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UPSC MATHEMATICS STUDY MATERIAL

BOOK- 07 Dynamics
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Q y pp
 Table of Contents
01 Velocity Acceleration 2
02 Tangential Normal Velocity Acceleration 15
03 SHM 23
04 Motion on Smooth Rough Plane 47
05 Motion in Resisting Motion 67
06 Particle motion varying mass 98
07 Central Orbit 106
08 Planatery Motion 127
09 Motion in 3D 145
 Velocity and Acceleration Along
Radial and Transverse Directions
1.1 INTRODUCTION
A particle is said to be in motion relative to surroundings if it changes its position at different
times relative to these objects. If the particle is free to move in a straight line we say that the motion
is rectilinear and particle has only one degree of freedom. If the particle is free to move in a plane
along any curve we say that the motion is in a plan e and the particle has two degree of freedom. If
the particle is free to move in space we say that th e particle has three degrees of freedom.
Here we shall discuss the motion of a particle when it has two degrees of freedom, i.e., the
motion of the particle is in a plane.
To determine the position of a moving point in a plane we must know any of the following :
(a) its co-ordinates with respect to two axes fixed in the plane (say x and y axes).
OR
(b) its distance from a point and angular distance from a straight line, both fixed in the plane
(say pole and initial lin e in case of polar coordinates).
OR
(c) its arcual distance from a point fixed on its path and the angle, its direction of motion makes
with a straight line fixed in the plane (say s and ψ ).
We shall discuss all the three case separately.
1.2 ANGULAR VELOCITY
If a point P moves in a plane and if O be a fixed point and
OX be a fixed line throguh O in the plane, then the angular
velocity of P about O (or of the line OP) is the rate of change Q (r+δr, θ+δθ)
of the angle XOP.
Let P be the position of the moving particle at any time t δt
t
+ P (r, θ)
and let ∠ POX = θ. Let Q be the position of the particle at time r
δθ
(t + δ t ) and let ∠ QOX = θ + δ θ. θ
O X
Clearly, in time δ t, the angle turned through by the particle
about O = δ θ.
δθ
∴ Average rate of changing of the angle about O =
δt
∴ The angular velocity of the point P
δθ d θ ɺ
lim = =θ
δt → 0 δt dt

1.3 ANGULAR ACCELERATION

Angular acceleration of the point P is the rate of change or increase of its angular velocity.
Hence, we have
d  dθ  d 2θ
ɺɺ
Angular acceleration =   = 2 = θ.
dt  dt  dt
692 Dynamics
Units. Since the angle is measured in radians, hence the unit of angular velocity is radians per
second.
The unit of angular acceleration will be radian per second square.
1.4 RATE OF CHANGE OF UNIT VECTOR
→ Y
Let r̂ denote the unit vector OA such that OA = 1 and n
∠ AOX = θ, where OX and OY are mutually perpendicular A
fixed lines in the plane.
π/2
Let i, j be the unit vectors along OX and OY respectively. r
Then
rˆ = (cos θ) i + (sin θ) j π/2+θ
X
d dθ dθ O
∴ (rˆ ) = ( − sin θ) i + (cos θ) j
dt dt dt
dθ
= [( − sin θ) i + (cos θ) j] ...(i)
dt
π
Also let n̂ is an unit vector perpendicualr to OA. Then it will make an angle + θ with OX.
2
Hence we will have
 π   π 
nˆ = cos  + θ  i + sin  + θ  j
 2   2 
= ( − sin θ) i + (cos θ) j ...(ii)
∴ From (i) and (ii), we get
d dθ
(rˆ ) = (nˆ ) ...(iii)
dt dt
Here n̂ is in the sense in which θ increases.
Also from (ii),
d dθ dθ
(nˆ ) = ( − cos θ) i + ( − sin θ) j
dt dt dt
dθ
= − [(cos θ) i + (sin θ) j]
dt
∴ From (i), we get
d  dθ  ˆ
(nˆ ) = −  r
 dt 
...(iv)
dt

1.5 RELATION BETWEEN ANGULAR AND LINEAR VECTORS

If v be the velocity of a point P moving in a plane curve and
(r , θ) its polar co-ordinates referred to fixed point O in the plane,

then the angular velocity of P about O is equal to vp / r 2 , where P (r, θ)

p is the perpendicular drawn from O to the tangent at P. φ

Let radius vector OP makes an angle φ with the tangent at P
to the given curve. θ ψ
O
i.e., ∠ OPL = φ 90°
Q L
Let OL = p be the perpendicular from O to tangent at P. Then
from ∆ POL, we have
p = r sin φ
Also, we know that
Velocity and Acceleration Along Radial and Transverse Directions 693

dθ dθ sin φ p
r = sin φ or = = ...(i)
ds ds r r2
[∵ p = r sin φ]
∴ Angular velocity of P
dθ d θ ds p
= = . = .v
dt ds dt r 2
vp
∴ Angular velocity of P =
r2
1.6 RADIAL AND TRANSVERSE VELOCITIES AND ACCELERATIONS
(POLAR COORDIANTES)
If a particle moves in a plane curve and if at timer t the position of the particle be at ( r, θ),
referred to O as pole and OX as initial line, then the resolved part of velocity at P along the radius
vector OP in the sense of r increasing is called the radial velocity and the resolved part of the
velocity at P along a line through P but at right angles to OP in the sense in which θ increases is
called the transverse velocity. Similarly radial and transverse accelerations are defined.
Radial and Transverse Velocities
Let the particles be moving along the curve APQ and it is
at P and Q at time t and t + δ t respectively. The polar co- Q (r+δr, θ+ δθ)
ordinates of P and Q with respect to O as pole and OX as initial
line are (r, θ) and ( r + δr, θ + δθ) respectively. R
P (r, θ)
Draw a perpendicular QR on OP from Q.
Obviously the displacements of the moving point along and
perpendicular to the radius vector OP are PR and QR O X
A
respectively during interval δt.
Radial velocity at P
displacement along OP
= lim
δ t→0 δt
PR
= lim
δt →0 δt
OR − OP
= lim
δ t→ 0 δt
( r + δ r ) cos δ θ − r
= lim
δ t→ 0 δt
 (δ θ)
2 
( r + δ r ) 1 − + ... − r
 2! 
= lim expanding cos δ θ.
δ t→ 0 δt
(r + δ r ) .1 − r
= lim , neglecting higher powers of δ θ.
δ t→ 0 δt
δ r dr
= lim = = r,
ɺ
in the direction of OP
δ t→ 0 δ t dr
Transverse velocity
displacement perpendicular to OP
= lim
δ t→ 0 δt
694 Dynamics
RQ
= lim
δ t→ 0 δt
(r + δ r ) sin δθ
= lim
δ t→ 0 δt
 (δθ)
2 
lim ( r + δ r ) δ θ − + ...
δ t→ 0  3! 
=
δt
( r + δr ) δθ
= lim , neglecting higher power of δ θ
δ t→ 0 δt
r δθ
= lim , neglecting δ r . δ θ as it is very small.
δ t→ 0 δ t
dθ
=r = r θɺ in the sense of θɺ increasing.
dt
Radial and Transverse Accelerations
Let the velocities along and perpendicular to radius vector at P and Q are u, v, u + δ u and
v + δ v respectively. Then
v + δv
u + δu

Q
v u

δθ

θ
O X

Radial acceleration at P along the direction of r increasing

change of velocity along OP during an interval δt
= lim
δ t→ 0 δt
(u + δu ) cos δθ − (v + δv) sin δθ − u
= lim
δ t→ 0 δt
(u + δu ) .1 − (v + δv) δθ − u
= lim
δ t→ 0 δt
E xpandin g cos δθ and sin δθ and neglecting higher powers of δθ.
δu − v δθ
= lim
δ t→ 0 δt
du dθ
= −v
dt dt
dr dθ
Since u = radial velocity = and v = transverse velocity = r
dt dt
d  dr   d θ   d θ 
∴ Radial acceelration at P =   − r  
dt  dt   dt   dt 
Velocity and Acceleration Along Radial and Transverse Directions 695
2 2
d r  dθ 
−r r − r θɺ 2
 = ɺɺ
dt 2  dt 
And transverse acceleration at P
change in velocity perrpendicular to OP in time δt
= lim
δ t→ 0 δt

[(u + δu ) sin δθ + ( v + δv) sin (90 − δθ)] − v
= lim
δ t→ 0 δt
(u + δu ) sin δθ + ( v + δv) cos δθ − v
= lim
δ t→ 0 δt
(u + δ θ) (δθ) + ( v + δv) (1) − v
= lim , expanding sin δθ, cos δθ
δ t→ 0 δt
and neglecting higher powers of δθ
u δθ + δv dθ dv dr r dθ
= lim =u + , where u = ;v=
δ t→ 0 dt dt dt dt dt
2
dr d θ d  d θ  dr d θ d θ d θ dr
= . +  r . dt  = dt . dt + r 2 + dt . dt
dt dt dt  dt
d 2θ dr d θ 1 d  2 dθ  1d 2ɺ
=r +2 . =  r dt  = r dt ( r θ ),
dt
2 dt dt r dt 
in the sense in which θ increases.
EXAMPELS
1. A particle describes the curve r = ae mθ with a constant velocity. Find the components of
velocity and acceleration along the radius vector and perpendicular to it.
Sol. The given path is
r = aem θ ...(i)
2 2
 dr   dθ 
=   + r
 dt 
Also velocity of particle
 dt 
= constant = v (say)
2 2
 dr   dθ  2
or  dt  +  r dt  = v ...(ii)
From (i), we get
dr dθ dθ
= amemθ . = mr
dt dt dt
dθ  1  dr
or r =  ...(iii)
dt  m  dt
∴ From (ii) and (iii), we get
2 2
 dr   1 dr  2
 dt  +  m . dt  = v
   
 dr    1  
2 2
2
or  dt  1 +  m   = v
 
2
 dr  v2 m2
=
or
 dt  m2 + 1
696 Dynamics
dr vm
=
or dt 2 ...(iv)
( m + 1)
∴ From (iii), we get
dθ v
r =
dt 2 ...(v)
( m + 1)
Components of velocity along and perpendicular to the radius vector are given by (iv) and (v).
From (iv) on differentiating, we get
d 2r
=0
2
dt
∴ Component of acceleration along r adius vector
2 2
d 2r  dθ   dθ 
= −r  =−r 
dt 2 dt   dt 
2
 
 1 v
= −   
 r   m2 + 1 
 
2
v
= 2
r (m + 1)
and transverse component of acceleration
1 d  2 dθ 
=  r dt 
r dt 
 
1 d vr
=  
r dt  (m 2 + 1) 
 
2
v dr v m
= . = 2
r (m 2 + 1) dt r ( m + 1)

2. If the curve is an equiangular spiral r = aeθ cot α and if the radius vector to the particle
has constant angular velocity, show that the resultant acceleration of the particle makes an angle
2α with the radius vector and is of magnitude v 2 / r , when v is the speed of the particle.
Sol. The curve is given by
θ α
r = ae cot ...(i)
Also, we are given that angular velocity
dθ
= constant = ω (say) ...(ii)
dt
From (i), we get
dr dθ
= a cot α . eθ cot α = r ω cot α, from (i) and (ii)
dt dt
Again differentaiting, we get
d 2 r dr
= ω cot α = r ω2 cot 2 α
dt 2 dt
∴ Radial acceleration
2 2
d r  dθ 
= − r   = (r ω2 cot 2 α) − r ω2
dt 2  dt 
= r ω 2 (cot 2 α − 1) ...(iii)
and transverse acceleration
1 d  2 dθ  1 d 2 1 dr dr
=  r dt  = r dt (r ω) = r . 2r ω dt = 2 ω dt
r dt 
Velocity and Acceleration Along Radial and Transverse Directions 697
2 ...(iv)
= 2ω ( r ω cot α) = 2r ω cot α
If β be the angle which the resultant acceleration makes with the radius vector, then
transverse acceleration
tan α =
radial acceleration
2
2r ω cot α
= , from (iii) and (iv)
2 2
r ω (cot α − 1)
2
(2 cos α / sin α) sin α 2 sin α cos α
= =
2 2 cos 2α
cos α − sin α
sin 2α
= = tan 2α
cos 2α
or β = 2α
Also, speed of the particle
 dr  2  d θ  2 
=   +  r 
 dt   dt  


= [{(r ω cot α) 2 + ( r ω) 2}] = r ω cosec α = v (given)

Again from (iii) and (iv), resultant acceleration.

= [{(radial acceleration) 2 + (transverse acceleration) 2}]

= [{r 2 ω 2 (cot 2 α − 1)}2 + (2 r ω 2 cot α) 2 ] = [( r 2 ω 4 cosec 4 α)]

= r ω 2 cosec2 α = v 2 / r , from (iv)

3. The velocity of a particle along and perpendicular to the radius vector are λr and µθ.
Find the path and show that the acceleration along and perpendicular to the radius vector are
 µ
λ 2 r − µ 2 θ2 / r and µθ  λ +  respectively.
 r
Sol. Given that
dr
= λr ...(i)
dt
dθ
and r = µθ ...(ii)
dt
Differentiating (i), we get
2
d r dr
=λ = λ2 r ...(iii)
dt 2 dt
Dividing (i) by (ii), we get
dr λr µ dr d θ
= or =
r dθ µθ λ r2 θ
Integrating, we get
µ
− = log θ − log c, where c, i s c onstant of integration
λr
µ  θ
or = log   or θ = ce− µ / λr
λr  c
This is the equation of path.
Now radial acceleration
698 Dynamics
2 2
d r  dθ 
= − r   = λ 2 r − r ( µθ / r )2 , from (ii) andf (iii)
dt 2  dt 
µ 2θ2
= λ 2r −
r
and transverse acceleration.
1 d  2 d θ  1 d  2 µθ  from (ii)
=  r dt  = r dt  r r 
r dt 
1 d µ  dθ dr 
= (µ r θ) = r +θ 
r dt r  dt dt 
 µ from (i) and (ii)
=   (µθ + θ . λr )
 r
µ 
=µ + λ .
r 
4. If the radial and transverse velocity of a particle are always proportional to each other,
then
(a) Show that the path is an equiangular spiral.
(b) If in addition, the radial and transverse accelerations are always proportional to each
other, show that the velocity of the particle varies as some power of the radius vector.
Sol. (a) We are given that
dr  dθ 
= k r  ...(i)
dt  dt 
1
or dr = k d θ
r
Integrating, log r − log c = k θ
where log c is constant of integration
or log (r / c) = k θ or kθ
r = ce ,
which is an equiangular spiral.
(b) If in addition to (i), we have
2
d 2r  dθ  1  2 dθ 
− r   = λ.  r 
dt 2  dt  r dt 
2 2
or
d r  1 dr  λ d  2 1 dr 
2
−r   = r  , from (i)
dt  kr dt  r dt  kr dt 
2
d 2r 1  dr  λ d  dr 
or −   = r
dt 2 2 
k r dt kr dt  dt 
λ  d 2r dr dr 
= r + . 
kr  dt 2 dt dt 
2
 λ  d 2r 1  1 λ   dr 
1−  =  +  

or
k  dt 2 r  k2 k   dt 
2
d 2r B  dr 
or A =  
dt
2 r  dt 
where A and B are constants.
2 2
d r µ  dr 
or =   , where µ = B / A.
dt 2 r  dt 
Velocity and Acceleration Along Radial and Transverse Directions 699
2 2
d r / dt µ dr
or =
(dr / dt ) r dt
Integrating,
 dr 
log  = µ log r + log D, where D is constant
 dt 
dr
or = D.r µ
dt
dr
Substituing the value of in (i), we get
dt
µ dθ
D. r = kr
dt
dθ
or r = α . r µ , where α = D / k.
dt
∴ The resultant velocity
2 2
 dr   dθ  µ 2 µ 2
=   +  r dt  = (r .D) + ( α r )
 dt 

= rµ (D2 + α2 ) ∴ velocity ∝ r µ .
5. A small bead slides with constant speed v on a smooth wire in the shape of the cardioid
dθ  v  θ
r = a (1 + cos θ). Show that the value of is  sec and that the radial component of the
dt  2a  2
acceleration is constant.
Sol. The path of the bead is
r = a (1 + cos θ) ...(i)
dr dθ
∴ = a ( − sin θ) ...(ii)
dt dt
2 2 2
d r  dθ  d θ
and = ( − a cos θ)   − ( a sin θ) ...(iii)
dt 2  dt  dt 2
∴ Speed of the bead
2 2
 dr   dθ 
=   +  r dt 
 dt 
2 2
 dθ   dθ
= ( − a sin θ) dt  + a (1 + cos θ) dt 
   
dθ
= a [sin 2 θ + (1 + cos θ) 2 ]
dt
dθ
= a 2 (1 + cos θ)
dt
 θ  dθ
=  2a cos  = v (given)
 2  dt
dθ  v  θ
i.e., =   sec   ...(iv)
dt  2a   2
Now, radial acceleration of the bead
2
d 2r  dθ 
= −r 
dt 2  dt 
700 Dynamics
 2
 dθ  d θ
2
 dθ 
2
= ( − a cos θ)   − ( a sin θ)  − a (1 + cos θ)   ,
  dt  dt 2   dt 
from (i) and (iii)
2
 dθ  d 2θ
= − a (1 + 2 cos θ )   − ( a sin θ) ,
 dt  dt 2
2
 v θ v 1 θ θ dθ 
= − a (1 + 2 cos θ ) .  sec  − a sin θ  sec tan ,
 2a 2  2a 2 2 2 dt 
from (iv)
2 2
 v θ 1 θ  v θ
= − a (1 + 2 cos θ) .  sec  − a tan sin θ  sec 
 2a 2 2 2  2a 2
 v2  2 θ  1 θ 
=−a  sec (1 + 2 cos θ) + tan sin θ
 4a 2  2  2 2 
1  v2  2 θ  2 θ
= −   sec (1 + 2 cos θ) + sin 
4 a 2 2

1  v2  θ  1 
= −   sec 2  (1 + 2 cos θ) + (1 − cos θ) 
4 a 2 2 
1 v 2
θ 3 
= −   sec2  (1 + cos θ) 
4 a 2 2 
3  v2   2 θ  2 θ
= −    sec   cos 
4 a 2  2

 3  v2
=−  = constant.
  4 a
6. One end of a rod describes a plane curve and the rod always passes through a fixed point
in the plane of the curve. If the angular velocity of the rod is constant, show that the transverse
acceleration of every point of the rod is the same at the same
instant. What curve must the end describe to make this
acceleration the same at every instant ? A

Sol. Let the co-ordinates of the end A be ( r, θ) referred to

fixed point O as pole.
P
where P is any point on the rod AB. Then OP = r − d .
The transverse acceleration at P θ
1 d  2 dθ 
O X
=  ( r − d ) . 
( r − d ) dt  dt  B
Also angular velocity of the rod
dθ
= = constant = ω (say)
dt
1 d
∴ The transverse acceleration of P = [(r − d ) 2 ω]
( r − d ) dt
1 dr dr
2 (r − d ) ω . = 2ω .
(r − d ) dt dt
This is free from d and hence will be same for every point of the rod at the same instant.
If this acceleration be same at every instant also, then
Velocity and Acceleration Along Radial and Transverse Directions 701
dr dr
2ω = constant or = λ (say)
dt dt
dr dθ
∴ We have = λ and =ω
dt dt
Dividing these two, we get
dr λ
= = k say or dr = k d θ
dθ ω
Integraing, we get r = k θ + c.
This is the required equation of the curve.
7. A straight smooth tube revolves with angular velocity ω in a horizontal plane about one
extremity which is fixed, if at zero time a particle inside it be at a distance a from a fixed end and
moving with velocity V along the tube, show that its distance at time t is
V 
a cosh ωt +   sinh ωt R
 ω
Sol. Let initially OX be the position of the tube and A that of the
P
particle inside it.
Let P be the position of the particle at any time t. r

Let OP = r and ∠ POX = θ. θ

O X
Since the particle is moving with constant velocity V along the A
tube, i.e., along the radius vector, hence the radial acceleration of the
particle will be zero throughout the motion. Hence,
2
d 2r  dθ 
−r  =0 ...(i)
dt  dt 
Its solution is
r = c1 cosh ωt + c2 sinh ωt ...(ii)
dθ
where c1 and c2 are constant and = ω.
dt
Initially t = 0 and r = a,
∴ from (ii) c2 = a.
Differentiating (ii)
dr
= c1ω sinh ωt + c2 ω cosh ωt.
dt
dr
Initially t = 0, = V.
dt
Hence V = c2 ω or c2 = V / ω
∴ From (ii) we get
r = a cosh ωt + (V / ω) sinh ωt
This gives the distance of the particle from O at time t.
8. An insect crawls at a constant rate u along the spoke of a cart wheel of radius a, the cart
moving with velocity v. Find the acceelrations along and
perpendicular to the spoke. A
P
Sol. Let the initial position of spoke be OA and that of insect
be O. At any time t, let the position of spoke be OP and that of insect θ
Q v
be Q. r
v
Let ∠ AOP = θ and OQ = r. O

Since the insect is crawling at a constant rate u along the spoke,

we have
702 Dynamics
r = ut ...(i)
The cart is moving with constant velocity v, hence the acceleration of the point O is zero and
dθ v v
= = (where a is the radius of wheel)
dt OP a
∴ Acceleration of the insect along OP
= radial acceleration
2
d 2r  dθ 
= −r 
dt 2  dt 
 v − rv 2
2  d 2 r d  dr  du 
=−0−r  = ∵ 2 =   = dt = 0 
 a a  dt dt  dt  
Acceleration perpendicular to spoke.
= Transverse acceleration
1 d  2 dθ  1 d  2 v 
=  r dt  = r dt  r a 
r dt 
2 dr 2uv dv
= v = ∵ = 0.
a dt a dt

EXERCISES
1. A point P describes an equiangular spiral r = aeθ cot α with constant angular velocity about
the pole O. Find its acceleration and show that its direction makes the same angle with the
tangent at P as the radius vector OP makes with the tangent.
2. A particle describe an equiangular spiral r = aeθ in such a manner that its acceleration has
no radial component. Prove that its angular velocity is constant and that the magnitude of
the velocity and acceleration is each proportional to r.
3. If the angular velcotiy of a point moving in a plane curve be constant about a fixed origin,
show that its tr ansverse acceleration varies as its radial velocity.
4. If the radial and transverse velocities of a particle are always equal, then prove that the
particle describes an equiangular spiral.
5. A particle moves in a circular path of radius a, so that its angular velocity about a fixed
point in the circumference is constant and equal to ω. Show that the resultant acceleration
2
of the particle at evey point is constant magnitude 4aω .
6. A point P describes, with a constant angular velocity about O, the equiangular spiral
r = aeθ , O being the pole of the spiral. Obtain the radial and transverse acceleration of P.

[Ans. 0, 2ω 2 r ]
7. A particle moves along a circle r = 2a cos θ in such a way that its acceleration towards the
origin is always zero. Show that the transverse acceleration varies as the fifth power of
cosec θ.
8. A particle P describes a curve with constant velocity and its angualr velocty about a given
fixed point O varies inversely as its distance from O. Show that the curve is an equiangular
spiral.
9. The velocities of a particle along and perpendicular to a radius vector from a fixed origin are
λ µ
λ r 2 and µ θ 2 . Show that the equation to the path is = + c and the components of
θ 2r
θ4 θ3
accelerations are 2λ 2 r 3 − µ 2 and λµ r θ2 + 2µ2 .
r r
Velocity and Acceleration Along Radial and Transverse Directions 703
10. A point P describes, with a constant angular velocity about O, the equiangular spiral

r = eθ , O being the pole of the spiral. Obtain the radial and transverse accelerations of P.

[Ans. 0, 2ω 2 r ]
11. A ring which can slide on a thin long smooth rod rests at a distance d from one end O. The
rod is then set revolving uniformly about O in a horizontal plane. Show that in space the
ring describes the curve r = d cos hθ.
12. Show that the path of a point P which possesses two constant velocities u and v, the first of
which is in a fixed direction and the other is perpendicular to radius OP drawn from a fixed
point O, is a conic section and the other is perpendicular to radius OP drawn from a fixed
point O, is a conic whose focus is O and whose eccentricity is u / v.
13. The acceleration of a point moving in a plane curve is resolved into two components, one
parallel to the initial line and the other along th e radius vector. Prove that these components
are
1 d cot θ d
− ( r 2θɺ ) and . (r 2 θ) + rɺɺ − r θ
ɺ2
r sin θ dt r dt

14. A point moves on a parabola 2 a = r (1 + cos θ) in such a manner that the component of
velocity at right angles to the radius vector from the focus is constant. Show that accelera-
tion of the point is constant in magnitude.
15. A point describes a circle of radius a with a uniform speed v, show that the radial and trans-
verse accelerations are − (v 2 / a) cos θ and − (v 2 / a) sin θ if a diameter is taken as initial
line and one end of its diameter as pole.
16. If a rod which always passes through the origin rotates with uniform angular velocity ω,

while one end describes the curve r = a + beθ , show that the radial acceleration of any
point of the rod is the same at every instant, and the radial velocity is the same at every
point at a given instant.

