SK DAV GOVERMENT COLLEGE, ROURKELA

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

SUB-ENERGY CONVERSION -I BRANCH-ELECTRICAL

NAME OF THE FACULTY- SUBHAM PRAJAPATI SEMESTER-4th

QUESTION BANK WITH ANSWERS

1. 2 Marks questions:
a) Sate the different type of losses which occurs in transformer.

ANS:Different type of losses occurs in a transformer are

i. Core loss or iron loss
ii. Copper loss
Core loss is of two type that is eddy current and hysteresis loss. Copper loss is
the variable loss.

b) Write the application of D.C. Compound Motor.

Ans. Applications of D.C. Compound Motor: Differential compounded d.c.

motors are rarely used but cumulative compounded d.c. motors are used
where a fairly constant speed is required with irregular loads or suddenly
applied heavy loads i.e., the industrial uses are:
(i) Presses
(ii) Shearing machines.
(iii) Punching machines.
(iv) Reciprocating machines
(v) Ice mills etc.

(c) Why starter is necessary for starting of D.C. Motor?

Ans. At the time of starting

EB = 0 but EB = V- IARA
i.e. 0 = V- IARA
or IA = V/RA
As a Ra is small say o.1 ohm
V = 220V (DC)
IA = 220/0.1= 2200 A
At starting the current is too high & this high current of 2200A will damage
most of the parts such as armature, commutator etc, and in order to reduce
this current starters are needed in dc motors.
d) What is voltage regulation in 1 phase transformer?

Ans. The voltage regulation (V.R) of a transformer is the arithmetic difference

between the no- load secondary voltage and secondary voltage on load
expressed as % of no-load voltage.

(e) What is Burden?

Ans. Burden: The rated burden is the volt- ampere loading which is
permissible without errors exceeding the limits for the particular class of
accuracy.
Total secondary burden = (SEC. Wdg. Induced voltage)2/ (Impedance of sec.
Wdg. ckt. Including impedance of sec. Wdg.)

(f) Define 'Ratio Error' in current transformer.

Ans. Ratio error in C.T. is defined as the difference of nominal ratio & actual
ratio divided by actual ratio.
i.e., Ratio error = Nominal ratio - actual ratio / actual ratio
It is also expressed in percentage.

(g) What is all day efficiency?

Ans. The all day efficiency of transformer is the ratio of kwh output in 24
hours to the kwh i/p in 24 hours.

(h) What is critical resistance of dc shunt generator?

Ans. Critical resistance in a dc shunt generator is the max. field resistance ( for
a given speed ) with which the shunt generator would just excite the critical
field resistance should be always more then the field. CKT resistance so that
the dc generator will be build up.

(i) What is the essential difference between lap and wave winding?

ANS : In a lap winding the commutator pitch is one where as for a wave
winding I is about twice the pole pitch.

(j) What are the uses of an auto transformer (any two)?

Ans. The uses of auto transformer is that

(i) It is used as variac in laboratories.
(ii) Starting of 3 phase induction motors.
(k) What is commutation?

Ans. Commutation: Commutation is a phenomenon in a d.c. machine in which

there is reversal of current in a coil as the coil passes the brush axis. Due to
commutation i.e., when it takes place, the coil undergoing commutation is
short-circuited by the brush.

(l) Why transformer rating is in KVA?

Ans. Transformer rating is in kVA due to following reasons:

(i) The losses i.e., iron loss depends upon voltage and copper loss depends
upon current and thus the total loss depend upon voltage and current i.e.,
volt-ampere and the power factor (PF) of a transformer is independent of load.
(ii) Another point is that during manufacturing of a transformer, the
manufacturer does not know the type of load to be used by the user and thus
load PF has no impact on power rating and therefore the rating mentioned by
the concern is VA a kVA.

(m) What is the difference between a power and distribution transformer?

Ans. Distribution transformers are always operated with variable load in 24

hours and it has more losses but in a power transformer the losses are
minimum with load constant. Power transformers are used in generation,
substations, etc. & they have high efficiency.

(n) What purpose is served by the pole shoe in a dc machine.

Ans. The pole shoe serves the following purpose

(i) They spread out the flux in the air gaps.
(ii) They support the field coils.
(iii) Reluctance of magnetic path is reduced.

(o) The greatest percentage of heat loss in a dc m/c is due to what?

Ans. Cu. loss because the value of Ia is very large.

(p) Which of the DC shunt motor speed control method gives the new speed
above rated speed.
Ans. Field control or Flux control method.

(q)What is the function of breather in a transformer?

Ans. In a transformer, the breather will arrest the moisture in the transformer
oil so that the dielectric strength and insulating property of the oil increases.
(r) What are the use of carbon brushes in a DC generator.

Ans. (i)They will lubricate and polish the commutator.

(ii) If sparking occurs, they damage the commutator less than the Cu. brushes.
(iii) They provide good communication.

(s) What is the need of iron core in a transformer.

Ans. Transformer action demands only the existence of alternating flux

linking the two winding by using iron core and also this core substantially
confined to a definite path having much higher permeability.

(t) Upon what factors the armature resistance (R) of a d.c. m/c depends?

Ans. The armature resistance of a dc m/c depends upon

(i) Number size, connection or armature coils.
(ii) Contact resistance between the 'C' brushes and Cu. commutator.

2. 5 Marks questions.

1. Explain working of transformer.

Ans

The transformer works on the principle of Faraday’s law of electromagnetic

induction and mutual induction.
There are usually two coils – primary coil and secondary coil – on the
transformer core. The core laminations are joined in the form of strips. The
two coils have high mutual inductance. When an alternating current passes
through the primary coil, it creates a varying magnetic flux. As per Faraday’s
law of electromagnetic induction, this change in magnetic flux induces an
EMF (electromotive force) in the secondary coil, which is linked to the core
having a primary coil. This is mutual induction.
Overall, a transformer carries out the following operations.:
i. Transfer of electrical energy from one circuit to another
ii.Transfer of electrical power through electromagnetic induction
iii.Electric power transfer without any change in frequency
iv.Two circuits are linked with mutual induction
The figure shows the formation of magnetic flux lines around a current-
carrying wire. The normal of the plane containing the flux lines is parallel to
the normal of a cross-section of a wire

The figure shows the formation of varying magnetic flux lines around a wire
wound. The interesting part is that the reverse is also true; when a magnetic
flux line fluctuates around a piece of wire, a current will be induced in it. This
was what Michael Faraday found in 1831, which is the fundamental working
principle of electric generators, as well as transformers.

2. A transformer has 600 turns of the primary winding and 20 turns of the
secondary winding. Determine the secondary voltage if the secondary circuit is
open and the primary voltage is 140 V.

ANS: Given
Total number of turns of the primary coil (N1) = 600 turns
Total number of turns of the secondary coil (N2) = 20 turns
Primary voltage (V1) = 140 V
The voltage on the primary coil = N1V1
The voltage on the secondary coil = N2V2
The voltage on one turn
Vt = V2/N2 = V1/N1
K = V2/N2 = V1/N1
k is a transformation ratio.
V2 = (N2/N1)*V1
V2 = (20/600)* 140
V2 = 4.6 V

3. Derive emf equation for a transformer.

ANS:
When a sinusoidal voltage is applied to the primary winding of a transformer,
alternating flux ϕ m sets up in the iron core of the transformer. This
sinusoidal flux links with both primary and secondary winding. The function
of flux is a sine function.
The rate of change of flux with respect to time is derived mathematically.
The derivation of the EMF Equation of the transformer is shown below.
Let,
ϕ m be the maximum value of flux in Weber
f be the supply frequency in Hz
N1 is the number of turns in the primary winding
N2 is the number of turns in the secondary winding
Φ is the flux per turn in Weber

As shown in the above figure that the flux changes from + ϕ m to – ϕ m in

half a cycle of 1/2f seconds.
By Faraday’s Law
Let E1 be the emf induced in the primary winding

Where Ψ = N1ϕ

Since ϕ is due to AC supply ϕ = ϕ m Sinwt

So the induced emf lags flux by 90 degrees.

Maximum valve of emf

But w = 2πf

Root mean square RMS value is

Putting the value of E1max in equation (6) we get

Putting the value of π = 3.14 in the equation (7) we will get the value of E1 as
Similarly

Now, equating the equation (8) and (9) we get

The above equation is called the turn ratio where K is known as the
transformation ratio.
The equation (8) and (9) can also be written as shown below using the relation
(ϕ m = Bm x Ai) where Ai is the iron area and Bm is the maximum value of
flux density.

