UNIT 3

Strain Gage
 DEFINITIO
N
• A strain gauge Is an example of passive transducer
that converts a mechanical displacement into a change
of resistance.
• A strain gauge is a thin, wafer-like device that can be
attached to a variety of materials to measure applied strain.

4
 STRUCTUR
E
• The majority of strain gauges are foil types, available In a
wide choice of shapes and sizes to suit a variety of applications.
They consist of a pattern of resistive foil which is mounted on
a backing material.
• They operate on the principle that as the foil is subjected to
stress, the resistance of the foil changes in a defined way.

a ”’ A.R.Si -ar 5
 WORKIN
G
• The strain gauge is connected into a Wheatstone Bridge
circuit. The change in resistance is proportional to applied
strain and is measured with Wheatstone bridge.
 WORKING

• The sensitivlty of a strain gauge is described in terms of

a characteristic called the gauge factor, defined as unit
change in resistance per unit change in length, or
dR/R
AI/I

Cauge factor is related to Poisson's ratio p by,

K=1+2 p

7
Based Dn principle of working :
• Mechanical
• Electrical
• Piezoelectric

Based on mounting :
• Bonded strain gauge
• Unbonded strain
gauge
Based Dn cDnstructton :
• Foil strain gauge
• Semiconductor strain
gauge
• Photoelectric Strain gauge
 MECHANICAL STRAIN
GAUGE
• It is made up of two separate plastic layers. The
bottom layer has a ruled scale on it and the top layer has a
red arrow or pointer. One layer is glued to one side of the
crack and one layer to the other. As the crack opens, the
layers slide very slowly past one another and the
pointer moves over the scale. The red crosshairs move
on the scale as the crack widens.
 ELECTRICAL STRAIN
GAUGE
• When an electrical wire
is stretched within the
limits of its elasticity such
that it does not break or
permanently deform, it
will become narrower
and
longer, changes that
• increase
Strain be inferred
measurin
can electrical resistance
its by
resistanc
g
end- change in
e.
IO-And.
 PIEZOELECTRIC STRAIN
GAUGE
• Piezoelectric generate electric voltage when strain is applied
over it. Strain can be calculated from voltage. Piezoelectric
strain gauges are the most sensitive and reliable devices.
 BONDED STRAIN
GAUGE
• A bonded strain-gage element, consisting of a
metallic wire, etched foil, vacuum-deposited film, or
semiconductor bar, is cemented to the strained surface.
 UNBONDED STRAIN
GAUGE
• The unbonded strain gage consists of a wire
stretched between two points in an insulating
medium such as air. One end of the wire is fixed and
the other end is attached to a movable element.
 FOIL STRAIN
GAUGE
• The foil strain gage has metal foil photo-etched in a grid
pattern on the electric insulator of the thin resin and gage
leads attached,
 SEMICONDUCTOR STRAIN
GAUGE
• For measurements of small strain, semiconductor
strain gauges, so called piezoresistors, are often preferred
over foil gauges. Semiconductor strain gauges depend
on the piezoresistive effects of silicon or germanium and
measure the change in resistance with stress as
opposed to strain.

1
 STRAIN
GAUGE
STRAIN GAUGE SELECTION CRITERIA:
• Gauge Length
• Number of Gauges in Gauge Pattern
• Arrangement of Gauges in Gauge
Pattern
• Grid Resistance
• temperature sensitivity
• Carrier Material
• Cauge Width
• Availability
• low cost
 ADVANTAGES &
DISADVANTAGES
Advantages
• There is no moving part.
• It is small and
inexpensive.

