Chapter Two: Basic

Sensors and Principles

Lecture 02
Example 1: Blood Pressure
Measurement
Scenario: A strain gauge is attached to a flexible diaphragm •
within a blood pressure cuff. 1 When the cuff inflates, the
diaphragm deflects, causing a change in the strain gauge's
resistance. The initial resistance of the strain gauge is 120
ohms. When the blood pressure reaches 120 mmHg, the
resistance changes by 0.24 ohms.
Question: Calculate the gauge factor (GF) if the strain •
experienced by the gauge is 0.002.
Solution
The gauge factor (GF) is defined as: •
GF = (ΔR / R) / ε•
Where: •
ΔR is the change in resistance.•
R is the initial resistance.•
ε is the strain.•
Given: •
ΔR = 0.24 ohms •
R = 120 ohms •
ε = 0.002 •
Calculation: GF = (0.24 / 120) / 0.002•
GF = 0.002 / 0.002
GF = 1.0
Example 2: Monitoring Bone Fracture
Healing
Scenario: A miniature strain gauge is embedded in a bone •
plate used to fix a fractured tibia. As the bone heals, the
strain on the plate decreases. Initially, the strain gauge
measures a strain of 0.0015. After six weeks of healing, the
strain decreases to 0.0005. The strain gauge has a gauge
factor of 2.0 and an initial resistance of 350 ohms.
Question: Calculate the change in resistance of the strain •
gauge after six weeks.
Solution

First, calculate the change in strain: •

Δε = ε_final - ε_initial = 0.0005 - 0.0015 = -0.001 •
Then, use the gauge factor equation: •
GF = (ΔR / R) / Δε •
Rearrange to solve for ΔR: •
ΔR = GF * R * Δε •
Given: •
GF = 2.0 •
R = 350 ohms •
Δε = -0.001•
ΔR = 2.0 * 350 * (-0.001) •
ΔR = -0.7 ohms •
The resistance decreased by 0.7 ohms. •
Example 3: Measuring Muscle
Contraction Force
Scenario: A strain gauge is attached to a flexible beam that •
measures the force of muscle contraction during physical
therapy. The beam deflects proportionally to the muscle
force. The initial resistance of the strain gauge is 500 ohms. A
force of 5 N causes a strain of 0.0008.
Question: If the strain gauge's resistance changes by 0.8 •
ohms, what is the force applied? Assume the relationship
between force and strain is linear.
Solution
First, calculate the gauge factor: GF = (ΔR/R)/ε. We need the•
change in resistance that caused the 0.0008 strain.
Rearrange to find the change in resistance. ΔR = GF * R * ε.•
We do not have the gauge factor, so we must calculate the •
ratio of change in resistance to strain, because that ratio will
remain constant.
(ΔR/R)/ε = (change in resistance / initial resistance) / strain.•
We can use the resistance change and strain from when 5N •
was applied to find the ratio. We can then use that ratio to
find the strain when the resistance changes by 0.8 ohms.
Solution
Applications in the medical field
Strain gauges, which measure •
deformation and stress through
changes in electrical resistance,
have diverse applications in the
medical field.
Prosthetics and Orthotics.1
Load Monitoring: Embedded .1
in prosthetic limbs to
measure stress and adjust
fit/function, enhancing
comfort and preventing
damage.
Gait Analysis: Used in .2
orthotic devices to optimize
Applications in the medical field