4. Distinguish between power transformer and distribution transformer.

ANS:
Power Transformer Distribution transformer
i. It is used in transmission network It is used in the distribution network
of higher voltages for lower voltages.

ii. Power transformers are used for Distribution transformers are used
rating above 200 MVA for rating less than 200 MVA

iii. Larger in size as compared of Smaller in size

distribution transformers

iv. Designed for maximum efficiency Designed for 50-70% efficiency

of 100%.

v. Efficiency is measured as the ratio Here All Day Efficiency is considered.

of output to the input power

vi. Used in generating stations and Used in distribution stations, also for
transmission substations industrial and domestic purposes.

vii. Copper and iron losses take place Iron losses take place for 24 hours
throughout the day and copper losses are based on load
cycle

5. Why do transformers hum?

ANS: Transformer noise is caused by a phenomenon which causes a piece of
magnetic sheet steel to extend itself when magnetized. When the
magnetization is taken away, it goes back to its original condition. This
phenomenon is scientifically referred to as magnetostriction. A transformer is
magnetically excited by an alternating voltage and current so that it becomes
extended and contracted twice during a full cycle of magnetization.
The magnetization of any given point on the sheet varies, so the extension and
contraction is not uniform. A transformer core is made from many sheets of
special steel to reduce losses and moderate the ensuing heating effect. The
extensions and contractions are taking place erratically all over a sheet. These
extensions are proportionally and therefore not normally visible to the naked
eye. However, they are sufficient to cause a vibration, and consequently noise.
Applying voltage to a transformer produces a magnetic flux, or magnetic lines
of force in the core. The degree of flux determines the amount of
magnetostriction and hence, the noise level.

6. Why do we operate transformer in a parallel operation?

ANS : Reasons for Parallel Operation of Transformers

The primary reasons for operating transformers in parallel are as follows −
For large loads, it may be impractical or uneconomical to have a single large
transformer so that many small transformers are paralleled to meet the load
demand.
By operating the transformers of standard size in parallel at the substations,
the spare capacity of the substation can be reduced.
There is always a scope of future expansion of a substation to supply a load of
capacity greater than that of the transformers already installed. Hence, in
future by connecting a new transformer in parallel with existing transformers,
the total capacity of the substation can be increased.
If a transformer is damaged in a system of transformers connected in parallel
and is removed for repair and maintenance, then there is no interruption of
power supply for essential services.

7. Explain working of DC motor.

ANS:
Consider a two pole DC motor as shown in the figure. When the DC motor is
connected to an external source of DC supply, the field coils are excited
developing alternate N and S poles and a current flows through the armature
windings.

All the armature conductors under N pole carry current in one direction (say
into the plane of the paper), whereas all the conductors under S pole carry
current in the opposite direction (say out of the plane of the paper). As each
conductor carrying a current and is placed in a magnetic field, hence a
mechanical force acts on it.
By applying Fleming’s left hand rule, it can be seen that the force on each
conductor is tending to move the armature in anticlockwise direction. The
force on all the conductors add together to exert a torque which make the
armature rotating. When the conductor moves from one side of a brush to the
other, the current in the conductor is reversed and at the same time it comes
under the influence of next pole of opposite polarity. As a result of this, the
direction of force on the conductor remains the same. Therefore, the motor
being rotating in the same direction.

8. Derive the emf equation for a dc generator.

ANS:
As the armature rotates, a voltage is generated in its coils. In the case of a
generator, the emf of rotation is called the Generated emf or Armature
emf and is denoted as Er = Eg. In the case of a motor, the emf of rotation is
known as Back emf or Counter emf and represented as Er = Eb.
The expression for emf is same for both the operations, i.e., for Generator as
well as for Motor.
Derivation of EMF Equation of a DC Machine – Generator and Motor
Let,
P – number of poles of the machine
ϕ – Flux per pole in Weber.
Z – Total number of armature conductors.
N – Speed of armature in revolution per minute (r.p.m).
A – number of parallel paths in the armature winding.
In one revolution of the armature, the flux cut by one conductor is given as:

Time taken to complete one revolution is given as:

Therefore, the average induced e.m.f in one conductor will be:

Putting the value of (t) from Equation (2) in the equation (3) we will get

The number of conductors connected in series in each parallel path = Z/A.

Therefore, the average induced e.m.f across each parallel path or the armature
terminals is given by the equation shown below:

Where n is the speed in revolution per second (r.p.s) and given as:
For a given machine, the number of poles and the number of conductors per
parallel path (Z/A) are constant. Hence, equation (5) can be written as:

Where K is a constant and given as:

Therefore, the average induced emf equation can also be written as:

Where K1 is another constant and hence induced emf equation can be written
as:

Where ω is the angular velocity in radians/second is represented as:

Thus, it is clear that the induced emf is directly proportional to the speed and
flux per pole. The polarity of induced emf depends upon the direction of the
magnetic field and the direction of rotation. If either of the two is reversed the
polarity changes, but if two are reversed the polarity remains unchanged.
This induced emf is a fundamental phenomenon for all the DC Machines
whether they are working as a generator or motor.
If the DC Machine is working as a Generator, the induced emf is given by the
equation shown below:

Where Eg is the Generated Emf

If the DC Machine is working as a Motor, the induced emf is given by the
equation shown below:

In a motor, the induced emf is called Back Emf (Eb) because it acts opposite to
the supply voltage.
9. Differentiate between lap winding and wave winding.
ANS:
LAP WINDING WAVE WINDING
Number of Parallel paths = Number of parallel paths=2
Number of Poles

Number of brush pairs= Number of Brush pairs= 2

Number Of poles

used for low voltage, high used for high voltage, low
current machine current machine

Ends of armature coil are Ends of armature coil are

connected to adjacent connected to commutator
commutator segments segments some distance apart.

It requires equalizing It does not requires equalizing

Connection Connection

It does not require dummy coil It requires dummy coil

10. What is the chief advantage of a dC series motor?

Ans. The out standing characteristics of a series motor is that it has high
torque at low speeds and vice- versa. It is well suited for traction purposes
such as electric trains. Acceleration is rapid because the torque is high at low
speeds. Further more the series motor automatically slows down as the train
goes up an incline surface, yet turns at top speed on the flat ground. The
power of a series motor tends to be constant because high torque is
accompained by low speed and vice-versa. Series motors are also used in
electric cranes, hoists: light loads are lifted quickly and heavy loads more
slowly.

11. What is critical speed of a dc shunt generator also explain the condition for
voltage development.
ANS:
Critical speed is defined as the speed at which the given shunt field resistance
is equal to the critical resistance. It is the speed at which the shunt generator
just fails to build up its voltage without any external resistance in the field
circuit. It is denoted by Nc.

Significance of Critical Speed :

If the speed of the dc machine is reduced to a value such that the field
resistance line does not pass through the O.C.C then the machine fails to
induce i.e., it may not generate any appreciable voltage. The speed at which
the generator fails to build up the voltage is known as the critical speed.

Below this speed, the field resistance line does not cut the O.C.C. Hence fails
to build up the voltage. Therefore the machine should not be operated below
 the critical speed as it fails to induce. Hence, it should always be operated
above the critical speed.

Determination of Critical Speed :

From the figure above, curve I is the O.C.C at a particular given speed N. OB
is the tangent line to the O.C.C. OP is the line drawn to represent the given
shunt field resistance. Curve II is the O.C.C drawn at the critical speed Nc to
be determined. OP is the line tangent to the new O.C.C. If any ordinate AB is
drawn intersecting line OP at C then,

Hence, to determine critical speed practically,

. Draw the given O.C.C and a line tangent to O.C.C.