Disadvantages
• It is non-linear.
• It needs to be calibrated.
 APPLICATI
ONS

• Residual stress
• Vibration measurement
• Torque measurement
• Bending and deflection
measurement
Compression and tension
measurement
• Strain measurement
Load Cell
 Load Cell

• Load cell is a sensor or a transducer that converts a load or force acting

on it into an electronic signal. This electronic signal can be a voltage
change, current change or frequency change depending on the type of
load cell and circuitry used.
There are many different kinds of load cells.
• Resistive load cells work on the principle of piezo-resistivity. When a
load/force/stress is applied to the sensor, it changes its resistance. This
change in resistance leads to a change in output voltage when a input
voltage is applied.
• Capacitive load cells work on the principle of change of capacitance
which is the ability of a system to hold a certain amount of charge
when a voltage is applied to it. For common parallel plate capacitors, the
capacitance is directly proportional to the amount of overlap of the plates
and the dielectric between the plates and inversely proportional to
the gap betweRn the plates.
 How does a resistive load cell works

• A load cell is made by using an elastic member

(with very highly repeatable deflection pattern) to
which a number of strain gauges are attached.
ResiniveLoad we TT Principle
• In this particular load cell shown in above figure,
there are a total of four strain gauges that are
bonded to the upper and lower surfaces of the load
cell.
• When the load is applied to the body of a resistive
load cell as shown above, the elastic member,
deflects as shown and Creates a strain at those
locations due to the stress applied. As a result, two
of the strain gauges are in compression, whereas the
other two are in tension as shown in below
animation.
• During a measurement, weight acts on the load cell's
metal spring element and causes elastic deformation.
• This strain (positive or negative) is converted into an
electrical signal by a strain gauge (SG) installed on the
t pe
spring element. The simplest of load cell is a
v
bending beam with a strain gauge.
• We use wheatstone bridge circuit to convert this
change in strain/resistance into voltage which is
proportional to the load.
 Wheatstone Bridge Circuit

• The four strain gauges are configured in a Wheatstone

B id e configuration with four separate resistors
connected as shown in what is called a Wheatstone
Bridge Network.
• An excitation voltage — usually 10V is applied to one
set of corners and the voltage difference is measured
between the other two corners.
• At equilibrium with no applied load, the voltage
output
is zero or very close to zero when the four resistors
are closely matched in value. That is why it is referred
to as a balanced bridge circuit.
Wheatstone Bridge Circuit
• When the metallic member to which the strain
eauees are attached, is stressed by the application of
a force, the resulting strain — leads to a change in
resistance in one (or more) of the resistors.
• This change in resistance results in a change in output
voltage. This small change in output voltage (usually
about 20 mVolt of total change in response to full
load) can be measured and digitized after careful
amplification of the small milli-volt level signals to a
higher amplitude 0-5V or 0-10V signal.
• These load cells have been in use for many decades
now, and can provide very accurate readings but
require many tedious steps during the manufacturing
FORCE AND TORQUE MEASUREMENT
Refer:

https://www.slideshare.net/slideshow/15723120156-me
asurement-of-force-and-torquepdf/259191343
 Magnetic sensor