  
 Tangential and Normal Velocities
and Accelerations
2.1 TANGENTIAL AND NORMAL VELOCITIES AND ACCELERATIONS
Tangential and normal velocities and accelerations are defined as the resolved parts of the
velocities and accelerations along the tangent and normal respectively.
Tangential and Nurmal Velocities Q A
Let a moving point moves along the curve APQ. At time t, let it N
ε
comes to a point P and at time t + δt at point Q.
Let the co-ordinates of P and Q be ( s, ψ) and ( s + δs, ψ + δψ) P
respectively. From Q, let us draw a perpendicular on the tangent at P r
A
which is QN and let the ∠ QPN = ε. Join chord PQ, then ψ
O X
Tangential velocity at P
displacement along the tangent at P in time δt
= lim
δt → 0 δt
PN
= lim
δt → 0 δt
(chord PQ) . cos ε
= lim
δt → 0 δt
chord PQ arc PQ
= lim . cos ε
δ t → 0 are PQ δt
δs  chord PQ 
= lim 1. . cos ε ∵ lim arc = 1 and arc PQ = δ s 
δt → 0 δt  δt → 0 PQ 
Now as Q tends to P, ε will be zero and cos ε tends to 1
δs ds
∴ tangentail velocity at P = lim =
δt → 0 δt dt

Similarly,
Normal velocity at P
displacement along the normal at P in time δt
= lim
δt → 0 δt
QN
= lim
δt → 0 δt
(chord PQ) sin ε
= lim
δt → 0 δt
chord PN arc PQ
= lim . . sin ε
δ t → 0 arc PQ δt
Tangential and Normal Velocities and Accelerations 705
Here as Q tends to P, ε tends to zero, and sin ε tends to zero.
∴ Normal velocity at P = O
Remark : Please note that in this case that total velocity is along the tangent.
Tangential and Normal Accelerations : Here let the
velocity at P be v along the tangent which is making an angle
v + δv
ψ with the initial line and the velocity at Q be v + δv along
the tangent at Q, making an angle ψ + δψ with OX. v
δψ
∴ Tangential Acceleration at P
Change in velocity along the tangent at P in time δt
= lim P
δt → 0 δt
S
A
(v + δv) cos δψ − v
= lim
δt → 0 δt ψ y + δy

(v + δ v) .1 − v
= lim
δt → 0 δt
[∵ cos δψ = 1, neglecting higher powers of δψ]
δv dv
= lim =
δ t → 0 δt dt

d  ds  d 2s
=  = = ɺɺ
s
dt  dt  dt 2

d2s d  ds  ds dv
Also =   = v
dt 2 ds  dt  dt ds
Again, Normal Acceleration at P
change in velocity along the normal at P in time δt
= lim
δt → 0 δt
(v + δv) sin δψ
= lim
δt → 0 δt
sin δψ δψ
= lim (v + δ v) .
δt → 0 δψ δt
dψ
=v.
dt

d ψ ds v 2
=v. . =
dt dt ρ
EXAMPLES
1. A point describes the cycloid s = 4a sin ψ with uniform speed v. Find its acceleration at
any point.
Sol. The equation of the cycloid is
s = 4a sin ψ
Also given that
ds
= v = constant
dt
706 Dynamics
d 2s
∴ =0
dt 2
Hence tangential acceleration = 0
Differentiating eqn. (i) with respect to ψ, we get
ds
= 4a cos ψ, or ρ = 4a cos ψ
dψ
∴ The resultant acceleration
  2 2  2 
2 
 d s v 
=    +   
  dt 2   ρ   

  v2  
2
v2
=  0 +    =
  4a cos ψ   4a (1 − sin 2 ψ)

v2 v2
= =
 s2  [(16a 2 − s 2 )]
4a  1 − 
 16 a 2  
2. A point moves in a plane curve, so that its tangential and normal accelerations are equal
and the angular velocity of the tangent is constant. Find the curve.
Sol. Given that
dv v 2
v = ...(i)
ds ρ
dψ
and = constant = ω (say). ...(ii)
dt
dv v v dψ
From (i) = = =v
ds ρ (ds / d ψ) ds
or dv = v d ψ
dv
or = dψ
v
Integrating, we get
log v = ψ + log c
where log c is the constant of integration.
v
or log = ψ or v = ceψ
c
ds ds d ψ
or = ceψ or = ceψ
dt d ψ dt
ds c
or = eψ , from (i)
dψ ω
c
ds = eψ d ψ
ω
Integrating, we get
c
s =   eψ + k
 ω
where k is a constant of integration.
or s = Aeψ + B.
where A and B are arbitrary constants. This is the required intrinsic equation of the curve.
Tangential and Normal Velocities and Accelerations 707
3. A particle is describibng a plane curve. If the tangential and normal accelerations are
each constant throughout the motion, prove that the angle ψ, through which the direction of
motion turns in time t is given by ψ = A log (1 + Bt ).
Sol. Given that
d 2s
=k ..(i)
dt 2
v 2
and = λ, ...(ii)
ρ
where k and λ are constants.
Integrating (i), we get
ds
= kt + c ...(iii)
dt
where c is constant of integration.
From (ii), we get
v2 ( ds / dt ) 2
=λ or =λ
(ds / d ψ ) ( ds / d ψ )
ds d ψ
or . =λ
dt dt
dψ
or ( kt + c) = λ , from (iii)
dt
λ
or dψ = dt
(kt + c)
Integrating, we get
λ
ψ =   log ( kt + c) + log µ,
k
where log µ is a constant of integration.
Let ψ = 0, where t = 0, then
0 = (λ / k ) log c + log µ
λ λ
∴ ψ = (kt + c) − log c
k k
λ  kt + c 
= log  
k  c 
λ  kt 
or ψ =   log 1 + 
k  c
or ψ = A log (1 + Bt),
where A = λ / k and B = k / c.
4. A particle describes a curve (for which s and ψ vanish simultaneously) with uniform speed
2
v c
v. If the accleration at any point s be , find the intrinsic equation of the curve.
2 2
s +c
Sol. Given that :
ds
= v (constant),
dt
d 2s
so, =0
2
dt
∴ Acceleration at any point
708 Dynamics
2
 d 2 s   v2  v
2
=  +  =
2
 dt   ρ  ρ
Now, it is given that
2 2
v v c
Acceleration at any point = 2 2
ρ s +c
1 c dψ c
or = or = 2 2
ρ 2
s +c
2 ds s +c
1 ds
or dψ =
c 2 2
s +c
Integrating, we get
 1 1 −1  s 
  ψ + A = tan  
c c c
where A is constant at integration.
when ψ = 0, s = 0 (given), ∴ A = tan −1 0 = 0.
 1  1 −1
Hence,  c  ψ =  c  tan ( s / c)
or s = c tan ψ .
5. A curve is described by a particle having a constant acceleration in a direction inclined
at a constant angle to the tangent. Show that the curve is an equiangular spiral.
Sol. Let at any instant particle be at P. The direction of tangential and normal acceleration at P
are as shown in the figure. The resultant acceleration makes a v2
constant angle α (say) with the tangent at P. ρ
vδv
Hence
ds
v2 / ρ α
tan α =
(v dv / ds ) P

dv ds dv
or v = (ρ tan α) = tan α .
ds d ψ ds

1
or dv = cot α d ψ.
v
Integrating, we get
log v = (cot α) ψ + log c,
where log c is integration constant.
ψ cot α ...(ii)
∴ v = ce
Also given that acceleration is constant,
Therefore, we have
2
 v2   dv 
2
  +  v  = k ...(iii)
 ρ ds
∴ from (i) and (iii), we get
2 2
 dv   dv 
tan 2 α  v + v  = k2
 ds   ds 
Tangential and Normal Velocities and Accelerations 709
2
 dv  2 2
or  v ds  sec α = k
dv
or v = k cos α
ds
or v dv = k cos α ds
Integrating, we get
v 2 = (2k cos α) s + c1
where c1 is constant of integration.
or v = [(2ks cos α + c1 )]
∴ From (ii) and (iv), we get
[(2ks cos α + c1 )] = ceψ cot α
or 2ks cos α + c1 = c 2 e 2ψ cot α
This is the intrinsic equation of the equiangular spiral.
6. A particle moves in a catenary s = c tan ψ. The direction of its accleration at any point
makes equal angles with the tangent and the normal to the path at that point. If the speed at the
vertex (where ψ = 0) be u, show that the velocity and acceleration at any other point ψ are
2 2ψ
ueψ and { (2 / c )} u e cos2 ψ .
Sol. Since the direction of the resultant acceleration makes equal angles with the tangent and
the normal hence the tangential and normal accelerations are equal.
dv v2
i.e., v = ...(i)
ds ρ
dv 1 dψ
or = ds = . ds = d ψ
v ρ ds
Integrating, we have
log v = ψ + log k, where log k is constant of integration.
When ψ = 0, v = u, so we have
∴ log v = ψ + log u
or log (v / u ) = ψ or v = ue ψ ...(ii)
This gives velocity at any point.
Now, the equation of catenary is
s = c tan ψ
ds
∴ radius of curvature ρ = = c sec2 ψ ...(ii)
dψ
∴ Resultant acceleration
 2  v2  
2
 dv 
=  v  +   
 ds   ρ 

 2  2  2  2 
 v v  v2
=   +    = 2
 ρ   ρ 

ρ
2 2ψ
u e
= 2 , from (ii) and (iii)
2
c sec ψ
= ( 2 / c) u 2 e2 ψ cos 2 ψ.
710 Dynamics

7. A particle is moving in a parabla p 2 = ar with uniform angular velocity about the focus,
prove that its normal acceleration at any point is proportional to the radius of curvature of its
path at that point.
Sol. The equation of the parbala
p 2 = ar. ...(i)
Differentiating,
dp dp a
2p = a or =
dr dr 2p
dr r 2 pr
∴ Radius of curvature ρ = r = = . ...(ii)
dp a/2p a
dθ
Angular velocity = = constant = ω (say)
dt
dθ vp vp
Also, = or ω= ...(iii)
dt r2 r2
2
ωr
or v= .
p
2
v
∴ Normal acceleration = ...(iv)
ρ
2
Normal acceleration v
∴ = ...(v)
Radius of Curvature ρ2
ω2 r 4 / p 2
= , from (ii) and (v)
4 p2r 2 / a2
2 2 2 2 2 2
r ω a r ω a
= = , from (i)
4 2 2
4p 4a r
ω2
= = constant = k (say)
4
∴ normal acceleration α radius of curvature.

EXERCISES
1. The rate of the change of direction of velocity of a particle moving in a cycloid is constant.
Prove that acceleration must be constant in magnitude.
2. A particle describes a circle of r adius r with a uniform speed v, show that its acceleration at
any point of the path is v 2 / r and is directed towards the centre of the circle.
3. Prove that acceleration of a point moving in a curve with unifrom speed is ρψ 2 .
4. A particle describes cycloid with uniform speed. Prove that normal acceleration at any point
varies inversely as the distance from the base of the cycloid.
5. A particle describes a plane curve with a constant speed and its acceleration is constant in
magnitude. Prove that the path is circle.
6. If tangential and normal acceleration components of a particle be equal. Prove that its velocity
varies as e ψ .
7. The tangential acceleration of a particle moving along a circle of radius a is λ times the
normal acceleration. If the speed at a certain time is u, prove that it will return to the same
 a  −2 πλ
point after a time 
  (1 − e
λu 
).
Tangential and Normal Velocities and Accelerations 711
8. A point moves in a plane curve so that its tangential acceleration is constant and the
magnitude of the tangential velocity and normal acceleration are in a constant ratio. Find the
intrinsic equation of the curve.
9. The velocity of a point moving in a plane curve varies as the radius of curvature. Show that
the direction of motion revolves with constant angular velocity.

 ds ds dψ 
Hint. v = kρ or =k or dψ = k dt or = k = const.
 dt d ψ dt 
10. If the tangential and normal acceleration of a particle describing a plane curve be constant

throughout, prove that the radius of curvature at any point is given by ρ = (at + b) 2 .
11. A particle moves in a plane in such a manner that its tangential and normal accelerations are
always equal and its velocity varies as exp (tan −1 s / c), s being the length of arc of the

curve measured from a fixed point on the curve. Find the path. [ Ans. s = c tan ψ ]
12. The direction of the acceleration of a particle moving in a cycloid makes with the normal an
angle equal to that which the tangent to the cycloid at the point makes with tangent at the
vertex and is in the same sense. Prove that the tangent at the point turns uniformly, and that
the magnitude of the acceleration is constant.
13. One point describes the diameter AB of a circle with constant velocity and another the semi-
circumference AB from rest with constant tangential acceleration. They start together from A
and arrive together at B. Show that velocities at B are π :1.
14. A particle, projected with a velocity u is acted on by a force which produces a constant
acceleration f in the plane of the motion inclined at a constant angle α with the direction of
motion. Obtian the intrinsic equation of the curve described and show that the particle will
be moving in the opposite direction to that of projection at time
u π α
(e cot − 1).
tan α

 
 Simple Harmonic Motion and
Elastic Strings
3.1 SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION
A particle is said to execute Simple Harmonic Motion, if it moves in a straight line such that
its acceleration is always directed towards a fixed point in the line and is proportional to the
distance of the particle from the fixed point. Simple Harmonic Motion is abbreviated as S.H.M.
Let O be the fixed point and the particle starts from rest
x
from the point A such that PA = a. Let after time t the particle
A' P' O P A
be at P, such that OP = x.

dx d2x
Then and will be the velocity and the acceleration of the particle at time t acting in
dt dt 2
the direction in which x increases.
Since in this case the acceleration is directed towards the fixed point O and is proportional to
the distance of the particle from O, hence the equation of motion will be
d 2x
m = −λ x
dt 2
d 2x  λ
= − µ x, where µ =  >0
 m 
or
dt 2
dv
or v = − µ x. ...(i)
dx
The differential equation (i) r epresents S.H.M. and is used generally as definition of S.H.M. If
the equation of motion of a particle is of the form of (i) then we can at once say that the particle is
executing S.H.M.
Integrating (i) with respect to x, we get
1 2 1 2
v = − µ x + A,
2 2
where A is constant of integration. Initially,
at A, x = a and v = 0
1 1
∴ 0=− µa 2 + A or A= µa 2
2 2
1 1
∴ v2 = µ ( a 2 − x2 ).
2 2
or 2 2 2 ...(ii)
v = µ (a − x )
dx 2 2
or = − µ {(a − x )} ...(iii)
dt
the negative sign is to be taken here as th e particle is moving towards O, i.e.,; x decreases as t
increases.
From (iii), we have
Simple Harmonic Motion and Elastic Strings 713
dx
− = {(µ )} t + B
{( a 2 − x 2 )}
Integrating, we get
−1
cos ( x / a ) = {(µ )} t + B ...(iv)
where B is a constant of integration
At A, x = a and t = 0, so from (iv), we get B = 0, and hence
−1
cos ( x / a) = (µ ) t
or x = a cos { (µ) t} ...(v)
Equation (i), (iii) and (v) give the acceleration, velocity and the position of the particle at time t.
Nature of Simple Harmonic Motion
From (ii), v = 0 at x = ± a, thus if A′ is a point on the other side of O such that OA = OA′ = a ,
the particl comes to rest at A′ also. When x = 0, v = ± a µ , i.e., at O the velocity is a µ .
π
From (v) we have at x = 0, cos (µ) t = 0 ∴ (µ ) t = ,
2
π
i.e., time from A to O is equal to .
2 (µ )
At x = − a,
cos ( µ) t = − 1,
π
∴ (µ ) t = π, i.e., time from A to A′ is which is double the time from A to O.
µ
2
d x π
At A,
2
= − µa and due to this attraction the particle moves towards O and in time
dt 2 µ
the particle reaches O with velocity a µ . At O, the attraction ceases but due to velcoity a µ in
the negative direction, the particle crosses O and moves towards the point A ′. As soon as the
particle crosses O it is attracted towards O and due to this, its velocity decreases and becomes zero
at A′. At A′ although the velocity of particle becomes zero, but due to attraction it again moves
towards O and reaches O with velocity a µ . Due to this velocity the particle moves from O towards
A and again stops at A where its velocity becomes zero. Thus the motion is repeated again and
again. Thus the motion is repeated again and again. Thus the motion is oscillatory i.e., from A to
A′ and back to A and so on.
Period. The time from A to A′ is known as the period of the motion and this is given by
π 2π
T = 2. =
µ µ
The frequency is the number of complete oscillations in one second, so that if n be the frequency
and T the periodic time then,
1 µ
n= =
T 2π
The distance a (= OA), i.e., the distan ce of the centre from one of the position of rest is called
the amplitude.
From (i), we have
d2x
+ µ x = 0.
dt 2
The most general solution of this equation is
x = a cos { (µ) t + ξ}.
714 Dynamics

In this relation the quantity ξ is called the epoch and the angle ( (µ) t + ξ ) is called argument.
The particle is at its maximum distance at time t0 , where
(µ ) t0 + ξ = 0
ξ
i.e., t0 = − .
µ
The phase at a point is defined as the time that has elapsed since the particle was at its maximum
distance in the positive direction, i.e.,
ξ (µ ) t + ξ
t − t0 = t + = ,
µ µ
this is phase at time t.
3.1.1 Geometrical Representaion of S.H.M.
If a particle describes a circle with constant angular velocity, the foot of the perpendicualr
from the particle on a diameter moves with S.H.M.
Let a point P moves along the circumference of circle with centre O, P
with uniform speed. Let P describes equal arcs in equal times. Let the
rate of description of ∠ POA is ω.
ωt
Let N be the foot of the perpendicular drawn from P on the diameter B A
O x N
AOA ′.
Let the particle starts from A and reaches P after time t. Then
∠ AOP = ω t.
If ON = x and OP = a, then from ∆ OPN , we have
x = a cos ω t ...(i)
dx
Hence, = − aω sin ωt ...(ii)
dt

d 2x
and = − aω 2 cos ωt = − ω 2 x ...(iii)
dt 2
Equations (ii) and (iii) represent the velocity and acceleration of N. Also, as P moves along the
circumference of the circle, N oscillates from A to A′ and back to A. Thus the motion of N is periodic.
The periodic time will be the time taken by P in moving once along the whole circumference of the
circle, i.e., the time taken by P to turn through an angle 2π with the uniform rate of ω.
2π
∴ Periodic time of N =
ω
EXAMPLES
1
1. Show that the particle executing S.H.M. requires th of its period to move from the position
6
of maximum displacement to one in which the displacement is half the amplitude.
Sol. The equation of motion of the particle executing S.H.M. is

d 2x
= − µx ...(i)
dt 2
2π
then the period = = T (say) ...(ii)
µ
Simple Harmonic Motion and Elastic Strings 715
From (i), we get
2
 dx  2 2
 dt  = µ (a − x ),
where a is amplitude.
dx
or = − µ [(a 2 − x 2 )]
dt
negative sign indicates that particle is moving towards the centre.
dx
or dt = −
µ [( a 2 − x 2 )]
Hence, the time T, taken by the particle in moving from the position of maximum displacement,
1
i.e., x = a to position when the displacement is half the amplitude, i.e., x = a will be
2
a/2
1 a/2 dx 1  −1  x  
T1 =
µ
∫a =  cos
µ 
 a  
a
[( a 2 − x 2 )]

1  −1  1   1 π 
= cos − cos−1 (1) =  − 0
µ   2   µ 3
π 1
= = T, from (ii)
3 µ 6
2. Show that if the displacement of a particle moving in a straight line is expressed by the

equation x = a cos nt + b sin nt , a S.H.M. whose amplitude is ( a 2 − b 2 ) and period is 2π / n.

Sol. We have
x = a cos nt + b sin nt ...(i)
dx
= − an sin nt + bn cos nt
dt

d2x
and = − an2 cos nt − bn2 sin nt
dt 2

= − n2 ( a cos nt + b sin nt )

d2x
or = − n2 x
dt 2

d2x
This equation is of the form = − µ x,
dt 2
hence represents S.H.M., where µ = n 2

2π 2π 2π
∴ Time period = = = .
µ n
2 n

Also, amplitude of the motion is the value of x when velocity (dx / dt ) is zero.
716 Dynamics

dx
∴ by = 0, we get − an sin t + bn cos nt = 0
dt
b
or tan nt = b / a. This gives sin nt =
2 2
a +b

a
and cos nt =
2 2
a +b
∴ Amplitude, from (i)
2 2
a b a +b
= a. +b. =
2 2 2 2
a +b a +b (a + b2 )
2

= ( a 2 + b 2 ).
3. At the ends of three successive seconds the distances of a point moving with S.H.M. from its
mean position measured in the same direction are 1, 5 and 5. Show that the period of a complete
2π
oscillation is .
−1  3 
cos  5 
Sol. If x be the distance of the particle from its mean position at time t, then for S.H.M.
x = a cos µ t ...(i)
where µ is the intensity and a the amplitude of the S.H.M.
According to the given problem
1 = a cos { µ (T − 1)} ...(ii)

5 = a cos ( µ T ) ...(iii)

and 5 = a cos { µ (T + 1)} ...(iv)

considering three successive seconds as T − 1, T and T + 1.
Adding (ii) and (iv), we get
1 + 5 = a [cos { µ (T − 1)} + cos { µ (T + 1)}]

or 6 = a [2 cos ( µ T ) cos µ] or 3 = 5 cos ( µ ), from (iii)

3  3
or cos µ= or µ = cos −1  
5   5
∴ The period of a complete oscillation
2π 2π
= =
µ −1  3 
cos  5 
4. A point executes S.H.M. such that in two of its positions the velocities are u, v and the

v2 − u 2
corresponding accelerations α, β. Show that the distance between the positions is and
α− β
Simple Harmonic Motion and Elastic Strings 7 1 7

{(v 2 − u 2 ) (α 2 v 2 − β 2 u 2 )}1/ 2
amplitude of the motion is .
(β 2 − α 2 )
Sol. Let at distances x1 and x2 from the centre the velocities be u and v and accelerations be
α and β respectively.
Let µ be the intensity and a the amplitude of S.H.M., then we have
d2x
= − µx ...(i)
dt 2
2
 dx  2 2
and  dt  = µ (a − x ) ...(ii)
From (i), we have
α = − µx1 ...(iii)
and β = − µx2 ...(iv)
From (ii), we get
u 2 = µ ( a 2 − x12 ) ...(v)
and v 2 = µ ( a 2 − x22 ) ...(vi)
Adding (iii) and (iv), we get α + β = − µ ( x1 + x2 )
and from (v) and (vi), v 2 − u 2 = µ ( x12 − x22 )
v2 − u 2 µ ( x12 − x22 )
Dividing, we get =
α+β − µ ( x1 + x2 )
= x2 − x1
v2 − u 2
i.e., the required distan ce between the positions = x2 − x1 =
α+ β
Again, from (iii) and (iv), we get
β 2 − α 2 = µ 2 ( x22 − x12 )
2
v −u
2
µ ( x12 − x22 ) 1
∴ = =−
2 2
β −α µ 2 ( x22 − x12 ) µ