. Draw a line ordinate intersecting the field resistance line and a tangent
to O.C.C.
. Multiply the speed by the ratio of intercepts of ordinate drawn between
field resistance line and the tangent line to O.C.C. Thus, the result will be the
critical speed.
12. A four pole generator having wave-wound armature winding has 51 slots, each
slot containing 20 conductors. What will be the voltage generated in the machine
when driven at 1500 rpm assuming the flux per pole to be 7.0 mWb ?
ANS:
For a simplex wave wound generator,
The formula to calculate the generated voltage of a DC generator is:
E = (P * Z * N * Φ) / (60 * A)
where:
E = generated voltage in volts (V)
P = number of poles
Z = total number of armature conductors
N = speed of the generator in revolutions per minute (RPM)
Φ = flux per pole in webers (Wb)
A = number of parallel paths in the armature winding
In this case, we have:
P = 4 (four poles)
Z = 51 slots x 20 conductors/slot = 1020 armature conductors
N = 1500 RPM
Φ = 7.0 mWb = 7.0 x 10-3 Wb
A = 2 (wave-wound armature winding)
Substituting these values into the formula, we get:
E = (4 * 1020 * 1500 * 7.0 x 10^-3) / (60 * 2)
E = 357 V
Therefore, the generated voltage of the four pole generator with a wave-wound
armature winding, 51 slots each containing 20 conductors, and a flux per pole of
7.0 mWb when driven at 1500 RPM is 357 volts.
13.Compare the amount of copper used in between auto transformer and two
winding transformer of same rating.
ANS: The weight of the copper is proportional to the length and area of a
cross-section of the conductor.
The length of the conductor is proportional to the number of turns, and the
cross-section is proportional to the product of current and number of turns.
Now, from the above figure (B) shown of the auto transformer, the weight of
copper required in an auto transformer is
Wa = weight of copper in section AC + weight of copper in section CB
Therefore

If the same duty is performed with an ordinary two winding transformer

shown above in the figure (A), the total weight of the copper required in the
ordinary transformer,
W0 = weight of copper on its primary winding + weight of copper on its
secondary winding
Therefore,

Now, the ratio of the weight of the copper in an auto transformer to the weight
of copper in an ordinary transformer is given as
Saving of copper affected by using an auto transformer = weight of copper
required in an ordinary transformer – weight of copper required in an auto
transformer

Therefore,
Saving of copper = K x weight of copper required for two windings of the
transformer
Hence, saving in copper increases as the transformation ratio approaches
unity. Hence the auto transformer is used when the value of K is nearly equal
to unity.

14. Write the advantages and disadvantages of auto transformer.

ANS:
Advantages of Auto transformer
Less costly
Better regulation
Low losses as compared to ordinary two winding transformer of the same
rating.

Disadvantages of Auto transformer

There are various advantages of the auto transformer, but then also one major
disadvantage, why auto transformer is not widely used, is that
The secondary winding is not insulated from the primary winding.
If an auto transformer is used to supply low voltage from a high voltage and
there is a break in the secondary winding, the full primary voltage comes
across the secondary terminal which is dangerous to the operator and the
equipment. So the auto transformer should not be used for interconnecting
high voltage and low voltage systems.
Used only in the limited places where a slight variation of the output voltage
from input voltage is required.

15. Calculate the EMF generated by a 6 pole, 1200 rpm lap wound DC
generator. The magnetic flux produced per pole is 7 Wb and there are
150 Conductors.
ANS:
A DC generator is an electrical machine whose main function is to
convert mechanical energy into electricity. When the conductor cuts magnetic
flux, an emf will be generated based on the electromagnetic
induction principle of Faraday’s Laws. This electromotive force can cause a
flow of current when the conductor circuit is closed.
The emf equation of the DC generator is given by the equation:
E g = P N ϕ Z/ 60 A
where Z = Total number of armature conductor
P = The number of poles in a generator
A = The number of parallel paths
N = Speed of armature in r.p.m
ϕ = Flux per pole Lap winding
A = P Wave winding A = 2
Given P = 6
Z = 150
N = 1200 rpm
ϕ = 7 Wb/pole
Lap winding A = P = 6
E g = P N ϕ Z /60 A
E g = 6 × 1200 × 150 × 7 60 × 6
Eg = 21,000 V = 21 kV

16. Why is an auto transformer not used as distribution transformers as it is

more efficient than a normal transformer
ANS:
An autotransformer does not provide electrical isolation between its windings
as an ordinary transformer does, if the neutral side of the input is not at
ground voltage, the neutral side of the output will not be either.
A failure of the isolation of the windings of an autotransformer can result in
full input voltage applied to the output. Also, a break in the part of the
winding that is used as both primary and secondary will result in the
transformer acting as an inductor in series with the load (which under light
load conditions may result in near full input voltage being applied to the
output).
Plus, absorption of higher harmonics traveling in between stations is not done
in an Auto-transformer though a large three phase auto transformer may have
a buried delta configuration to supress them.

17. What are the properties of CT and PT?

ANS: CT or Current Transformer & PT or Potential Transformer are
measuring devices in AC system. These are also called as instrument
transformers. As AC system deals with very high power hence we require
Ammeter & voltmeter of humongous sizes to measure such high power which
is impractical & expensive too.

A CT has following properties:-

i. It is a step up transformer.
ii. It enhances the voltage & thus the current gets reduced for a fixed power,
since P= V×I×cosΦ. Thus for a fixed amount of power, current can easily
be measured.
iii. Primary winding of a CT is always connected in series with the load &
secondary winding is connected with the ammeter.
A PT has following properties:-

i.It is step down transformer.

ii.It reduces the voltage for a fixed power & thus the voltage can easily be
measured, since P= V×I×cosΦ
iii.The primary winding of the PT is always connected in parallel to the load
& secondary winding is connected to the voltmeter.

18.Write the uses of CT and PT ?

ANS: Uses of CT:
(i) CTs are used both for the measurements and protection purposes.
(ii) For metering purposes s/s., CTS are installed to measure the electrical
energy in a H.T. system.
(iii) In s/s CTS are installed to protect the structure, appliances, transformers
against faults.
(iv) In protection of alternators, transformers, transmission lines differential
current balance protection will be used by taking the help of CTs.
(v) In measurement of very high current CTs can be used and the high value
current is reduced according to CT ratio.

Uses of P.T:
(i) Potential transformers are used for both protection and measurement
purposes,
(ii) In substations either in EHT, H.T., P.T.S are used. These will protect the
system from over voltages.
(iii) In order to measure vary high voltages, the P.T.S can have reduction ratio
and this ratio will convenient for the measurement of such high voltages.

19. The resistances and leakage reactances of a 30-kVA, 60-Hz, 2400-V:240-V

distribution transformer are
R1 = 0.68 Ω
R2 = 0.0068 Ω
Xl1 = 7.8 Ω
Xl2 = 0.0780 Ω
where subscript 1 denotes the 2400-V winding and subscript 2 denotes the
240-V winding. Each quantity is referred to its own side of the transformer.
a. Draw the equivalent circuit referred to (i) the high- and (ii) the low-voltage
sides. Label the impedances numerically
b. Consider the transformer to deliver its rated kVA to a load on the low-
voltage side with 230 V across the load. (i) Find the high-side terminal
voltage for a load power factor of 0.85 lagging. (ii) Find the high-side
terminal voltage for a load power factor of 0.85 leading
C. Consider a rated-kVA load connected at the low-voltage terminals
operating at 240V. Use MATLAB to plot the high-side terminal voltage as a
function of the power-factor angle as the load power factor varies from 0.6
leading through unity power factor to 0.6 pf lagging.
ANS:
20.Why cooling of transformer is necessary and how it can be
cooled ?
Ans. In transformers losses are produced due to heat and these
losses are iron losses in the core and FR losses in the winding. To
prevent undue temp. rise this heat is removed by cooling.
(1) In small transformers (below 50 kVA), natural air cooling is
employed i.e. the heat produced is carried out by the surrounding
air.
(ii) Medium size power or distribution transformers are generally
cooled by housing then in he tanks filled with oil. The oil serves a
double purpose carrying the heat from the windings to the surface
of the tank and insulating the pri. & sec.
For large transformers, external radiators are added to increase the
cooling surface of the oil filled tank. The oil circulates around the
transformer & moves through the radiators where the heat is
released to surrounding air. Some time cooling fans blow air over
the radiators to accelerate the cooling process.
3. 10 Marks

