Srey ane) rn vi Cet) Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display.Objectives Apply the second law of thermodynamics to processes. Define a new property called entropy to quantify the second-law effects. Establish the increase of entropy principle. Calculate the entropy changes that take place during processes for pure substances, incompressible substances, and ideal gases. Examine a special class of idealized processes, called isentropic processes, and develop the property relations for these processes. Derive the reversible steady-flow work relations. Develop the isentropic efficiencies for various steady-flow devices. Introduce and apply the entropy balance to various systems.T 200 32) gy, = 1, 22 — at, eo Fen ‘c We= ef 92 2 <9 Clasius T inequality 5Q =0 1)... 6Q Formal aS = (2) (KI/K) definition int rev of entropy 2/30 AS = S,- 5, = | ( ) \Combined sytem PUNT Fins (system and cyclic device) FIGURE 7-1 The system considered in the development of the Clausius inequality.matin Poveda inher Property: A quantity whose cyclic integral is zero. Entropy is an extensive property of a system. 50 _ 3m \ CP)... ~° | pay =0 fav = AY, eycle FIGURE 7-2 The net change in volume (a property) during a cycle is always zero. =0AS = Sy) - Irreversible process, I | Reversible | process 0.3 0.7 S, KK FIGURE 7-3 The entropy change between two specified states is the same whether the process is reversible or irreversible.A Special Case: Internally Reversible Isothermal Heat Transfer Processes =f eo) _ f(2) = 1 { NE Ae ERTS: (5Q)in rev _@ AS=— 0 AS (kJ/K) This equation is particularly useful for determining the entropy changes of thermal energy reservoirs.Process 1-2 (reversible or r+ [(P)_ <0 irreversible) [> so [> 5a +5,-S,=0 5,-5, = \ T | T 1 The equality holds for an internally Process 2-1 dS > — reversible process and the inequality (internally for an irreversible process. reversible) FIGURE 7-5 ity, Acycle composed of a reversible and 2 an irreversible process. Syon = AStiat = ASsyy + AS sue 2 0 Some entropy is generated or created during an irreversible process, and this generation is due entirely to the presence of irreversibilities.(Isolated) Isolated system boundary : Subsystem, | 1 ~ Subsystem > } 2 c Subsystem Subsystem Bi 7 N FIGURE 7-6 The entropy change of an isolated system is the sum of the entropy changes of its components, and is never less than zero. Surroundings. ASisotatca = 0 AS, ASs, + AS, = 0) total ~ AY sys sur = FIGURE 7-7 . . Asystem and its surroundings form an > 0 irreversible process isolated system. Seon 4 = 0 reversible process The increase of < 0 impossible process — entropy principle 8Some Remarks about Entropy =AS, = AS, + AS pure = 1 KIIK FIGURE 7-8 The entropy change of a system can be negative, but the entropy generation cannot. Syen . Processes can occur in a certain direction only, not in any direction. A process must proceed in the direction that complies with the increase of entropy principle, that is, S,.,, = 0. A process that violates this principle is impossible. .. Entropy is a nonconserved property, and there is no such thing as the conservation of entropy principle. Entropy is conserved during the idealized reversible processes only and increases during al/ actual processes. . The performance of engineering systems is degraded by the presence of irreversibilities, and entropy generation is a measure of the magnitudes of the irreversibilities during that process. It is also used to establish criteria for the performance of engineering devices. aEntropy is a property, and thus rr LLL the value of entropy of a system is fixed once the state of the system is fixed. Ts P3J*3 Superheated vapor ® Compressed liquid © S= 5 +.45_ (KI/ke-K) Saturated liquid—vapor mixture Serp = Sar (ki/kgK) a Si hity Entropy change AS = mAs = m(sy — s,)_ (KI/K) FIGURE 7-10 The entropy of a pure substance is determined from the tables (like other roperties). properties). Fa‘Coy 8 Awl Econ, Parser eared epoaion apy 400 Saturated liquid line 300 200 Saturated ‘vapor line 100 ot 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 s,Kikgk FIGURE 7-11 Schematic of the 7-s diagram for water. "Isentropic process: A process during which the entropy remains constant. Isentropic process: AS = 0 or s,=5, (ki/kg-K) No irreversibilities | (internally reversible) No heat transfer (adiabatic) FIGURE 7-14 During an internally reversible, adiabatic (isentropic) process, the entropy remains constant. Isentropic process, s FIGURE 7-17 The isentropic process appears as a vertical line segment on a 7T-s diagram. 