scene instead of many consecutive scans.
Real-world applications of TFCs show their practicality. Such an example is their use in the
local planning of a group of quadrupedal robots for the exploration of mines, as described
in [51].

5.2. Communication and Localization Systems Used in Automated Mining

Sensors provide useful data that can later be utilized for the localization of the robot
and the workers. Successful localization and sensor information require a robust and
effective network to transmit the information to all the machines and workers, both in the
mine and at the control center.

5.2.1. Light-Based Localization Systems

Currently, there are navigation platforms that allow for the precise localization of
each robot in a 3D-digitized environment [28]. This can be implemented by using multiple
navigation stations with lasers mounted on top of them, which allow them to perceive
their pose through rotary encoders and predefined installation location coordinates [16]
or through alternative advanced positioning methods [29].

5.2.2. Daisy Chaining of Fiducial Markers

It is evident that localization in the mining environment may prove difficult due to the
fact that technologies and methods, such as GPS and motion-based sensor tracking, may
prove inaccurate or unavailable in deep mines. High-end systems often employ additional
robots whose job is to place easily recognizable constructs so that the robots can extrapolate
their positions [30,31].

5.2.3. Magnetic Induction

In order to solve the problem that the underground environment poses during the
localization process of robotic systems and personnel, non-RF methods have been em-
ployed, which include the use of magnetic induction methods [32]. Whether they use the
Earth’s magnetic field, which varies because of the mine’s unique local structure, or the
superposition effect of artificial magnetic fields through coils [21], it is possible for the
sensor to extrapolate its position extremely accurately [33] if the coils’ positions are known
or if the local magnetic field is already mapped.

5.2.4. WiFi and LoRaWAN

WiFi is a major RF technology that can be implemented in mines in the form of
a large network of signal repeaters to help the propagation of information in complex
tunnels [21,24]. Another major RF technology is LoRaWAN (Long-Range WAN), which
operates at a lower frequency (that translates to a larger wavelength), which enables stations
to receive and transmit data through soil and minerals at a greater distance [21,34,35], albeit
with lower bandwidth.

5.3. Simulations Using Digital Models

Digital twins (DTs) are digitized models of the actual electromechanical elements and
mimic their behavior throughout the process. They provide the operators with a more
comprehensive visualization of the physical world’s state than traditional graphs by using
multiple sensors and reducing resource expenditure while allowing the implementation of
more complex and targeted software for decision-making. The cost of implementing DTs
comes in the form of increased hardware demands and the need for high computational
power, which is reflected by the quality of the sensing systems [36].
Machines 2024, 12, 845 9 of 19

Ref. [37] proposes the six-layer digital twin architecture shown in Figure 6. By com-
bining IoT sensors, cloud networking, and simulation software, it is possible to transform
the physical world into a digitized model and apply secure and automated data-driven
decision-making to carry out equipment maintenance and control through the different data
analysis layers. Furthermore, this model allows streamlined information communication to
every member of the mining crew.

Figure 6. The proposed DT-based architecture for the mining industry. Figure taken from [37].

5.4. Software Used in Intelligent Systems

While the systems’ hardware may be able to perform various tasks, without the
direction of specialized software, it would not be possible to automate them.

5.4.1. e-Drilling’s Software Suite

e-Drilling, located in Stavanger, Norway offers a software suite that allows the
constant evaluation of the state of the drill and the well’s borehole. It falls under the general
digital twin tools that mimic the movement and state of the actual machine through a
simulated model. This software also allows for better visualization and control of the
process by the workers through its various modules [38,39]. For example, the wellAhead
module is used to simulate a digital twin of the well, and the wellSIM module handles
the mechanical loads and drilling parameter simulation of the drill itself. The wellAhead
module’s digital twin is depicted in Figure 7.

Figure 7. e-Drilling’s wellAhead module’s digital twin in action. Figure taken from [81].

5.4.2. Draco
Draco is an open-source library that compresses and decompresses three-dimensional
geometrical meshes and point clouds [42]. By compressing the data, it is possible to upload
them wirelessly with restricted available bandwidth from separate actors with limited
Machines 2024, 12, 845 10 of 19

computational power to a main computational system, which will then only send back
motion commands [40–42].

5.4.3. Forestall
Forestall uses proven predictive algorithms for the mining and oil industries and,
coupled with cloud-based machine health and predictive maintenance products, offers opti-
mized asset performance with minimized downtime. Platform-agnostic health monitoring
ensures comprehensive insights into critical machinery’s condition [43,44].

5.4.4. TIMining Aware

TIMining Aware creates real-time mine and block model visualization. The live mine
plan compliance feature ensures that operations align with predefined strategies and regu-
latory requirements, and global accessibility across multiple devices fosters collaboration
and productivity among users [44,45].