2 u
2 α  2
From (v) a = + x12 = (u 2 / µ ) +  2  , From (iii)
µ µ 
u 2 (v 2 − u 2 ) α 2 (v 2 − u 2 ) 2
=− 2 2
+
(β − α ) (β 2 − α 2 )
2 2
(v − u ) 2 2 2 2 2 2
= [ − u ( β − α ) + α (v − u )]
(β 2 − α 2 ) 2
= (v 2 − u 2 ) (v 2 α 2 − u 2β2 ) /(β2 − α 2 )2
{(v 2 − u 2 ) (v 2 α 2 − u 2β2 )}1/ 2
or amplitude = a = .
(β 2 − α 2 )
5. A particle is performing a S.H.M. of period T about a centre O and it passes through a
point P where OP = b with velocity v in the direction OP prove that time which elapses before it
returns to P is
T   vT 
tan1  .
 π   2πb 
718 Dynamics
Sol. Given that OP = b. Let us take a point Q on the line OP, such that OQ = x. Then the
velocity at Q is given by
dx
= µ [(a 2 − x 2 )] ...(i)
dt
where OA = a is the amplitude of S.H.M.
Now, it is given th at velocity at P = v, i.e., at x = b. Hence from (i) we get

v= µ [( a 2 − b 2 )] ..(ii)
Also, from (i), we get
dx
= (µ) dt
[( a − x 2 )]
2

Integrating, we get
sin −1 ( x / a ) = (µ ) t + c,
where c is an arbitrary constant.
Let at t = 0, x = 0 then c = 0.
∴ sin −1 ( x / a) = (µ ) t
or x = a sin { (µ ) t} ...(iii)
Let t ′ be the time taken in moving from O to P, then from (iii),
b = a sin ( µ t ′ )
 1  −1  b 
or t′ =   sin   . ...(iv)
 µ a
Also, time taken from O to A
1  2π 
1 π
=
(period) =  = .
4 4  µ 2 µ
∴ Time taken in moving from P to A
π
= − t′
2 µ
∴ Required time = 2 × time taken in moving from P to A
 π   π 1 b 2 π b
=2 − t ′ = 2  − sin −1 = − sin −1 
2 µ  2 µ µ a µ  2 a
2π
Also, time period T =
µ
1 T
∴ = ...(v)
µ 2π
π b
Also, let − sin −1 =θ ...(vi)
2 a
b π 
∴ = sin  − θ = cos θ
a 2 
[(a 2 − b 2 )] v
∴ tan θ = = from (ii)
b b µ
vT
= , from (vi)
2πb
Simple Harmonic Motion and Elastic Strings 719
 vT 
θ = tan −1 
or
 2πb 
1
Substituting the values of and θ.
µ
π −1 b 
i.e.,  2 − sin a  in (v), we get
2T  vT  T  vT 
the required time = tan −1  = tan −1  .
2π  2πb  π  2πb 
6. If in a S.H.M. u, v, w be the velocities at distances a, b, c from a fixed point on the straight
line which is not the centre of the force; show that the period T is given by the equation
2 2 2
2 u v w
4π
(b − c) (c − a) ( a − b) = a b c .
T2 1 1 1

Sol. Let O be the centre of force and O ′ the fixed

point from which the distances of the points A, B and C
are a, b and c respectively, velocities at A, B, C are u, v O O A B C
and w. Let OO′ = k. Then the distances of A, B and C
from O will be a + k , b + k and c + k respectively.
We know that velocity V at a distance x from the centre of force is given by
V 2 = µ ( A2 − x 2 ),
where µ is the intensity and A the amplitude of S.H.M.
∴ at A we get
u 2 = µ { A2 − ( a + k ) 2 }
u2
or = A2 − a 2 − k 2 − 2ak
µ
 u2 
or  + a 2  + 2ak + (k 2 − A2 ) = 0 ...(i)
 µ 
Similarly, at B and C, we get
 v2 2
 2 2
 + b  + 2bk + (k − A ) = 0 ...(ii)
 µ 
 w2 
and  + c 2  + 2ck + ( k 2 − A2 ) = 0 ...(iii)
 µ 
Eliminating 2 k and ( k 2 − A2 ) from (i), (ii) and (iii), we get
2
u
+ a2 a 1
µ
2
v
+ b2 b 1 =0
µ
w2
+ c2 c 1
µ
2 2
u a 1 a a 1
1 2 2
or v b 1 + b b 1 =0
µ 2 2
w c 1 c c 1
720 Dynamics

u2 a 1 a2 a 1
2
v b 1 = − µ b2 b 1
or
w2 c 1 c2 c 1
2
u a 1
v2 b 1 = µ (b − c) (c − a) ( a − b)
or 2
w c 1

2
2π 4π
Also, periodic time T = or µ= 2
µ T
u2 v2 w2 2
4π
∴ a b c = (b − c) ( c − a) ( a − b)
2
1 1 1 T

7. A particle oscillates with S.H.M. of amplitude a and periodic time T. Find the expression of
the velocity v in terms of (i), a, T and x; (ii) a, T and t and also prove that

T 2 2π 2 a 2
∫0 v dt =
T
.

Sol. If µ be the intenstiy of S.H.M. we have

v 2 = µ (a 2 − x 2 ) ...(i)
x = a cos ( µ) t ...(ii)
and T = 2π / π ...(iii)
(i) From (iii), µ = 4π 2 / T 2
4π 2
∴ From (i) v2 = ( a 2 − x 2 ).
T2
(ii) From (i) and (ii)
2 2 2 2
v = µ [ a − a cos (µ ) t ]
2 2
= µ a sin (µ ) t

4 µ2  2πt 
= a 2 sin 2 
T 2  T 
T
(iii) ∫0 v 2 dt
T 4π 2  2πt 
=∫ a 2 sin 2   dt
0 T2  T 

2a 2 π 2 T  2πt 
=
T2
∫0 2 sin 2 
 T 
dt

2a 2 π 2 T 4πt 
=
T2
∫0 1 − cos 
T 
dt

T
2a 2 π 2  T 4πt 
= 2  t − 4π sin T 
T 0
Simple Harmonic Motion and Elastic Strings 721
2 2
2a π  T  
=  T − sin 4π  − 0
T
2
 4π  
2a 2 π 2
.=
T
8. A small bead P can slide on a smooth wire AB, being acted upon by a force per unit mass
equal µ / CP 2 , where C is outside AB. Show that time of a small oscillation about its position of
equilibrium is (2 π / µ ) b3 / 2 , where b is the perpendicular distance of C from AB.
Sol. Let O be the foot of the perpendicular from C on AB and let O be the origin. Let P be the
position of bead at time t and OP = x, CP = r.
O P
µ E A
Here, the force along PC = , hence
2
r
Component of force along PO
µ µx µ/r2
= 2
cos θ =
3
B
r r
−3/ 2
µx µx  x2 
= = 3 
1+ 
(b 2 + x 2 )3 / 2 b  b2 
µx  3 x2 
= 1 −
3
+ ...
b  2 b2 
µx x
= ,
3 neglecting high er powers of .
b b
Hence the equation of motion of bead will be
d 2x µx
=− .
dt 2 b3
This is the standard form of S.H.M. and its period
2π 2π
= = b3/ 2 .
{ (µ / b )} 3 µ
9. A particle P moves in a straight line OCP being attracted by a force mµ. PC, always
directed towards C whilst C moves along OC with a constant acceleration f . If initially C was at
rest at the origin O, then P was at a distance c from O moving with velocity V, prove that the
distance of P from O at any time t is
 f  V f 1
 µ + c cos µ t + µ sin µ t − µ + 2 ft .

Sol. Intially, let O and C are coincident. Let after time t, CP = x. Since C is itself moving with
constant acceleration f, we consider the motion of P relative to C. For this purpose we impose the
constant acceleration f upon the whole system in the opposite direction. Let at any instant CP = x,
T T
x
O C P O C P

then the particle P will be attracted towards C with a force µx per unit of mass.
Eqation of motion of P relative to C is
d2x  f
= − µx − f = − µ  x −  ...(i)
dt
2  µ
722 Dynamics
Solution to this differential equation will be
f
x− = A cos µ t + B sin µ t ...(ii)
µ
Differentiating, we get
dx
= − A µ sin µ t + B µ cos µ t ...(iii)
dt
dx
Given conditions are, at t = 0, x = c, = V . Hence we have from (ii) and (iii),
dt
f V
A= c− ,B=
µ µ
Therefore,
f  f V
x= +  c −  cos µ t + sin µ t ...(iv)
µ  µ µ
Equation (iv) gives the distance of P from the point C after time t, but in time t the point C itself
1 2
will move a distance ft . Hence the distance of P from O at any instant is equal to
2
f 1  f V
+ ft 2 +  c −  cos µ t + sin µ t.
µ 2  µ µ
EXERCISE
1. In a S.H.M., at what distance from the centre will the velocity be half of the maximum.

1
[Ans. ± a 3]
2
2. The speed v of a point P which moves in a straight line is given by the relation v 2 = a − bx 2 ,
where x is the distance of the point P from a fixed point on the path, a and b being con-
stants. Show that motion of P is simple harmonic and determine its amplitude and period.
[Ans. (a / b) , 2πb]
3. A particle moves in a straight line and its velocity at a distance x from the origin is

k [(a 2 − b 2 )], where k and a are constants. Prove that the motion is simple harmonic and
find the amplitude and the periodic time of the motion.
 2π 
 Ans. a, k 
 
4. A particle is moving with S.H.M. and while making an excursion from one position of rest to
the other, its distance from the middle point of its path at three consecutive seconds are
2π
observed to be x1 , x2 , x3 ; prove that the time of a complete oscillation is , where
θ
 x + x3 
θ = cos −1  1 .
 2 x2 
5. A body is attached to one end inextensible string and the other end moves in a vertical line
with S.H.M. of amplitude a, taking n complete oscillations per second, show that the string
will not remain tight during the motion unless n 2 < ( g / 4π 2 a ).
6. Show that in a S.H.M. of amplitude a and period T, the velocity v at a distance, x from the
centre is given by the relation v 2T 2 = 4π 2 (a 2 − x 2 ).
Simple Harmonic Motion and Elastic Strings 723
7. The speed v of a particle moving along the axis OX is given by the relation
2 2 2 2
v = n (8ax − x − 12a ). Prove that the motion is simple harmonic, with amplitude 2a
π  π 
and that the time taken from x = 4a to x = 6a is . What is the periodic time.  Ans.
2n  2n 
8. The speed v of the point P which moves in a line is given by the relation v 2 = a + 2bx − cx 2 ,
where x is the distance of the point P from a fixed point on the path and a, b, c are con-
stants. Show that the motion is simple harmonic if c is positive and determine the period.
 2π 
 Ans. 
 c
9. If time t be regarded as a function of velocity v, prove that the rate of decrease of accelera-

3 d 2t
tion is given by f , f being the acceleration.
dv 2
10. In a S.H.M., if the velocities at distance b and c from the centre of force be respectively u
and v , then prove that the frequency n of oscillation is given by
4π 2 n2 (b2 − c 2 ) = v 2 − u 2 .
11. A particle moves with S.H.M. in a straight line. In the first second after starting from rest, it travels a
distance a and in the next second it travels a distance b in the same direction. Prove that the amplitude
of the motion is 2a 2 /(3a − b).
12. A body moving in a straight line OAB with S.H.M. has zero velocity when at the points A and B
whose distances from O are a and b respectively, and has velocity v when half way between them.
Show that the complete period is π (b − a) / v.
13. A particle of mass m is attached towards a fixed point O with a force ( m / µ ) times the distance from
O. If initially it is projected towards O with a velocity v from a point distant c from O, find the
amplitude of its oscillations.
  2  
1/ 2
 Ans. v + c 2 
   
 µ 
 
2π
14. In a S.H.M. of period if the initial displacement be x0 and the initial velocity u0 , prove
ω
that
(i) Amplitude = {x02 + (u02 / ω 2 )}

  1  u 
(ii) Position at time t = { x02 + (u02 + ω 2 )} cos t −   tan −1  0  
  ω   ωx0  
 1 −1  u0 
(iii) Time to the position at rest =   tan 
 ω  ω x0 
15. A particle of mass m is attached to a light wire which is stretched tightly between two fixed
points with a tension T. If a, b be the distances of the particle from the two ends, prove that
the period of small transverse oscillation of mass m is
2π
{T (a + b) / mab}
724 Dynamics
2
16. A particle starts from rest under an acceleration k x directed towards a fixed point and
after time t another particle starts from the same position under the same acceleration. Show
 1 
that the particle will collide at time (π / k ) + t  after the start of the first particle provided
 2 
t < 2π / k .
17. Assuming that the gravity inside the earth varies as the distance from its centre, show that a
train, starting from rest and moving under gravity only, would take the same time to travors
smooth straight airless tunnel between an y two points of the earth’s surface. Find the time.
1
[Ans. 42 minutes nearly]
2

3.2 ELASTIC STRINGS AND SPRINGS (HOOKE’S LAW)

According to Hooke’s Law,
stress ∝ strain or stress = λ (strain)
where λ is called modulus of elasticity.
In case of elastic strings or springs the stress is the tension and strain is the increase in length
per unit legnth or the increase in natural length divided by the natural length.
Thus if a is natural length and l is the extended length then tension T of the string is given by
l−a
T =λ .
a
3.2.1 A Horizontal Elastic String
One end of an elastic string whose modulus of elasticity is λ and whose natural length is a,
is tied to a fixed point on a smooth horizontal table, and the other end is tied to a mass m lying
on the table. The particle is pulled to a distance where the extension of the string becomes b, and
then let go. Discuss the motion and find the period of one complete oscillation.
Let O be the fixed point and OA the natural length i.e., OA = a. The particle is pulled out to a
point B and then released.
Let P ( AP = x) be the position of the particle at time t, then by Hooke’s law, the tension T in
the string will be

x m
B' A' O T A T P B

x
T =λ ...(i)
a
The equation of motion of m will be

d2x x
m = −T = −λ
2 a
dt

d2x λ
or =− x ...(ii)
dt 2 am
This show that the motion is simple harmonic so long as there is extension in the string, i.e., x
is not equal to zero. The period of the S.H.M. is
Simple Harmonic Motion and Elastic Strings 725

2π  am  
= 2π    .
 λ    λ  
 am  
 

1  am   π  am  
Hence time of describing BA will be . 2π  λ   = 2  λ  
4    
dv λ
From (ii), we have v =− x
dx am

1 2 λ x2
Integrating, v =− +C
2 am 2
where C is constant of integration.
λ 1 2
At B, x = b, v = 0, hence C = . b
am 2
λ
Therefore v2 = (b 2 − x 2 ) ...(iii)
am
Since the particle is moving from B towards O, i.e., x decreases as t increases, we get

dx  λ 2 
= −  (b − x 2 )  ...(iv)
dt   am 
when the particle reaches the point A, x = 0 and hence from (i) and (iv) we have T = 0 and

 λ  
v=−   am   b. Hence the S.H.M. ceases and the particle moves towards O with constant velocity
 

 λ  
  am   b till it reaches the point A′ on the other side of O where OA′ = OA = a.
 

 λ  
Thus the particle moves from A to A′ with constant velocity  am   b and time taken to
 
describe this path

2a 2a  am  
= =  b  
 λ   b  
 am   b
 
As soon as the particle goes beyond A′, the string becomes again extended so that tension
comes into play and the motion is again simple harmonic till the particle reaches the point B ′,
where AB = A′ B ′ = b. Here the velocity becomes zero and particle stops. The particle will then
retrace its path under S.H.M. till it will reach to A′ and then again under constant velocity

 λ  
 am   b till the point A and then again under S.H.M. till the point B where particle will stop.
 
726 Dynamics
This motion will again be repeated.
Obviously, the motion from B to A, A′ to B′, B′ to A′ and A to B is simple harmonic and the

 λ  
total time for this motion is equal to 2π    .
  am  

 am  
The motion from A to A′ and A′ to A in under constant velocity  λ   b and the total
 

2a  am  
time for this motion is 2 .  b   .
b  
Thus the complete motion is oscillatory and the time for one complete oscillation is

  am   4a   am    am    2a 
2π    +   λ   = 2  λ    π + b  .
 λ   b    

EXAMPLES
1. A light elastic string of modulus λ is stretched to double its natural length and is tied to
two fixed points distant 2a apart. A particle of mass m, tied to its middle point is displaced in the
line of the string through a distance equal to half its distance from the fixed point and released.

  am     λa  
Prove that the time of a small oscillation is π     and the maximum velocity is   m  
 λ    
whose λ is modulus of elasticity.
Sol. Let the string be tied to two fixed points A and A′ . Let O, the middle point of A A′ be the
origin. Let the particle tied at O is displaced to B, where OB = a / 2. Let P be the position of the
particle m at time t and then tensions in the string be T1 and T2 along PA and PA′. Let OP = x.
T2 T1
A' B' O xP B A

Then the equation of motion of P will be

d2x
m
2
= T1 − T2
dt
a − x − a/2  2x 
Now, T1 = λ . = λ 1 + 
a/2  a 
since a − x is extended length and a / 2 natural length of this portion. Similarly
a + x − a/2  2x 
T2 = λ = λ 1 + 
a/2  a 

d2x  2x   2x  
Hence from (i) m = λ  1 −  − 1 + a  
dt 2  a   
d2x 4λ
or =− x. ...(ii)
2 am
dt
Simple Harmonic Motion and Elastic Strings 727
It is clear from equation (ii) that the motion of the particle is simple harmonic and particle
oscillates between B and B ′ and its periodic time is

 am     am  
2π     = π   λ   .
  4 λ   
dv 4λ
Now, from (ii) v =− x
dx am
1 2 2λ 2
Integrating, v =− x + C,
2 am
4a
where C is the constant of integration. At B, x = a / 2, v = 0; therefore C = . Hence
m
4λ  a 2 
v2 =  − x2  ...(iii)
am  4 
From (iii) it is clear that the velocity is maximum at x = 0 and then its maximum value will be
 λa  
vmax =  m   .
 
2. One end of elastic string whose modulus of elasticity is λ and whose natural length is a,
is tied to a fixed point on a smooth horizontal table, and the other end is tied to a mass m lying
on the table. The particle is pulled to a distance where the extension of the string becomes b and
then let go. Describe the character of motion and show that the period of complete oscillation is

 2a   ma  
2 π +    .
 b   λ  
Sol. Let O be the fixed point on the table, to which one end of the string is tied. OA = a is the
natural length of the string. A particle of mass m is tied to the string at A. Let the particle is now
pulled to B where AB = b and then released.
Let P is the position of the particle at any time t, where AP = x. When the particle is at P, the
extended length of the string = OP = a + x.

T
B A O Ax P E

∴ Tension in the string

( a + x) − aλx
AO = λ = .
a a
The only force acting on the particle at P is the tension. Hence the equation of motion will be

d 2x λx
m =−
dt 2 a
Negative sign indicates that the tension is in the direction of x decreasing.

d 2x λ
Hence =− x ...(i)
dt 2 am
This represent S.H.M. whose time period
728 Dynamics

 ma  
= 2π    ...(ii)
 λ  
Again from (i), we get

dv λ d2x dv
v =− x, as =v
dx am dt 2 dx
Integrating, we get
2 λ 2
v =− x + C,
ma
where C is the constant of integration. At B, x = b, v = 0
λ 2 λ 2
∴ 0=− b +C or C= b
ma ma
Substituting the value of C, we get
λ
v2 = (b 2 − x 2 ) ...(iii)
ma
When the particle reaches A, then x = 0. Then its velocity,

 λ  
v=  ma   b
 
At A the tension on the particle will be zero, which means that th e particle is not influenced by

 λ  
any force. So it moves with velocity  ma   b and will pass through O; and go to the left of O
 
to the point A′. When it reaches A′ the string again becomes stretched and the tension comes
into play and the motion once again becomes S.H.M. to B. The particle comes to instantaneous rest
at B ′, moves back to A′ under S.H.M. From A to A′ the motion is under uniform velocity while
from A to B it is simple harmonic.
Hence, time of one complete oscillation
= 4 [time form B to O ] = 4 [time from B to A + time from A to O ]
1 distance AO 
= 4  × periodic time + 
 4 uniform velocity 

 
 
1  ma   a 
= 4 ×  × 2π   + 
4  λ    λ   
 b
  ma   
   

π  ma  a  ma  
=4  λ  + b  λ  
 2 

 2a   ma  
= 2  π +   λ   .
 b  
Simple Harmonic Motion and Elastic Strings 729
3. A particle is performing S.H.M. in the line joining two points A and B on a smooth plane
and is connected with these points by elastic strings of natural lengths a and a ′ the moduli of
elasticity being λ and λ′ respectively. Show that the periodic time is

 m 
2π   
 (λ / a) + (λ′ / a ′)  
Sol. Let OA and OB be the elastic strings whose natural lengths x
are a and a ′ respectively. Let O be the position of equilibrium of A O P B
mass m, λ and λ′ being the moduli of elasticity of the strings OA and OB respectively.
Then in th e position of equilibrium tension in the string OA = tension in the string OB
λ λ′
i.e., l= l′ ...(i)
a a′
where l and l ′ are the extensions in OA and OB.
Let at time t , P be the displaced position of the particle of mass m, such that OP = x. Then
 λ′ 
tension in the string PB =  (l ′ − x) acting in the direction PB and tension in the string
 a ′ 
PA = (λ / a) (l + x), acting in the direction PA. Hence the equation of motion of the particle will be
d2x  λ′   λ  λ ′l ′ λl   λ ′ λ 
m = (l ′ − x) −   (l + x) =  −  − +  x
dt 2  a ′   a  a′ a   a′ a
  λ λ′  
d2x
  a + a ′  
or
  from (i)
=−  x,
dt 2  m 
 
This is the standard form of S.H.M. Hence the required time period
 
 
2π  m 
= = 2π  
 λ λ′     λ λ′  
+
 a + a ′     a a ′  
 
m
EXERCISES
1. A particle of mass m executes simple harmonic motion in the line joining the points A and B
on a smooth table and is connected with these points by elastic strings whose tensions in
  mll ′  
equilibrium are each T. Show that the time of an oscillation is 2π    , where
 T (l + l ′ ) 
 
l , l ′ are the extensions of the string beyond their natural lengths.
2. An elastic string of natural length (a + b ) where a > b modulus of elasticity λ has a par-
ticle of mass m attached to it at a distance a from one end, which is fixed to a point A of a
smooth horizontal plane. Th e other end of the string is fixed to a point B so that the string is
just unstretched. If the particle be held at B and then released, show that it will oscillate to
and fro through a distance b ( a + b ) / a in a periodic time π ( a + b ) [( m / λ )].
3. Two light elastic strings are fastened to a particle of mass m and their other ends to fixed
points so that the strings are taut. The modulus of each is λ, the tension T and lengths a
and b. Show that the period of one oscillation along th e line of the string is
730 Dynamics

 mab 
2π   
 (T + b ) ( a + b)  
4. Prove that the work done against the tension in stretching a light elastic string is equal to
the product of its extension and the mean of the initial and final tension.
5. Two particles of masses m1 and m2 are tied to the end of an elastic string of natural length
a and modulus λ. They are placed on a smooth table so that the string is just taut and m2
is projected with any velocity directly away from m1. Prove that the string will become slack
after the lapse of time
 1 2am m 
π 
 λ ( m1 + m2 ) 
6. Two masses m1 and m2 are connected by a spring of such a strength that when m1 is held
fixed m2 performs n complete vibrations per second. Show that if m2 be held fixed, m1 will
m 
make n  2  , and if both be free, they will make n {(m1 + m2 ) / m1} vibrations per sec-
 m1 
ond, the vibrations in each case being in th e line of spring.
3.3 VERTICAL ELASTIC STRING
A light elastic string of natural length a and modulus of elasticity λ is O O O
suspended by one end, to the other end is tied a particle of mass m, the
particle is slightly pulled down and released. Discuss the motion. a a a
Let O be the fixed point at which upper end of the string is tied. Let
OA = a be the natural length of the string. When weight mg is tied at the
A A A
lower end A then let b the extension in the string in equilibrium, where AB = b.
b T0 b
Let T0 be the tension in this case. Then
B B
b mg x T
T0 = mg = λ ...(i)
a P
Now, the particle is pulled vertically down wards to a point C (BC = c ) C
mg
and then released. Since the tension in the string when particle is at C is greater
than the weight of the particle; hence it will move upwards.
Let P ( BP = x) be the position of the particle after time t and then let T be the tension in the
string, then by Hooke’s Law,
b+ x x
T = λ. = mg + λ ...(ii)
a a
[from (i)]
and equation of motion will be
d 2x
m = mg − T
dt 2
x
= mg − mg − λ [from (ii)]
a
2
d x λ
or =−x
dt 2 am
g
or = − x, [from (i)] ...(iii)
b
dv g
v =− x
dx b
Simple Harmonic Motion and Elastic Strings 731
Integrating, we get
v2 g x2
=− + A,
2 2 2
where A is constant of integration.
At C, x = c, v = 0, hence
2
g c
A=
b 2
g 2
2
∴ (c − x 2 )
v = ...(iv)
b
The motion given by (iii) is simple harmonic, having B, the position of equilibrium as the centre
of oscillation. Now, let us consider the following two cases :
Case I. If c ≤ b, the motion given by (iii) is purely simple harmonic, centre of oscillation B,
with amplitude c and period
2π [(b / g )].