• A magnetic sensor usually refers to a sensor that converts

the magnitude and variations of a magnetic field into electric
signals.
• Magnetic fields, as exemplified by the magnetic field of the
earth (earth magnetism) or magnets are familiar yet invisible
phenomena.
• Magnetic sensors that convert invisible magnetic fields into
electric signals and into visible effects have long been the
subject of research.
• Tt started decades ago with sensors using the electromagnetic
induction effect and these efiorts were extended to
applications of the gafvanomagnetic effect,
magnetoresistance effect, Josephson effect and other
physical phenomena.
 Magnetic sensors have many advantages
Durability: Magnetic sensors are robust and have long operational
lifetimes.
Non-contact detection: Magnetic sensors can detect magnetic fields
without making contact with the object being measured.
High sensitivity: Magnetic sensors can detect small magnetic fields.
Low power consumption: Magnetic sensors consume low amounts of
power.
Easy to use: Magnetic sensors are easy to use.
Low cost: Magnetic sensors are generally low cost.
Small size: Magnetic sensors are small in size.
Large sensing ranges: Magnetic sensors can measure small distances
from a few millimeters to centimeters.
Insensitive to soiling: Magnetic sensors are not affected by soiling.
Work reliably in fast processes: Magnetic sensors can work reliably in
fast processes with switching frequencies up to 200 kHz
Magnetic Sensors Also Have Some Disadvantages
Magnetic interference: Magnetic sensors can be affected
by magnetic interference.
Limited range: Magnetic sensors have limited range.
Limited directional sensitivity: Magnetic sensors have
limited directional sensitivity.
Temperature dependence: Magnetic sensors can be
affected by temperature.
Noise: Magnetic sensors can be affected by noise.
Calibration: Magnetic sensors may require calibration.
Size: Magnetic sensors can be limited by their size.
 Magnetic sensors are used in a variety of applications
Biomedical
Transportation:Magnetic field sensors are used on
cylinders and grippers to monitor piston position.
Angle measurement:Magnetic angle sensors, such as the
MAS and through-shaft magnetic angle sensors, are used
to detect the position and angular position of a magnet.
Magnetic prospecting:Geomagnetic sensors are used to
detect geological structures and mineral resources by
mapping magnetic anomalies.
Nuclear-precession magnetometer: This instrument
measures the Earth's total magnetic field by observing
the frequency of protons in a water sample.
Hall effect sensor: This sensor detects the voltage
induced on a conductor by a magnetic field.
Inductive sensor :This sensor creates a small magnetic
field at its tip, and when metal passes by it, the sensor
sends a signal.
Magnetoresistance sensor: This sensor measures the
magnitude and direction of a magnetic field.
 Magnetic sensors types

a) Coils
b) Reed switches
c) MR sensor elements
d) Hall elements
e) SQUID
 a) Coils

• The coil is the most classic and simple form of

sensor,
we will discuss here.
• Although a coil cannot be used alone to directly detect
a magnetic field, it can detect the variations in a
magnetic field.
• Bringing a magnet close to a coil will increase the
magnetic flux density in the coil. The increase of
magnetic flux density in the coil will also generate
opposing forces in the form of induced
electromotive force and induced current. When the
coil stops moving, the magnetic flux density variations
 a)
Coils

’Induced

‹and ganarde induced ełeclromofive force and

Induced cu«enł.
 a) Coils

• Observing the induced electromotive force and

induced current will allow you to detect the ratio of
change in magnetic flux density and its direction.
Used alone, a coil provides only limited functionality.
However, when combined with other coils or
magnetic materials, it can become a highly sensitive
magnetic sensor.
• Currently magneticsensors that use coils include
,search coils, resolvers or rotation angle sensors as
well as fluxgate sensors, a type of sensor used in a
broad range of applications.
 b) Reed switches

• A reed switch consists of a glass tube encapsulating

two reeds, the contacts, which come from the right and
left ends of the tube.
• The reeds are made of nickel or other magnetic
material and are separated by a gap. The glass tube is
filled with nitrogen or other inert gas to prevent the
activation (deterioration) of the contacts.
• The reed switch is normally open, but when both ends
of the magnetic material are exposed to a magnetic
field, the magnetic material is magnetized and the
contacts are attracted to each other closing the circuit
(conduction state).
 b) Reed switches

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 b) Reed switches

• A reed relay, a piece of commonly used industrial

equipment, can be made by combining a coil for
generating a magnetic field with a reed switch.
• Unlike semiconductor sensors suchas MR
elements
sensor or Hall elements (see below), the reed
switch operates without a power supply and is
therefore often used in automobiles or other locations
where power is difficult to supply.
 c) MR sensor elements

• An MR sensor element is a magnetic sensor element using

the Magneto-Resistance effect (MR effect). There are a
number of MR sensor types using different operating
principles. The following describes the basic MR effect.
• The MR effect is a phenomenon where resistance changes
with changes in a magnetic field. It is an effect that occurs
in magnetic materials (for example, iron, nickel or
cobalt).
• The MR effect requires an understanding of electron spin and
how the Lorentz force operates using electron charges.
When electrons move through a ferromagnetic material (a
material with a certain level of magnetism) and the spinning
of the electrons fluctuates, the scattering probabilit (of
v
electrons) in the magnetized material rises and falls. This is
what causes the MR effect.
 c) MR sensor elements

• Electrons have two important parameters: charge and spin.

