University of Sadat City

Faculty of Computers and Artificial Intelligence (FCAI)

Discrete Mathematics
(MA102)
Lecture 4 (For AI and IS programs)
Prepared By:
Dr. Heba Askr
Information Systems Department
2020-2021
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Chapter 1: Logic and Proofs

Topics
▪ Propositional logic
▪ Predicates and Quantifiers
▪ Rules of Inference and Proofs

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 Outline
• What is a Proof ?
• Methods of Proving
• Common Mistakes in Proofs
• Strategies : How to Find a Proof ?

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 Introduction to Proofs
A proof is a valid argument that establishes the truth of
a statement (as the conclusion).

Statements in a proof can include the axioms (something

assumed to be true), the premises, and previously proved
theorems.
Proofs have many practical applications:
• Verification that computer programs are correct
• Establishing that operating systems are secure
• Enabling programs to make inferences in AI
• More …

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 Introduction to Proofs
Related Terminology

Theorem

Lemma

corollary

conjecture

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 Introduction to Proofs
Related Terminology
• A theorem (major result) is a statement that can be shown to be
true using:
– definitions
– other theorems
– axioms (statements which are given as true)
– rules of inference

• A lemma
• is a ‘helping theorem’ or a result which is needed to prove a
theorem.
• is a theorem that is not very important. we sometimes prove a
theorem by a series of lemmas

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 Introduction to Proofs
Related Terminology cont.
• A corollary is a result which follows directly from a theorem.

• A conjecture is a statement that is being proposed to be true.

Once a proof of a conjecture is found, it becomes a theorem.
Many times conjectures are shown to be false, so they are not
theorems.

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 Introduction to Proofs
Proving Theorems
• Many theorems have the form:

• To prove them, we show that where c is an

arbitrary element of the domain,
• By universal generalization, the truth of the
original formula follows.
• So, we must prove something of the form:

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 Introduction to Proofs
Methods of Proofs

1. Direct Proofs

2. Indirect Proofs
• proof by contraposition.
• Proof by Contradiction.

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 Introduction to Proofs
Methods of Proof (Direct Proofs)
• A direct proof of a conditional statement p → q

First assumes that p is true, and uses axioms,

definitions, previously proved theorems, with rules
of inference, to show that q is also true.

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 Introduction to Proofs
Methods of Proof (Direct Proofs cont.)
Even and Odd Integers
Definition:
The integer n is even if there exists an integer k such that n = 2k, and
n is odd if there exists an integer k, such that n = 2k + 1.

• Note that every integer is either even or odd and no integer is both
even and odd.

• We will need this basic fact about integers in some of the example
proofs to follow.
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 Introduction to Proofs
Methods of Proof (Direct Proofs cont.)
Direct Proof (Example 1)
Give a direct proof of the theorem “If n is an odd
integer, then n2 is odd.”
Proof
Assume that n is an odd integer. This implies
that there is some integer k such that
n = 2k + 1. r
Then n2 = (2k+1)2 = 4k2 + 4k + 1 = 2(2k2 + 2k) + 1
= 2 r +1, (where r is an integer) Thus, n2 is odd.
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 Introduction to Proofs
Methods of Proof (Direct Proofs cont.)
Direct Proof (Example 2)
Give a direct proof of “if m and n are both square
numbers, then mn is also a square number.”
Proof
Assume that m and n are both squares. This implies
that there are integers u and v such that
m = u2 and n = v2.
Then mn = u2 v2 = (uv)2. Thus, mn is a square.

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 Introduction to Proofs
Methods of Proof (Direct Proofs cont.)

Definition: The real number r is rational if there

exist integers p and q where q≠0 such that r = p/q

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 Introduction to Proofs
Methods of Proof (Direct Proofs cont.)
Direct Proof (Example 3)
Prove that the sum of two rational numbers
is rational.
Proof

Where =
= ≠0

Thus the sum is rational.

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 Introduction to Proofs
Methods of Proof (Indirect Proofs)
• Indirect Proofs : Proofs that are not direct proofs,
that do not start with the premises and end with
the conclusion.
• Examples of Indirect Proofs :
1. Proof by Contraposition
2. Proof by Contradiction

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 Introduction to Proofs
Methods of Proof (Indirect Proofs cont.)
Proving Conditional Statements: p → q using
indirect proofs
• The proof by contraposition method makes
use of the equivalence
p→q   q→ p

• To show that the conditional statement p → q

is true, we first assume  q is true, and use
axioms, definitions, proved theorems, with
rules of inference, to show  p is also true
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 Introduction to Proofs
Methods of Proof (Indirect Proofs cont.)
Proof by Contraposition
Prove that if n is an integer and 3n + 2 is odd, then n is odd.