5.5. Collaborative Robotics in Mining

The above technologies have all been utilized in individual units and in networks of
robots. The true extent of their usefulness can only be expressed through the coordination
of many different systems for the betterment of the mining process. Currently, in the
mining industry, several types of robots are being used. As mentioned above, autonomous
hauling trucks as a part of an Autonomous Haulage System (AHS), especially in open-pit
mines [82], drilling robots, charging robots, and automated conveyor belts are some of the
categories that they can be separated into [83,84].
Examples of commercially available collaborative systems include the AutoMine
drill and machine fleet, which allow the simultaneous control of several pieces of mining
equipment [47,61,85].
Another example is Caterpillar’s MineStar Command for Underground Systems,
which automates multiple hauling trucks while allowing human operators to watch from
afar [46–49].
An additional commercial application is EH-RemoteHeadControl v2 by Elgór-Hanses
S.A., which requires the collaboration of a roadheader, a power supply unit, and some of
the many sensors mentioned above for the creation of a DT around the shearer so that the
roadheader can be operated remotely and safely for the creation of drifts in the mine [15].
Furthermore, research trends include examining the benefits of automated systems
such as AHSs in open pits and exploring how decentralized AHSs can be applied in
underground mines [86]. Also, the usage of Unmanned Ground Vehicles (UGVs) and
Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) is considered beneficial for mine inspections and rescue
missions [50–54].
Research on systems of collaborative robots such as AHSs shows that they allow
more efficient battery and fuel consumption in autonomous vehicles in comparison to
manually driven ones while removing the operators of the hauling tracks from the mines
and assigning them the role of observers. Furthermore, there is no longer a delay when
changing shifts, since the trucks operate continuously [82,86,87].
Research on the use of UGVs and UAVs for inspection and rescue missions aims to
increase the safety of inspectors from dangers that they may face, such as high concentra-
tions of toxic gases or weak mine ceilings that might lead to the need for a rescue mission
or even fatal accidents [52,88]. In rescue missions, where time is of the essence, the use of
robots aims to reduce the focus on the safety of the rescue team, thus providing trapped
miners with a faster and more efficient rescue plan [50,54].
The current infrastructure shows that it is possible to digitize mines and deploy robots
that can collaborate on a peer-to-peer basis, while the human factor can be integrated with
the role of the observer.
Machines 2024, 12, 845 11 of 19

6. Possible Evolution of Intelligent Mining Machines

Aside from the aforementioned and already implemented systems, there are also numer-
ous others that are currently being tested or researched. Some examples are listed below:
• Drill piston control for better bit-pointing accuracy: This approach promises better
results when it comes to pointing the bit of an RSDS. It uses multiple pistons, valves,
water, and stabilization clamp pads to better control the orientation and force applied
by the bit [55].
• Photogrammetry in the mining industry: While Virtual Reality technology is being
used today for minor tasks, it is being researched and worked upon extensively
due to the presently unexplored advantages described in [56,57], especially with
the improvement in modern cameras. Mining professionals are already adopting
technologies from research, especially within the area of the digitization and mapping
of mines with high-resolution cameras. Additionally, large-area scans for open-pit sites,
which once required the use of special fiducial markers (ground control points) [58],
are no longer needed with the introduction of Real-Time Kinematics and Post-Process
Kinematics technologies [59]. Furthermore, there is ongoing research on multi-camera
systems that can produce rock-mass digital models with a camera rig and can also
support UAVs [25].
• Neural networks for augmented personnel safety: Neural networks can be used for a
diversity of tasks. Research has shown that one of their uses can be the monitoring of the
activity of personnel inside the mine to decrease accidents and exposure to hazardous
areas [60]. One such example is the use of a YOLOv8 model (Figure 8) to determine
the location of humans and hazardous areas [61]. YOLOv8 is a convolutional neural
network that makes predictions of bounding boxes and class probabilities all at once.

Figure 8. A YOLOv8 model detects personnel and hazardous areas. Figure taken from [89].
Machines 2024, 12, 845 12 of 19