They have the same negative charge, but electron spin is of
two kinds: up-spin and down-spin.
• Electron spin was verified by an experiment in 1922 and it
was confirmed that electrons exhibit electronic angular
momentum and magnetic moment characteristic to
electrons. When electrons pass through conductive
materials, they
scatter (electron scattering).
• Electron scattering is a phenomenon caused by static
electricity in the material that causes electrons to deviate from
their normal trajectory.
• Lorentz force is a force that comes into play when mobile
particles (electrons) in a conductive material are exposed to a
magnetic field. It affects all charged particles and does not
 AMR sensor elements

• In 1856, William Thomson discovered Anisotropic

Magneto-Resistance effect (AMR effect) by observing
a ferromagnetic material placed in an external
magnetic field environment.
• When the magnetization direction in a ferromagnetic
material is parallel to the current, the electron orbital
becomes perpendicular to the current, which
maximizes resistance. This increases the spin-
dependent scattering causing electric resistance to
rise.
• When the magnetization direction is perpendicular to
the current, the electron orbital becomes horizontal to
 AMR sensor elements

• The rate of change in resistance caused by the state

of the magnetic field is called magnetoresistive ratio
(MR ratio). The MR ratio for an AMR sensor element
is about 50/o.The AMR sensor element is often used
in magnetic switches and rotation sensors because of
its simple structure.
 GMR sensor elements
• The Giant MagnRto-Resistive effect (GMR effect) was independently
and simultaneously discovered by Albert Fert and Peter Grünburg in
1988 by observing a non-magnetic conductive thin film structure
sandwiched between two conductive ferromagnetic material layers.
• The magnetization of each ferromagnetîc Rayer is exposed to the
spin- dependent scattering of electrons as they pass through the middle
layer.
• If the spin direction af electrons passing through the fRrromagnetic
layer is opposite that of the magnetization of the ferromagnetic
mI3tRflIal, the interaction effect is much wRaker than when the
direction of spin is parailel to magnetization.
• As a result, when the direction of magnetîzation of the upper and
lower ferromagnetic material is parallel, resistance to thé current
flowing along the boundary surface of the conductive material
drops, while it increases !f the direction of magnetization is
anti-paral\el.
 GMR sensor
elements

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 GMR sensor elements

• The GMR sensor element is a magnetic sensor element

applying the GMR effect. It has a magnetic sensitivity that is
between two to five times greater than that of an AMR
sensor element.
• This greater sensitivity allows a GMR sensor to detect minute
changes in magnetic flux densities that were previously not
possible. By replacing the coils in the read-write heads of a
hard disk drive, the heads can be made more compact and
more sensitive.
• This has vastly increased the storage densities of hard disks
increasing their storage capacities.
• The MR ratio of a GMR sensor element is about 20%.Their
high sensitivity makes GMR sensor elements the device of
choice for magnetic heads, rotational sensors and other
devices.
 TMR sensor elements

• The Tunnel Magneto-Resistance effect (TMR effect) at

room temperature was discovered by Professor
Terunobu Miyazaki at Tohoku University in 1995.
• A TMR sensor element is a magnetic sensor element
using the TMR effect and configured from an extremely
thin nanometer level nonmagnetic insulation layer
sandwiched between two ferromagnetic layers.
• Electrons tunnel from one ferromagnetic layer into the
other via insulation layer. This is a quantum
mechanical
phenomenon.
• Resistance decreases when the magnetization
 TMR sensor
elements

Prepared by A.R.Sivanesh 4
 d) Hall elements

• The Hall element is an application of the Hall Effect. The

Hall effect discovered by Edwin H. Hall in 1879 proved
that the Lorentz force generated a voltage at right
angles to the direction of the current and magnetic
field.
• This voltage is called a Hall voltage and according to
Fleming's lek hand rule the direction of the voltage
changes with the direction of magnetic flux.
• The magnitude and direction (plus, minus) of the
voltage make it possible to detect the magnitude and
direction of the magnetic field (N-pole, S-pole).
 d) Hall elements