Can this statement be proved by direct proof ?????

Assume that 3n + 2 is an odd integer.

3n + 2 = 2k + 1 for some integer k.
Can we use this fact to show that n is odd?
We see that 3n + 1 = 2k, n = (2k-1)/3but there does not
seem to be any direct way to conclude that n is odd.
Because direct proof failed, we next try a proof by contraposition

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 Introduction to Proofs
Methods of Proof (Indirect Proofs cont.)
Proof by Contraposition (Example 1)
Prove that if n is an integer and 3n + 2 is odd, then n is odd.
Remember p → q   q → p
Proof Assume  q is true to prove that  p is true
q
Assume that n is even. This implies that n = 2k for some integer k.
Then, 3n + 2 = 3(2k) + 2 = 6k + 2 = 2(3k + 1),
Therefore 3n + 2 is even. p
Since we have shown ¬q → ¬p , p → q must hold as well. If n is
an integer and 3n + 2 is odd (not even) , then n is odd (not even).

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 Introduction to Proofs
Methods of Proof (Indirect Proofs cont.)
Proof by Contraposition (Example 2)
Prove by contraposition that for an integer n,
if n2 is odd, then n is odd.
Proof
Assume n is even (i.e., not odd). Therefore, there exists an integer
k such that n = 2k. Hence,
n2 = 4k2 = 2 (2k2)
and n2 is even(i.e., not odd).
We have shown that if n is an even integer, then n2 is even.
Therefore by contraposition, for an integer n, if n2 is odd, then n is
odd.
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 Introduction to Proofs
Methods of Proof (Indirect Proofs cont.)
• The proof by contradiction method makes use
of the equivalence
p   p→q
where q is any contradiction.

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 Introduction to Proofs
Methods of Proof (Indirect Proofs cont.)
Explanation of the previous slide
p   p→q
where q is any contradiction.
• Because a contradiction q is false, but ¬p → q is
true, we can conclude that ¬p is false, which
means that p is true. p q p→q
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T

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 Introduction to Proofs
Methods of Proof (Indirect Proofs cont.)
p   p→q
One way to show that as follows:
• To construct a proof by contradiction, we assume
that both p and ¬q are true.
• If both p and ¬p or q and ¬q are true, then we
have a contradiction and the proof by
contradiction is complete.

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 Introduction to Proofs
Methods of Proof (Indirect Proofs cont.)
Proof by contradiction (Example)
Give a proof by contradiction of the theorem
“If 3n +2 is odd, then n is odd.”
Proof Remember
Let p be “3n + 2 is odd” and q be “n is odd.” P   p →q
Assume that p and ¬q is true. This implies that n is even and n = 2k
for some integer k, so that 3n + 2 = 3(2k) + 2 = 2(3k + 1).
Thus, 3n + 2 is even.
A contradiction occurs (where ?)
Because both p and ¬p are true and q and ¬q are also true , we
have a contradiction.
so the original statement is true by proving by contradiction
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 Introduction to Proofs
Methods of Proof (Indirect Proofs cont.)
Proofs of Equivalence (Theorems that are
Biconditional Statements)
• When proving bi-conditional statement, we may make use of the
equivalence pq(p→q)(q→p)

• In general, when proving several propositions are equivalent, we

can use the equivalence
p1  p2  …  pk  ( p1 → p2 )  ( p2 → p3 )  …  ( pk → p1 )

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 Introduction to Proofs
Methods of Proof (Indirect Proofs cont.)
Proofs of Equivalence (Theorems that are
Biconditional Statements)
Proofs of Equivalence (Example)
• Show that the following statements about the integer n are
equivalent :
p := “n is even”
q := “n –1 is odd”
r := “n2 is even”

• To do so, we can show the three propositions p → q, q → r, r → p

are all true.
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 Introduction to Proofs
Methods of Proof (Indirect Proofs cont.)
Proofs of Equivalence (Theorems that are
Biconditional Statements)
Proofs of Equivalence (Example) p := “n is even”
q := “n – 1 is odd”
r := “n 2 is even”
We have to prove:
1) If “n is even” then “n – 1 is odd”.
2) If “n – 1 is odd” then “n 2 is even”.
3) If “n 2 is even” then “n is even”.