• Virtual Reality simulation for multi-agent system action planning: Virtual Reality’s
importance is already underlined, but the range of its applications cannot be stressed
enough. Currently, there are ready-to-use software solutions that allow for the sim-
ulation of multiple robots in a virtual mining environment, expressed through the
game development engine Unity3D [62]. Simulators of this kind may prove essential
in mining procedure planning, especially in more complex systems with multiple
interactions [57].
• AI-assisted DTs: Advancements that are currently being made in the field of artificial
intelligence suggest that AI will be further integrated into FEA simulation software to
provide better insights regarding mining data [63,64]. Surveys report that AI will be
refined enough to be widely accepted in the industry by 2030 [65], providing a better
bridge of communication between the real and digital worlds.
• Optimized haulage scheduling using Reinforcement Learning: Reinforcement Learn-
ing (RL) methods can be used to schedule the operation of fleets of autonomous
haulers in real time utilizing model-free Q-Learning algorithms. In a simulated en-
vironment, this method resulted in a reduction in the wait time of each hauler and
reduced the emission of greenhouse gases that resulted from the extensive fuel con-
sumption of the machines. This reduction in fuel consumption was as high as 30% in
comparison to fixed-schedule approaches while increasing productivity by 50% [66].
• Controlling equipment using Deep Reinforcement Learning: Deep Reinforcement
Learning (DRL) can be used to control underground, individually operating machines
as a substitute for human operators. Machines such as Load-Haul-Dump machines
can be controlled with the use of a DRL framework by implementing a soft actor-
critic (SAC) algorithm in a simulated environment, lowering energy consumption and
increasing productivity [68]. In more detail, in [68], the energy consumption was found
to be 21% lower for the autonomous vehicle in comparison with the energy consumed
when a similar vehicle was operated by a human in the real world, and productivity
was increased by 7%. Another example of operating multiple machines using RL,
implementing proximal policy optimization (PPO) and SAC, can be examined in [67].
• Using DRL in mine production scheduling: DRL methods can even be utilized for
the design of underground mine production layouts [69]. Utilizing DRL in the pre-
production stages of the mining process allows for a better evaluation of the mineral
grade since it utilizes uncertainty to create a stochastic design in comparison to
deterministic designs. Deterministic designs are created by the more conventional
geostatistical methods, such as mineable shape optimizers, which tend to lead to the
under-performance of mining projects. A case study of underground stoping for gold
production in [69] resulted in 8.3% higher expected profit and 3.4% more gold mined
than the baseline that was provided by a mineable shape optimizer.
• Development and research for environmental monitoring: To ensure that the mining
industry does not damage the environment, tools, indices, and methodologies are
being developed to ensure the minimization of pollution [70,71]. One such example
can be seen in Figure 9.
• Monitoring of the drilling rig: Research on monitoring drilling bit wear has been con-
ducted to predict and analyze the drilling bit’s condition. These studies have shown
that sound and vibration signals, as well as examining the geological and mechanical
properties of rocks, can be used to survey the drilling bit’s wear condition [72].
• Intelligent control of the drilling: Computer vision and Deep Neural Networks for
image classification are used to control the drilling rig and improve procedures such
as drilling path planning and intelligent hole positioning [72].
• Measurement while drilling (MWD) and machine learning for rock monitoring:
MWD is a technology that provides real-time measurements of drilling parameters,
e.g., torque, rotation speed, and drilling speed. These parameters are used to deter-
mine the magnitude of the rock stress caused by the drilling operation with the aid
of digital panoramic imaging technology for boreholes. Additionally, intelligent rock
Machines 2024, 12, 845 13 of 19

property sensing can be achieved by implementing machine learning techniques with

the data provided by MWD [72].
• AI and big data technology in ventilation systems: Current research on ventilation sys-
tems focuses on acquiring ventilation parameters, such as wind volume and pressure,
temperature, humidity, and the detection/concentration of toxic gases. To achieve this,
research focuses on the proper placement of the minimum number of sensors that
provide reliable data about those parameters. After obtaining these data, diagnostic
methods are proposed based on learning algorithms and big data analysis, as well as
airflow control methods [72].
• Intelligent rock stress monitoring: Rock stress during drilling operations causes the
deformation of the surrounding rock. Therefore, real-time monitoring methods have
been developed based on machine vision and learning algorithms that provide early
warning and predictions about surrounding rock deformation and damage [72].
• Quantum computing for open-pit profile optimization: There are currently studies
that show that it is possible to implement quantum computing to determine the best
possible parameters for ore extraction in open-pit mines. This could potentially help
with the planning of the drill site [73–75].

Figure 9. Automatic drill operating through pistons with water. Figure taken from [55].

There seems to be a trend of using digital technology to further improve the efficiency
and capabilities of mining robotic solutions. This also means that there is a constant need
for additional data-gathering sensors and systems that will help tune the function of the
software to match the physical needs of the mine.

7. Future Trends and Visions in the Robotization and Digitalization of the

Mining Industry
Emerging technologies seem to be heavily dependent on the current state of mining
technology, which does not necessarily mean that they will be able to satisfy the current
needs of the mining industry. Case studies seem to refer to technologies that follow im-
plementations that require pre-existing communication systems. It is also apparent that
modern practices tend to favor non-modular approaches that often rely on specific propri-
etary equipment and software to operate. While today’s systems seem to be adequate for
standard mines, they are not expected to work in environments that have been abandoned
before the installation of such infrastructure.
While this approach may be sufficient for most mining industries, it is often not flexible
enough to cover all of the possible mine configurations. To better generalize automation
solutions, creating a unified framework is essential. This framework needs to categorize
the different layers and parts of the data handling and the physical aspects of these systems
in order to encourage the standardization of the software and methodology used.
Additionally, it would be interesting to test rig-less and infrastructure-less methods
of automation, since installing these technologies may not be available in old, abandoned
Machines 2024, 12, 845 14 of 19