12 %=S_ Internally 5Qinrev = TAS (KI) reversible process Qistsev = [ TdS (kJ) h Sdintrey = Tds (kJ/kg) Gintrov = Ty AS (kJ/kg) FIGURE 7-16 On a T-S diagram, the area under the process curve represents the heat transfer for internally reversible processes. 13s FIGURE 7-18 For adiabatic steady-flow devices,the vertical distance Ahon an h-s diagram is a measure of work, and the horizontal distance As is a measure of irreversibilities.Waevou = Qiv — Op S=5, S FIGURE 7-19 The T-S diagram of a Carnot cycle (Example 7-6).Entropy, K/kg-K Boltzmann relation _-W the total number of possible relevant S= kinw microstates of the system p, sum of all microstates’ uncertainties, i.e., probabilities k Boltzmann 1.3806 X 10-* WK Constant Gibbs’ formulation (on) S= —k Sp; logp; FIGURE 7-20 The level of molecular disorder (entropy) of a substance increases as it melts or evaporates. 16Pure crystal The third law of Tr OK thermodynamics: The entropy Entropy =0 of a pure crystalline substance at absolute zero temperature is zero since there is no uncertainty about the state of the molecules at that instant. The third law of thermodynamics provides an absolute reference point for the determination of entropy. The entropy determined relative to this point is called absolute entropy. FIGURE 7-21 Apure crystalline substance at absolute zero temperature is in perfect order, and its entropy is zero (the third law of thermodynamics).FIGURE 7-22 Disorganized energy does not create much useful effect, no matter how large itis. FIGURE 7-23 In the absence of friction, raising a weight by a rotating shaft does not create any disorder (entropy), and thus energy is not degraded during this process. 18FIGURE 7-24 The paddle-wheel work done on a gas increases the level of disorder (entropy) of the gas, and thus energy is degraded during this process. FIGURE 7-25 During a heat transfer process, the net entropy increases. (The increase in the entropy of the cold body more than offsets the decrease in the entropy of the hot body.)FIGURE 7-26 As in mechanical systems, friction in the workplace is bound to generate entropy and reduce performance. 20Qin rey ~ FWintreviow = AU 5Qinrey = TAS 6w, =Pdv int rev, out TdS = dU + PdV (kJ) Tds = du+ Pdv (kJ/kg) The first T ds or Gibbs equation h=u+Pu —, ee Tds = dh — vdP (Eq. 7-23) — Tds = du + Pdv The second T ds equation du G Pdv a Differential changes in ia dh vdP entropy in terms of aa T 7 other properties atTds=du+ Pdu T ds =dh—v dP FIGURE 7-27 The T ds relations are valid for both reversible and irreversible processes and for both closed and open systems.ds = tg PU a OF Since du 0 for liquids and solids du _cdT ds = = TT since ¢, = c, = c and du = c dT Liquids, solids: (KI/kg-K) For and isentropic process of an incompressible substance in =0 —> T,=T, Isentropic: $2 — $1 = Cayg T 1From the first T ds relation From the second T ds relation ds = + Pdu ds = dh _ vaP Zz PR du=c,dT dh =c, aT P=RTlu U = RTIP ds = oy + RE wos - [ot ein -Ke av pane? ¥ ee hE P 1Tey cacorety nape RE A broadcast from channel IG. 25Constant Specific Heats (Approximate Analysis) 2 dT Vy J elD + R In S$. - 5 1 4 52 — 51 = Come in 4 Rin’? (/kg-K) qT, Ys a ; (? P; ¢,(T) ane 8-81 oa Ss, — 5S, =C, inz2 a Rint2 (kJ/kg-K) . £, fi Pave 1 1 Entropy change of an ideal gas on a unit—mole basis 5-5 Fey RinY — (ki/kmol-K) 2 1 £ u U, te Ryne (kJ/kmol-K) T, PAverage cp pave qT, Tay T, T FIGURE 7-31 Under the constant-specific-heat assumption, the specific heat is assumed