1. Explain the function and working principle of CT ?

ANS :
The functions of current transformers
The main function of the current transformer is to convert the large current in
the AC circuit into a certain proportion of the small current (the Chinese
standard is 5 amperes) for measurement and relay protection.
In the process of power generation, transformation, transmission and
distribution, due to different electrical equipment, the current is usually from
tens of amps to tens of thousands of safe, and these circuits may also be
accompanied by high voltage. Therefore, in order to monitor and measure the
circuits of these lines, while addressing the dangers posed by high voltages
and high currents, current transformers are required at this time. Electrician's
clamp meter, which is a device used to measure alternating current, its clamp
is a through-core current transformer.
The working principles of current transformers
Power generation, substation, transmission, distribution, transmission,
distribution and power lines, ranging from a few amps to tens of thousands of
amps. In order to facilitate measurement, protection and control, it is
necessary to convert the current into a relatively uniform current. In addition,
the voltage on the line is generally relatively high, such as direct measurement
is very dangerous. Current transformers play the role of current conversion
and electrical isolation.
For pointer galvanometers, the secondary current of the current transformer
is mostly ampere level (such as 5A, etc.). For digital instruments, the sampled
signal is generally at the milliamp level (0-5V, 4-20 mA, etc.). The secondary
current of the micro-current transformer is milliampere, which is mainly used
as a bridge between large transformers and sampling.
Miniature current transformers are also known as instrument current
transformers. Instrument current transformers are multi-current ratio
precision current transformers used in laboratories, and are generally used to
expand the scope of instruments.
The current transformer similar to the transformer also works according to
the principle of electromagnetic induction. The transformer converts the
voltage, and the current transformer converts the current. The current
winding (the number of turns is N1) connected to the measured current is
called the firstly winding (or the ordinary winding, the primary winding); the
winding connected to the measuring instrument (the number of turns is N2) is
called the secondary winding (or the accessory winding, subordinate winding).

2. Discuss in detail the armature reaction in dc machine and the

method to reduce it’s effect.
ANS: The current flowing through the armature conductors creates a
magnetic field, which is called as armature flux. This armature flux distorts
and weakens the magnetic flux produced by the main poles. This effect of
armature flux on the main flux is known as armature reaction.
Case 1
Consider a two pole generator on no-load. Thus, the current in the armature
conductors is zero. Under this condition, there is only the main flux (φm) in
the machine which is produced by the main poles. This main flux is
distributed symmetrically with respect to the polar axis (i.e. centre line of field
poles).

The magnetic neutral axis (MNA, which is a plane perpendicular to the axis of
flux) coincides with the geometrical neutral axis (GNA). The brushes are
always placed along MNA, hence the MNA is also called as axis of
commutation.
Case 2
Now consider the armature carrying current with no current in the field coils.
The direction of flux produced by the current in the armature conductors may
be determined by cork-screw rule. Refer the figure, the conductors under the
N-pole carry current in the direction into the plane of paper. Thus, the flux
produced by the conductors under the N-pole is in the downward direction.

Similarly, the conductors under the S-pole carry current in the direction out of
the plane of paper. These conductors also produce a flux which is directed
downward. Therefore, all the armature conductor produces a flux through the
armature in the downward direction. This flux is known as armature flux (φA).
Case 3
This case shows the condition when the field current and armature currents
are acting simultaneously. Hence, there are two fluxes inside the machine, one
is produced by the main field poles of the generator and the other by the
current in the armature conductors. These two fluxes combine to give a
resultant flux (φR).
From the above discussion, it can be seen that the main flux entering the
armature is shifted and distorted. The distortion increases the flux density in
the upper pole tip of the N-pole and in the lower pole tip of the S-pole.
Similarly, there is a decrease in the flux density in the lower pole tip of the N-
pole and in the upper pole tip of the S-pole. Therefore, the direction of the
resultant flux has shifted in the direction of rotation of the generator.
Since the MNA is always perpendicular to the axis of the resultant flux, hence
the MNA is also shifted. Due to the non-linear behaviour and saturation of the
core, the increase in the flux in one pole tip is less than the decrease in the flux
in the other pole tip. This results in, the main flux is decreased. Consequently,
the generated emf (Eg ∝ Nφm) is decreased with the increase in load.
Effects of Armature Reaction
The armature reaction in a DC generator causes the following adverse effects
i. As the total field flux produced by each pole is slightly reduced, which
reduces the generated EMF.
ii. Due to the shifting of the resultant flux axis, the MNA is also shifted in the
direction of rotation of the generator.
iii. Due to the armature reaction, a flux is established in the commutating
zone or neutral zone. This flux in the neutral zone induces conductor
voltage that causes the commutation problems.
Remedies to the Armature Reaction Effect
There are four methods to reduce the armature reaction problem
Adjust the Brush Position
In this method, rotate the brush mechanism to find the correct neutral zone
position. This can be applied only fixed load current.
Modify the Ends of the Poles
In this method, the field pole tip is to be modified so that high flux cannot
exist on the ends because of the high reluctance path.
Interpoles
The effect of armature reaction can be reduced by placing a set of interpoles or
commutating poles between the main poles of the DC generator. The polarity
of interpole must be that of the main pole just next of it in the direction of
rotation. The interpole windings are connected in series with the armature so
that respective fluxes rise and fall together with the changes in the load
current.
Compensating Winding
The heavy duty operations produce very sudden changes in the armature
reaction. In such generators, the interpoles do not adequately neutralise the
armature flux. Hence, to overcome this problem, the compensating windings
are used.
The compensating winding is an auxiliary winding embedded in the slots of
the main poles. The compensating winding is connected in series with the
armature in such a way that the direction of the current in the compensating
conductors in any one pole face will be opposite to the direction of current
through the adjacent armature conductors. Hence, the compensating
windings produce a flux equal and opposite to the armature flux and thus
completely neutralise the armature reaction.
3. Explain short circuit test in a single phase transformer.
ANS: The figure shows the connection diagram for the short circuit
test of the transformer. In the short circuit test the low-voltage
winding (which is secondary of the given transformer) is shorted
by a thick conductor. A voltmeter (V), an ammeter (A) and a
wattmeter (W) are connected on the high-voltage side (primary) of
the transformer.

Now, the high voltage winding is supplied at the reduced voltage

from a variable voltage source. The low-supply voltage is gradually
increased until rated full-load primary current flows. When the
rated full-load current flows in the primary winding, then the
secondary winding also has full-load current by the transformer
action.
Under such condition, the ammeter reading is I1SC which is equal
to the full-load primary current. The voltmeter reading is
V1SC which is the value of applied voltage to the primary winding
when the full-load currents are flowing in the primary and
secondary windings. As the applied voltage is very low (about 5 to
10 % of the rated primary voltage) so the magnetic flux (φm)
produced by it is also low.
Since the iron losses are proportional to the square of the magnetic
flux (φm), the iron losses are so small that they can be neglected.
Although, the windings are carrying rated full load currents and no
output being taken from the transformer under short-circuit
condition. Hence, the whole input power to the transformer is used
in supplying the full-load copper losses.
Hence, the wattmeter reading will practically give to the full-load
copper losses in the windings of the transformer.
The readings of the instruments which are connected in the circuit
of the short-circuit test are as follows −
Ammeterreading=Fullloadprimarycurrent(I1SC)
Voltmeterreading=Shortcircuitvoltage(V1SC)
Wattmeterreading=Fullloadculoss(Pcufl)
Following calculations can be made using these readings of the
instruments −
i. Full-load copper loss in the transformer −
Pcufl=V1scI1sccosφsc
Short-circuit power factor −
cosφsc=Pcufl/V1scI1sc
Total resistance of transformer referred to primary side −
R01=Pcufl/I21sc
Total impedance of transformer referred to primary side −
Z01=V1scI1sc
Total reactance of transformer referred to primary side −
X01=(Z201−R201)1/2
Important – The short-circuit test is always performed on high-
voltage side i.e. the low voltage winding is always short-circuited. If
the test is performed on the low-voltage winding, then, the high
voltage winding being short-circuited and hence, the voltage will
be inconveniently low and the current would be inconveniently
high

4. What is a dc machine ? Explain briefly about the function and construction

of the dc machine.
ANS: A DC machine is an electromechanical energy alteration device.
The working principle of a DC machine is when electric current flows through
a coil within a magnetic field, and then the magnetic force generates a torque
that rotates the dc motor. The DC machines are classified into two types such
as DC generator as well as DC motor.
The main function of the DC generator is to convert mechanical power to DC
electrical power, whereas a DC motor converts DC power to mechanical power.
The AC motor is frequently used in industrial applications for altering
electrical energy to mechanical energy. However, a DC motor is applicable
where good speed regulation & an ample range of speeds are necessary like in
electric-transaction systems.

Construction of DC Machine
The construction of the DC machine can be done using some of the essential
parts like Yoke, Pole core & pole shoes, Pole coil & field coil, Armature core,
Armature winding otherwise conductor, commutator, brushes & bearings.
Some of the parts of the DC machine is discussed below.