Curren
t

Curre
nt

4
 d) Hall elements

• The magnetic sensitivity of a Hall element is not as

good as that of magnetic resistance sensor element.
• However, as a magnetic sensor that does not rely on
magnetic material, it can be used in a ferromagnetic
field environment or harsh environments and therefore
finds application as a current sensor or as a variety of
magnetic switches.
 e) SQUID

• Superconducting Quantu Interference Device

(SQUID) is a magnetic
m sensor capable
measuring
element minute magnetic fields by of
Josephson
applying effect. the
• SQUID, a device that combines a ring
shaped superconductor with the Josephson Junction
b
proposed Brian D. Josephson in 1962 is the most
v
• sensitive
Thi sensormagnetic
can sensor
detectcurrently available.and
the heart's
selectromagnetic
brain's fields, are undetectable to
other sensor
which
technologies.
5
Hall Effect
 Hall Effect
• Hall-effect sensors are the linear transducers that are used to measure the
magnitude of the magnetic field. Working on the principle of Hall Effect,
these sensors generate a Hall voltage when a magnetic field is detected,
which is used to measure the magnetic flux density.
• Linear sensors can measure the wide range of magnetic fields. Besides
magnetic fields, these sensors are also used for detecting proximity,
position, speed. For these sensors output voltage !s directly proportional
to the magnitude of the magnetic field.
• When a thin conductor (or semiconductor) has a steady flow of current
running through it and a magnet is placed so that its magnetic field runs
perpendicular to this current, the magnetic field of the current reacts to the
magnetic field of the permanent magnet, causing the electrons flowing
through the conductor to be pulled to one side of the conductor, due to the
Lorentz force. This creates a potential difference, referred to as Hall
voltage, in the conductor. The magnitude of the Hall voltagR iS proportional
to the strength of the magnetic field.
• The I orentz (orce is the force that a particle experiences due to electrical
and magnetic fields. ›,
 Hall Effect
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TO FCC'

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 Hall Effect

• Hall voltage is produced when the magnetic field of a

current flowing through a conductor reacts to the
magnetic field of a permanent magnet perpendicular
to the current flow.

• The Hall effect is put to use in sensors, where the

resulting Hall voltage can indicate the presence,
absence, or strength of a magnetic field. Although
Hall sensors operate by detecting a magnetic field,
they can be used for sensing a wide variety of
parameters, including position, temperature,
current, and pressure.
Current Sensor
 Current Sensor

• A device that is used to detect & also change current

to assessable output voltage is known as a current
sensor. This output voltage is simply proportional
to the current flow throughout the measured path.
• After that, this output voltage signal is used to display
the current measured within an ammeter, for
controlling purposes or simply stored for more
analysis within a data acquisition system. So this is the
function of a current sensor.
 Current Sensor Working Principle
• The working principle of the current sensor is; once current
is supplied throughout a circuit or a wire then a voltage drop
takes place and also magnetic field will be generated nearby
the current-carrying conductor.
• 5o, there are two kinds of current sensing direct current
sensing & indirect current sensing.
• DireH sensing mainly depends on Ohm's law whereas
indirect sensing depends on Ampere's & Faraday's law.
Direct Sensing is used to measure the voltage drop associated
with the flow of current throughout passive electrical
components.
• Similarly, indirect sensing is used to measure the magnetic
field nearby a current-carrying conductor. After that, the
magnetic field which is produced is used for inducing
proportional current o voltage which is afterward changed to
 Current Sensor Specifications
• Measuring Range
The measuring range is the highest f|ow of current that a current sensor can measure vp to
120A.

' Input Voltage

This is the required voltage to activate the device is +5V.

• Frequency Range
The range of frequency this sensor can operate is 20Hz — 2OkHz.