Case II. If c > b but less than [(b 2 + 4ab)], the particle in its upwards motion goes above
A, but at A the string becomes slack and tension becomes zero. Hence S.H.M. ceases and the particle
rises against gravity till the velocity becomes zero.

 g 2 2 
From (iv) the velocity at A is u =   b (c − b )  in the upward direction and the particle
 

u2 c 2 − b2
rises up to the height = above O.
2g 2b
This will be true if the height risen above O is not greater than a, the natural length of the
string, otherwise the motion again becomes S.H.M. Condition that motion above O may not be
S.H.M. is

c2 − b2
< 2a, i.e., c < [(b 2 + 4ab )]
2b
Remarks : (i) In the case of a spring the law of compression is same as law of extension. Thus
the tension operates even when particle rises above A. Hence in this case equation (ii) holds good
through out the motion. The period of motion will be 2π [(b / g )].
(ii) While solving problems on vertical elastic strings the position of equilibrium must be obtained
first.
EXAMPLES
1. An elastic string without weight, of which the unstretched length is l and modulus of
elasticity is the weight of n oz, is suspended by one end and a mass of m oz, is attached to the
other end. Show that the time of a small vertical oscillation is

  ml  
2π    .
  ng  
Sol. Let O be the fixed point, l natural length and b and extension when m oz mass is attached
to the string. The strin g is then pulled down to a small distance and then released. Let when weight
is at P at time t, then extension in the string is b + x. Then we have
b
T0 = mg = λ
l
732 Dynamics

b
or mg = ng (since λ = ng ) ...(i)
l
Equation of motion will be
O O
d 2x
m = mg − T ...(ii)
dt 2
b+ x ng A A
But T = ng . = mg + x, [from (i)] b T0 b
l l B B
Hence from (ii) x T
P
d 2x ng
m = mg − mg − x
dt 2 l

d2x ng
or =− x.
dt 2 ml
Hence the motion is S.H.M. and the period of motion

2π  ml  
= = 2π     .
[( ng / ml )]  ng  
2. A light elastic string of natural length l has one end fixed at a point A; and the A
other attached to a stone, the weight of which in equilibrium would extend the string to
B
a length l1. Show that if the stone be dropped from rest at A, it will come to an
C
instantaneous rest at a depth [(l12 − l 2 )] below the equilibrium position.
P
Sol. AB = l is the natural length of the string. Let m be the mass of the stone and C
its position of equilibrium. According to given condition
AC = l1 or BC = (l1 − l )
D
 λ
Then at C, mg =   (l1 − l ) ...(i)
 l
where λ is the modulus of elasticity.
Let the stone be dropped from rest at A, the motion from A to B will be due to gravity only as
there will be no tension. If v be the velocity of the particle when it reaches B, then
v= [(2 gl )] ...(ii)
At B, the strin g becomes taut and for the motion below B, the tension of the string comes into
play. Let P be any displaced position of the stone. Let CP = x. Then at P the forces acting on the

 λ
stone being (i) its weight mg acting vertically downwards and (ii) tension   (l1 − l + x) in the
 l
string acting vertically upwards. Hence the equation of motion will be
 d 2x λ
m  = mg − (l1 − l + x)
 dt 2  l

 λ
= mg − mg −   x, from (i)
l
Simple Harmonic Motion and Elastic Strings 733

d2x λ gx
or 2
=− . x =− , from (i)
dt ml (l1 − x)

dv gx
or v =−
dx (l1 − l )
Integrating,
2 2
v g x
=− + A.
2 (l1 − l ) 2
At B, v = [(2 gl )] and x = − (l1 − l )
g
∴ 2 gl = − (l1 − l ) 2 + A
(l1 − l )
or A = 2 gl + g (l1 − l )
2  g  2
v = 2 gl + g (l1 − l ) −  x
 l2 − l 
∴ ...(iii)

If the particle comes to instantaneous rest at D, such that CD = d , then from (iii), we get
2
gd
0 = 2 gl + g (l1 − l ) −
(l1 − l )
or 2 2 2 2 2
d = (l1 − l ) or d = [( l1 − l )].
3. A smooth light pulley is suspended from a fixed point by
a spring of natural length l and modulus of elasticity ng. If O 2T
masses m1 and m2 hang at the ends of a light inextensible string
passing round the pulley, show that the pulley executes simple
harmonic motion about a centre whose depth below the point A A
f
of suspension is l (1 + 2M / n), where M is the harmonic mean
T
between m1 and m2 . T
T
Sol. Let O be the fixed point which the pulley is suspended. f
Let λ be the modulus of elasticity, then m2g
λ = ng ...(i) m 1g

Let us consider the motion of masses m1 and m2 . Let f be m 2g m1 g

the acceleration of the system and T the tension in the string
round the pulley. Then the equation of motion will be
m1 g − T = m1 f
and T − m2 g = m2 f
which give
2m1m2
T= g = Mg , where
( m1 + m2 )
2m1m2
M = .
m1 + m2
Hence pressure on the pulley due to th e masses m1 and m2 = 2T = 2Mg .
Now, the problem reduces to the motion of a mass 2M hanging from one end of an elastic
spring of natural length l whose other end is fixe at O.
Let B be its position of equilibrium such that AB = d (say),
Then at B,
weight of the mass 2M = Tension in the spring
i.e., 2Mg = (λ / l ) d = (ng / l ) d from (i)
734 Dynamics
2lM
or d=
n
In case of vertical spring whose one end is fixed we know that the motion is simple harmonic
about the posiion of equilibrium of the mass attached to the other end.
Hence required depth = OB = OA + AB
2lM   2M  
=l+d =l+
= l 1+  .
  n  n
EXERCISES
1. A light elastic string of natural length l is hung by one end and to the other end are
tied successively particles of masses m1 and m2 . If t1 and t2 be the periods and c1 , c2
the statical extensions corresponding to these two weights, prove that
g (t12 − t22 ) = 4π 2 ( c1 − c2 ).
2. A heavy particle is attached to one end of an elastic string, the other end of which is fixed.
The modulus of elasticity of the string is equal to the weight of the particle. The string is
drawn vertically down till it is four times its natural length and then let go. Show that the
 a  4 
particle will return to this point in time  g   3 π + 2 3  where a is the natural length of
the string.
3. A heavy particle attached to a fixed point by an elastic string hangs freely stretching the
s tr i n g b ye. It is drawn by an additional distance f and then let go. Determine the
a q u a n t it y

height to which it will rise if f 2 − e2 = 4ae; e being unstretched length of the string.
[Ans. f + e + 2a ]
4. A mass m hangs from a fixed point by a light spring and is given small vertical displacement.
Show that the motion is simple harmonic. If l is length of the spring when the system is in
equilibrium and n the number of oscillations per second, show that the natural length of the
spring is l − ( g / 4π 2 n2 ).
5. A light elastic string whose natural length is a has one end fixed to a point O and to the
other end is attached a wieght which in equilibrium would produce an extension e. Show
that if the weight be let fall from rest at O, it will come to stay instantaneously at a point
distant (2 ae + e 2 ) below the position of equilibrium.
6. A heavy particle of mass m is attached to one end of an elastic string of natural length l
whose other end is fixed at O. The particle is then let fall from rest at O. Show that, part of
the motion is simple harmonic, and that if the greatest depth of the particle below O is
1 2
l cot 2 (θ / 2), the modulus of elasticity of the string is mg tan θ and that the particle
2
attains this depth in time (2l / g ) [1 + ( π − θ) cot θ], where θ is a positive acute angle.
7. One and of a light elastic string of natural length a and modulus 2mg is attached to a point
O and the other end to a particle of mass m. The particle initially held at rest at O, is al-
lowed to fall. Find the greatest extension of the string and show that the particle will reach
O again after a time t equal to
 2a 
( π + 2 − tan −1 2) 
 g 
8. A heavy particle of mass m is attached to one end of an elastic string of natural length l
feet, whose modulus of elasticity is equal to the weight of the particle and the other end is
fixed at O, the particle is let fall from rest at O. Show that a part of the motion is simple
harmonic and that the greatest depth of the particle below O is (2 + 3) l feet. show that
this depth is attained in time
Simple Harmonic Motion and Elastic Strings 735

(l / g ) { 2 + π − cos− (1/ 3)} seconds .

1

9. A particle of mass m is attached to one end of an elastic string of natural length a and modulus
of elasticity 2 mg, whose other end is fixed at O. The particle is let fall from A, when A is
vertically above O and OA = a. Show that its velocity will be zero at B, where OB = 3a;
calculate also time from A to B.
 1  a   
 Ans. −1  1  
4 2 + π + 2 sin    
 2  2 g   3 

10. A heavy particle is attached to an in extensible string to a fixed point from which the particle
is allowed to fall freely. When the particle is in its lowest position the string is of twice its
natural length. Prove that the modulus is four times the weight of the particle and find the
time during which the string is extended beyond its natural length.
 1  a  
 Ans. −1  1  
π − 2 cos    
 2  g    3  

11. The bodies of mases M and M ′ are attached to the lower end of an elastic string whose
upper end is fiexd and hang at rest, M ′ falls off; show that distance of M from the upper
end of string at time t is a + b + c cos { ( g / b) t}, where a is the unstretched length of the
string, b and c the distances by which it would be stretched when supporting M and M ′
respectively.
12. A heavy particle is attached to one end of a fine elastic string, the other end of which is
fixed. The unstretched length of the string is a and its modulus of elasticity is n times the
weight of the particle, is pulled vertically downwards till the length of the strin g is a ′ and
is then let go from rest. Show that the time it returns to this position is
 a
2 (π − θ + θ ′ + tan θ − tan θ ′ ) 
 ng 
where θ and θ′ are positive acute angles given by
na ′
sec θ = − n − 1, sec 2 θ ′ = sec2 θ − 4n.
a
13. A heavy particle is attached to one point of a uniform light elastic string. The ends of the
string are attached to two points in a vertical line. Show that the period of a vertical oscilla-
tion in which the string remains taut is 2π ( mh / 2λ ) , where λ is the coefficient of elastic-
ity of the string and h the harmonic mean of the unstretched lengths of the two parts of the
string.
14. Two particles of masses M and 2M are connected by an inextensible string passing over a
smooth peg. From the particle M another equal particle hangs by an elastic string of natrual
length a and modulus Mg. The system is initially supported with the string vertical, th e first
being taut and the second at its natural length and then released. Show that the motion is
S.H.M. with period π (3a / g ) and th e extension of the second string at time t is
a [1 − cos {2t ( g / 3a)}]

 
 Motion on Smooth and Rough Plane
4.1 MOTION ON A SMOOTH PLANE CURVE
A particle is compelled to move on a smooth plane curve under the action of given forces in
the plane, to find the motion.
Let P be the position of a particle of mass m at time t Y Y
and let the arc AP be s, where A is some fixed point on the
curve. Let the components of the force acting at P be X X cosψ
and Y parallel to the axes OX and OY respectively. Let R Y cosψ
be the reaction at P. Let the tangent at P makes an angle
ψ with the x-axis. R Y cos
ψ

In the problems of this type one should use tangential ψ ψ

X
and normal accelerations. The impressed forces must be P xs
in ψ
resolved along the tangent and normal and equated to the
effective forces in those directions. Hence, the effective
s
2 2 A
d s v ψ
forces are m and m . The impressed forces are
dt
2 ρ O T X

X, Y and normal reaction R.

The equations of motion of the particle along the tangent and normal to the curve at P are

d 2s
m = X cos ψ + Y sin ψ ...(i)
dt 2

v2
and m = R − X sin ψ − Y cos ψ ...(ii)
ρ
where ρ is the radius of curvature of the curve at P. These two equations determine the motion
of the particle.
4.2 MOTION ON A SMOOTH PLANE CURVE UNDER GRAVITY
To determine the motion of a particle on a smooth vertical plane curve under gravity.
(i) When the particle is moving outside the restraining
ψ
curve, so that the normal r eaction offered by the curve is away
from the centre of curvature of the curve. Let ψ be the angle
R
which the tangent to the curve at any point makes with the
horizontal line. The impressed forces are the weight of the
particle and the reaction of the curve and they must be equal
ψ
2 mv2
d 2s v
to the effective forces m along the tangent and m ρ
dt 2 ρ mg
along the normal, if s is measured from the highest point of the
curve. Hence, we have, the tangential effective force d2s
m 2
dt
Motion on Smooth and Rough Plane 737

d2s
m = mg sin ψ ...(i)
dt 2
The normal effective force
2
mv
= mg cos ψ − R ...(ii)
ρ
(ii) When the particle is moving inside the curve, so that R 2
2 m ds2
mv dt
is in the same direction . If s is measured from the lowest
ρ
point on curve in this case, then we have R mv2
d 2s ρ
m = − mg sin ψ ...(iii)
dt 2
P
mv 2
and = R − mg cos ψ ...(iv)
ρ
Equations (i) and (ii) or (iii) and (iv) are quite sufficient to mg
determine the motion, as the case may be. ψ

EXAMPLES
1. A particle slides on the curve x = 2 {a ( y − a )} with a velocity due to a fall from the
horizontal x-axis, the y-axis being vertically downwards. Find the pressure on the curve at any
time and time of sliding from y = b to y = c.
Solution. The equations of motion will be ψ
2
d s R
m = mg sin ψ ...(i)
dt 2
2
mv
and = mg cos ψ − R ...(ii)
ρ mv2
ψ

Since the velocity of the particle is due to the fall from ρ

the h orizontal x-axis, we have mg

v= (2 gy ) 2
s
m d2
To find the pressure R from (ii) let us find out ρ and ψ. dt
Now from the equation of the curve; so have
2
x = 4 a ( y − a)

dy x d2y 1
∴ = and =
dx 2a dx 2 2a

R| F dy I 2 U|3/ 2 F x2 I
3/ 2

S1 + GH dx JK V G1 + 2 J
Now,
ρ=
T| W| =
H 4a K
=
( 4 ay) 3/ 2
=
2 y 3/ 2
2 2 1 / 2a 2 1/ 2
d y / dx 4a a
dy x
Also, = tan ψ =
dx 2a
F aI
∴ cos ψ = GH y JK
Thus, from (ii), we have
738 Dynamics
2 1/ 2
mv F aI m.2gy. a
R = mg cos ψ − = mg GH y JK −
ρ 2 y 3/ 2
F aI F aI
= mg GH y JK − mg GH y JK =0

Hence, the pressure at any point is zero.

To find the time of sliding from y = b to y = c, let us find a relation between y and t.
dy dy ds dy
Now, = . = ( 2gy)
dt ds dt ds
= (2gy) sin ψ = ( 2gy) ( 1 − cos 2 ψ)
F aI
= (2gy) GH 1 − y JK = {2g ( y − a)}

dy
or (2 g) dt =
( y − a)
To get the required time, let us integrate between y = b to y = c. This gives
dy
z0T (2g) dt = zbc
( y − a)
c F 2I
or ( 2 g) T = 2 y−a or T= GH g JK [ (c − a) − ( b − c) ]
b

2. A wire, in the form of the parabola y 2 = 4 ax, is fixed with its axis vertical and vertex
downwards. If a small smooth bead of mass m can slides on the wire and is released from rest at
one end of the latus rectum, find its acceleration along the tangent when it is at a point x above

F a I 3/ 2
the vertex and show that the pressure on the wire is 2 mg G
H a + x JK
.

Solution. The equation of the parabola is

2 ...(i)
y = 4 ax
dy 2a F aI
∴ tan ψ = = = GH JK
dx y x
3/ 2 x
L F dy I 2 O
M1 + G J P
MN H dx K PQ
Hence, ρ=
2
d y
dx 2 R
(4 ay + 4a 2 ) 3/ 2 P
or ρ=
4a 2
Applying the equation of energy, the velocity at P ( x, y)
is given by y
O
1 2 ψ
mv = mg ( a − x)
2
Whence v 2 = 2 g ( a − x ), since m ≠ 0, we also have mg
Motion on Smooth and Rough Plane 739
2
mv
= R − mg sin ψ
ρ
3/ 2
Hence,
mv 2 |R a (a − x ) a |U 2 F a I
+ mg sin ψ = mg S
3/ 2 V
R= + = mg G J
ρ |T ( x + a) 3/ 2
( x + a) |W H a + xK
2 1/ 2
d s F a I
= − g sin ψ = − g G
H a + x JK
Also, 2
dt
3. A pa rt icl e sl id es down the sm oo th cur ve
ψ
x
y = a sinh , the axis of x being horizontal and aixs of y
a R
downwards, starting from rest at the point where the tangent A s
is inclined at an angle α to the horizontal. Show that it
will leave the curve when it has fallen through a vertical P ψ
distance a sec α.
Solution. The equation of motion are
mg
dv
mg = mg sin ψ ...(i)
ds
mv 2
and = mg cos ψ − R ...(ii)
ρ
dv dy F dy I
From (i), v = g. GH
∵ = sin ψ J
K
ds ds ds
∴ v dv = g dy
2
Integrating, v = 2gy + A,
where A is the constant of integration.
Initially, when y = y0 , say v = 0,
∴ A = − 2 gy0
2
∴ v = 2 g ( y − y0 ) ...(iii)

Putting for v 2 in equation (ii), we get

2 mg ( y − y0 )
= mg cos ψ − R
ρ
when particle leaves the curve, then R = 0.
∴ m.2g ( y − y0 ) = mg cos ψ ρ ...(iv)
x
Now, y = a sin h
a
dy x
∴ = cos h = tan ψ
dx a
F 1 + sinh 2 x I F y
2 I
or tan ψ = GH J = G1 + J
aK H x
2
K
Initially, when ψ = α, y = y0
F y0
2 I
∴ tan α = G1 + J ...(v)
2
H a K
740 Dynamics
3/ 2
|R1 + F dy I 2
|U
S GH dx JK V
|T |W 1
Now, ρ cos ψ = .
2
d y F dy I 2
1+ G J
2
dx H dx K
R| F dy I 2 U|
S1 + GH dx JK V F + 2 xI
|T |W 2 GH1 cos h a JK
= =a
2 x
d y sin h
2 a
dx
F y I 2
x G2 + 2 J
1 + 1 + sin h 2
a = a2 H a K 2a 2 + y 2
or ρ cos ψ = a =
x y y
sin h
a
Hence, from (iv), we get
2a 2 + y 2
2 ( y − y0 ) = or 2 y 2 − 2 yy0 = 2 a 2 + y 2
y
or y 2 − 2 yy0 + y02 = 2a 2 + y02
or ( y − y0 ) 2 = 2 a 2 + a 2 (tan 2 α − 1) = a 2 (1 + tan 2 α) by (v)
or 2 2 2
( y − y0 ) = a sec α
∴ y − y0 = a sec α
Hence, the particle wil leave when it has fallen through a vettical distance a sec α.
4. A small bead, of mass m, moves on a smooth circular wire, being acted upon by a central
mµ
attraction 2 to a point within the circle situated at a distance b from the centre. Show
( distance)
that in order that the bead may more completely round the circle, its velocity of projection at the
|R 4µb |U .
point of the wire nearest the centre of force must not be less than S 2 2 V
|T (a − b ) |W
Solution. Let O be the centre of attraction. Then OA = a − b, OB = a + b. Let the veloicity at
A be V and that at P be v.
mµ
The Central attraction is 2 .
r
The equation of motion will be
dv mµ mµ dr L cos φ =
dr O
mv =− cos φ = − . MN ds PQ
∵
2
ds r r 2 ds
µ
or vdv = − dr
2
r mµ
cos φ
µ r2
Integrating, we get z v dv = z − 2
dr P
r f
2
/r
1 2 µ mµ v
or v = +A ...(i) O
a
2 r A B
when the particle is at A, where r = a − b, the velocity is V. a– b C

1 2 µ
∴ V = +A ...(ii)
2 a−b
Subtracting (i) and (ii), we get
Motion on Smooth and Rough Plane 741
1 2 1 2 µ µ
v − V = − ...(iii)
2 2 r a− b
In order that the particle may move completely round the circle its velocity v should not vanish
till the particle has reached the other end of the diameter, i.e., B where r = a + b. Hence, the least
velocity of projection will be obtained by putting v = 0 and r = a + b in (iii).
1 2 µ µ 2 µb
∴ 0− V = − =−
2 a+b a−b 2 2
a −b

2 4 µb F 4µb I
∴ V = or V= G 2 2J
2 2
a −b Ha −b K
5. A particle is projected from the vertex of a smooth parabolic tube of latus rectum 4a
mgr
along the tube and is acted upon by a repulsive force from the focus. If the velocity of
c
projection is that which would be acquired in moving from focus to the vertex, prove that the time
F cI F π + θI .
of describing angle θ about the focus is 2 G J log tan G
H gK H 4 JK
Solution. The polar equation of a parabola of latus rectum 4 a referred to focus as pole is

P
/c
gr φ
m
θ
S a A

2a
= 1 + cos θ
r
2a θ
r= = a sec 2
or 2 2 θ
2 cos
2
Let V be the velocity from focus to vertex, i.e., from r = 0 to r = a under the given force.
Then
L v2 OV
r
g L r2 O
M P = M P
MN 2 PQ 0 c MN 2 PQ 0
g
or V2 = a2 ...(i)
c
This will be the velocity of projection.
Tangential equation of motion will be
dv r r dr g
mv = mg cos φ = mg or v dv = r dr
ds c c ds c
Integrating, we get
v r
L v2 O g Lr
2O
M P = M P
MN 2 PQ V c MN 2 PQ 0
742 Dynamics

v
2
V
2
g Fr 2
a
2 I gr
2
V
2

∴ − = G2 − J= − by (i)
2 2 c H 2 K 2c 2

g 2 ds F gI 2
∴ v2 = r or v= = GH JK
c dt c
ds dθ F gI 2 θ
or . = GH JK a sec ...(ii)
dθ dt c 2
θ dr θ θ θ1
Now r = a sec 2 ; ∴ = 2a sec sec tan
2 dθ 2 2 22
2
ds
= r2
F dr I
+G J = a sec 2
θ F 1 + tan 2 θ I
∴ H dθ K GH J
dθ 2 2K
θ
= a sec 3
2
Hence, from (ii), we get
θ dθ F gI θ F cI θ θ r
a sec 3 . = GH c JK a sec 2 or GH g JK z0 sec 2 dθ = z0 dt
2 dt 2
θ
F cI L Fπ θI O F cI π+θ
or GH g JK M2 log tan GH 4 + JP
4 K Q0
=T or 2 G J log tan
H gK
=T
N 4
6. A heavy ring of mass m is free to move on a smooth fixed parabolic wire of latus rectum 4a
whose axis is vertical and vertex upwards and is attached to one end of an elastic string of natural
length a and modulus of elasticity 2 mg whose other end is fixed at the focus. The ring is projected
from the vertex of the parabola with velocity 2 ( ga ). Prove that that when the focal distances is

R2 g r (3a − r )U1/ 2
r, its velocity is S a V and the pressure on the wire is
T W
1 A N
(3r − 4a) mg
( ar ) S T φ
φ
Solution. Taking SX as initial line and S on pole, the θ P
equation of the parabola will be
R
2a
= 1 + cos ( π − θ)
r
θ
= 1 − cos θ = 2 sin 2
2
At A where θ = π,
2a π
= 2 sin 2 = 2 X mg
r 2
∴ r=a
In a parabola tangent at any point bisects the angle between the focal radius an d perpendicular
from the point on the directrix.
Also, ∠PSX = ∠ SPN (alternate angles)
θ
∴ θ = φ + φ = 2φ or φ=
2
θ F aI
or sin φ = sin = GH JK
2 r
Motion on Smooth and Rough Plane 743
where φ is the angle between tangent and radius vector.
Also, pedal equation of parabola is
p 2 = ar i. e., p= a. r
dp a
∴ =
dr 2 r

