Method of Proof II

Prof. Anand Paul

Which to use

When do you use a direct proof versus an indirect

proof?

If it’s not clear from the problem, try direct first,

then indirect second
If indirect fails, try the other proofs
Example of which to use

Prove that if n is an integer and n3+5 is odd, then

n is even
Via direct proof
n3+5 = 2k+1 for some integer k (definition of odd
numbers)
n3 = 2k-4
Umm…
n = 3 2k − 4
So direct proof didn’t work out. Next up: indirect
proof
Example of which to use

Prove that if n is an integer and n3+5 is odd, then n is

even

Via indirect proof

Contrapositive: If n is odd, then n 3+5 is even
Assume n is odd, and show that n3+5 is even
n=2k+1 for some integer k (definition of odd numbers)
n3+5 = (2k+1)3+5 = 8k3+12k2+6k+6 = 2(4k3+6k2+3k+3)
As 2(4k3+6k2+3k+3) is 2 times an integer, it is even
Proof by contradiction

Given a statement p, assume it is false

Assume ¬p

Prove that ¬p cannot occur

A contradiction exists

Given a statement of the form p→q

To assume it’s false, you only have to consider the case
where p is true and q is false
Proof by contradiction example 1

Theorem (by Euclid): There are infinitely many prime

numbers
Proof. Assume there are a finite number of primes
List them as follows: p1, p2 …, pn.
Consider the number q = p1p2 … pn + 1
This number is not divisible by any of the listed primes
If we divided pi into q, there would result a remainder of 1
We must conclude that q is a prime number, not among the
primes listed above
This contradicts our assumption that all primes are in the list p 1, p2
…, pn.
Proof by contradiction example 2

Prove that if n is an integer and n3+5 is odd, then n is even

Rephrased: If n3+5 is odd, then n is even
Thus, p is “n3+5” is odd, q is “n is even”
Assume p and ¬q
Assume that n3+5 is odd, and n is odd
Since n is odd:
n=2k+1 for some integer k (definition of odd numbers)
n3+5 = (2k+1)3+5 = 8k3+12k2+6k+6 = 2(4k3+6k2+3k+3)
As n = 2(4k3+6k2+3k+3) is 2 times an integer, n must be even
Thus, we have concluded q
Contradiction!
We assumed q was false, and showed that this assumption implies that
q must be true
As q cannot be both true and false, we have reached our contradiction
A note on that problem…

The indirect proof proved the contrapositive: ¬q → ¬p

I.e., If n is odd, then n3+5 is even
The proof by contradiction assumed that the implication
was false, and showed that led to a contradiction
If we assume p and ¬q, we can show that implies q
The contradiction is q and ¬q

Note that both used similar steps, but are different

means of proving the implication
How others explain proof by contradiction

Suppose q is a contradiction (i.e. is always false)

Show that ¬p→q is true
Since the consequence is false, the antecedent must be
false
Thus, p must be true
Find a contradiction, such as (r∧¬r), to represent q
Thus, you are showing that ¬p→(r∧¬r)
Or that assuming p is false leads to a contradiction
Vacuous proofs

Consider an implication: p→q

If it can be shown that p is false, then the

implication is always true
By definition of an implication

Note that you are showing that the antecedent is

false
Vacuous proof example

Consider the statement:

All criminology majors in MAT220 are female
Rephrased: If you are a criminology major and you are
in MAT220, then you are female
Could also use quantifiers!

Since there are no criminology majors in this class,

the antecedent is false, and the implication is true
Trivial proofs

Consider an implication: p→q

If it can be shown that q is true, then the

implication is always true
By definition of an implication

Note that you are showing that the conclusion is

true
Trivial proof example

Consider the statement:

If you are tall and are in MAT220 then you are a
student

Since all people in MAT220 are students, the

implication is true regardless
Proof by cases

Show a statement is true by showing all possible

cases are true

Thus, you are showing a statement of the form:

is true by showing that:
(p1 ∨ p2 ∨ ... ∨ pn ) → q

[(p1 ∨ p2 ∨ ... ∨ pn ) → q ]↔ [(p1 → q )∧ (p2 → q )∧ ... ∧ (pn → q )]