• Response Time
The response time of this sensor is the time taken between the input excitation application &
the appearance of the equivalent o/p signal. The response time oi this sensor is < 20 ns.

• Isolation Voltage
The isolation voltage is the voltage that a sensor can handJe to defend the devices connected to
it. If the voltage range is increased than the fixed range then it can damage rhe current sensor &
gives inaccurate measurements.

• Accuracy
The accuracy of the current sensor is above 90%.
 Types of Current ’:
Sensor

Shunt
•Resistor
Shunt resistor type current sensor is mainly used for
measuring DC current. Once a DC current is supplied
throughout a resistor, then the voltage will be
produced across the resistor, so the shunt resistor is
designed based on this principle.
• The main benefits of these sensors are less cost,
response speed is fast, and accuracy is high whereas the
drawbacks are; the measurement circuit is not
isolated electrically from the flow of the current being
measured. This is appropriate in small amplitude and
low-frequency current measurements. tt
 Hall Effect Current Sensors

• Hall current sensor is made according to the Hall effect and Ampere's
law principles. These sensors are used for measuring both AC & DC
currents with up to 100 KHz frequency. ThRse sensors mainIy !nclude a
Hall effect device, core, and signal conditioning circuitry. They operate
based on the Hall Effect which states that, once current is supplied
throughout a conductor then it forms a magnetic field.
• If this conductor is arranged in another magnetic field, then the
magnetic fiE'ld gI•nerated by the conductor will communicate with the
external magnetic field so that electrons move to a single side of the
conductor. So, this will create a voltage that is proportional to the flow of
current throughout it & can be measured.
• The main benefits of these sensors are good isolation & high precision
whereas their drawbacks are; the influence speed is very slow. It has
high precision and good isolation and the disadvantages are; the
influRnce speed is slow & small current measurement lacks accuracy.
 Current Transformer

• A current transformer is also known as a current sensor which works

based on the electromagnetic induction principle. The main function of
this is to chenge the main large current value into a second smaller
current value for measurement & protection purpoSRS.
• A current transformer mainly includes a closed iron core as well as
windings. The primary winding of this includes less number of turns & is
simply connected in series within the current line to be measured;
consequently, it frequently has the flow of current through it whereas
the secondary winding includes more turns & is simply connected in
series within the measuring instrument as well as the protection
CÏFCU it.
• Once this transformer starts working, then its secondary circuit is
clased always, thus the series coll impedance for thé protection circuit
& measuring instrument is extremely small.
 Current Sensor Circuit Diagram
The current sensor switch circuit diagram
is shown below. Generally, current
sensors are mainly used where there is a
necessity for the measurement of the
amount of current used by a particular
device or appliance. There are different
techniques are available to measure the
flow of current. So in this circuit, we are
using a Hall effect current sensor like
ACS712 IC.

AcS712 IC Pin Configuration

The ACS712 IC includes 8-pins where
each pin ar›d its function is discussed
 ACS712 IC Pin Configuration
• Pins 1 & 2 (IP+): These are positive terminals that are
used for sensing current.
• Pins 3 & 4 (IP-): These are negative terminals that are
used for sensing current.
• Pin5 (GND): This is a Ground pin.
• Pin6 (FILTER): This pin is used for the external capacitor
that sets the bandwidth.
• Pin7 (VIOUT): This is an analog output signal pin.
• Pin8 (VCC): This is a power supply pin.

The IC ACS712 is a low-cost Hall Effect current sensor used

to measure up to 20A current. This IC includes a copper
conduction lane through which the flow of current is
measured. The o/p voltage of this is proportional to the
 Working

• The working of this current sensor circuit is quite

simple. Once current is supplied from Pins 1,2 and
3,4 throughout the conduction lane, then it
produces a magnetic field which is detected by
the hall effect sensor. After that, it is changed into
proportional o/p voltage. So, this equivalent o/p
voltage will be attained from the pin-1 of the
ACS712 IC.
• The o/p from this circuit is used with
Microcontroller's
Analog pins & thus accurate current flow value can be
simply determined. So, this kind of current sensor
module is used in Microcontroller based applications.
HEADING SENSORS
 HEADING SENSORS