ρ=r =r.
2 r
dr
= 2r G J
F rI
∴ dr H aK
a
Also tension in an elastic string
λ (Extension) ( r − a)
= = 2 mg
Natural length a
The equation of motion will be
dv
mv = mg cos φ − T cos φ
ds
R ( r − a) U dr
= Smg − 2 mg V ...(i)
T a W ds

g
or v dv = (3a − 2 r ) dr
a
2g
∴ v2 =
(3ar − r 2 ) + A
a
At A, r = a, then v 2 = 4ag, given
2 gt
4 ag = . 2 a 2 + A, ∴ A=0
a
2g
Hence, v2 = ( 3ar − r 2 ) ...(ii)
a
Again the normal equation of motion will be
v2
m = R − mg sin φ + T sin φ
ρ
Putting the values of v 2 ρ, T and sin φ, we get
2 gr 1 F aI R ( r − a) U F aI
R = m. (3a − r ) . GH JK − Smg + 3mg V GH JK
a 2r r T a W r
mg F aI mg
= GH JK [3a − r − a − 2r + 2 a] = ( 4 a − 3r )
a r ar
EXERCISES
1. A particle slides down a catenary, whose plane is vertical and vertex upwards, the velocity
at any point being due to the fall from the directrix. Prove that the pressure at any point
varies inversely as the distance of that point from the directrix.
2. A small bead is projected with any velocity along a smooth circular wire under the action of
a force varying inversely as the fifth power of the distance from a centre of force situated on
the circumference. Prove that the pressure on the wire is constant.
3. A particle of mass m moves in a smooth circular tube of radius a under the action of a force
equal to mµ × distance to a point inside the tube at a distance from its centre. If the particle
be placed very nearly at its greatest distance from the centre of force, show that it will de-
scribe the quadrant ending at its least distance in time
F aI
GH µc JK log ( 2 + 1)
744 Dynamics
4. A particle is projected horizontally from the lowest point of smooth elliptic arc whose major
axis 2a is vertical and moves under gravity along the concave side. Prove that it will leave
the curve at same point if the velocity of projection lies between (2 ga) and

[ga (5 − e 2 )] ; and if th e velocity have the later value, prove that the particle will continue
to move round the ellipse in time
1/ 2
F a I n R| 1 − e 2 cos 2 φ U|
2 z
GH g JK 0 S V dφ
|T 3 − e 2 + 2 cos φ |W
5. From the lowest point of a smooth hollow cylinder whose crosss-section in one half of the
lemniscate r 2 = a 2 cos 2θ with axis vertical and node downwards, a particle is projected
with velocity V, along the inner surface in the plane of the cross-section. Show that it will
make a complete revolution if 3V 2 > 7 ag.
6. A smooth parabolic tube is placed, vertex downwards, in a vertical plane. A particle slides
down the tube from rest under influence of gravity. Prove that in any position the reaction
h+a
of the tube is 2w . , where w is the weight of the particle, ρ the radius of curvature,
ρ
4a the latus rectum.
7. A bead is constrained to move on a smooth wire in the form of an equiangular spiral. It is
attached to pole of the spiral by a force mµ (distance) −2 and starts from rest at a distance b
from the pole. Show that if the equation of the spiral be r = ae θ cos α , the time of arriving at

π F b2 I
the pole is G 2µ J sec α.
2 H K
8. From the lowest point of a smooth hollow cylinder whose cross-section is an ellipse of ma-
jor axis 2a and minor axis 2b and whose minor axis is vertical, a particle is projected from the
lowest point in a vertical plane perpendicular to the axis of cylinder. Show that it will leave
F a2 + 4b 2 I
the cylinder if the velocity of projection lies between ( 2 gb ) and Gg . J .
H b K
µ λ
9. A small bead moves on a thin ellipse wire under a force to the focus equal to +
2 3 and
r r
is projected from a point on the wire distant R from the focus with the velocity which would
µ
cause it to describe the ellipse freely under a force . Show that the reaction of the wire
r2
λF 1 1 1 I
is G − + J , where ρ is the radius of curvature.
ρ H r 2 ar R 2 K
10. An elastic string of modulus λ is attached at one end to a focus of a smooth wire in the
shape of an ellipse of latus rectum 2l and major axis 2a. The other end of the string is
attached to a small ring of unit mass which can slide on the wire which is fixed with its plane
horizontal. If the ring be slightly displaced from its position of unstable equilibrium at the
end of major axis of the ellipse, show that its angular velocity about the focus when the
string becomes slack is
λl 
 3 ( a − l ) .
a 
Motion on Smooth and Rough Plane 745
4.3 MOTION ON A ROUGH CURVE UNDER GRAVITY
A particle slides down a rough curve in a vertical plane
under gravity, to discuss the motion. ψ
Let P be the position of the particle at time t. At P, let the µR R
tangent is making an angle ψ with any fixed horizontal line
and the arcural distance of P measured from a fixed point A be s
A
s. Let R be the normal reaction. Since the particle slides
ψ
downwards, hence the force of friction µR acts upwards along
the tangent at P. mg
Resolving forces along the tangent and normal at P, we
get the equations of motions are
F dv I
mv G J = mg sin ψ − µR
H ds K
1 F dv 2 I
or mG J = mg sin ψ − µR
2 H ds K
F v2 I
and m G J − mg cos ψ − R
H ρK
Eliminating R from (i) and (ii) by multiplying (ii) by µ and subtracting from (i), we get

2 2
1 dv v
m − µm = mg sin ψ − µ mg cos ψ
2 ds ρ
2
dv
or ρ − 2µv 2 = 2gρ (sin ψ − µ cos ψ)
ds
dv
2
ds F ds I
or . − 2µv 2 = 2 gρ (sin ψ − µ cos ψ ) GH ∵ ρ= J
ds dψ dψ K
2
dv
or − 2µv2 = 2 gρ (sin ψ − µ cos ψ)
dψ
This is a linear differential equation in v 2 whose integrating factor is e −2 µψ . Hence, its solution
will be
−2µψ
v2 .e = 2 g z ρ . 2 −2 µψ (sin ψ − µ cos ψ ) d ψ + c,
where c is a constant of integration.
When the equation of the curve is given, ρ can be determined in terms of ψ. Hence by
substituting the value of ρ in righ t hand side of (iii) it can be easily integrated. The value of c can
be determine by initial conditions.
Thus, from (iii) we can find the value of v 2 in any position and th en by substituting for v 2 in
(ii) the value of R can be determined.
EXAMPLES
1. A particle is projected horizontally with velocity V along the inside of a rough vertical
circle from the lowest point. Prove that if it completes the circle, it will return to the lowest point
with a velocity v given by
2 −4 πµ 2 ga
(1 − 2µ ) (1 − e − πµ )
2 2 4
v =V e +
1 + 4µ 2
Solution. Equations of motions will be
dv
mv = − µR − mg sin θ ...(i)
ds
746 Dynamics
2
v
and m = R − mg cos θ ...(ii)
ρ
For circle, we have ρ = a. Putting the values of R from (ii) into (i), we get
2 2
m dv v B
. = − µm − µ mg cos θ − mg sin θ
2 ds a
2 2
m dv dθ v
or . = − µm . − mg (µ cos θ + sin θ) dv
2 dθ ds a O mv ds
dθ 1 R
Since s = aθ ∴ = θ
ds a
2 P
dv
∴ + 2µv 2 = − 2ga (µ cos θ + sin θ) ...(iii) A θ θ
dθ °–
0
9
This is a linear equation. Hence, its I.F. = e∫ 2µdθ = e2µθ
Hence, the solution of (iii) will be mg
2 µθ
v2 . e = − 2 ga z (µe 2µθ cos θ + e 2 µθ sin θ) d θ
2 µθ
L
e 2 µθ e 2 µθ O
or v2 . e = − 2 ga Mµ . (2µ cos θ + sin θ) + ( 2µ sin θ − cos θ) P + A,
2 2
MN 1 + 4 µ 1 + 4 µ PQ
where A is the constant of integration.
2 2µθ e 2µθ
or v .e = − 2 ga . [3µ sin θ − (1 − 2 µ 2 ) cos θ] + A ...(iv)
(1 + 4µ 2 )
Initially, when θ = 0, v = V (given)
2 2 ga
V .1 = − [0 − (1 − 2µ 2 )] + A
∴ 2
1 + 4µ
2 2 ga 2
∴ A=V − (1 − 2µ )
2
1 + 4µ
By putting the value of A in (iv), we get
2 2µθ e 2 µθ 2 ga
v e = − 2ga . [3µ sin θ − (1 − 2 µ 2 ) cos θ] + V 2 −
(1 − 2µ 2 ) ...(v)
2
1 + 4µ (1 + 4µ 2 )
When the particle returns to the lowest point, it would have described an an gle θ = 2π and let
the velocity be v1. Then from (v), we get
−2 ga 4 πµ ga
v1 e πµ =
2 4
e [0 − (1 − 2µ 2 ) . 1] + V 2 − (1 − 2µ 2 )
2 2
1 + 4µ (1 + 4µ )
Dividign by e 4 πµ , we get
2 ga
v1 = V e − πµ + (1 − 2µ ) (1 − e − πµ )
2 2 4 2 4
2
1 + 4µ
2. A particle under no forces is projected with velocity V in a rough tube in the form of an
equiangular spiral at a distance a from the pole and towards the pole. Show that it will arrive at
the pole in time
a 1
V cos α − µ sin α
α being the angle of the spiral and (µ < cot α ) the coefficient of friction.
Solution. The equation of the equiangular spiral is
θ cot α ...(i)
r = ae
Motion on Smooth and Rough Plane 747
Also, φ = α and ψ = θ + φ = θ + α and its pedal equation is p = r sin α ;
dp dr
∴ = sin α and ρ = r = r cosec α.
dr dp
The particle is moving under no forces and hence we have the following equations of motion.
dv
mv = µR ...(ii)
ds
v2
and m =R ...(iii)
ρ
2
dv v
or mv =µ .m
ds ρ
1 dv 2 dθ µv 2
or . =
2 dθ ds r cosec α
2
1 dv µv 2 dθ
or .r =
2 dθ ds cosec α
dθ dθ
But tan φ = r ; ∴ sin φ = r . = sin α , because φ = α.
dr ds
2
1 dv
∴ sin α − µv 2 sin α = 0
2 dθ
2
dv
or − 2µv 2 = 0
dθ
This is a linear differential equation whose integrating factor = e −2 µθ .
Hence, the solution of the equation will be
2 −2µθ
v .e = c2 or v = ce µθ ,
2
where c is the constant of integration.

From (i), we have

F r I 1/cot α = e θ
GH JK
a
F r I µ tan α = e µθ
or GH JK
a

v=cG J
F r I µ tan α
∴ H aK
Initially, when r = a, v = − V (towards the pole) ∴ c = − V

v= G
F r I µ tan α ( −V ) F r I µ tan α
H a JK GH JK
∴ or v= −V
a
ds r µ tan α ds dr r µ tan α
or =−V. or . =−V.
µ tan α
dt a dr dt a µ tan α
dr dr
But cos φ = or cos α = ,∵φ = α
ds ds
1 dr V a µ tan α 0 − µ tan α
r µ tan α
∴ t
. =− or − z r dr = z0 dt
cos α dt a µ tan α V cos α a

aµ
tan α L r − µ tan α + 1 O 0
or − M P =1
V cos α MN −µ tan α + 1PQ α
748 Dynamics
µ tan α −µ tan α + 1 µ tan α − µ tan α + 1
a 0−a a cos α
∴ t=− . = .
V cos α − µ tan α + 1 V cos α cos α − µ sin α
a 1
= . .
V cos α − µ sin α
3. A particle slides in a vertical plane down a rough cycloidal arc where axis is vertical and
vertex downwards starting from a point where the tangent makes an angle θ with the horizon
µθ
and coming to rest at the vertex; show that µe = sin θ − µ cos θ.
Solution. Intrinsic equation of a cycloid is
B C A
s = 4a sin ψ ...(i)
ds dv
ρ= = 4a cos ψ. Its length = 8a R mv
ds
dψ
P
π
Also ψ = for cusp and ψ = 0 at the vertex. s
ψ mg
2
O
Since the particle is sliding down the arc, the
force of friction acts in upwards direction. Hence, equations of motion will be
dv
mv = µR − mg sin ψ ...(ii)
ds
2
v
and m = R − mg cos ψ ...(iii)
ρ
Eliminating R between (ii) and (iii), we get
dv  v2 
mv = µm + mg cos ψ  − mg sin ψ
ds  ρ 
 
2 2
1 dv v
or =µ + g (µ cos ψ − sin ψ)
2 ds ρ
Multiplying both sides by 2ρ, we get
2
dv ds
. − 2µv 2 = 2 g .4a cos ψ (µ cos ψ − sin ψ)
ds dψ
ds
∵
ρ= = 4a cos ψ
dψ
2
dv
or − 2µv 2 = 8ag cos ψ ( µ cos ψ − sin ψ) ...(iv)
dψ
−2µψ
This is linear differential equation and its integrating factor is e .
Hence, solution of this equation will be
v 2 .e −2µv = 8ag ∫ e −2 µv cos ψ (µ cos ψ − sin ψ) d ψ + A ...(v)
where A is constant of integration.
Put e −µψ (µ cos ψ − sin ψ) = z.

∴ [ −µe −µψ (µ cos ψ − sin ψ) + e −µψ ( −µ sin ψ − cos ψ)] d ψ = dz

or − e −µψ [1 + µ2 ] cos ψ d ψ = dz
−µψ dz
∴ e cos ψ d ψ = − ...(vi)
2
1+µ
Hence, from (v) and (vi), we get
Motion on Smooth and Rough Plane 749
2 −2µψ −µψ −µψ
v e = 8ag ∫ e . cos ψ e ( µ cos ψ − sin ψ) d ψ + A
− dz
= 8ag ∫ z . +A
1 + µ2
8agz 2
=− +A
2 (1 + µ 2 )
2 −2µψ 8ag −2 µψ
or v e =− e (µ cos ψ − sin ψ) 2 + A ...(vii)
1 + µ2
We are given that v = 0 when ψ = 0.
4ag −2µθ 2 2 4ag −2 µθ 2
∴ A= e (µ cos θ − sin θ) or v = e ( µ cos θ − sin θ)
2 2
(1 + µ ) (1 + µ )
4ag −2µψ
− e (µ cos ψ − sin ψ) 2 ...(viii)
2
1+µ
Again, we are given that it comes to rest at the vertex where ψ = 0.
Hence, putting v = 0 and ψ = 0 in (viii), we get
4ag −2µθ 4ag
e (µ cos θ − sin θ) 2 = ( µ) 2
1 + µ2 1 + µ2
or e −2µθ (µ cos θ − sin θ) 2 = µ2
or µ = ± e −µθ ( µ cos θ − sin θ) or µeµθ = ± ( µ cos θ − sin θ)
Taking n egative sign, we get
µ eµθ = sin θ − µ cos θ
4. A small bead is threaded on a rough rigid wire in the form of an equiangular spiral of
angle α. The bead is projected away from the pole with any velocity. Prove that the intervals of
time between the successive instants at which the bead is moving in the same direction as at first
form a G.P. of common ratio e 2 π (µ + cot α) .
Solution. The equations of motions are
dv
mv = − µR ...(i)
ds
2
mv
and =R ...(ii)
ρ
Eliminating R, we get
2
dv v dv ds
mv = − µ.m or . = − µv
ds ρ ds d ψ
dv dv
or = − µv or = − µ d ψ.
dψ v
Integrating, log v = − µψ + log k ,
where k is a constant.
v ds
or log = − µψ or v = ke−µψ =
k dt
ds d ψ −µψ
or . = ke ...(iii)
d ψ dt
Now, the equation of equiangular spiral of angle α is r = aeθ cot α and its pedal equation is
p = r sin α and φ = α. Hence,
750 Dynamics
ds dr r
=ρ=r = = r cosec α. Also ψ = θ + φ = θ + α.
dψ dp sin α
Hence, from (iii), we get
r dψ d ψ k sin αe−µψ k sin α e−µψ
. = ke−µψ or = =
sin α dt dt r aeθ cot α
d ψ k sin α −µψ − ( ψ − α) cot α
or = e e ∵ ψ = θ + α
dt a
d ψ k sin α α cot α − (µ + cot α ) ψ
or = e .e
dt a
(µ + cot α) ψ k sin α α cot α
or e dψ = e dt
a
(µ + cot α ) ψ
e k sin α α cot α
Integrating, = e t + A,
µ + cot α a
where A is constant of integration. Since α, k , a and µ are constants, above equation can be
put in the form
e(µ + cot α) ψ = Bt + c ...(iv)
Let initially, when t = 0, ψ = ψ0
(µ + cot α) ψ0
∴ c=e ...(v)
Since we are to find the intervals, when the particles is moving in th e same direction as at first,
hence we give to ψ the values ψ 0 + 2π, ψ0 + 4 π, ψ0 + 6π and so on and let the corresponding
values of t be t1 , t2 , t3 and so on. We are to find the values of t2 − t1 , t3 − t2 and so on.
Putting these values in (iv), we get
(µ + cot α) (ψ 0 + 2 π)
e = Bt1 + c
(µ + cot α) ψ0 (µ + cot α) 2 π
or a e − c = Bt1
(µ + cot α) 2 π
or c {e − 1} = Bt1 by (v)
Similarly, c {e(µ + cot α) 4 π − 1} = Bt2
and c {e(µ + cot α) 6 π − 1} = Bt3 and so on .
c
∴ t2 − t1 = e(µ + cot α) 2 π [e( µ + cot α) 2 π − 1]
B
c (µ + cot α) 4 π ( µ + cot α) 2 π
t3 − t2 = e [e − 1]
B
Obviously, above intervals of time t2 − t1 , t3 − t2 , ... form a G.P. whose common ratio is
e µ+
( cot α) 2 π
.
5. A particle starts from rest from the cusp of a rough cycloid whose axis is vertical and
vertex downwards. Show that its velocity at the vertex is to its velocity at the same point when the
cycloid is smooth as
(e −µπ − µ2 )1/ 2 : (1 + µ2 )
where µ is the coefficient of friction. Further show that the particle will certainly come to
rest before reaching the vertex if the coefficient of friction be 0.5, having given that log 2 = .69315.
Solution. Proceeding exactly as in Example 3, we arrive at result (vii) as
4ag −2µv
v e − µψ = −
2 2
e (µ cos ψ − sin ψ) 2 + A
2
1+µ
π
Since the particle starts from rest at the cusp when ψ = , we have
2
Motion on Smooth and Rough Plane 751
4ag −µπ
0=− e (0 − 1) 2 + A
1 + µ2
4ag −µπ
∴ A= e
1 + µ2
−2µψ 4ag −µπ 4ag −2 µψ
∴ e = e − e (µ cos ψ − sin ψ) 2
2 2
1+ µ 1+ µ
Let v1 be the velocity at the vertex where ψ = 0. Then we have from above by putting
v = v1 and ψ = 0.
2 4ag −µπ 4ag 2
∴ v1 .1 = e − 1 . (µ .1 − 0)
2 2
1+ µ 1+µ
4ag
(e −µπ − µ )
2 2
or v1 = ...(i)
2
1+µ
Let v2 be the velocity at the vertex when the cycloid is smooth, then putting µ = 0 in (i), we
get
2 4ag
v2 = (1 − 0) = 4ag ...(ii)
1
From (i) and (ii), we have
v12 e−µπ − µ 2
2
=
v2 1 + µ2
−µπ
or v1 : v2 = (e − µ2 )1/ 2 : (1 + µ2 )
Now, let the paricle comes to rest at the lowest point, i.e., vertex.
Then v1 = 0 and hence from (i),
e −µx − µ 2 = 0 or µ2 eµπ = 1. Hence, it will coem to rest before reaching the vertex if
µπ
µ2 eµπ > 1 or µeµπ / 2 > 1 or if log µ + log e > log 1
2
µπ 1
1 22
or log µ + log e > 0 or log + . .1> 0
2 2 4 7
1 22
since µ = .5 = and π =
2 7
22 22
or if − log 2 > 0 or − .69315 > 0
28 28
22
which is true as = .785.
28
Hence, if µ = .5, the particle will come to rest before reaching the vertex.
6. A rough parabolic wire with latus rectum 4a is placed with its axis vertical and vertex
downwards and a bead is projected along it from the lowest point with velocity u. Show that the
a
bead will come to rest at a distance 2
from the focus where
n
  2  
 u
µ cos−1 n = log  n  1 +  .
 2ag  
  
Solution.Taking S as pole and SX as initial line, the polar equation of the parabola will be
2a 2 θ
= 1 + cos θ or r = a sec
r 2
752 Dynamics
dr θ θ θ 1
∴ = 2a sec sec tan .
dθ 2 2 2 2
1 dr θ θ
or = tan or cot φ = tan
r dθ 2 2 R
θ P
∴ φ = 90 ° − S
2 θ
θ
and ψ = θ + φ = 90° + ...(ii) A M
2 µR
 θ θ a
Also, p = r sin φ = r sin  90° +  = r cos 2 = r  r  = (ar )
 2  
dp a dr
∴ = . Hence, ρ = r
dr 2 r dp
r θ
= 2r   = 2a sec3 ...(iii)
a 2
a 2 θ a
Also, when r = , then a sec =
2 2 2
n n
θ
or cos =n
2
θ
∴ = cos−1 n ...(iv)
2
The equations of motion will be
dv θ
mv = − µR − mg cos φ = − µR − mg sin by (ii) ...(v)
ds 2
2
v θ
and m = R − mg sin φ = R − mg cos ...(vi)
ρ 2
Eliminating R between (v) & (vi), we get
dv  mv 2
θ θ
mv =−µ + mg cos  − mg sin
ds  ρ 2  2
 
µv 2 1 dv 2
 θ θ
or` +
= − g  µ cos + sin 
2 ds ρ  2 2
Multiplying both sides by 2ρ and putting
θ
ρ = 2a sec3 by (iii),
2
2
dv ds θ θ θ
we get . + 2µv 2 = − 2 g . 2a sec3
 µ cos 2 + sin 2 
ds dψ  2
2
dv dθ 2  2 θ θ 2 θ
. + 2µv = − 4ag  µ sec + tan sec 
dθ dψ  2 2 2
  
2
dv 2  2 θ θ θ dθ
or . 2 + 2µv = − 4ag  µ sec + tan sec 2 θ  ∵ ψ = 90° + , ∴ = 2
dθ  2 2   2 dψ 
2
dv  θ θ θ
or + µv 2 = − 2ag  µ sec 2 + tan sec 2 
dθ  2 2 2
This is linear equation in v 2 and its I.F. = eµθ . Hence, the solution of this equation will be
 θ θ θ θ
v 2 .eµθ = − 2 ag ∫ eµθ  tan sec sec + µ sec2  dθ + A
 2 2 2 2
Motion on Smooth and Rough Plane 753
 θ θ θ 
= − 2ag  eµθ sec2 − ∫ eµθ . µ sec2 d θ + ∫ eµθ µ sec2 d θ + A
 2 2 2 
2 µθ θ
or v e = − 2ag eµθ sec2 +A
2
Initially, for the vertex θ = 0 and v = u
2 2
∴ u = − 2ag + A or A = u + 2ag
2 µθ θ
∴ v e = − 2ageµθ sec 2 + u 2 + 2ag
2
The bead will come to rest when v = 0
θ
∴ 2ag eµθ sec2 = u 2 + 2ag
2
θ µ2
or eµθ sec2 =1+
2 2ag

µθ / 2 θ  u2 
e = cos 1 + 
or 2   2ag 

 u2 
= n 1 +  , by (iv)
 2ag 

Taking log of both sides, we get
µθ
   u
2
= log  n  1 +

2  
2ag  
 

  2 
u
µ cos−1 n = log  n  1 + 
  2ag   by (iv).
 