Yoke
Another name of a yoke is the frame. The main function of the yoke in the
machine is to offer mechanical support intended for poles and protects the
entire machine from moisture, dust, etc. The materials used in the yoke are
designed with cast iron, cast steel otherwise rolled steel.
Pole and Pole Core
The pole of the DC machine is an electromagnet and the field winding is
winding among pole. Whenever field winding is energized then the pole gives
magnetic flux. The materials used for this are cast steel, cast iron otherwise
pole core. It can be built with the annealed steel laminations for reducing the
power drop because of the eddy currents.
Pole Shoe
Pole shoe in the DC machine is an extensive part as well as to enlarge the
region of the pole. Because of this region, flux can be spread out within the
air-gap as well as extra flux can be passed through the air space toward
armature. The materials used to build pole shoe is cast iron otherwise cast
steed, and also used annealed steel lamination to reduce the loss of power
because of eddy currents.
Field Windings
In this, the windings are wounded in the region of pole core & named as field
coil. Whenever current is supplied through field winding than it
electromagnetics the poles which generate required flux. The material used for
field windings is copper.
Armature Core
Armature core includes a huge number of slots within its edge. The armature
conductor is located in these slots. It provides the low-reluctance path toward
the flux generated with field winding. The materials used in this core are
permeability low-reluctance materials like iron otherwise cast. The lamination
is used to decrease the loss because of the eddy current.
Armature Winding
The armature winding can be formed by interconnecting the armature
conductor. Whenever an armature winding is turned with the help of prime
mover then the voltage, as well as magnetic flux, gets induced within it. This
winding is allied to an exterior circuit. The materials used for this winding are
conducting material like copper.
Commutator
The main function of the commutator in the DC machine is to collect the
current from the armature conductor as well as supplies the current to the
load using brushes. And also provides uni-directional torque for DC-motor.
The commutator can be built with a huge number of segments in the edge
form of hard drawn copper. The Segments in the commutator are protected
from the thin mica layer.
Brushes
Brushes in the DC machine gather the current from the commutator and
supply it to the exterior load. Brushes wear with time to inspect frequently.
The materials used in brushes are graphite otherwise carbon which is in
rectangular form.

5. Construction and working of Potential Transformer.

ANS: Construction of a Potential Transformer
Potential transformers are constructed with high quality to operate at low flux
density, low magnetic current, and minimized load. When compared to a
conventional transformer, it uses large conductors and an iron core. It can be
designed in the form of a core type and shell type to ensure the highest
accuracy. Usually, core type potential transformers are preferred to transform
the high voltage to lower voltage.
It uses co-axial windings to reduce the leakage reactance. As the potential
transformers are operated at high voltages, the high voltage primary winding
is divided into small sections turns/coils to reduce the insulation cost and
damage. The phase shift between an input voltage and output voltage should
be monitored carefully to maintain a lower voltage by varying the load.
Windings covered with vanish cambric and cotton tape to reduce the
insulation cost.
Hard fiber separators are used to separate the coils. Oil-filled bushings are
used to connect the high voltage potential transformers (above 7KV) to the
main lines. The primary winding of a potential transformer has a large
number of turns whereas secondary winding has fewer turns. The multimeter
or voltmeter is used to measure the lower output voltage.
Potential Transformer Working
The potential transformer connected to the power circuit whose voltage
should be measured is connected between the phase and the ground. That
means the primary winding of a potential transformer is connected to the high
voltage circuit and the secondary winding of a transformer is connected to a
voltmeter. Due to the mutual induction, the two windings are magnetically
coupled to each other and work on the principle of electromagnetic induction.
The decreased voltage is measured across the secondary winding with respect
to the voltage across the primary winding using multimeter or voltmeter. Due
to the high impedance in the potential transformer, the small current flows
through the secondary winding and operates similarly to the ordinary
transformer with no or low load. Hence these types of transformers operated
at a voltage range of 50 to 200VA.
According to the convention transformer, the transformation ratio is
V2 = N1/N2
‘V1’= voltage of the primary winding
‘V2’ = voltage of the secondary winding
‘N1’= number of turns in the primary winding
‘N2’= number of turns in the secondary winding
The high voltage of a circuit can be determined by using the above equation.
6. Write short notes on all day efficiency ?
ANS: All day efficiency means the power consumed by the transformer
throughout the day. It is defined as the ratio of output power to the input
power in kWh or wh of the transformer over 24 hours. Mathematically, it is
represented as

All-day efficiency of the transformer depends on their load cycle. The load
cycle of the transformer means the repetitions of load on it for a specific
period.
The ordinary or commercial efficiency of a transformer is defined as the ratio
of the output power to the input power.

Some transformer efficiency cannot be judged by simple commercial

efficiency as the load on certain transformer fluctuate throughout the day.
For example, the distribution transformers are energized for 24 hours, but
they deliver very light loads for the major portion of the day, and they do not
supply rated or full load, and most of the time the distribution transformer
has 50 to 75% load on it.
As we know, there are various losses in the transformer such as iron and
copper loss. The iron loss takes place at the core of the transformer. Thus, the
iron or core loss occurs for the whole day in the distribution transformer.
The second type of loss known as a copper loss and it takes place in the
windings of the transformer and is also known as the variable loss. It occurs
only when the transformers are in the loaded condition.
Hence, the performance of such transformers cannot be judged by the
commercial or ordinary efficiency, but the efficiency is calculated or judged by
All Day Efficiency also known as operational efficiency or energy
efficiency which is computed by the energy consumed for 24 hours.

7. What is current transformer? Explain the construction and working

principle of current transformer ?
ANS: An instrument transformer that is used to generate an AC within the
secondary winding of the transformer is known as a current transformer. This
is also known as a series transformer as it is allied in series with the circuit for
measuring different parameters of electric power. Here the current in the
secondary winding is proportional to the current in the primary winding.
These are used to reduce high voltage currents to low voltage currents.
Working Principle
The working principle of the current transformer is somewhat different when
we compare it with a normal voltage transformer. Similar to the voltage
transformer, it includes two windings. Whenever AC supplies throughout the
primary winding, then alternating magnetic flux can be generated, then AC
will be induced within the secondary winding. In this type, the load
impedance is very small. Thus, this transformer works under short circuit
conditions. So the current within the secondary winding depends on the
current in the primary winding but doesn’t depend on the load impedance.
Current Transformer Construction
The construction of this transformer includes different features based on the
design like primary ampere-turns, core, windings, and insulation.

Primary Ampere Turns

The no. of primary ampere-turns in the transformer ranges from 5000 to
10000 so these are decided through the primary current.
Core
To achieve the low magnetizing ampere twists, the core material must include
low iron losses and low reluctance. Core materials like nickel and an alloy of
iron include different properties like low loss, high permeability.
Windings
The leakage reactance in the transformer can be reduced by placing the
windings close to each other. The wires used in the primary winding are
copper strips and for secondary, SWG wires are used. The designing of these
windings can be done for appropriate strength & fixed bracing without any
harm.
Insulation
The windings of the transformer are insulated using varnish & tape. The
applications of high voltage need insulation arrangements which are absorbed
by the oil used for the windings.
The designing of the core in the transformer can be done using silicon steel
lamination. The transformer’s primary winding carries the current & it is
connected to the major circuit. The current in the secondary winding is
proportional to the current in the primary winding & it is connected to the
meters or instruments.
The primary and the secondary windings are insulated from the cores. The
primary winding includes a single turn that carries the full load current
whereas the secondary winding includes a number of turns.
The ratio of the current in the primary and secondary is called a current
transformer ratio. Usually, the transformer’s current ratio is high. The current
ratings in the secondary are 0.1A, 1A & 5A whereas the current ratings in the
primary range from 10A – 3000A.
8. Explain opent circuit test for 1 phase transformer?
ANS:
The circuit arrangement for the open-circuit test of a transformer is shown in
the figure. In this test the high voltage side of the transformer is left open, i.e.,
the open circuit test is to be performer on the low-voltage side of the
transformer. The open-circuit test is conducted to determine the core or iron
losses and the no-load circuit parameters R0 and Xm of the transformer.