• An earth's magnetic field sensor, a compass or its electrical

equivalent, the magnetic fluxgate, that provides the Heading
information from which the Autopilot computes steering
commands. The Heading Sensor is central to the control of
your Autopilot. Autopilot performance and, in many
systems,
>Radar and Chart Plotter performance, will depend more on
component.
Heading sensor accuracy than on any other system
• The best steering algorithms compensat for an
unstable and/or inaccurate e Heading
cannot
sensors
Heading vary between manufacturers and reference.
differ depending
on the intended application and vessel. More recently for
improved accuracy, Heading sensors have incorporated solid-
state acceferometers and rate gyros for better performance
in rough and in particular following seas.
 Compass Sensor

• The invention of the compass date's back to the 2nd

century. It was used by the Chinese for divination and
alignment of building materials during construction. It was
in the 11th century that people started using Compass for
finding directions during navigation.
• Compass sensor is the device whose function is to give the
right directions with respect to the North and South magnetic
poles of the earth. The needle present on a compass always
points towards the geometric North of Earth. This device
makes use of principles of magnetism for operation.
• previously
But this magnetic force design
used to of the earthcompass
is so weakbythat suspending
people
magnetic strip. In the a thinCompass present in
magnet is not used as a
smartphones component because
interference in it causes
communication.
Digital Compass
Sensor
 Digital Compass
Sensor

• Digital Compass Sensor is actually a magnetometer

that can measure the Earth's magnetic field. With
the use of ‘Hall Effect’ and by calculating the
ultralow frequency signals coming from the North
or South direction, this sensor can calculate the
orientation and direction.

7
 Working Principle

• The first compass used in the 11th century was a simple

structure with a bowl of water containing a magnetic needle
flOating Dn it. Later many improved and reliable versions were
developed. Digital Compass Sensor that is used in the
smartphone is based on the magnetometer sensor.
• The resistance of the magnetic sensor present in
magnetometer changes in proportional to the magnetic
field present in a particular direction. The magnetometer
measures the magnetic field strength and orientation.
• This information from magnetometer is stored by the CPU
as digital data. This Sensor always points tDwards the
Geometric North. The Compass found in electric devices is a
solid-state sensor. Usually, two or three magnetic sensors are
present on the device from which the microprocessor can read
detects
data andthe orientation of the 7
 Magnetic Compass Sensor

• There are two configurations of Compass Sensors

available based on there working principle. They are
the Magnetic Compass and Gyro Compass. Magnetic
Compass contains a magnetic element to detect the
magnetic field. This magnetic element aligns itself
with magnetic lines of Earth's magnetic field.
• Magnetic Compass points towards the magnetic pole
Earth. Whereas Gyro compass points towards the
true poles of the earth. Gyro compass consists of a
rapidly spinning wheel.

7°
 Gyroscope Sensor

• Gyroscope sensor is a device that can measure and

maintain the orientation and angular velocity of an
object. These are more advanced than
accelerometers. These can measure the tilt and
lateral orientation of the object whereas
accelerometer can only measure the linear motion.
• Gyroscope sensors are also called as Angular Rate
Sensor or Angular Velocity Sensors. These sensors
are installed in the applications where the
orientation of the object is difficult to sense by
humans.
• Measured in degrees per second, angular velocity is
the change in the rotational angle of the object per
Gyroscope
Sensor