7. A particle P of unit mass describes on ellipse under an attraction f to focus S and attraction
f ′ to the other focus H. If SP = r and HP = r ′, prove that
1 d 1 d
(r 2 f ) = ( r ′2 f ′)
2 2
r dr r ′ dr ′
Hence, show that if one force obeys the Newtonian law, so also must obey the other. If the
forces are equal, then each varies inversely as the product of focal distance of P.
Solution. There is a force f at P towards focus S, where
SP = r and a force f ′ at P towards focus H where HP = r ′. Z
We know that tangent and normal at any point on an ellipse Y P φ
φ r'
are equally inclined to the focal radii SP and HP. r F'
F
∴ ∠SPY = ∠HPZ = φ
S G M
SY SY
sin φ = =
SP r
HZ HZ
and sin φ = =
HP r′
2 SY . HZ b2 2
sin φ = = ∵ SY . HZ = b
rr ′ rr ′
b
Hence, sin φ =
( rr ′)
754 Dynamics
Again we know that in an ellipse,
x = a cot t , y = b sin t
3/ 2
 dx 2  dy 2 
  −   
ρ=  dt   dt   =
(a 2 sin 2 t − b 2 cos 2 t )3 / 2
∴  dx d y dy d x 
2 2 ab
 . 2 − . 2
 dt dt dt dt 

[ a 2 (1 − cos 2 t ) + b2 cos 2 t]3 / 2 [ a2 − ( a2 − b2 ) cos 2 t]3 / 2

= =
ab ab
(a 2 − a 2 e2 cos 2 t )3 / 2 ( a 2 − e2 x2 )3 / 2 [( a − ex) ( a + ex)]3/ 2 ( SP. HP)3 / 2
= = = =
ab ab ab ab
(rr ′)3/ 2
= ...(ii)
ab
Also, SP + HP = 2a or r + r ′ = 2a
Resolving the forces along the tan gent, we have
dv dr dr ′ dr
v = f cos φ − f ′ cos φ = f − f′ , ∵ cos φ = .
ds ds ds ds
1 2
∴ dv = − ( f dr + f ′dr ′) ...(iii)
2
Resolving along the normal, we get
2
v
= f sin φ + f ′ sin φ [∵ m = 1]
ρ
or 2
v = ( f + f ′) ρ sin φ ...(iv)
2
Putting for v from (iv) in (iii), we get
d [( f + f ′) ρ sin φ] = − 2 f dr 2 f ′ dr ′
 ( rr ′)
3/ 2
b 
or d ( f + f ′) .  = − 2 f dr − 2 f ′ dr ′ by (i) and (ii)
 ab ( rr ′) 

1
or d [( f + f ′) rr ′] = − 2 f dr − 2 f ′ dr ′
a
or d ( frr ′) + d ( f ′ rr ′) = − 2a ( fdr + f ′ dr ′)
d d
or ( frr ′) dr + ( f ′ rr ′) dr ′ = − 2 a ( f dr + f ′ dr ′)
dr dr ′
Now, we know that in an ellipse sum of the focal distances is constant and equal to 2a.
∴ r + r ′ = 2a, ∴ dr = − dr ′
d d
∴ ( frr ′) dr − ( f ′ rr ′) dr = − 2 a ( f dr − f ′ dr )
dr dr ′
d d
or ( frr ′) − ( f ′rr ′) = − (r + r ′) ( f − f ′)
dr dr ′
 ′ df dr ′   df ′ dr 
 rr + fr ′ + fr  −  rr ′ ′ + f r′ + f r′ ′ ′  = − f (r + r ′) + f ′ ( r + r ′)
 dr dr   dr dr 
dr dr ′
Putting = = − 1, we get
dr ′ dr
 ′ dr   df ′ 
 rr dr + fr ′ − fr  −  rr ′ dr ′ + f r′ + f r′ ′  = − f (r + r ′) + f ′ (r + r ′)
   
Motion on Smooth and Rough Plane 755
df df ′
or rr ′+ 2 fr ′ = rr ′ + 2 f r′ .
dr dr ′
Dividing throughout by rr ′, we get
df 2f df ′ 2 f ′
+ = +
dr r dr ′ r′
1  2 df  1  ′2 df ′ 
or 2 
r + 2 r . f  = 2  r dr ′ + 2r ′r ′ 
r  dr  r  
1 d 2 1 d 2
or (r f ) = (r ′ f ′) ...(ii)
r 2 dr r ′2 dr ′
µ
Now if f obeys Newtonian Law, then f = or r 2 f = µ, i.e., constant.
2
r
Hence, from (iv), we get
1 d 1 d 2 1 d 2
(µ) = ( r ′ f ′) or 0= (r ′ f ′)
r dr r ′2 dr ′ r ′2 dr ′
2 µ′
∴ r ′ f ′ = cons tant = µ ′ ∴ f′=
2
r′
Hence, clearly f ′ also obeys Newtonian Law.
From above
µ µ′ µµ′
f = and also f ′ = ∴ ff ′ =
r2 r ′2 r 2 r ′2
But if he forces be equal, i.e., f ′ = f .
µµ′
2 (µµ′) k
then f = or f = =
2 2 rr ′ rr ′
r r′
i.e., force varies inversely as the pr oduct of the focal distances of the point.
EXERCISES
1. A particle falls from a position of limiting equilibrium near the top of a nearly smooth glass
sphere. Show that it will leave he sphere at the point whose radius is inclined to the vertical
 4α  2
at an angle α + µ  2 −  where cos α = and µ is the small coefficient of friction.
 3 sin α 3
2. A particle is projected along the inner surface of a rough sphere and is acted on by no
a
(e µπ − 1),
2
forces. Show that it will return to the point of projection at the end of time
µV
where a is the radius of the sphere, V is th e velocity of projection and µ is the coefficient of
friction.
3. A rough cycloid has its plane vertical and the line joining its cusp horizontal. A heavy particle
slides down the curve from rest at a cusp and comes to rest again at the point on the other
side of the vertex where the tangent is inclined at 45° to the vertical. Show that the coefficient
of friction satisfies the equation
3µπ + 4 log (1 + µ) = 2 log 2
4. A bead moves along a rough curve wire which is such that it changes its direction of
motion with constant angular velocity. Show that a possible form of wire is an
equiangular spiral.
5. A smooth wire in the form of a parabola of latus rectum 4 a is fixed in a horizontal place. A
small ring of mass m can slide on it and is attached to the focus by a light elastic string of
natural length a and modulus λ. If the ring is held at the end of the latus rectum and released,
show that its distance from the axis of the parabola at time t is
  λ 
2a cos t  
  4am     
 Motion in a Resisting Medium
5.1 INTRODUCTION
We are familiar with several motions in vacuum, for example the motion of a projectile in vacuum.
In vacuum the moving body does not experience any resistance to its motion but when a body
moves in a medium like air, it feels a resistance to its motion and hence it is called the motion in a
resisting medium. It has been observed that resistance increases as the velocity of the body increases
and hence the resistance may be assumed to be some function of the velocity. The resisting force
always acts in the opposite direction of motion and is non-conservative and hence the principle
of conservation of energy can not be applied.
All the laws of resistance, in fact, are more or less empiric.

5.2 TERMINAL VELOCITY

Let a particle of mass m be falling under gravity in air and let the resistance be proportional to
v n , where v is the velocity at a distance x. Then equation of motion will be
2
d x dv
= = g − kv n ..(i)
2 dt
dt
where g is acceleration due to gravity. The n egative sign to kv n shows that there is retardation
2
d x
due to air resistance. Equation (i) shows that with the increase in velocity the acceleration 2
dt
goes on decreasing till the particle acquires a velocity which makes the right hand side of (i) vanish.
Let this velocity be V, then
1/ n
g
0 = g − kV n or V =   ...(ii)
k
dv
After v has reached the value V, vanishes. Hence, it ceases to increase any more and thus
dt
v can never exceed the value V.
If we consider the case in which the particle is projected downwards with a velocity greater
dv
than V, then th e right han d side of (i) will be negative and hencewill be negative. It means that
dt
from the beginning of motion there is retardation. Due to this retardation, the velocity of particle
dv
will go on decreasing till it reaches the velocity V. When this velocity is reached, = 0 and then
dt
velocity ceases to decrease.
Obviously, in either case the ultimate velocity is V. This velocity V is called the terminal velocity.
For example, a rain drop falling on th e earth can not give an idea of the height from which it is
coming as it will attain termin al velocity much earlier th an it has fallen on the ground, while for a
feather falling from the top of a tower, it is easy to see that the feather will have practically the
same constant velocity in the last four or five metres.
Motion in a Resisting Medium 757
5.3 MOTION IN A VERTICAL LINE DOWNWARDS
A particle falls under gravity, supposed constant, in a resisting medium whose resistance
varies as the square of the velocity; to find the motion of the particle if it starts from rest.
Let a particle falls, from rest, vertically downwards from A. Let P be its position when it has
described a distance x in time t. The forces acting at P will be : A
(i) The weight mg of the particle acting vertically downwards, and
(ii) The force mkv 2 due to resistance acting vertically upwards.
Hence, the equation of motion will be λ mkv2
2
d x dv 2
m = mv = mg − mkv
2 dx
dt
dv  k 
or v = g 1 − v 2  P
...(i)
mg
dx  g 
Let V be the termin al velocity, i.e., the velocity when the downward acceleration is zero. Then
from (i)
 k  k
0 = g  1− V 2  or 1 − V 2 = 0
 g  g
2 g
or V = ...(ii)
k
From (ii) and (i), we get
dv  v2 
v = g 1 − 
dx  V2  ...(iii)
 
v dv g
or = dx
V 2 − v2 V 2
Integrating, we get 2 2 2 gx
log (V − v ) = − + C,
V2
where C is constant of integration.
2
Initially at A, x = 0, v = 0. ∴ C = log V
2 2 gx
Hence, log (V − v2 ) = − + log V 2
2
V
 V 2 − v2  2 gx V 2 − v2 2
log  =− 2 or = e( −2 gx / V )
or  V2  V V2
 
( 2 gx / V 2 )
v = V (1 − e −
2 2 ...(iv)
)
Equation (iv) gives the velocity in any position.
Now from equation (iii), we get

dv  v2  (V 2 − v2 ) dv g
= g 1 − =g or = dt
dt  V 
2
V
2 (V
2
− v2 ) V
2

Integrating, we get
1  v  gt
tanh −1   = + A,
V V  V
where A is constant of integration.
Initially, at A, v = 0 when t = 0, ∴ A = 0.
1 −1 v gt
Hence, tanh =
V V V2
 gt 
or v = V tanh   ...(v)
V 
758 Dynamics
Equation (v) gives velocity at any time.
Equating the values of v from (iv) and (v), we get
2  gt  2 / 2
V tanh   = V (1 − e − gx v )
2 2
V 
2 gx / V 2  gt   gt 
or e− = 1 − tanh 2   = sech2  
V  V 
2 gx / V 2  gt 
or e = cosh2  
V 
2 gx  gt 
or = 2 log cosh  
V2 V 
V 2   gt 
x=  log cosh  
or  g  V  
...(vi)
 
This equation gives relation between x and t.
5.3.1 Motion in a Vertical Line in Upward Direction
A particle is projected upwards under gravity, supposed constant, in a resisting medium whose
resistance varies as the square of the velocity; to discuss the motion.
Let a particle of mass m be projected from A with initial velocity u, vertically under gravity. Let
P be its position when it has described a distance x in time t. The forces acting on the particle at P
will be P
(i) Weight of the particle mg, acting vertically downwards, and
2
(ii) The force mkv due to resistance acting vertically downwards. mg mkv2
Hence, the equation of motion will be x
2
d x dv
m = mv = − mg − mkv2
2 dx
dt
dv  k 
or v = − g 1 + v2  A ...(i)
dx  g 
Let V be the termin al velocity, i.e.,the velocity when th e downwards acceleration is zero, then
from (i) of 5.3.
 k 2 2 g
0 = g 1 − V  or V = ...(ii)
 g  k
Substituting from (ii) in (i), we get

dv  v 
2
v dv g
v = − g 1 +  or =− dx
dx  V 2  V 2 + v2 V2

Integrating, we get
2 gx
log (V 2 + v 2 ) = − + C,
V2
where C is constant of integration.
Initially, at A, v = u, x = 0;
2
∴ C = log (V + u2 )
2 2 2 gx
∴ log (V + v ) = − + log (V 2 + u 2 )
V2
 V 2 + u2  2 gx
log  =
or  V 2 + v2  V 2 ...(iv)
 
This gives velocity in any position, Equation (ii) may be written as
Motion in a Resisting Medium 759
dv g  dv dv 
=− (V 2 + v 2 ) ∵ v dx = dt 
dt 2
V
dv g
or =− dt
2
V + v2 V
2

Integrating, we get
1 v gt
tan −1 = − + A,
V V 2
V
where A is constant of integration.
1 u
At A, v = u where t = 0, ∴ A= tan −1
V V
1 1 u gt 1 u
∴ tan − =− + tan −1
V V 2 V V
V
V  −1  u  −1  v  
or t =  tan   − tan    ...(v)
g  V   V 
This is the relation between velocity and time.
5.4 RESISTANCE PROPORTIONAL TO THE VELOCITY
(a) A particle falls under gravity (supposed constant) from rest in a medium whose resistance
varies as the velocity; to discuss the motion.
Let at time t, the particle has fallen through a distance x when v is its velocity. The forces
acting at the particle at P will be
(i) The weight mg of the particle acting vertically downwards, and
O
(ii) The force mkv due to r esistance acting vertically upwards.
Then the equation of motion will be
2
d x
dv
= mv
m = mg − mkv v
2 dx k
dt m
dv  k 
or v =  g − v ...(i) υ
dx  g  P m
Let V be the terminal velocity, then mg
k g2
0 = g − V or V = . O'
g k
dv g
∴ v =g− v
dx V
dv g
+ v=g  dv dv 
or ...(ii) ∵ v =
dt V  dx dt 
This is a linear differential equation whose
I.F. = e ∫ ( g / V ) dt = e( g / V ) t
Hence solution of (ii) will be
ve( g / v ) t = g ∫ e( g / V ) t dt + A or ve( g / V ) t = Ve( g / V ) t + A,
where A is constant of integration.
Initially, t = 0, v = 0, ∴A= −V
∴ ve( g / V ) t = Ve( g / V ) t − V
or −( g / V ) t ...(iii)
v = V − Ve
dx
or = V − Ve− ( g / V ) t
dt
760 Dynamics
2 g
V − t
Inetgrating, we get x = vt + e V + B,
g
where B is constant of integration.
V2
Initially, t = 0, x = 0, ∴ B=−
g
2 2 g
V V − t
Hence, x = Vt − + e V ...(iv)
g g
This is th e relation between x and t.
(b) A particle is projected upwards with a velocity u in a medium whose resistance varies as
the velocity to discuss the motion.
Let the particle be projected from A with initial velocity u, vertically up-wards, under gravity.
Let P be its position when it has described a distance x time t. The force acting on the particle at P
will be
(i) The weight mg of the particle acting vertically downwards, and
A'
(ii) The force mkv due to resistance acting vertically downwards.
Hence, the equation of motion will be
2
d x dv υ
m = mv = − mg − mkv P
2 dx
dt
mkv
dv  k 
or v = − g 1 + v  ...(i) mg
dx  g 
g u
Let V be the terminal velocity, then V = .
k A
dv g
∴ v =−g− v
dx V
dv g
or v =− (V + v) ...(ii)
dx V
v dv g
or = dx
V +v V
 V  g
or 1 − +  dv = dx
 V v V
Integrating,
g
v − V log (V + v) = − x + A,
V
where A is constant of integration.
Initially, x = 0, v = u, ∴ A = u − V log (V + u )
V +v g
∴ v − u − V log =− x
u +V V
V2
V +u V
or x=log + (u − v) ...(iii)
g V +u g
Let H be the maximum height then at x = H , v = 0. Hence,
V2V Vu
H = log +
g V +v g
Equation (iii) gives relation between x and v.
Again equation (ii) may be written as
dv g  dv dv 
+ =−g
dt V
∵ v dx = dt 
Motion in a Resisting Medium 761
(g /V ) t
This is a linear equation whose I.F. = e . Hence, its solution will be
( / ) ( / )
ve g V t = − g ∫ e g V t dt + B
= − Ve( g / V ) t + B,
where B is constant of integration. Initially, t = 0, v = u,
∴ B =u +V
− (g /V ) t ...(v)
∴ v = (u + V ) e −V
This is the relation between v and t. Again, (v) can be written as
dx
= (u + V ) e −( g / V ) t − V or dx = [(u + V ) e − ( g / V ) t − V ] dt
dt
Integrating, we get
V −( / )
x = − (u + V ) e g V t − Vt + C ,
g
where C is constant of integration.
V
Initially, t = 0, x = 0 ∴ C = (u + V ) .
g
V −( / )
∴ x = (u + V ) [1 − e g V t ] − Vt ...(vi)
g
This is th e relation between x and t.
From relation (v) it is clear that v decreases as t increases till at the highest point, where v = 0,
we have
− V
e ( g /V ) t =
u +V
V u +V 
or t = log   ...(vii)
g  V 
From (vi) and (vii) the greatest height H will be
V2 V2 u +V V
H=− − log + (u + V )
g g V g
uV V2 u +V 
= − log   ...(viii)
g g  V 

5.5 RESISTANCE VARYING AS n TH POWER OF THE VELOCITY

A particle falls under gravity (supposed constant), in a resisting medium whose resistance
varies as nth power of the velocity; to find the motion of the particle if it starts from rest.
In this case, the equation of motion will be
2
d x dv
m = mv = mg − mkv n
2 dx
dt
dv  k 
or v = g 1 − v n  ...(i)
dx  g 
Let V be the terminal velocity, i.e., the velocity when the downwards acceleration is zero, th en
from (i)
 k  g
0 = g 1 − V n  or V n = ...(ii)
 g  k
Hence, from (i); we have
dv  v 
n
v = g 1 − 
dx  n 
 V 
762 Dynamics
v dv
= g dx
 v
n 
or 1 − n 
 V 
 vn
2
v n
3
v n 
or 1 + n + 2 n + 3n + ... v dv = g dx
 V V V 
Integrating,
 v2 vn + 2 v2n + 2 
 + n
+
2n
+ ... = gx + A
 2 ( n + 2) V (2n + 2) V 
where A is constant of integration.
Initially, v = 0, x = 0; ∴ A = 0.
Hence,
v2  1 
n 2n 3n
1 v 1 v 1 v
x=  +   + (2 n + 2) V  +   + ... ...(iv)
g  2 (n + 2)  V    (3n + 2)  V 
 
This is the relation between v and x.
Again, equation (iii) can be written as
dv  vn   dv dv 
= g 1 − 
dt  V n 
∵ v dx = dt 

dv
gdt =
 vn 
∴ 1 − n 
 V 
v
Since < 1, hence expanding by Binomial theorem, we get
V
 vn v2n v3 n 
gdt = 1 + + + + ...  dv
 V n
V
2n 3
V n 
 
Integrating, we get
 v +
n 1
v
2n + 1
v
3n + 1 
gt =  v + + + + ... + B,
n 2n 3n
 ( n + 1) V (2n + 1) V (3n + 1) V 
where B is constant of integration.
Initially, v = 0 and t = 0, ∴ B = 0 . Hence,
v  
n 2n 3n
1 v 1 v  1 v
t= 1 +   + (2 n + 1) V  +   + ... ...(v)
g 
 ( n + 1)  V    (3n + 1)  V 

This is th e relation between v and t.
EXAMPLES
1. Show that a particle projected upwards with a velocity U in a medium whose resistance
varies as the square of the velocity will return to the point of projection wtih velocity
UV V 
−1 U −1 v1 
v1 =
2
+V2 g 
 tan V + tanh V  where V is the terminal velocity.
after a time
U 
Solution. We know that the equation of motion when the particle is moving upwards is given
by
dv 2
= − mg − mkv
mv ...(i)
dx
Now, the particle moving upwards reaches the highest point B and then return back moving in
the downwards path. We know that the equation of motion when the particle is descending is given
by
Motion in a Resisting Medium 763
B
dv
mv = mg − mkv 2 ...(ii)
dy
Q
dv
If V be the terminal velocity, then putting v = V and v = 0 in (ii), we get
dy
g P
0 = mg − mkV 2 or V
2
= ...(iii)
k
Hence, from (i)
dv  v 
2 A
v = − g 1 + 
dx  V 
2 [using (iii)] ...(iv)

2v dv 2g
or =− dx
2
V + v2 V
2

Integrating, we get
2 2g
log (V + v2 ) = − +A
V2
where A is constant of integration.
Initially, when x = 0, V = U .
2 2
∴ A = log (V + U )
2 2 2 gx
∴ log (V + v ) = − + log (V 2 + U 2 )
V2
V2 V 2 + U2 
x= log  
or 2g  V 2 + v2  ...(v)
 
Let h be the greatest height attained by the particle, the putting x = h , v = 0 in (v), we get
V 2 + U2 
V2
log 
h= 
2g  V2  ...(vi)
 
Again, we may write equation (iv) as
dv g  dv dv 
=− (V 2 + v 2 ) ∵ dt = v dx 
dt 2
V
dv g
or = dt ...(vii)
2 2 2
V +v V
Let t1 be the time taken by the particle in reachin g the high est point where is velocity become
zero. Then by integrating (vii) between the limits t = 0 to t = t1 and v = U to v = 0, we get
0
1 −1 v  g t1
 V tan V  = − 2 [t ]0
U V
1 U gt V U
or − tan −1 = − 1 or t1 = tan −1 ...(viii)
V V 2 g V
V
Now, after reaching the highest point, the particle stars moving downwards from rest. Therefore,
its equation of motion will be (ii), and it may written as
dv  k 2  dv  v2 
v = g 1 − v  or v = g 1 − 
dy  g  dy  V 2 

dv g
or v = (V 2 − v 2 ) ...(ix)
dy V 2
v dv g
or =− dy
2
(V − v2 ) V
2
764 Dynamics
Integrating, we get
2 2 2 gy
log (V − v ) = − + B,
2
V
where B is constant of integration.
Initially, at highest point y = 0, v = 0
2
∴ B = log V
2 22 gy
Hence, log (V −v )=− + log V 2
2
V
2
2 gy V
or = log
V2 V 2 − v2
V
2  V2 
y= log  
or 2g  V 2 − v2 
 
Let v1 be the velocity of particle when it return back the point of projection, then y = h, v = v1 ,
hence from (x).
V
2  V2 
h= log  
2g  V 2 − v2 
 1 
V2 V 2 + u2 V2 V2
or log = log [from (vi)]
2 2
2g V 2g V − v12
2 2 2
V +U V
or log = log
V2 V 2 − v12
V2 +U2 V2
or =
2 2
V V − v12
4 4
or V =V − V 2 v12 + U 2V 2 − U 2 v12
2 2
2 U V UV
v1 = or v1 =
or U2 +V2
...(xi)
(U 2 + V 2 )
Equation (ix) may be written as
dv g 2
= (V − v2 )
dt V2
V2 dv
or dt = ...(xii)
g V 2 − v2
Let t2 be the time taken by the particle in reaching the point of projection, then integrating (xii)
between the limits t = 0 to t = t1 and v = 0 to v = v1 , we get
t V 2 v1 dv
[t ]02 = ∫
g g V 2 − v2
v
V2 1  v1 V  v 
t2 = tanh −1  =  tanh −1 1 − tanh −1 0
.
g V 
or
V 0 g  V 
V −1 v1
or t2 = tanh ...(xiii)
g V
Adding (viii) and (xiii), the required time will be
V  −1 u v 
t1 + t2 = tan + tanh −1 1 
g 
...(xiv)
V V
Motion in a Resisting Medium 765
2. A heavy particle is projected upwards with velocity u in a medium the resistance of which
is gu −2 tan 2 α times the square of the velocity, α being a constant. Show that the particle will
return to the point of projection with velocity u cos α after a time
−1  cos α 
ug cot α  α + log 
 1 − sin α 
Solution. Let the particle be projected upwards from a point O with velocity u. Let v be the
velocity at a point P distance x from O. Then A
Resistance = gu −2 tan 2 α . v 2
Now, equation of motion when the particle is rising will be
Q
dv
mv = − mg − mgu −2 tan 2 α . v 2
dx
dv  g  2 2 2 P
or v =−  (u + v tan α) ...(i)
dx  u2 
2
2v tan α dv g
or = − 2 tan 2 α . dx O
u + v tan 2 α
2 2
u2
Integrating, we get
gx
log (u 2 + v 2 tan 2 α) = − tan 2 α . +A
2
u
where A is constant of integration.
Initially, x = 0, v = u
2 2 2 2 2
∴ A = log (u + u tan α) = log u sec α
 2 gx 
Hence, log (u 2 + v 2 tan 2 α) = −  2 2 2
 tan α + log u sec α
 u2 
 2 gx  2 2 2 2 2 2
or  2  tan α = log (u sec α) − log (u + v tan α) ...(ii)
 u 
Let h be the maximum height attained by the particle. Then v = 0, x = h.
Hence, from (ii), we get
 2 gh  2 2 2 2
 2  tan α = log (u sec α) − log u
 u 
 u2  2
h=  cot α . log (sec2 α )
or  2g  ...(iii)
 