Now, in the connection diagram, a voltmeter (V), an ammeter (A) and a

wattmeter (W) are connected in the primary side (which is low voltage (lv)
winding of the given transformer) and the low-voltage winding is supplied at
rated primary voltage and the frequency of the transformer. Thus, the reading
of the voltmeter (V) shows the rated voltage V1 of the primary winding.
As the transformer is on no-load, i.e., the secondary winding is open circuited
so a very small current I0 (called no-load current), flows in the primary
winding. Therefore, the reading of the ammeter (A) shows the no-load current
(I0) of the transformer. The total power loss in the transformer at no-load is
due to the core loss and a very small I2R loss in the resistance of the primary
winding.
Since the secondary winding is open circuited i.e. I2 = 0, thus there is no I2R
loss in the secondary winding. Also, the no-load current (I0) is very small
(about 2% to 5% of the rated primary current), hence, the I2R loss in the
primary winding at no-load can be neglected.
Therefore, the reading of the wattmeter (W) shows the core or iron losses only.
Hence, the open circuit test practically gives the core losses or iron losses (Pi)
in the transformer.
Also, the core losses consist of hysteresis loss and eddy-current loss, which
depend upon the magnetic flux in the core. Since the rated voltage V1 is
applied across the primary winding, the magnetic flux produced by it will have
a normal value so that normal iron losses will occur. These iron or core losses
are the same at all load, i.e., these are constant losses of the transformer.
The readings of the instruments which are connected in the circuit of the
open-circuit test are as follows −
Ammeter reading=No load current(I0)
Voltmeter reading=Rated primary voltage (V1)
Wattmeter reading=Core]or iron loss(Pi)
From these readings the no-load circuit parameters can be determined as
follows −
The iron or core losses of the transformer is
Pi=V1I0cosφ0
The no-load power factor is
cosφ0=Pi/V1I0cosφ0
The component of no-load current corresponding to core losses is
IW=I0cosφ0
The magnetising current is
Im=I0sinφ0
The core loss resistance is
R0=V1I0
The magnetising reactance is
Xm=V1Im=1
Important – The open circuit test is always performed on the low-voltage side
of the transformer. Because, if it is performed on the high voltage side, the no-
load current I0 would be inconveniently small and the applied voltage would
be inconveniently large.

9. What are the parts of the transformer?

Solution:
Transformer
I. A transformer is essentially a device consisting of two magnetically
coupled coils, one is called primary and the other secondary.
II. If an ac voltage is applied to the primary the variation of magnetic flux
linked with the secondary induces an emf in the secondary.
III. If the secondary output voltage is greater than the primary input voltage
the transformer is called a step-up transformer.
IV. On the other hand, if the output secondary voltage is smaller than the
input primary voltage the transformer is termed a step-down transformer.
Parts of the transformer
a. The core, windings, brushes, vents, and many more pieces are used in a
transformer's activities. These various components support and aid in the
overall operation of the transformer.
b. Simply put, two coins that are wounded on the same iron core are present
in a transformer. The magnetic core material is typically laminated.
Although the coils are constrained and electrically isolated, the iron core
causes them to become magnetically induced.
c. The voltage is applied to the main coil P, and the output is extracted from
the secondary coil S. Additionally, the climate in which this entire setup is
kept is conducive to improved cooling and insulation.
The transformer has three main parts
1) Transformer Primary Winding: Electric flux is produced when the
transformer's primary winding is connected to an electrical pole.
2) Transformer Secondary Winding: The flux travels through the secondary
winding's connected core. The primary winding is what creates the flux.
The wind is produced on the core using the same flux and produces the
transformer's output.
3) Transformer Magnetic Core: When the secondary winding and reluctant
path are connected, a close circuit is created. A magnetic circuit is formed
by the primary winding's generated magnetic flux as it passes through this
reluctant channel.
10. Differentiate between core type and shell type transformer ?
ANS:

Basis of
Core Type Transformer Shell Type Transformer
Difference

The magnetic circuit of core type The magnetic circuit has one
transformer has two vertical sections central limb and two outer
called limbs, and two horizontal limbs. Both primary and
Definition
sections called yokes. The winding secondary windings are placed
placed on the limbs is called a core on the central limb is called
type of transformer. a shell-type transformer.

Surrounding The magnetic core surrounds

The winding surrounds the core
type the windings

Either U and T shaped

Shape of core
The U and I shaped laminations laminations or E and I shaped
laminations
laminations.

The cross-section of the core may

Cross section The cross-section of the core is
be square, cruciform two-stepped,
of core rectangular.
or three-stepped.

Number of
limbs and two limbs and two yokes. three limbs and two yokes.
yokes

Number of
magnetic A single magnetic circuit. Two magnetic circuits.
circuits

sandwich winding (or

Type of concentric winding (or cylindrical
interleaved winding or disc
winding winding).
winding).

Both primary and secondary

Placement of The windings are placed on two
windings are placed on the
winding separate limbs.
central limb.

Conductor More conductor material for Less winding conductor

material windings. material.
11. Explain about the construction of a transformer ?
ANS: Construction of Transformer
The construction of transformer is very simple for the small-sized transformer.
It consists of a transformer core, primary and secondary windings. For a high
range of power transformers, the core and windings are placed in a
transformer tank with additional accessories.
The main components involved in the construction of transformer are as
follows
Transformer Core
The transformer core is mainly used for two purposes: Provide mechanical
support for the entire transformer and provide a path for the flow of magnetic
flux.
The core is built up of soft iron or silicon steel laminations to provide a low
reluctance path to the magnetic flux. The steel used should have high silicon
content and be treated with heat to have better permeability and low
hysteresis loss.
The laminations are insulated from each other by a coat of varnish or by an
oxide layer. These laminations reduce the eddy current loss. The thickness of
the laminations varies from 0.35 mm to 0.5 mm.
The laminations in the form of strips called stampings are joined together and
pivoted to avoid any air gaps between the core. Various types of stampings like
‘E’ shaped, ‘I’ shaped, ‘L’ shaped and ‘U’ shaped stampings are used for the
construction of transformer.
Windings
The transformer has two windings: primary winding and secondary winding.
The primary winding is connected to the power supply and the secondary
winding is connected to the load.
The winding connected to the high voltage circuit is called high voltage(HV)
winding. The winding connected to the low voltage circuit is called low
voltage(LV) winding.
The windings are wound over the core depending on the type of core used. In
a core-type transformer, the windings are wound around the two legs of the
core. In a shell-type transformer, the windings are wound on the central leg of
the three-legged transformer core.
The windings are made of solid or stranded copper. Proper insulation is to be
given to the windings to prevent it from short-circuiting. For huge power
transformers, cloth or paper insulation is provided. Varnish coating is used as
insulation for small-range transformers.
Transformer tank and insulating oil
The transformer core and winding arrangement are immersed in a tank
containing insulating oil. The tank gives protection to the core and windings.
Cooling tubes are welded with the tank for cooling purposes.
The insulating oil act as an insulation medium for core and windings. It is also
used for absorbing the heat in the windings and core.
Oil conservator
The transformer tank is connected through a pipe to a small tank called the
conservator. The Conservator is designed to act as a reservoir for the
transformer oil.
An increase in temperature causes the oil in the transformer to expand. The
conservator provides space for this expansion of the oil. The main function of
the oil conservator is to keep the transformer tank completely filled with oil at
all conditions.
Breather
Breather is a part of a large-sized transformer. During the change in
temperature inside the tank, the oil expands and contracts.
For example, when the temperature goes down, it will make the oil to contract.
So, atmospheric air gets absorbed inside a transformer tank. This process is
similar to breathing in human beings and so-called as a breather.
Breather consists of silica gel, which prevents any atmospheric moisture from
entering the tank from the outside world. All the moisture gets absorbed by
the silica gel.
Cooling Tubes
The heat is produced in the windings and core due to copper loss in the
conductors, hysteresis and eddy current loss in the transformer core. This heat
has to be dissipated to operate the transformer efficiently.
The cooling tubes are used to remove the heat from the transformer oil and
tank. Through this cooling tube, coolants in the form of oil or air are passed
inside a transformer. The cooling method may be natural or forced cooling,
which depends on the size of a transformer.
Buchholz Relay
Buchholz Relay is an important part of the construction of transformer.
Buchholz Relay is a device used to protect the transformer from faults
occurring inside the tank. It is a gas and oil actuated relay. The relay is placed
between the transformer tank and the conservator.
Whenever a fault like a failure of insulation or damage to the core takes place,
it results in the production of excess heat. This heat will decompose the oil and
produce bubbles. These bubbles flow in the upward direction towards the
conservator and get collected in the relay. The production of bubbles depends
on the intensity of faults.
The bubble thus produced inside a transformer tank will activate the relay and
give an alarm signal, indicating that there was a fault inside the tank. This will
enable the operating person to disconnect the supply to the transformer.
Explosion vent
The transformer has an explosion vent to prevent any damage to the
transformer tank caused by the excessive pressure generated inside the
transformer.
If an explosion occurs in a transformer due to an internal fault, then the blast
of the explosion will be allowed to escape through the explosion vent, rather
than causing the transformer’s tank to explode.