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 Introduction to Proofs
Methods of Proof (Indirect Proofs cont.)
Proofs of Equivalence (Theorems that are
Biconditional Statements)
Proofs of Equivalence (Example) p := “n is even”
q := “n – 1 is odd”
r := “n 2 is even”

We use a direct proof to show that p1→ p2 (p → q).

Suppose that n is even. Then n = 2k for some integer k. Consequently,
n − 1 = 2k − 1 = 2(k − 1) + 1. This means that n − 1 is odd because it is
of the form 2m + 1, where m = k − 1.

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 Introduction to Proofs
Methods of Proof (Indirect Proofs cont.)
Proofs of Equivalence (Theorems that are
Biconditional Statements)
Proofs of Equivalence (Example) p := “n is even”
q := “n – 1 is odd”
r := “n 2 is even”

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 Introduction to Proofs
Methods of Proof (Indirect Proofs cont.)
Proofs of Equivalence (Theorems that are
Biconditional Statements)
Proofs of Equivalence (Example) p := “n is even”
q := “n – 1 is odd”
r := “n 2 is even”

To prove p3→ p1 (r → p), we use a proof by contraposition (if n is odd then

n 2 is odd). This is proved in slide 11.

This completes the proof.

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 Introduction to Proofs
Mistakes in Proofs
Example:
What is wrong with this famous supposed “proof” that 1 = 2?
“Proof”: We use these steps, where a and b are two equal positive integers.

Solution: Step 5. a - b = 0 by the premise and division by 0 is

undefined.
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 Introduction to Proofs
Looking Ahead

• If direct methods of proof do not work:

– We may need a clever use of a proof by
contraposition.
– Or a proof by contradiction.

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 Proof Methods and Strategy
Proof by Cases:
A proof by cases must cover all possible cases that arise in a theorem.

• To prove a conditional statement of the form:

• Use the tautology

• Each of the implications is a case.

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 Proof Methods and Strategy
Proof by Cases: Example:
Use a proof by cases to show that n 2 + 1 ≥ 2 n when n is a positive
integer with 1 ≤ n ≤ 4.
Solution:
Case (1): When n = 1, we have 1 2 + 1 >= 21 . It follows that n 2 +1≥ 2n is
true in this case.
Case (2): When n = 2, we have 2 2 + 1 >= 22 . It follows that n 2 +1≥ 2n is
true in this case..
Case (3): When n = 3, we have 3 2 + 1 >= 23 . It follows that n 2 +1≥ 2n is
true in this case.
Case (4): When n = 4, we have 4 2 + 1 >= 24 . It follows that n 2 +1≥ 2n is
true in this case.
So the inequality n 2 + 1 ≥ 2 n holds for all the above cases and the
proof is complete.
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 Proof Methods and Strategy
Existence Proofs :
• Proof of theorems of the form is called an existence proof.

Constructive existence proof:

– Find an explicit value of c, for which P(c) is true.
– Then is true by Existential Generalization (EG).

Example: Show that there is a positive integer that can be written as the sum of cubes of
positive integers in two different ways:

Proof: 1729 is such a number since

1729 = 103 + 93 = 123 + 13

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 Proof Methods and Strategy
Nonconstructive Existence Proofs :
In a nonconstructive existence proof, we assume no c
exists which makes P(c) true.

One common method of giving a nonconstructive

existence proof is to use proof by contradiction.

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 Proof Methods and Strategy
Nonconstructive Existence Proofs cont.:
Example: Show that there exist irrational numbers x and y
such that x y is rational.

Proof: We know that √2 is irrational. Consider the number

√2 √2 . If it is rational, we have two irrational numbers x
and y with x y rational, namely x = √2 and y = √2 .

But if √2 √2 is irrational, then we can let x = √2 √2 and

y = √2 so that x y = (√2 √2 )√2 = √2 (√2 √2) = √2 2 =
2(rational number).

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 Proof Methods and Strategy
Proof Strategies for proving p → q
• Choose a method.
1. First try a direct method of proof.
2. If this does not work, try an indirect method (e.g., try to
prove by contraposition or by contradiction).
• For whichever method you are trying, choose a strategy.
1. First try forward reasoning. Start with the axioms and known
theorems and construct a sequence of steps that end in the
conclusion. Start with p and prove q, or start with ¬q and
prove ¬p.
2. If this doesn’t work, try backward reasoning. When trying to
prove q, find a statement p that we can prove with the
property p → q.

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 Proof Methods and Strategy
Backward Reasoning:
Example:

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 Proof Methods and Strategy
Backward Reasoning:
Solution:

we conclude that x ≠ y and therefor (x + y) ∕ 2 > √xy when x and y are

distinct positive real numbers

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