Equation (i) may be written as
dv g
=− (u 2 + v 2 tan 2 α)
dt 2
u
2
u dv
or dt = − . ...(iv)
(u 2 + v 2 tan 2 α)
g
Let t1 be the time taken by the particle to reach the highest point B.
Integrating (iv) between the limits t = 0 to t = t1 and v = u to v = 0, we get
2 u
t u  1 v tan α 
[t ]01 = −  . tan −1 
g  u tan α u 0
u uα
or t1 = tan −1 (tan α) = ...(v)
g tan α g tan α
766 Dynamics
From the highest point, particle starts moving downwards from rest. Let v be the velocity at a
point Q distant y from B. Equation of motion in downwards direction will be
dv
mv = mg − mgu −2 tan 2 α v 2
dy
dv g
or v = (u 2 − v 2 tan 2 α) ...(vi)
dy u 2
2v dv 2g
or − = dy
2 2 2 2
u − v tan α u
2 gy
Integrating, cot 2 α log (u 2 − v2 tan 2 α) = − + B,
u2
where B is constant of integration.
Initially, when y = 0, v = 0.
∴ B = cot 2 α log u 2
2 2 2 2 2 gy
∴ cot α log (u − v tan α ) = − + cot2 α . log u 2
2
u
2
2 gy u
or = cot 2 α log ...(vii)
2
u − v tan 2 α
2 2
u
Let v1 be the velocity of return to the point of projection A, then putting y = h, v = v1 in (vii),
we get
2hg u2
= cot 2 α log
2
u u − v12 tan 2 α
2

u2
or log sec 2 α = log [putting for h from (iii)]
u − v12 tan 2 α
2

2
u
or sec2 α = or u 2 sec 2 α − v12 tan 2 α sec 2 α = u 2
u 2 − v12 tan 2 α
or u 2 − v12 tan 2 α = cos 2 α . u 2 or v12 tan 2 α = u 2 sin 2 α or v12 = u 2 cos 2 α
or v1 = u cos α ...(viii)
This is the velocity when particle comes back to the point of projection.
Equation (vi) may be written as
dv g
= (u 2 − v 2 tan 2 α)
dt u 2
u2 dv
or dt = . ...(ix)
g u 2 − v 2 tan 2 α
Let t2 be the time taken to reach the point A. Then integrating (ix) between the limits t = 0 to
t = t2 and v = 0 to v = u cos α, we get
2
t u u cos α dv
[t ]02 = ∫
g 0 u 2 − u 2 tan 2 α
2 u cos α
u 1  u + v tan α 
or t2 = .  log 
g 2u tan α  u − v tan α  0

u u + u sin α u  1 + sin α 
= log = log  
2 g tan α u − u sin α 2 g tan α  1 − sin α 
Motion in a Resisting Medium 767
2 2
u 1 − sin α u cos α
= log = log
2 g tan α 2 2 g tan α 2
(1 − sin α ) (1 − sin α )
u  cos α 
= log   ...(x)
g tan α  1 − sin α 
∴ Required time = t1 + t2
u  cos α 
=  α + log 1 − sin α  [from (v) and (x)]
g tan α  
3. Two particles move in a medium whose resistance varies as square of the velocity. One is
let fall from a height h and the other projected upwards at the same instant with initial velocity
sufficient to carry it to a height h. Show that the particles meet at a depth y below the highest
point given by cosh β cos (α − β) = 1, where gy = V 2 log cosh β and gh = V 2 sec α, V being the
terminal velocity.
O
Solution.Let the particles meet at P after time t at a depth y below O.
y
Then from (vi) of 5.3, we get
V2 g P
y= log cosh t
g V
2 ...(i)
∴ gy = V log cosh β
h–y
g
where β = t.
V
Again, if a particle be projected upwards with velocity u, A
then from (iv) of 5.3.1, we have
2g V 2 + u2
x = log ...(ii)
V2 V 2 + v2
If h be the greatest height, then v = 0 and x = h.
2g  V 2 + u2   u2 
h=  = log 1 + 2 
∴ 2  V2   V  ...(iii)
V    
u
Let = tan α, then
V
2g 2 2
h = log (1 + tan α ) = log sec α = 2 log sec α
V2
∴ gh = V 2 log sec α ...(iv)
Let t be the time when the velocity is v at P where x = OP = h − y, then, since this t is same as
in (i) as the particle is projected at the same time when the other falls from (v) of 5.3.1, we have
V  −1 u v
t=  tan − tan −1  ...(v)
g  V V
2 2
2g V +u
and (h − y) = log by (ii)
V2 V 2 + v2

2 gh 2g  u2   v2 
− y = log  1 +  − log 1 + 2 
∴ V V 2  
V  2  
  V 
2g  v 
2
y = log  1 + ,
or 2  V 
2 by (iii)
V 
768 Dynamics
 v 
2
2 log cosh β = log  1 + ,
or  V 
2 by (i)

2 2
v v
or cosh 2 β = 1 + or cosh 2 β − 1 =
V2 V2
v
or sinh β = ...(vi)
V
Now from (v), putting the values of (i) and (vi), we get
β = tan −1 tan α − tan −1 sinh β
or tan −1 (sinh β) = (α − β)
∴ sinh β = tan (α − β)
1
cos (α − β ) =
∴
[1 + tan 2 (α − β)]
1 1
= =
(1 + sinh 2 β) cosh β

∴ cosh β cos (α − β) = 1 ...(vii)

Results (i) and (vii) prove the results.
4. A particle is projected wtih velocity V along a smooth horizontal plane in a medium whose
resistance per unit mass is µ times the cube of the velocity. Show that the distance it has described
1 2
V
in time t is [ (1 + 2µtV ) − 1] and that its velocity is .
µV (1 + 2µtV 2 )
Solution. In this case, since the particle is moving in a horizontal plane, hence its weight mg
will not act. Hence, the only force acting on the particle will be that due to resistance and equal to
− mµv 2 .
The equation of motion of the particle will be
dv  dv 
m = − mµv 2 or −  = µ dt
dt  v2 
Integrating, we get
1
= µt + A, where A is constant of integration.
2
2v
1
Initially, when t = 0, v = V , ∴ A =
2
2V
2
1 1 1 2µtV +1
∴ = µt + or =
2 2 2 2
2v 2V v V
V
v=
or ...(i)
(1 + 2µtV 2 )
Let x be the distance traversed by the particle in time t. Then from equation (i), we have
dx V Vdt
= or dx =
dt (1 + 2µtV ) 2
(1 + 2 µtV 2 )
integrating :
2 1/ 2
V (1 + 2µtV )
x= + B,
1
2µV 2 ×
2
where B is constant of integration
Motion in a Resisting Medium 769
1
or x= (1 + 2µtV 2 ) + B ...(ii)
µV
1
Initially, when t = 0, x = 0 ∴ B = −
µV
Hence, equation (ii) becomes
1 1
x= (1 + 2µtV 2 ) −
µV µV
1 2
or x= [ (1 + 2µtV ) − 1] ...(iii)
µV
5. A particle of mass m is projected vertically under gravity; the resistance of the air being
mk times the velocity. Show that the greatest height attained by the particle is
V2 
  [λ − log (1 − λ)]
 g 
 
where V is the terminal velocity of the particle and λV is the initial velocity.
Solution. In this case the particle is projected under gravity and hence the equation of motion
will be
dv
mv = − mg − mkv
dx
dy  k 
or v = − 1 + v  ...(i)
dx  g 
To find the terminal velocity V, the equation of motion in the downwards direction will be
 dv 
mv   = mg − mkv ...(ii)
 dx 
We know that the terminal velocity of the particle is that velocity for which its downwards
acceleration is zero. Hence, if V be the terminal velocity, then from (ii), we have
g
mg − mkV = 0 or V = ...(iii)
k
Hence, (i) becomes
dv  v g
v = − g  1 +  = − (V + v)
dx  V V
vdV g (v + V ) − V g
or = − dx or dv = − dx
V +v V v +V V
 V  g
or 1 −  dv = − dx
 v +V  V
Integrating, we get
gx
v − V log (V + v ) = − +A ...(iv)
V
Initially, when x = 0, v = λ V
∴ A = λV − V log (V + λV )
Substituting this value of A in (iv), we get
gx
v − V log (V + v ) = − + λV − V log (V + λV )
V
gx
or = λV − V log {V (1 + λ)} − v + V log (V + v)
V
= λV − V log V − V log (1 + λ) − v + V log (V + v ) ...(v)
Let h be the greatest height attained by the particle. Then at x = h , v = 0.
770 Dynamics
Hence, from equation (v), we get
gh
= λV − V log V − V log (1 + λ) − 0 + V log V
V
gh
or = λV − V log (1 + λ )
V
V 2 
h=  [λ − log (1 + λ)].
or  g 
 
EXERCISES
1. A particle is projected vertically upwards with velocity V and the resistance of the air pro-
duces a retardation kv 2 , where v is the velocity. Show that the velocity V ′ with which the
particle returns to the point of projection is given by
1 1 k
= +
2 2 g
V′ V
2. A particle falls from rest in a medium in which the resistance is kv 2 per unit mass. Prove
that the distance fallen in time t is
1
 k  log cosh {t (gk )}
 
If the particle were ascending, show that at any instant the distance from the highest point
of its path is
1
 k  log sec {t ( gk )},
 
where t now denotes the time it will take to reach its highest point.
3. A heavy particle is projected upwards in a medium the resistance of which varies as the
square of the velocity. It has a kinetic energy K in its upwards path at a given point, when it
K2
passes through the same point on the way down, show that its loss of energy is ,
K + K′
where K ′ is the limit to which energy approaches in its downwards course.
4. A particle moves from rest at a distance a from a point O under the action of a force to O
equal to µ times the distance per unit of mass; if the resisatnce of the medium in which it
moves be k times the square of the velocity per unit mass, show that the square of the
velocity, when it is at a distance x from O, is
µx µa 2k ( x − a ) µ
− e + [1 − e2 k ( x − a) ]
k k 2
2k
Show also that when it first comes to rest it will be at a distance b given by
(1 − 2bk ) e 2bk = (1 + 2 ak) e −2 ak
5. An attracting force varying as the distance acts on a particle initially at rest at a distance a.
Show that if V be the velocity when the particle is at a distance x and v ′ the velocity when
 k (2a + x ) ( a − x ) 
the resistance of air is taken into account, then v ′ = V 1 −  nearly, the
 3 ( a + x) 
resistance being k times th e square of the velocity, k being very small.
6. A particle moving in a straight line is subjected to a resistance kv3 , where v is the velocity..
Show that if v is the velocity at time t, when the distance is s,
u s 1 2
v= ; t =  + ks
1 + uks u  2
Motion in a Resisting Medium 771
7. A particle of mass m is falling under the in fluence of gravity through a medium whose resis-
tance equals µ times the velocity. If the particle were released from rest, show that th e dis-
tance fallen through in time t is
2
gm  − (µ / m) t µt 
e + − 1
µ2  m 
8. If the resistance vary as the fourth power of the velocity, the energy of m lbs. at a depth x
 (mgx) 
below the highest point when moving in a vertical line un der gravity will be E tan  
 E 
 mgx 
when rising and E tan h   when falling, where E is the terminal energy in the medium.
 E 
9. A heavy particle is projected vertically upwards with a velocity U in a medium, the resis-
tance of which varies as the cube of the particle’s velocity. Determine the height to which
the particle will ascend.
 V2 U 2 + V 2 − UV πV 2 3 V 2 3 −1  3U − V 
 Ans. h = log
2
+ + tan  
 6g (U + V ) 18 g 3g  V 3 
10. A heavy particle is projected in a resisting medium, the resistance varying as velocity. If v1
and v2 are its velocities at any point in its upward and downwards path and t the interval
between its passage through this point; prove that
v1 + v2 = gt , V − v2 = (V + v1 ) . e gt / V
V
where is the terminal velocity.
11. A particle falls from rest under gravity through a distance x in a medium whose resistance
varies as square of the velocity. If v be the velocity actually acquired by it. v0 the velocity it
would have acquired, had there been no resisting medium an d V the terminal velocity, show
that
2 2 4 6
v 1 v0 1 v0 1 v0
=1− + − + ...
2 2 V 2 2.3 V 4 2.3.4 V 6
v0
12. A particle of mass m falls from rest at a distance a from the centre of the earth, the motion
meeting with a small resistance proportional to the square of the velocity v and the retarda-
tion being µ for unit velocity, show that the kinetic energy at a distance x from the centre is
2 1 1  x   a 
mgr  −+ 2µ  1 −  − 2µ log  x   the square of µ being neglected and r the ra-
x a  a   
dius of the earth.
13. A particle is projected in a resisting medium whose resistance varies as (velocity) n and it
comes to rest after describing a distance h in time t, find the values of h and t1 and show
that h is finite to n < 2, and infinite if n = or > 2, whilst t is finite if n < 1, but infinite if
n = or > 1.

5.6 MOTION OF PROJECTILES IN A RESISTING MEDIUM

A particle is projected under gravity and a resistance equal to Y
mk (velocity) with a velocity u at an angle α to the horizon; to )
,y
discuss the motion. 1
(x1 ψ
Let the particle be projected from O with velocity u at an angle α k 󰁶
m
to the horizon. Let O be the origin. Let P ( x, y ) be its position after a
time t. The forces acting on the particle at P will be : u
mg
(i) weight of the particle mg, acting vertically downwards, and
X
(ii) the resistance force mkv along the tangent in the direction PT,
772 Dynamics
2 2
d x d y
We know that acceleration along x and y axes are and respectively. Hence, equations
2 2
dt dt
of motions along coordinate axes will be
2
d x
m = − mkv cos ψ
2
dt
2
d x ds dx  dx 
or 2
=− k .
dt ds
∵ cos ψ = ds 
dt
2
d x dx
or =− k
2 dt
dt
d 2 x / dt 2
or =− k ...(i)
dx / dt
2
d y
and m = mkv sin ψ − mg
2
dt
2
d y ds dy
or =− k . . − g, [∵ sin ψ = dy / ds]
2 dt ds
dt
2
d y dy
or =− k −g ...(ii)
2 dt
dt
Integrating (i), we get
 dx 
log   = − kt + A,
 dt 
where A is constant of integration.
dx
Initially, when t = 0; = initial horizontal component of velocity = u cos α
dt
∴ A = log (u cos α)
 dx 
∴ log   = − kt + log (u cos α )
 dt 
 dx / dt 
or log   = − kt
 u cos α 
dx
or = u cos α . e − kt ...(iii)
dt
we can write equation (ii) as
 k d 2 y / dt 2 
  =− k
 k dy / dt + g 
Integrating, we get
 dv 
log  k + g  = − kt + B,
 dt 
where B is constant of integration.
dy
Initialy, when t = 0, = u sin α
dt
∴ B = log (ku sin α + g )
 kdy / dt + g 
∴ log   = − kt
 ku sin α + g 
dy
or k + g = (ku sin α + g ) e − kt ...(iv)
dt
Motion in a Resisting Medium 773
Equations (iii) and (iv) give the horizontal and vertical components of velocity of the particle
at any time t.
Now, we can write equation (iii) as
− kt
dx = u cos α . e dt
u − kt
Integrating, x = − cos α e + C,
k
where C is constant of integration.
Initially, at O, x = 0, t = 0,
u
∴ C= cos α
k
u
∴ x= cos α (1 − e− kt ) ...(v)
k
Equation (iv) may be written as
kdy + gdt = ( ku sin α + g ) e − kt dt
Integrating, we get
1
ky + gt = − (ku sin α + g ) e− kt + D,
k
where D is constant of integration,
Initially, at 0, y = 0, t = 0
1
∴ D = ( ku sin α + g )
k
g + ku sin α
∴ ky + gt = (1 − e− kt ) ...(vi)
k
Equations (v) and (vi) represent the horizontal and vertical distances travelled by the particle
in time t. These equations are called the parametric equations of the trajectory.
To obtain Cartesian equation, we will eliminate t between these equations. From (v)
kx kx
1 − e − kt = , ∴ e − kt = 1 −
u cos α u cos α
1  kx 
or t =− log  1 − 
k  u cos α 
Substituting these values of t and e − kt in (vi), we get
g  kx  g + ku sin α kx
ky − log  1 − = .
k  u cos α  k u cos α
g  kx  x
or y= log  1 − + ( g + ku sin α) ...(vii)
2
k  u cos α  ku cos α
This is the Cartesian equation of path of the particle.
Deductions
(a) Range on the horizontal Plane
Let the required range be R. The coordinates of the point where the particle strikes the horizontal
plane are (R, 0). This point (R, 0) must satisfy the equation (vii) of trajectory. Thus,
g  kR  R
0= log  1 − + ( g + ku sin α) ...(viii)
2
k  u cos α  ku cos α
Approximate value of R, if k is small.
From equation (viii), we get
g  kR
2 2
k R
3 3
k R  R
0= − − 2 2 − 3 3 − ... + ( g + ku sin α )
k 2
 u cos α 2u cos α 3u cos α  ku cos α
774 Dynamics
3
Neglecting K ,... etc., we have
2 2
kRg k R g
−g− − + g + ku sin α = 0
3u cos2 α
2u cos α 2

kRg k 2 R2 g
or − − + ku sin α = 0
2 2 2
2u cos α 3u cos α
2u 2 sin α cos α 2kR2
or R= − ...(ix)
g 3u cos α
2
2u sin α cos α
∴ R= for first approximation
g
Substituting this value of R in right han d side of (ix), we get
2
2
2u sin α cos α  2u 2 sin α cos α 
2k
R= −  
g 3u cos α  g 
2u 2 sin α cos α 8 ku3 cos α sin2 α
= − ...(x)
g 3 g2
This is value of R up to second apporoximation.
(b) Time of Fight
Let T be the time of flight, i.e., the time required to strike the horizontal plane through the point
of projection. Thus, during the time T the particle will describe zero vertical distance. Hence, putting
y = 0, t = T in equation (vi), we get y = 0, t = T
g + ku sin α
gT = (1 − e − kT )
k
1   k 2T 2 k 3T 3 
or gT = ( g + ku sin α) 1 − 1 − kT + − + ...
k   2! 3! 
 kT 2 k 2T 3 
or gT = ( g + ku sin α) T − + + ...
 2 6 
1 2 2 1 1
or gT = gT + kTu sin α − gkT 2 −
k T u sin α + gk 2T 3 + ...
2 6 2
1 1 2
or 0 = kt [2u sin α − gT − kT u sin α + gkT + ...]
2 3
k  gT 
2
2u sin α
T= +  − Tu sin α 
or g 
g 3  ...(xi)

2
[neglecting k , k etc.]3

2u sin α
∴ T = , upto first approximation.
g
Substituting this value of T in right hand side of equation (xi), we have the value of T up to
second approximation as
2u sin α k  g 4u 2 sin 2 α 2u sin α 
T= +  . 2
− . u sin α 
g g  3 g g 
2u sin α 2 k 2 sin 2 α
= − . . ...(xii)
g 3 g2
Motion in a Resisting Medium 775
(c) Greatest height and time to reach this height
Let h be greatest height attained by the particle and t1 the time for the same. At the highest
dy
point velocity will be horizontal and hence the vertical component of velocity, i.e., will be zero.
dt
dy
Hence, by putting = 0 and t = t1 in equation (iv), we get
dt
− kt1
g = ( ku sin α + g ) e
kt1 1
or e = ( ku sin α + g )
g
1 k 
∴ t1 = log  u sin α  ...(xiii)
k g 
Now, let us put y = h, t = t1 in (vi), we get
g + ku sin α
kh + gt1 = (1 − e− kt )
k
g  k  g + ku sin α 1
or kh + log  1 + u sin α  = − g [by (xiii)]
k  g  k k
1 g  k 
or h= u sin α − log  k + u sin α  ...(xiv)
k k2  g 
(d) Time to greatest height is less than half the time of flight.
1
Now, we want to prove that t1 < T , i.e., 2t1 − T < 0.
2
2  k   2u sin α 2 ku 2 sin 2 α 
Now, 2t1 − T = log  1 + u sin α  −  − 
k  g   g 3 g
2 

[from (xii) and (xiii)]
2 k   2u sin α 2 ku 2 sin2 α 
2
1 h
=  u sin α − u 2 sin 2 α  −  − 
2 g2   g 
k  g 3 2
g 
2 2 2 2
ku sin α 2ku sin α
=− − < 0.
g2 3g 2
5.6 MOTION OF A PROJECTILE IN A RESISTING MEDIUM, RESISTANCE
VARYING AS SQUARE OF VELOCITY
Let P be the position of particle at time t and u b the horizontal component of velocity, i.e.,
u = v cos ψ
Equations of motion in normal and horizontal directions are Y υ
2
v
= g cos ψ ...(i)
ρ
du υ
2 u
= − kv 2 cos ψ ...(ii) k
dt
ds u υ2/ρ
mg
But ρ = − ,
dψ ψ
X
negative sign is because ψ is decreasing when s increasing T O
2 dψ
∴ g cos ψ = − v
ds
ds d ψ dψ
= −v. . =−v ...(iii)
dt ds dt
776 Dynamics
du dψ
From (ii), . = − kv2 cos ψ
dψ dt
du k
or = sec3 ψ d ψ [∵ u = v cos ψ]
3 g
u
Integrating, we get
1 k
− = [sec ψ tan ψ + log (sec ψ + tan ψ)] + A ...(iv)
2u 2 2g
Initially, u = u0 and ψ = α
1 k
∴ A=− =− [sec α tan α + log (sec α + tan α)]
2u02 2g
1 1 k k  sec α + tan α 
= + [sec α tan α − sec ψ tan ψ] + log   ...(v)
∴ 2 2
u u0 2g 2g  sec ψ + tan ψ 
du ds
Also, = − kv 2 cos ψ = − kvu = − ku
dt dt
du
∴ = − k ds
u
Integrating,
−
u = u0 e ks [∵ u = u0 , s = 0] ...(vi)
Putting this value in (v), we have
2
2 u k u2 k  sec α + tan α 
e ks = 1 + 0 [sec α tan α − sec ψ tan ψ] + 0 log   ...(vii)
2g 2g  sec ψ + tan ψ 
This is kinetic equation of path of projectile.
Remarks : (i) From (v) it is clear that as s → ∞ , u → 0 i.e., the particle moves vertically
ultimately.
The terminal velocity V = ( g / k )
(ii) From equation (iv) we have
sec3 ψ 1
= − k [tan ψ sec ψ + log (sec ψ + tan ψ)] + ...(viii)
ρ ρ0
 v2 u 2 sec2 ψ 
∵ ρ = sec ψ = 
 g g 
If ρ = ρ 0 , ψ = 0 at the highest point.

5.7 TRAJECTORY IN A RESISTING MEDIUM WHEN RESISTANCE VARIES

AS (VELOCITY) n
If a particle describes a trajectory under gravity in a resisting medium whose resistance is
equal to mk (velcoity) n , to find the motion.
Let the particle be projected from O. Let P be the position of particle at any time t. Let at P, v be
its velocity and u the horizontal component of velocity, so that
u = v cos ψ ...(i)
Equations of motion along the normal and parallel to x-axis are
2
mv
= mg cos ψ
ρ
2
v
or = g cos ψ ...(ii)
ρ
Motion in a Resisting Medium 777
du Y
and m = − mkv n cos ψ
dt
du 2 ψ
or = − kv n cos ψ ...(iii) kυ u
dt m
ψ
ds
We have ρ = − because ψ decreases as s increases. mg
n
dψ
Putting this value of ρ in (ii), we get T O
X

2  dψ  ds d ψ
v −  = g cos ψ or − v dt . ds = g cos ψ
 ds 
dψ
or v = − g cos ψ ...(iv)
dt
du d ψ
From (iii), . = − kvn cos ψ
d ψ dt
du  g cos ψ  n
or .−  = − kv cos ψ [from (vi)]
dψ  v 
du  g cos ψ  k n +1
or
dψ 
−  = g (u sec ψ) [from (i)]
v 
du nk
or −n = secn + 1 ψ d ψ
un − 1 g
1 nk n +1
Integrating we get =− ∫ sec ψ dψ + A
un g
where A is the constant of integration
1 nk n +1
or =− ∫ sec ψ dψ + A
(v cos ψ) g
This gives velocity v at any position, constant A being determined by initial conditions.