12. Find all day efficiency of a transformer having maximum efficiency of 98%
at 15 kVA at unity power factor. Compare its all day efficiencies for the
following load cycles:
a. Full load of 20 kVA, 12 hours per day and no load rest of the day.
b. Full load, 4 hours per day and 0.4 full load rest of the day.
Assume the load to operate on upf all day

Solution:
13. A 400 kVA transformer has a primary winding resistance of 0.5 ohm and
a secondary winding resistance of 0.001 ohm. The iron loss is 2.5 Kw and the
primary and secondary voltages are 5 kV and 320 V respectively. If the power
factor of the load is 0.85, determine the efficiency of the transformer (i) on full
load and (ii) on half load.
Solution:
Rated output = 400 kVA = 400x103 kVA
Full load secondary current, I2 = Rated output/V2 = 1250 A
Total resistance referred to secondary, re2 = r2+r1(V2/V1)2 = 0.033 ohm Full
load copper loss, Pc = I22 re2 = 51.5625 Kw
Iron loss, Pi = 2.5 x103 watts
(i) Transformer efficiency at full load and 0.85 pf

(ii) Transformer efficiency at half load and 0.85 pf

14.
i. A 4 pole generator with wave wound armature has 51 slots each having 24
conductors. The flux per pole is 10 mWb. At what speed must the armature
rotate to give an induced emf of 0.24 kV. What will be the voltage developed, if
the winding is lap connected and the armature rotates at the same speed?
Given data
P=4
No.of slots = 51
No.of conductors/slot = 20
Eg= 0.24 Kv = 240 V
Φ = 10 mW= 10/1000 Web
Find N &Eg at same N?

ii. A 250 volt DC shunt motor has armature resistance of 0.25 ohm on load it
takes an armature current of 50A and runs at 750rpm. If the flux of the motor
is reduced by 10% without changing the load torque, find the new speed of the
motor.
Given data
V = 250
Ra = 0.25
Ia = 50
N1 = 750
Φ2 = 90%Φ1
Find N2?

SOLUTION :
I. Total no. of conductors, Z = 51x20 = 1224
Wave winding, A=2
From EMF equation,
N= Eg60A / ΦZP = (240x60x2)/(10/1000x1224x4) = 612.75 rpm
Lap winding, A=P=4
 Eg = PΦZN/60A = (4x10/1000x1224x612.75)/(60x4) = 0.125 kV

II.

Eb1 = V-Ia1Ra = 250-(50x0.25) = 237.5V

Eb2 = V-Ia2Ra
Load torque is constant
Ta1 = Ta2

Φ1Ia1 = Φ2Ia2

Ia2 = 55.55A

Eb2 = 250-55.55X0.25 = 236.12V

N2 = 828 rpm

15. The following figures give the open-circuit characteristics of a dc shunt

generator at 300 rpm:
If Voc
(A) (V)
0 7.5
0.2 93
0.3 135
0.4 165
0.5 186
0.6 202
0.7 215

The field resistance of the machine is adjusted to 354.5 W and the speed is
300 rpm.
(i) Determine graphically the no-load voltage.
(ii) Determine the critical field resistance.
(iii) Determine the critical speed for the given field resistance.
(iv) What additional resistance must be inserted in the field circuit to reduce
the no-load voltage to 175 V.
Solution:
Step-1 : Let us draw the Field resistance line corresponding to 354.5 Ω on the
OCC ( magnetization characteristic). This can be done by identifying a point
corresponding to a Voltage and current below the OCC corresponding to 354.5
Ω and extending the line joining this point with the origin.
1. V No load : This is the voltage corresponding to the point of intersection of the
OCC and the Rf line corresponding to 354.5 Ω and is seen to be = 195 V
2. Rf critical : To obtain this draw a line tangential to the OCC starting from
the Voltage at If = 0 A. Note down the voltage at which the tangential deviates
from the OCC and the corresponding If . Dividing this voltage by the
corresponding If we get the critical resistance viz. 90/0.2 = 450 Ω
 3. Critical Speed: We know that as speed reduces the armature voltage
reduces. i.e. the OCC leans down wards with decrease in speed and becomes
tangential to the existing Rf line itself. So to find out the critical speed we
have to find out the new Ea from the OCC corresponding to the lesser speed
which deviates from the existing Rf line. This is done by dropping a vertical
perpendicular line from the point of deviation of the critical resistance line
from the original OCC and identifying its intercept on the existing Rf line.
Then by drawing a line parallel to the If axis from this point and locating its
intercept with the Voltage axis, the new Ea is found out. Then Critical speed
= Original RPM x new Ea / Original Ea = 300 x71/90 = 236.7 RPM
4. To find out the additional resistance to be introduced into the field to get a
new no load voltage of 175 V first we have to find out the value of If
corresponding to the new no load voltage. This can be directly read from the
OCC and then from these voltage and current values we can directly get the
new value of Rf and thus the additional value of Rf to be introduced into the
field circuit. Thus new Rf = 175/0.44 = 397.7 Ω and The additional resistance
to be introduced into the field = 397.7 – 354.5 = 43.2 Ω

16. A shunt generator connected in parallel to supply mains is delivering a

power of 50 Kw at 250 V while running at 750 RPM. Suddenly its prime
mover fails and the machine continues to run as a motor taking the same 50
Kw power from 250 V mains supply. Calculate the speed of the machine when
running as a motor given that Ra = 0.01 Ω, Rf = 100 Ω and brush drop is 1 V
per brush.
SOLUTION: First let us calculate the Voltage generated by the machine while
running as a generator under the given conditions:
Output line current = Output power / Line voltage = 50 x 1000 / 250 = 200 A
Field current = Line Voltage / Field resistance = 250 / 100 = 2.5 A Armature
current : Il + If = 200 + 2.5 = 202.5 A Induced e.m.f Ea : = Line Voltage +
Armature drop (IaRa drop)+ Brush drop(two brushes ) = 250 + 202.5 x 0.01 +
2 x1 = 254.025 V
Next let us calculate the Voltage generated by the machine while running as a
motor under the given conditions :
Input line current = Input power / Line voltage = 50 x 1000 / 250 = 200 A
Field current = Line Voltage / Field resistance = 250 / 100 = 2.5 A
Armature current : Il - If = 200 - 2.5 = 197.5 A
Induced e.m.f or back e.m.f Eb : = Line Voltage - Armature drop(IaRa drop) -
Brush drop(two brushes ) = 250 – 197.5 x 0.01 - 2 x1 = 246.025 V
We know that the voltage induced in the machine is proportional to the speed
i. e
Generator armature voltage is proportional to Generator speed : Ea ∝ NG and
similarly Motor back e.m.f is proportional to Motor speed : Eb ∝ NM
Hence Ea / NG = Eb / NM or NM = (Eb / Ea )NG = (246.025 / 254.025) x 750
= 726 RPM