Prosthetic Limb
Fitting
Applications in the medical field
Strain gauge-based •
pneumographs monitor chest
and abdominal movements,
providing data on respiratory
rates and patterns, which is
crucial for patients with
respiratory conditions.
•
Strain gauges
ensure precise movement and
positioning of patient tables
and imaging components,
contributing to high-quality
imaging and patient safety.
Wheatstone Bridge
A Wheatstone Bridge is an •
electrical circuit used to
precisely measure an unknown
resistance by balancing two legs
of a bridge circuit. It’ s
especially useful for measuring
small changes in resistance—
ideal for strain gauges.
It consists of four resistors •
arranged in a diamond shape, a
voltage source, and a
galvanometer (or voltmeter) to
detect balance.
Wheatstone Bridge
A Wheatstone bridge is an electrical circuit used to measure a •
very small change in resistance, such as a 10 Ω decrease for a 10
k Ω resistive load. This small change is not readily detectable by a
typical DMM in the 0– 20 k Ω range.
The Wheatstone bridge consists of four resistors arranged in a •
diamond configuration.
An input DC voltage, is applied between the top and bottom of •
the diamond, and the output voltage is measured across the
middle.
When the output voltage is zero, the bridge is said to be •
balanced.
One (or more) of the legs of the bridge may consist of a resistive •
transducer, such as a thermistor or a strain gauge.
Wheatstone Bridge
As the resistance of one of the legs changes, the previously •
balanced bridge becomes unbalanced; this can occur when a
temperature or strain from a resistive transducer changes.
The unbalance in the bridge causes a voltage to appear across •
the middle of the bridge.
This induced voltage may be measured with a voltmeter, or the •
resistor in the opposite leg to the changed resistor may be
adjusted to rebalance the bridge.
In either case, the change in resistance that caused the induced •
voltage may be measured and converted to obtain the
engineering units of temperature or strain.
Wheatstone Bridge
The goal is to adjust the resistors so that •
no current flows through the
galvanometer, meaning the circuit is
"balanced." When balanced, you can
easily calculate the unknown resistance
based on the values of the other
resistors.
Key Components: •
R1 and R2: Two known resistors forming the •
"ratio arm."
R3: A variable resistor (adjustable).•
Rx: The unknown resistance we want to •
measure.
G: The galvanometer, connected between •
two points in the circuit.
V: The voltage source (battery).•
Wheatstone Bridge
Output voltage equation of a Wheatstone
When the circuit is • Bridge

balanced, the ratio of the

resistors in the left branch
(R1/R2) equals the ratio in
the right branch (R3/Rx),
and no current flows
through the galvanometer.
By tweaking R3 until the •
galvanometer shows zero
(no current), the circuit
balances, and you can
figure out Rx.
Example 1: Balanced Circuit
Circuit: •
R1 = 100 ohms •
R2 = 200 ohms •
R3 = 50 ohms •
Rx = Unknown •
Voltage = 12 volts •
Goal: Find Rx when the galvanometer reads zero (balanced). •
Solution: •
At balance, the ratios are equal: R1/R2 = R3/Rx. .1
Plug in the values: 100/200 = 50/Rx. .2
Solve simply: .3
0.5 = 100/200•
0.5 = 50/Rx •
Rx = 50 / 0.5 = 100 ohms.•
Example 2: Unbalanced Circuit

Circuit: •
R1 = 50 ohms •
R2 = 100 ohms •
R3 = 30 ohms •
Rx = 80 ohms •
Voltage = 6 volts •
Goal: Check if the circuit is balanced. •
Solution: •
Calculate the ratio: R1/R2 = 50/100 = 0.5. .1
Calculate the other ratio: R3/Rx = 30/80 = 0.375. .2
Compare: 0.5 ≠ 0.375, so the circuit is not balanced..3
Inductive Displacement Sensors
Inductive sensors are devices that detect •
objects without touching them.
They work by using electromagnetic fields, •
making them a type of non-contact sensor.
Imagine a tiny coil of wire inside the sensor •
that creates an invisible magnetic field around
it.
When a metal object comes close, it disturbs •
this field, and the sensor notices the change
and sends a signal.
They’ re widely used because they’ re •
rugged, reliable, and don’ t wear out from
physical contact.
Inductive Displacement Sensors
An inductive displacement sensor works
by detecting changes in inductance
caused by the movement
(displacement) of a metallic target.
When a metal object comes closer to or
moves away from the sensor coil, it
affects the magnetic field and changes
the inductance.
The sensor typically works based on •
the principle of a coil and eddy current
generation in the nearby metallic
object.
An eddy current is a loop of electric •
current induced within conductors by a
changing magnetic field in the
conductor.
Inductive Displacement Sensors
The inductance of a coil is given by:•
Example
Example

As the metallic object comes closer, the

inductance increased from 0.2513 mH to
0.6702 mH. This change is detected by
the sensor’ s electronics and translated
into a displacement value.
The output signal (voltage) is usually
related to the inductance change using
an oscillator or bridge circuit.
Linear Variable Differential Transformer
(LVDT)
Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT) — one of •
the most commonly used inductive displacement sensors in
biomedical and industrial applications.
t converts mechanical movement (displacement) into an •
electrical signal.
An LVDT consists of:•
One primary coil (P)•
Two secondary coils (S1 and S2) wound symmetrically on a •
cylindrical tube
A movable soft iron core (ferromagnetic), which is connected to the•
object whose displacement is to be measured.
Linear Variable Differential Transformer
(LVDT)
How It Works:•
Linear Variable Differential Transformer
(LVDT)
Three Core Positions•
Capacitive Sensor
A capacitive sensor measures changes in capacitance to •
detect displacement, pressure, humidity, level, or even
touch.
Capacitance is defined by the equation:•