76
 Gyroscope Sensor Working Principle

• Besides sensing the angular velocity, Gyroscope sensors

can also measure the motion of the object. For more robust
and accurate motion sensing, in consumer electronics
Gyroscope sensors are combined with Accelerometer
sensors.
• Depending on the direction there are three types of angular
rate measurements. Yaw- the horizontal rotation on a flat
surface when seen the object from above, Pitch- Vertical
rotation as seen the object from front, Roll- the horizontal
rotation when seen the object from front.
• The concept of Coriolis force is used in Gyroscope sensors. In
this sensor to measure the angular rate, thR rotation rate of
the sensor is converted into an electrical signal. Working
principle of Gyroscope sensor can be understood by
 Gyroscope Sensor Working Principle
• This sensor consists of an internal vibrating element made up of crystal
mater!aI in the shape of a double — T- structure. This structure
comprises a stationary part in the center with ’Sensing Arm’ attached
to it and ’Drive Arm’ on bath sides.
• this double-T-structure is symmetrical. When an alternating vibration
electrical field is applied to the drive arms, continuous lateral
vibrations are produced. As Drive arms are symmetrical, when one arm
moves to left the other moves to the right, thus canceling out the
leaking vibrations. This keeps the stationary part at the center and
sensing arm remains static.
• When the external rotational force is applied to the sensor vertical
vibrations are caused on Drive arms. this leads to the vibration of the
Drive arms in the upward and downward directions due to which a
rotational force acts on the stationary part in the center.
• Rotation of the stationary part leads to the vertical vibrations in
sensing arms. Thèse vibrations caused in the sensing arm are measured
as a change in electricai charge. This change is used to measure the
fs 7s
exteraal rotatiD0/tl e applied to the sensor as Angular rotation.
r•
Inclinometer
 Inclinometer

• An incfinometer is a sensor used to measure the magnitude of

the inclination anglR or deformation of any structure. The bent is
either depicted in percentage or degrees concerning gravity.
• Inclinometer sensors are used to measure the slope gradient
during activities like tunnelling, excavation and de-watering.
Such activities affect the ground that supports the structure.
• The inclinometer installation procedure depends on the
application field. It can be installed vertically to monitor the
cut slope or any movement in the shoring wall and
embankment. To monitor the settlement of the soil above the
spot of tunnelling, inclinometers are installed horizontally.
• Inclinometer sensors are of different types. Each
incI¡nometer system requires a cDmbination of equipment and
sensors to measure and collect data.
Inclinometer

Connector for
•t ‘<onvoI <able
Upper wheel

of a*Hmbly

Upper wheel
” of lever
wheel
assembly
 Inclinometer

A digital inClinometer system is composed of the

following components:
• Inclinometer probe
• Inclinometer cable reel (marked at every 0.5 m / 1 m )
• Android Mobile Readout Unit
• Accessories: Cable Reel battery, Battery Charger,
Mobile battery, Mobile Charger
s stem commonl
The digital inclinometer is the most
v v
used one. For manual inclinometer probes, the two
MEMS sensors are mounted 90• to each other (biaxial).
The probe ranges to +30° from vertical.
The data is retrieved using the traversing application.
 Inclinometer

• The inclinometer probes are built using two types

of
accelerometers:
• Servo-Accelerometer: The force-balanced sensing elements
housed in an inclinometer probe detect the change in tilt (from
reference). The probe consists of a couple of biaxial
servo-accelerometers. It is fitted with two sets of spring-
pressured wheels to guide the probe along the longitudinal
grooves Df the inclinometer casing.
• MEMS Accelerometer: Such inclinometers are termed as
MEMS Inclinometers. Currently, the MEMS (Micro-Electro-
Mechanical Systems) technology is being used to build the tilt
sensor probe. The MEMS consist of mechanical elements,
sensors, actuators and electronics on a common silicon
substrate through microfabriCation technology.
 Inclinometer

• Acceleration causes deflection of the proof mass from its

centre position. There are 32 sets of radial fingers around the
four sides of the square proof mass. These fingers are
placed between plates that are fixed to the substrate.
• Each finger and pair of fixed plates makes up a differential
capacitor. The deflection of the proof mass is determined by
measuring the differential capacitance.
• By this method, both dynamic acceleration (i.e. shock or
vibration) and static acceleration (i.e. inclination or rotation)
can be sensed. Signal conditioning is carried out within
inclinometers so that a simple output signal is obtained.
• This output can be used in conjunction with a calibration
sheet
to easily calculate the amount of tilt that has occurred.