17. Write the application of transformer?

SOLUTION:
The autotransformer has many uses and applications including the starting of
induction motors, used to regulate the voltage of transmission lines, and can
be used to transform voltages when the primary to secondary ratio is close to
unity.
An autotransformer can also be made from conventional two-winding
transformers by connecting the primary and secondary windings together in
series and depending upon how the connection is made, the secondary voltage
may add to, or subtract from, the primary voltage.
The Variac
As well as having a fixed or tapped secondary that produces a voltage output
at a specific level, there is another useful application of the auto transformer
type of arrangement which can be used to produce a variable AC voltage from
a fixed voltage AC supply. This type of Variable Autotransformer is generally
used in laboratories and science labs in schools and colleges and is known
more commonly as the Variac.
The construction of a variable autotransformer, or variac, is the same as for
the fixed type. A single primary winding wrapped around a laminated
magnetic core is used as in the auto transformer but instead of being fixed at
some predetermined tapping point, the secondary voltage is tapped through a
carbon brush.
This carbon brush is rotated or allowed to slide along an exposed section of
the primary winding, making contact with it as it moves supplying the
required voltage level.
Then a variable autotransformer contains a variable tap in the form of a
carbon brush that slides up and down the primary winding which controls the
secondary winding length and hence the secondary output voltage is fully
variable from the primary supply voltage value to zero volts.
The variable autotransformer is usually designed with a significant number of
primary windings to produce a secondary voltage which can be adjusted from
a few volts to fractions of a volt per turn. This is achieved because the carbon
brush or slider is always in contact with one or more turns of the primary
winding. As the primary coil turns are evenly spaced along its length. Then the
output voltage becomes proportional to the angular rotation.
Variable Autotransformer
The variac can adjust the voltage to the load smoothly from zero to the rated
supply voltage. If the supply voltage was tapped at some point along the
primary winding, then potentially the output secondary voltage could be
higher than the actual supply voltage. Variable autotransformer’s can also be
used for the dimming of lights and when used in this type of application, they
are sometimes called “dimmerstats”.
Variacs are also very useful in electrical and electronics workshops and labs as
they can be used to provide a variable AC supply. But caution needs to be
taken with suitable fuse protection to ensure that the higher supply voltage is
not present at the secondary terminals under fault conditions.
The Autotransformer have many advantages over conventional double wound
transformers. They are generally more efficient for the same VA rating, are
smaller in size, and as they require less copper in their construction, their cost
is less compared to double wound transformers of the same VA rating. Also,
their core and copper losses, I2R are lower due to less resistance and leakage
reactance giving a superior voltage regulation than the equivalent two winding
transformer.

18. A 400 KVA, distribution transformer has full load iron loss of 2.5 kW and
copper loss of 3.5 kW. During a day, its load cycle for 24 hours is,
6 hours 300 kW at 0.8 p.f.
10 hours 200 kW at 0.7 p.f.
4 hours 100 kW at 0.9 p.f.
Determining its all day efficeincy.

Solution : Given values are,

Pi = 2.5 kW, (Pcu ) F.L. = 3.5 kW, 400 KVA
Iron losses is constant for 24 hours. So energy spent due to iron losses for
24 hours is,
Pi = 2.5 x 24 hours = 60 kWh
Total energy output in a day from given load cycle is,
Energy output = 300 x 6 hours + 200 x 10 hours + 100 x 4 hours
= 4200 kWh
To calculate energy spent due to copper loss,
i) Load 1 of 300 kW at cos Φ = 0.8
... KVA supplied = kW/cos Φ = 300/0.8 = 375 KVA
... n = load KVA/ KVA rating = 375/400 = 0.9375
Copper losses are proportional to square of KVA ratio i.e. n2.
... Load 1 Pcu = n2 x (Pcu) F.L. = (0.9375)2 x 3.5
= 3.076 kW
... Energy spent = 3.076 x 6 hours = 18.457 kWh
ii) Load 2 of 200 kW at cos Φ = 0.7
... KVA supplied = kW/cos Φ = 200/0.7 = 285.7142 KVA
... n = Load KVA/KVA rating = 285.7142/400 = 07142
... Load 2 Pcu = n2 x (Pcu) F.L. = (0.7142)2 x 3.5
= 1.7857 kW
... Energy spent = 1.7857 x 10 = 17.857 kWH
iii) Load 3 of 100 kW at cos Φ = 0.9
... KVA supplied = kW/cos Φ = 100/0.9 = 111.111 KVA
... n = 111.111/400 = 0.2778
... Load 3 Pcu = n2 x (Pcu) F.L. = (0.2778)2 x 3.5 = 0.2701 kW
... Energy spent = 0.2701 x 4 = 1.0804 kWh
iv) No load hence negligible copper losses.
... Total energy spent = Energy spent due to (Iron loss + Total
copper loss)
= 60 + 18.457 + 17.857 + 1.0804 = 97.3994 kWh
and Total output = 4200 kWh

19. Briefly describe about parallel operation of single phase transformer ?

SOLUTION:
When the primary windings of two or more transformers are connected to a
common voltage supply and their secondary windings are connected to a
common load. Then, the transformers are said to be connected in parallel, i.e.,
parallel operation of the transformers. The figure shows two transformers
T1 and T2 connected in parallel.
Reasons for Parallel Operation of Transformers
The primary reasons for operating transformers in parallel are as follows −
a. For large loads, it may be impractical or uneconomical to have a single
large transformer so that many small transformers are paralleled to meet
the load demand.
b. By operating the transformers of standard size in parallel at the
substations, the spare capacity of the substation can be reduced.
c. There is always a scope of future expansion of a substation to supply a
load of capacity greater than that of the transformers already installed.
Hence, in future by connecting a new transformer in parallel with existing
transformers, the total capacity of the substation can be increased.
d. If a transformer is damaged in a system of transformers connected in
parallel and is removed for repair and maintenance, then there is no
interruption of power supply for essential services.

Conditions for Parallel Operation of Single-Phase Transformers

Necessary Conditions
For satisfactory parallel operation of the transformers, two main conditions
are necessary −
a) The parallel connected transformers must be of the same polarities.
Otherwise, huge circulating currents flow in the windings.
b) The voltage ratios must be equal of the parallel connected transformers. If
the voltage ratios are not same, then the secondaries will not show the
same voltage even if the primaries are connected to the same voltage
supply. As a result of this, a current circulates in the secondaries and
hence there will also be circulating currents on the primary side. Due to
this, a considerable amount of current is drawn by the transformers even
without the load.

Desirable Conditions
For efficient parallel operation of the transformers, following conditions are
desirable −
A. The internal impedances of the parallel connected transformers should be
equal.
B. The ratios of the winding reactances to the resistances should be equal for
all the parallel connected transformers. This ensures that the transformers
operate on the same power factor, hence, sharing the active and reactive
powers according to their ratings.

20. Describe different types of transformer and write the application of

transformer ?
SOLUTION:
There are four main types of transformers.
I. Distribution Transformers
II. Power Transformers
III. Autotransformers
IV. Instrument Transformers
Distribution Transformers
The transformers which are used to step down the transmission voltage to the
distribution voltage or the distribution voltage to a standard service voltage
are known as distribution transformers. These transformers have variable
load which is considerably less than the full load rating of the transformer.
Hence, the distribution transformers are designed to have their maximum
efficiency at between ½ and ¾ of the full load.
These transformers are kept in operation 24 hours a day whether they are
carrying any load or not. The distribution transformers have a good voltage
regulation and are designed for a small value of leakage reactance.
Power Transformers
Power transformers are used in generating stations and substations at both
ends of the power transmission lines for step-up or step-down the voltage.
These transformers are operated during the load periods and are disconnected
during light load periods.
Power transformers are designed to operate with an almost constant load
which is equal to their full load rating i.e. they are designed to have maximum
efficiency at or near full load. This means that full load variable losses must be
equal to the constant losses. Power transformers are designed to have
considerably higher leakage reactance. For power transformers, the voltage
regulation is less important as compared to the current limiting effect of
higher leakage reactance.
Auto-transformer
An auto-transformer is a one winding transformer in which a portion of the
winding is common to both the high voltage and low voltage sides. The auto-
transformer is used in the applications where the transformation ratio (K),
either step-up or stop-down, differs little from unity.
For the same ratings, an auto-transformer requires less conductor material
than an ordinary two winding transformer. The autotransformers are used for
starting induction motors and in boosters for rising the voltage of feeders.
Instrument Transformer
The instrument transformers are used to reduce the high voltages and
currents to safe and practical values which can be measured by using
conventional instruments (voltmeters and ammeters). The instrument
transformers facilitate the AC measurement with low range AC instruments.
There are two types of Instrument Transformers viz.
Current Transformer (CT) – A current transformer is the one which is used for
the transformation of current from a higher value to a lower value so that it
can be measured with a low range AC ammeter.
Potential Transformer (PT) – The potential transformer can be defined as an
instrument transformer which is used for the transformation of the voltage
from a higher value to a lower value so that the high alternating voltage can be
measured with a low range AC voltmeter. The PT should be designed so that
the variation in the voltage ratio with the load is minimum and also, the phase
between the input and output voltages is minimum.
Applications of Transformers
The transformers are used in several applications such as
a) To change the voltage level and current level in the electrical power
systems.
b) As a coupling device.
c) To isolate one circuit from the other electrically, as the primary and
secondary are electrically isolated.
d) To measure the currents and voltages in the form of instrument
transformers.
e) As impedance matching device.