to be constant at some average value. a7Variable Specific Heats (Exact Analysis) We choose absolute zero as the reference temperature and define a function s° as LK s* Kuk K © _¢ 300 1.70203 1 310 1.73498 320 1.76690 On a unit-mass basis Es c (Table A-17) m= —9f — Rin dike) 1 ——S ' 4 FIGURE 7-32 On a unit-mole basis The entropy of an ideal gas depends sy P, on both Tand P. The function s° sj — R, Inj,” (ki/kmol-K) "represents only the temperature- dependent part of entropy. — 2 — 8 = 28FIGURE 7-34 For small temperature differences, the exact and approximate relations for entropy changes of ideal gases give almost identical results.Isentropic Processes of Ideal Gases Constant Specific Heats (Approximate Analysis) qT, U, k-1 vel + Rin? (2) = (“) (ideal gas) i , i Mg Setting this equation equal to zero, we get T, p,\e- Dm 2 Riqve <2 =(2 (ideal gas) Ty ta ul TT masa, WEI k (2) () (ideal gas) Py V2 Tv‘—! = constant Tp hk s= const, = constant Pu * =constant0.0" TiJs=const. \Pi 7) “ideal gas Valid for *isentropic process “constant specific heats FIGURE 7-35 The isentropic relations of ideal gases are valid for the isentropic processes of ideal gases only. 31Isentropic Processes of Ideal Gases Variable Specific Heats (Exact Analysis) P, 0=s3 — 52 —Rin = 88 =5? + Rin ‘ 1 . Pp Relative Pressure and Relative Specific Volume P, 38 — 8? exp(s°/A) is P, — exp(s3/R) = = exp the relative —> > pressure P,. R P, — exp(s?/R) (2) =e TIP, is the relative Yi), ~ cons. Yr — specific volume v,,Process: isentropic Given: P,, T;, and Py Find: T, FIGURE 7-36 The use of P, data for calculating the final temperature during an isentropic process. Soeto ea lao FIGURE 7-38 The use of v, data for calculating the final temperature during an isentropic process (Example 7-10).54rey ~ Wey = dh + dke + dpe 5 dyey = Tds (Eq. 7-16) Tds = dh — v dP (Eq. 7-24) —OWpy = UdP + dke + dpe 64my = dh — vdP iim = -[ va — Ake - Ape (KI/kg) : Way = -| a dP (kJ/kg) When kinetic and potential 1 energies are negligible w, = | var + ake + ape 1 Wry = —U(P) — P;) — Ake — Ape (kJ/kg) _ v2 Beroulli equation: Steady flow + g(Z — z,) = 0 ofaliquid through a device that involves no work interactions. UP, — Pi) +FIGURE 7-41 The larger the specific volume, the greater the work produced (or FIGURE 7-40 consumed) by a steady-flow device. Reversible work relations for steady-flow and closed systems. (b) Closed system 357 al P, = 100 kPa P) = 100 kPa (@) Compressing (6) Compressing ‘liquid a vapor FIGURE 7-42 Schematic and T-s diagram for Example 7-12. EXAMPLE: Compressing a Substance in the Liquid versus Gas Phases Wrey = [var = uP; - P) 1 = (0.001043 m*/kg)[(1000 — 100) wpa ( Ko 1 kPa-m = 0.94 kI/kg Tds = dh — vdP (Eq. 7-24) ; : dP =dh ds =0 (isentropic process) Worn = {va = ja = hy hy 1 j = (3194.5 — 2675.0) ki/kg = 519.5 kJ/kgProof that Steady-Flow Devices Deliver the Most and Consume the Least Work when the Process Is Reversible Taking heat input and work output positive: 3ijax — BW, = dh + dke + dpe Actual er 17 Sdry — BW = dh + dke + dpe Reversible. gar — BWaer = Befoy — BWeey Wy — BW = Bday ~ Bt Baoew = T ds py zo Pest ee BW, — 8 é Wr — BW py Bit = 9 T T Wy Wear Wrey = W P3, Ty FIGURE 7-43 Areversible turbine delivers more work than an irreversible one if both operate between the same end states. 37= fe ap When kinetic and potential 1 energies are negligible Isentropic (Pv = constant): _ ART, ~ T)) __KRT, (e" oe kk TN, Py ay Isentropic (1 = k) Polytropic (1 t P, = 100 kPa 3 =H % T, = 285K FIGURE 7-52 Schematic and T-s diagram for Example 7-15. 