mines. For example, it is not realistic to expect that 5G and UHF communication systems
will be present in every mine. This points to the fact that decentralized approaches may need
to be investigated in a more thorough way. However, the limitations of this approach should
be taken into account, such as bandwidth limitations and latency in the communication
between different machines and systems. As the mining industry is currently focusing
on extraction technologies at large depths and revisiting the extractions at abandoned
mines, there are major trends in miniaturizing mining machines, revisiting mining plans,
e.g., the volume of drifts, and moving toward a future with completely autonomous
mining operations.
Even with a technology standard, it is imperative that safety and health considerations
be taken into account before sending crew members into mines to install the necessary
infrastructure. To that end, it would be beneficial to implement systems that allow for the
better inspection of hazardous elements without the necessary control or supervision from
a human operator. To achieve this, the introduction of robotic systems that monitor the
necessary non-automated operations while also being able to contribute to reducing the
personnel’s exposure time to potentially adversarial conditions is envisioned. It is evident
that such automation for mining safety, while still an immature field, is something that can
be expanded on.
Lastly, it seems that while intelligent systems are being studied and developed to
reduce environmental strain from mining operations, said systems are not yet mature
enough to minimize the environmental impact. Thus, it should be noted that there are
still not enough solutions when it comes to automated waste management, and this is
something that has to be addressed in the near future. Currently, practices such as the
use of waste neutralization tanks and ground storage are used to combat solid mining
waste (slag, tailings, etc.), but even they may pose problems with specific types of waste [3].
These intelligent systems will require the corresponding machines to operate properly.
The machines need to contain adequate sensors and the proper computational power. They
require an intelligent and generative design.

8. Conclusions
There are a number of new technologies developed for the automation of the mining
process, which is a testament to the ever-increasing need for better efficiency. The inclusion
of automation systems is what allows modern manufacturing needs to be met while
reducing possible human harm and human error. From partially automated to fully
automated systems, this integration reshapes the foundation of the mining industry and
engineering. The use of many different types of autonomous and intelligent machines that
can communicate on a peer-to-peer basis in situations where pre-existing communication
networks are weak, faulty, or nonexistent can raise the efficiency of the ore extraction and
increase the safety of the workers in the mines. The use of automated systems for mining
operations could improve workers’ health and increase their safety. This might lead to
a reduction in needed unspecialized personnel and an increase in personnel with higher
educational backgrounds. The digitization of the mining process and the use of more
sophisticated digital models can also enhance the remote monitoring of mining operations.
Automated mining is still a field with a lot of progress to be made. As time goes by,
with continued intellectual and financial investments in intelligent systems design, it will
become even clearer that these systems should be embraced and implemented as the new
standard in the mining industry.
Finally, it should be noted that this article focuses on the automation and robotization
of drilling and mining operations, and as such, the focus has been on these areas. Other im-
portant aspects of mining, e.g., the effectiveness of the selected methods and environmental
impact, have not been addressed, as they are considered out of scope.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, A.K. and T.F.; writing—original draft preparation, A.K.,
T.F. and K.S.; writing—review and editing, A.K., T.F., K.S., G.N. and P.K.; supervision, G.N. and P.K.
All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Machines 2024, 12, 845 15 of 19

Funding: This research work was funded by the Horizon Europe project PERSEPHONE [grant
number 101138451].
Data Availability Statement: Data are contained within the article.
Acknowledgments: We would like to express our gratitude toward Achilleas Kousios for providing
us with his insights during the editing process of this paper.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest. The funders had no role in the design
of the study; in the collection, analyses, or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript; or
in the decision to publish the results.

Abbreviations
The following abbreviations are used in this manuscript:

3D Three-dimensional
5G Fifth-generation mobile network
AHS Autonomous Haulage System
AI Artificial intelligence
DRL Deep Reinforcement Learning
DT Digital twin
DTH Down the hole
FEA Finite Element Analysis
GPS Global Positioning System
IoT Internet of Things
LED Light-Emitting Diode
LIBS Laser-Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy
LiDAR Light Detection and Ranging
LoRaWAN Long-Range Wide-Area Network
MWD Measurement while drilling
PPO Proximal policy optimization
RF Radio Frequency
RL Reinforcement Learning
RSDS Rotary Steerable Drilling System
SAC Soft actor-critic
SLAM Simultaneous Localization and Mapping
TFC Time-of-flight camera
TFS Time-of-flight sensor
UAV Unmanned Aerial Vehicle
UGV Unmanned Ground Vehicle
UHF Ultra-High Frequency
YOLO You Only Look Once

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