Proof by cases example

a a
Prove that b
=
b
Note that b ≠ 0
Cases:
Case 1: a ≥ 0 and b > 0
Then |a| = a, |b| = b, and
a
Case 2: a ≥ 0 and b < 0 a
=
a
=
b b b
Then |a| = a, |b| = -b, and
Case 3: a < 0 and b > 0 a a
=− =
a
=
a
Then |a| = -a, |b| = b, and b b −b b
Case 4: a < 0 and b < 0
Then |a| = -a, |b| = -b, and a a
=− =
−a
=
a
b b b b

a a −a a
= = =
b b −b b
The thing about proof by cases

Make sure you get ALL the cases

The biggest mistake is to leave out some of the cases

Don’t have extra cases

We could have 9 cases in the last example
Positive numbers
Negative numbers
Zero
Those additional cases wouldn’t have added anything to
the proof
Proofs of equivalences

This is showing the definition of a bi-conditional

Given a statement of the form “p if and only if q”

Show it is true by showing (p→q)∧(q→p) is true
Proofs of equivalence example

Show that m2=n2 if and only if m=n or m=-n (Rosen)

Rephrased: (m2=n2) ↔ [(m=n)∨(m=-n)]
Need to prove two parts:
[(m=n)∨(m=-n)] → (m2=n2)
Proof by cases!
Case 1: (m=n) → (m2=n2)
(m)2 = m2, and (n)2 = n2, so this case is proven
Case 2: (m=-n) → (m2=n2)
(m)2 = m2, and (-n)2 = n2, so this case is proven
(m2=n2) → [(m=n)∨(m=-n)]
Subtract n2 from both sides to get m2-n2=0
Factor to get (m+n)(m-n) = 0
Since that equals zero, one of the factors must be zero
Thus, either m+n=0 (which means m=n) or m-n=0 (which means m=-n)
Existence proofs

Given a statement: ∃x P(x)

We only have to show that a P(c) exists for some
value of c
Two types:
Constructive: Find a specific value of c for which P(c)
exists
Nonconstructive: Show that such a c exists, but don’t
actually find it
Assume it does not exist, and show a contradiction
Constructive existence proof example

Show that a square exists that is the sum of two

other squares
Proof: 32 + 42 = 52

Show that a cube exists that is the sum of three

other cubes
Proof: 33 + 43 + 53 = 63
Non-constructive existence proof example

Prove that either 2*10500+15 or 2*10500+16 is not a perfect

square (Rosen)
A perfect square is a square of an integer
Rephrased: Show that a non-perfect square exists in the set
{2*10500+15, 2*10500+16}

Proof: The only two perfect squares that differ by 1 are 0

and 1
Thus, any other numbers that differ by 1 cannot both be perfect
squares
Thus, a non-perfect square must exist in any set that contains two
numbers that differ by 1
Note that we didn’t specify which one it was!
Uniqueness proofs

A theorem may state that only one such value

exists

To prove this, you need to show:

Existence: that such a value does indeed exist
Either via a constructive or non-constructive existence proof
Uniqueness: that there is only one such value
Uniqueness proof example

If the real number equation 5x+3=a has a solution

then it is unique

Existence
We can manipulate 5x+3=a to yield x=(a-3)/5
Is this constructive or non-constructive?

Uniqueness
If there are two such numbers, then they would fulfill the
following: a = 5x+3 = 5y+3
We can manipulate this to yield that x = y
Thus, the one solution is unique!
Counterexamples

Given a universally quantified statement, find a single

example which it is not true

Note that this is DISPROVING a UNIVERSAL statement by

a counterexample

∀x ¬R(x), where R(x) means “x has red hair”

Find one person (in the domain) who has red hair

Every positive integer is the square of another integer

The square root of 5 is 2.236, which is not an integer
A note on counterexamples

You can DISPROVE something by showing a single

counter example
You are finding an example to show that something is
not true

You cannot PROVE something by example

Example: prove or disprove that all numbers are

even
Proof by contradiction: 1 is not even
(Invalid) proof by example: 2 is even
Mistakes in proofs

Modus Badus
Fallacy of denying the hypothesis
Fallacy of affirming the conclusion
Proving a universal by example
You can only prove an existential by example!
Disproving an existential by example
You can only disprove a universal by example!
THANK YOU