45Isentropic Efficiency of Nozzles, _ Actual KE at nozzle exit _ V3, "Iw Tsentropic KE at nozzle exit V3, fi If the inlet velocity of the fluid is small relative to the exit velocity, the energy hin, balance is in hy = hy + a *4 fy = Ing FIGURE 7-53 " — yy The h-s diagram of the actual and . isentropic processes of an adiabatic nozzle.ein = Sout j 950 K | Actual nozzle =-> 825 K, 527 m/s o50b------. Actual process Isentropic process Ai 4 1 = ' Isentropic ae 814 K, 549 m/s _ FIGURE 7-55 Asubstance leaves actual nozzles at a higher temperature (thus a lower FIGURE 7-54 velocity) as a result of friction. Schematic and T-s diagram for Example 7-16. &Entropy balance: The entropy change of a system during a process is equal to the net entropy transfer through the system boundary and the entropy generated within the system. Total Total Total Change in the entropy } — { entropy | + { entropy | = [total entropy entering leaving generated of the system Sin — S, + Soon = AS, out ‘gen systemnN AS, Sr Lee AY os FIGURE 7-56 Energy and entropy balances for a system. 49Entropy Change of a System, AS., + Sms, — Sms, + Spon = (Sp Sey (KK) Control G Volumes =e + Dans, — Dine, + Soon = UScyldt (KWIK) : Steadyflow: | §,,. = Ywis, — Yrs,- > Oo Surroundings T, Steady-flow, single-stream: o 2 Seen = mS, — 5) — a = tls, — 5) — De 2 F AScy=B +5; — Mess Spon Entropy “Entropy transfer transfer Steady-flow, single-stream, adiabatic: Soon = H(5, — 5)) esl The entropy of a control volume changes as a result of mass flow as well as heat transfer. 87=e + Dis, — Syrin.s, + Syon = AScyldt — (KW/K) & The rate of entropy change within the control volume during a process is equal to the sum of the rate of entropy transfer through the control volume boundary by heat transfer, the net rate of entropy transfer into the control volume by mass flow, and the rate of entropy generation within the boundaries of the control volume as a result of irreversibilities.Steady-flow device FIGURE 7-63 The entropy of a substance always increases (or remains constant in the case of a reversible process) as it flows through a single-stream, adiabatic, steady-flow device.EXAMPLES Entropy balance for heat transfer through a wall O (steady) : 7 z a Sin Sou + Spon = Soystem/dt SS Rate of net entropy Rate of entropy —_Rate of change transfer by heat generation in entropy and mass “Os FIGURE 7-64 Schematic for Example 7-17.Entropy balance for a throttling process a cera ten nC Throttling FIGURE 7-65 Schematic and T-s diagram for Example 7-18. 0 (steady) SS + Se = Sali Rate of net entropy Rate of entropy. Rate of change transfer by heat geaccaton in entropy ‘and mass tts, — Tits, + Syoq = 0 Seon = 1(S. — 54) FyEntropy Generated when a Hot Block is Dropped in a Lake casting m=S0kg FIGURE 7-66 Schematic for Example 7-19. in ~ Sour + —Sgen = ASyystem ws —— Net entropy transfer Entropy Change by heat and mass generation in entropy Qout : are a ee b Qout Seiee a oe b Seen = ASrour = ASyysiem + ASiake 7 2 AS ion = MS, — 51) = MCqyg ne Qiake ASake = T. lakex : Entropy Generation @ in a Heat Exchanger 32°C = s > team -——— 35°C | 10,000 kg/h ZT @ 30°C FIGURE 7-67 Schematic for Example 7-20. O (steady) mi 7 Sin= Sour + Spon = Ssystem/t ea Rate of netentropy Rate of entropy Rate of change transfer by heat generation in entropy and mass in Fitgeam $1 + tite $3 — Ht geam 82 — Mig Sy + Spon 9 Seen = til, steam(S2 — 91) + fityg(Sy — 53)Entropy Generation Associated with Heat Transfer 600 KI in ~ Sou —Sgen = AS stem —— — — Not entropy transfer Entropy Change by heat and mass generation inentropy True = 25°C fC out et pe NS FIGURE 7-68 Ty ie ee Schematic for Example 7-21. Se 0 ET ely sae Tonen (100+ 273K) Qout 600 kJ Seiad T, ap Whe = 5 +27) K + (-1.61 KK) = 0.40 kJ/KEntropy generation associated with a heat transfer process System { Toy I Boundary — .. 2! Cony © Mew i Esai. Permian gud a epoducon ody. Surrounding Location of entropy generation, | | Entropy i 1 transfer I Ym 19 i 2 al z | Tl i [é { | i (c) The wal signee (0) Te wall icone FIGURE 7-69 Graphical representation of entropy generation during a heat transfer process through a finite temperature difference. 65Summary Entropy The Increase of entropy principle Entropy change of pure substances Isentropic processes Property diagrams involving entropy What is entropy? The T ds relations Entropy change of liquids and solids The entropy change of ideal gases Reversible steady-flow work Minimizing the compressor work lsentropic efficiencies of steady-flow devices Entropy balance 66