5.8. MOTION ON A SMOOTH CURVE

A bead moves on a smooth wire in a vertical plane under a
R
resistance equal to k (velocity) 2 ; to find the motion. N
Let P the position of the bead at any time t. Since bead is P
moving on the wire, hence normal reaction will also act. The forces 2
υ
acting on the bead at P will be k
m
(i) weight mg of the bead acting vertically downwards. mg
ψ
(ii) The resistance force mkv 2 along the tangent at P, and X
O
(iii) Normal reaction R of the wrie along PN.
The equations of motion along the tangent and normal at P are
dv dv
mv = mg sin ψ − mkv 2 or v + kv 2 = g sin ψ
ds ds
1 dv 2 dv 2 d ψ
or + dv 2 = g sin ψ or + 2kv 2 = 2 g sin ψ
2 ds d ψ ds
dv
2  ds 
or + 2k ρv 2 = 2 g ρ sin ψ ∵ ρ = d ψ  ...(1)
dψ  
And other equation (along normal) is :
2
v
= g cos ψ − R ...(2)
ρ
778 Dynamics
If the equation to the curve is given, ρ can be determined. The equation can be integrated
after substituting for ρ.
Particle Case : If the curve is a circle of radius a, then ρ = a. Equation (i) becomes
2
dv
+ 2kav 2 = 2 ga sin ψ ...(3)
dψ
This is a linear differential equation. Its integrating factor
= e ∫ 2ak d ψ = e 2ak ψ
∴ Solution of (3) is
e2 ak ψ
v 2 e2 ak ψ = 2 ga ∫ e2ak ψ sin ψ d ψ + C = 2ag [2 ak sin ψ − cos ψ] + C
1 + 4a 2 k 2
2ag
[2ak sin ψ − cos ψ] + Ce ak ψ
2
or v = ...(4)
2 2
1 + 4a k
Equation (4) gives velocity of the bead at any point ψ .

5.9. ORBITS IN A RESISTING MEDIUM (CENTRAL FORCE)

(a) Resistance varying as velocity.
Let P be the central force and kv the resistance, then equations of motion along normal and
transverse directions will be
v2 υ
= P sin ψ ...(i)
ρ
1 d  2 dθ 
and
r dt 
 r dt  = − kv sin φ ...(ii) υ2/p
 Q

Putting vp = h = r 2
d θ r
φ
, which is not constant here, we get
dt
dh O A
= − kvr sin φ = − kvp = − kh.
dt
Integrating, we get
h = h0 e − kt , where h = h0 , when t = 0

v
2 2
v h
2
dp  d u
2
Hence, P= = = = h 2u 2  u + 
ρ sin φ dr p p3 dr  d θ2 
r . 
dp r
 d 2u 
= h02u 2 e−kt  u + 
 d θ 
2 ...(iii)

(b) Resistance varying as square of velocity
The equations of motion will be
2
v
= P sin φ ’
ρ
1 d  2 dθ  2
and  r dt  = − kv sin φ
r dt  
dθ
Putting up = h = r 2 , we get
dt
Motion in a Resisting Medium 779
dh ds
= − kv 2 r sin φ = − kv 2 p = − kvh = − kh
dt dt
dh
∴ = − k ds
h
− ks
Integrating, h = h0 e , where h = h0 where s = 0.
2 2
 d 2u 
Hence, P= h u u + 
 d θ2 

 d 2u 
= h02u 2 e−2ks  u + 
 d θ2 
...(iv)

(c) If the resistance be R.
The equations of motion wil be
2
v 1 d  2 dθ 
= P sin φ, and  r dt  = − R sin φ
ρ r dt  
dr p dr
∴ v 2 = P ρ sin φ = P . r . =Pρ .
dp r dp

2 2 2 3 dr
∴ h = v p = Pp ...(v)
dp
1 dh 1 dh
Hence, R= =−
r sin φ dt p dt
1 dh ds v dh h dh
=− . . =− =
p ds dt p ds 2
p ds
1 dh2 1 d  3 dr 
=− = .  Pp  ...(vi)
2 ds 2 ds  dp 
2p 2p

EXAMPLES
1. If the resistance vary as the velocity and the range on the horizontal plane through the
point of projection is maximum, show that the angle α which the direction of projection makes
with the vertical is given by
µ (1 + µ cos α)
= log (1 + µ sec α),
µ + cos α
where µ is the ratio of the velocity of projection to the terminal velocity.
Solution. In the present case resistance = kv.
Let the particle be falling under gravity. Hence, downward acceleration = g − kv. When this
acceleration = g − kv. When this acceleration will be zero, the velocity will be the terminal velocity, i.e.,
g
g − kV = 0 or V = ...(i)
k
Equations of motion in horizontal and vertical directions will be
2
d x ds dx  dx 
= − kv cos ψ = − k . ∵ cos ψ = 
dt
2 dt ds  ds 
dx
=− k ..(ii)
dt
2
d y ds dy
and = − kv sin ψ − g = − k . . −g
2 dt ds
dt
780 Dynamics
 dy   dy 
= − k + g ∵ sin ψ = ds  ...(iii)
 dt 
π
In this case the direction of projection makes an angle α with the vertical, i.e., − α with the
2
horizon.
Then as in 5.7, we get
π 
u cos  −α
x=
2  (1 − e− kt )
k
u sin α
= (1 − e − kt ) ...(iv)
k
π 
g + ku sin  −α
and ky + gt =
2  (1 − e − kt )
k
g + ku cos α
= (1 − e − kt ) ...(v)
k
Let R be the range on the horizontal plane. The value of x will be the range of R if y = 0.
Hence, from (iv) and (v), R will be
u sin α
R= (1 − e− kt ) ...(vi)
k
ku cos α + g
where t is given by gt = (1 − e− kt ) ...(vii)
k
dR
For R to the maximum = 0. Hence, from (vi), we get
dα
dR u cos α u sin α − kt dt
= (1 − e − kt ) + e .k.
dα k k dα
dt
or 0 = cos α (1 − e − kt ) + k sin α e − kt . ...(viii)
dα
Differentiating (vii) w.r.t. α, we get
dt dt
g = (ku cos α + g ) e − kt − u sin α (1 − e − kt )
dα dα
dt
or {(ku cos α + g ) e − kt − g} = u sin (1 − e − kt ) ...(ix)
dα
From equation (viii), we get
dt
k sin α e − kt . = − cos α (1 − e − kt ) ...(x)
dx
Dividing (ix) by (x), we get
( ku cos α + g ) e− kt − g u sin α
=−
− kt cos α
k sin α . e
or ( ku cos 2 α + g cos α) e − kt − g cos α = − ku sin 2 α e − kt
− g cos α
or e kt =
ku + g cos α
 ku + g cos α   ku 
∴ e kt =  = + 1
 g cos α   g cos α 
1  ku 
∴ t = log  1 +  ...(xii)
k  g cos α 
Motion in a Resisting Medium 781
Substituting the values of t and e − kt in (vii), we get
g  ku   g g cos α 
log  1 +  =  u cos α +
g cos α  
 1 − ku + g cos α 
k
k  
g  ku   g ku 
or log  1 +  =  u cos α +  
k  g cos α   k   g cos α + ku 
 
 u   u 
or V log  1 +  = (u cos α + V )  g  [from (i)]
 V cos α   cos α + u 
k 
 
u  1   u 
or V log (1 + µ sec α) = V  cos α + 1   ∵ V = µ 
 V V
  cos α u 
u 
 
 1  µ (1 + µ cos α)
or log (1 + µ sec α) = ( µ cos α + 1)  =
 1 cos α + 1  µ + cos α
 µ 
2. If a particle is projected at an angle α with a velocity u in a medium whose resistance
varies as square of velocity, then prove that

ρρ′ cos3 ψ cos 2 ψ′ = ρ02

where ρ and ρ′ are the radii of curvature at two points at equal arcural distances from the
vertex and ψ, ψ′ the incinations to the horizon of the tangents at the these points and ρ0 is the
radius of curvature at the vertex.
Solution. From 5.8, equation (v), we have
2
v
u = u0 e − ks and = g cos ψ (v = u sec ψ)
ρ
2 2 2
v u u0 −2 ks
∴ ρ= sec ψ = sec2 ψ = e sec3 ψ
g g g
2
u0 −2 ks
∴ ρ cos3 ψ = e
g
u02 −2 k ( − s) u02 2 ks
and ρ′ cos3 ψ ′ = e = e
g g
4
u0 1  u2 
∴ ρρ′ cos3 ψ cos3 ψ′ = = Since ρ0 = 0 , if s = 0
g2 ρ02  g 
3. If the resistance of the air to a particle’s motion is n times the weight and the particle be projected
horizontaly with velocity V, show that its velocity, when moving at an angle ψ to the horizontal is
( n − 1) / 2
V (1 − sin ψ) (1 + sin ψ) − ( n + 1) / 2
Solution. Equations of motion are
du
− ng cos φ ...(i)
dt
2
v
and = g cos ψ ...(ii)
ρ
782 Dynamics
ds
and ρ= ...(iii)
dψ
as s increases when ψ increase.
Also, u = v cos ψ
2
du dψ v ds d ψ O A
∴ . =−n = − nv . . ψ
dψ dt ρ dt ds
S
du −v
or = = − nu sec ψ P
dψ cos ψ u
Integrating,
log u = − n log (sec ψ + tan ψ ) + A, 2/ρ 󰁶
󰁶
where A is constant of integration. g
Initially, u = V , ψ = 0, ∴ C = log V
∴ log u = − n log (sec ψ + tan ψ ) + log V
V
∴ u=
(sec ψ + tan ψ) n
V cos −1 ψ V (1 − sin 2 ψ )n − 1/ 2
∴ v = u sec ψ = =
(1 + sin ψ )n (1 + sin ψ )
n − 1/ 2
= u (1 − sin ψ) (1 + sin ψ) − ( n + 1) / 2

4. A shot is fired in atmosphere in which the resistance varies as the cube of the velocity. if f
be the retardation when the shot is ascending at an inclination α to the horizon, f 0 when it is
moving horizontally and f ′ when it is descending at an inclination α to the horizon, prove that
2
1 1 2 cos α 1 1 2 sin α
+ = and − = (3 − 2 sin 2 α)
f f′ f0 f′ f g
Solution. Let u be the horizontal component of velocity v at the point where tangent to this
point makes an angle ψ with the horizontal. Thus,
u = v cos ψ ...(i)
Now, when the shot is ascending at an inclination α, then resistance is
kv3 = f
Hence, from (i), we get
2 f  3
u =  cos ψ ...(ii)
k 
Equations of motion along the normal and parallel to x-axis will be
2
v
= g cos ψ ...(iii)
ρ
du
and = − kv3 cos ψ ...(iv)
dt
ds
Also, ρ= − ,
dψ
since in this case ψ decreases as s increases.
From (v) and (iii), we get
or  dψ  ds d ψ
v2  −  = − g cos ψ or v . dt . ds = − g cos ψ
 ds 
dψ
or v = − g cos ψ ...(vi)
dt
From equation (iv), we get
Motion in a Resisting Medium 783
du dψ du k
. = − kv3 cos ψ or = 4
v , from (vi)
dψ dt dψ g
du k 4 4
or = u sec ψ
dψ g
−3du 3k
or =− sec4 ψ
4 g
u
Integrating, we get
1 3k
= ∫− sec2 ψ (1 + tan 2 ψ) d ψ + C
3 g
u
3k  1 3 
=−  tan ψ + 3 tan ψ  + C ,
g  
where C is constant of integration.
when ψ = 0, i.e., particle is moving horizontally, let u = u0
1
C=
∴ u03
1 1 3k  1 3 
− =−  tan ψ + 3 tan ψ  ...(vii)
∴ u3 u3 g  
0
Also, when particle is moving horizontally,
i.e., ψ = 0, f = f 0 , u = u0
Hence from (ii), we get
3 f
u0 = 0 ...(viii)
k
3
Substituting values of u and u03 from (ii) and (viii) in (vii), we get
k k 3k  1 3 
− =−  tan ψ + 3 tan ψ 
3 g 
f cos ψ f0 
2
k 1 1 sec ψ (3 − 2 sin ψ )
or = − . ...(ix)
f cos3 ψ f0 g 3
cos ψ
Now, when ψ = α, f = f (given), and when ψ = − α, f = f ′ (given). Thus, equation (ix)
provides
1 1 1 sin α (3 − 2 sin2 α )
= − . ...(x)
3
f cos α f 0 g cos3 α
2
1 1 1 sin α (3 − 2 sin α )
and = + ...(xi)
2 f′ g 3
f ′ cos α cos α
Adding (x) and (xi), we get
1 1 2 cos3 α
+ =
f f′ f0
Subtracting (x) from (xi), we get
1 1 2 sin α (3 − 2 sin 2 α )
− =
f′ f g
5. If a particle of mass m be acted upon by equal constant forces mf tangentially and normally
2
v
to the path and if the resistance be mf 2 , prove that intrinsic equation of the path is
k
2 / 2
k (e fs k − 1) = u (e ψ − 1), where u is the velocity of projection.
2 2 2
784 Dynamics
Solution. Since the particle is not projected in a vertical plane O T
ψ u
hence weight of the particle will not be considered. mf (υ2/k2)
The equations of motion of the particle along the tangent and
normal are
2
dv v
mv = mf − mf
ds 2
k mf
2
mv
and = mf
ρ
2 2
1 dv v
or + f = f ...(i)
2 ds 2
k
2
v ds
and =ρ= ...(ii)
f dψ

As ψ increases when s increases. Hence ρ = + ds

.
dψ
2
From (i), dv 2f 2
+ v =2f.
ds 2
k
2
This is linear equation whose integrating factor = e2 fs / k . Hence, its solution will be
2 2 / 2 2 / 2
v .e fs k = ∫ 2 f .e fs k .ds + A.
2 2
or v 2 .e2 fs / k = k 2 .e2 fs / k + A,
where A is the constant of integration.
Initially, s = 0, v = u , ∴ A = u 2 − k 2 .
2 / 2
v = k − ( u − k ) e− fs k .
2 2 2
∴
Hence, by putting the value of v 2 in equation (ii), we get
k 2 u 2 − k 2 −2 fs / k 2 ds
+ e =
f f dψ
2 ds k 2 2 fs / k 2 u 2 − k 2
or e2 fs / k . − e =
dψ f f
k2 fs k 2
2 ds dz
Put e2 / = z , ∴ e2 fs / k . =
2f dψ dψ
2 2
dz u −k
∴ − 2z =
dψ f
This is a linear equation whose I.F. = e −2 ψ . Hence, its solution will be
u 2 − k 2 −2ψ
z.e−2ψ = ∫ e dψ + B
f
k2 u 2 − k 2 −2ψ
or . 2 fs / k 2 . e− 2ψ = e + B,
2f −2 f
where B is constant of integration.
Initially, when s = 0, ψ = 0.
k2 u2 k2 u2
∴ =− + + B, ∴ B=
2f 2f 2f 2f
k2 2 u 2 − k 2 −2ψ u 2
∴ . e2 fs / k . e−2ψ = e +
2f −2 f 2f
Motion in a Resisting Medium 785
2
or k 2 e2 fs / k = − u 2 + k 2 + u2 e2ψ
2
or k 2 (e2 fs / k − 1) = u 2 (e2 ψ − 1)
This is the required intrinsic equation.
EXERCISES
1. A particle is projected with a velocity whose horizontal and vertical components are U and
V from a point in a medium whose resistance per unit of mass is k times the speed. Obtain
the equation of the depth, and prove that if k is small, the horizontal range is approximately
2UY 8UV 2k
− .
g 3g 2
2. A particle acted on by gravity is projected in a medium, the resistance of which varies as the
velocity. Show that its acceleration retains a fixed direction and diminishes without limit to
zero.
3. In the case of a flat trajectory with initial velocity u and resistance equal to µ (velocity) 2 ,
show that the path of projectile approximately is
2
gxµg 3
y = x tan α − − x − ...
2 3
2u 3u
4. A heavy particle is projected in a resisting medium. If v be the velocity at any time, φ be
inclination to the vertical of the direction of motion and f the retardation prove that
1 dv f
= cos t φ +
v dφ g sin φ
2
5. If the resistance per unit mass is g  v  prove that
V 
 
du  g  2 dψ  g  3
=− u , =  cos ψ
ds V 2  ds  u 2 
where u is the horizontal component of velocity.
6. A heavy bead of mass m slides on a smooth wire in the shape of a cycloid, whose axis is
vertical and vertex upwards in a medium whose resistance is mv 2 / 2c and the distances of
starting point from the vertex is c, show that the time of descent to the cusp is
 8a (4a − c) 
  , where 2a is the length of the axis of cycloid.
 gc 
7. A particle moving in resisting medium acted upon by a central force (µ / r n ), if the path be
an equiangular spiral of angle α, whose pole is at the centre of force, show that the resis-
tance is
n − 3 µ cos α
.
3 rn
8. A bead moves on a smooth wire in the form of a circle in a vertical plan e under a resistance

{= k (velocity)2 }. Find th e velocity of the bead at any point.

9. Prove that by a proper choice of axes the equation of the path of the projectile in a resisting
medium can be put in the form y + ax = b log x.
10. A particle of unit mass is projected with velocity u at an inclination α above the horizon in
a medium whose resistance is k times the velocity. Show that its direction will again make an

1   2ku  
angle α with the horizon after a time   log 1 +   sin α  .
k   g  
786 Dynamics
11. A heavy particle describes a path given by
cos ψ = f (ρ cos ψ) ;
show that the law of resistance is given by
df d
Rv =− g (1 − f 2 ) ( vf ),
dv dv
 v2 
when f = f  .
 g 
 
2
d y g
12. Prove that in the motion of a projectile in a resisting medium the equation =− is
2 2
dx u
satisfied whatever be the law of resistance, u being the horizontal component of velocity
the axes of x and y being horizontal and vertically upwards. If the resistance is constant and
equal to kg, show that the velocity at any point is given by
−1
v (1 − sin ψ) k = u0 (cos ψ) k ,
ψ being the slope and u0 the velocity at the high est point.

  
 Motion of Particles of Varying Mass
6.1 MOTION WHEN MASS VARIES
We come across a number of problems in mechanics in which moving mass changes with time.
Obviously, the motion of a body will be affected by the material added or removed. For example, a
rocket ejecting burned fuel in the form of hot gases looses its mass while a rain drop acquires
additional mass by condensations it falls through a cloud. Such type of motion will be discussed ni
this section.
We know that the equation P = mf holds only if the moving mass m remains constant
throughout the motion.
Let the moving mass does not remain constant. Let m be its mass and v the velocity at time t.
Then by Newton’s second law
F dI
P=G
H dt JK
( mv) ...(i)

Let there be an increment δm of mass in time δt and let this increment δm be moving with
velocity V.
The increment in the momentum of the particle in time δt
= m ( v + δv − v) + δm ( v + δv − V ) ...(ii)
= m δv + δm ( v + δv − V )
The impulse of force in time δt = P . δt ...(iii)
Hence equating (ii) and (iii) and taking limits at δt → 0, we get
F dv I F dm I
P=mG
H dt JK
+vG
H dt JK
− V ( dmdt ) [neglecting δm δv ]

F dv I
mG J +vG
F dm I = P + V F dm I
or H dt K H dt JK GH JK
dt
FdI( ) F dm I
or GH JK vm = P + V GH JK ...(iv)
dt dt
If V = 0, the equation (iv) reduces to (i).
Equation (iv) is the equation of motion when mass varies.
EXAMPLES
1. A spherical raindrop, falling freely, receives in each instant an increase of volume equal
to λ times its surface at that instant; find the velocity at the end of time t, and the distance fallen
through in that time.
Solution. Let m be the mass and r the radius of the drop when it has fallen through a distance
x in time t. Also, let v be the velocity at that instant, so that
dx
=v ...(i)
dt
Since drop is falling freely under gravity, hence
P = mg
788 Dynamics

F 4 I πr 3ρ
Now, m = mass of drop at time t = G
H 3 JK
dm F dr I
= 4 πr 2 ρ G
∴ dt H dt JK
But, given rate of increase of mass
dm
= λ (4 πr 2 ) ρ
dt
dm
∴ Equating two values of , we get
dt
2 F dr I F dr I
4 πr ρ G = λρ (4 πr 2 )
H dt JK GH JK = λ
or
dt
Integrating, r = λt + A
where A is constant of integration.
Initially, at t = 0, r = a (say) ∴ A = a ∴ r = λt + a
4
∴ m = πρ ( a + λt ) 3 [from (iii) and (iv)]
3
Since the mass is picked up from rest, hence V = 0.
Hence, from the equation of variable mass
FdI( ) F dm I
GH JK mv = P + V GH JK , we get
dt dt
F d I [v . 4 / 3 πρ (a + λt )3 ] = 4 πρ ( a + λt ) 3 g
GH JK [from (ii) and (iv)]
dt 3
FdI
GH JK [v ( a + λt ) 3 ] = g ( a + λt) 3
dt
Integrating, we get
v ( a + λt ) 3 = g ( a + λt ) 4 / 4 + B,
where B is constant of integration.
F ga 4 I
Initially, v = 0, t = 0 ; ∴ B=−G J
H 4λ K
3 F g I [( a + λt) 4 − a 4 ]
v ( a + λt ) = G
∴ H 4λ JK
v=G
F g I ( a + λt ) − a 4 / ( a + λt ) 3
or H 4λ JK ...(vi)

This is expression for velocity at any time t.

Now, from (i) and (vi), we get
dx g L a4 O
= M( a + λt ) − 3
P
dt 4λ MN ( a + λt ) PQ
g
Integrating, x= ( a + λt ) 2 / 2λ + a 4 / 2λ ( a + λt ) 2 + C
4λ
where C is constant of integrating. Initially, x = 0 at t = 0
F g I 2 2
C=−G (a + a )
∴ H 8 x 2 JK
Motion of Particle of Varying Mass 789
F g I
Hence, x = G [( a + λt ) 2 + a 4 / ( a + λt ) 2 − 2 a 2 ]
H 8λ2 JK
F g I 2 2
=G [{( a + λ t) − a } / ( a + λt)]
H 8λ2 JK
F g I 2 2 2
=G [{( a + λt ) − a } / ( a + λt )]
H 8λ2 JK
= [{gt 2 (2 a + λt 2 )} / {8 ( a + λt)2}] ...(vii)
This is the r equired expression for distance.
2. A spherical drop of liquid falling freely in a vapour acquires mass by condensation at a
constant rate c. Show that the velocity after falling from rst in time t is

F 1 I gt L1 + R M UO
GH JK M S VP
2 MN T ( M + ct ) WPQ
where M is the initial mass of the drop.
Solution. Since the drop is falling freely under gravity, hence
P = mg
where m is initial mass of the drop at any time t.
Let M be the initial mass of the drop, then
m = M + ct ...(i)
Also v = 0, since the mass is picked up from rest.
Hence, equation of motion when mass varies will be
FdI F dm I
GH JK (vm) = mg + V GH JK [∵ V = 0]
dt dt
F d I (vm) = mg
In this case, it will becomes GH JK
dt
F d I {v ( M + ct )} = ( M + ct ) g,
or GH JK [from (i)]
dt
Integrating, 2
v ( M + ct ) = [{g ( M + ct ) } / 2 c] + A,
where A is constant of integration.
F gM 2 I
Initially at t = 0, v = 0; ∴ A=−G J
H 2c K
F gI F gM 2 I
Hence, v ( M + ct ) = G J ( M + ct) 2 − G J
H 2c K H 2c K
F gI LF gM 2 I O
or v = G J ( M + ct ) − MG J ( M + ct)P
H 2c K MNH 2 c K PQ
F gI L {( M + ct ) 2 − M 2} O
=G M P
H 2c JK
MN ( M + ct ) PQ
L 2 2 O
F g I (2mct + c t ) F gt I L (2 M + ct ) O
=G J M P=
H 2c K MN ( M + ct ) PQ GH 2 JK MN ( M + ct ) PQ
F gt I L{( M + ct ) + M} O = F gt I L1 + R M UO
=G J M
H 2 K N ( M + ct) PQ GH 2 JK MMN ST ( M + ct) VWPPQ
790 Dynamics
3. Snow slides off a roof clearing away a part of uniform breadth; show that if it all slide at
(2 / 3) !
once, the time in which the roof will be cleared is {6πa / g sin α} but that, if the top
(1 / 6) !
move first and gradually set the rest in motion, the acceleration is (1/3) g sin α and the time will
be (6a / g sin α ) , where α is the inclination of the roof and a the original length of the snow.
Solution. Let y be the length of the snow on the roof at time t and b the constant breadth
dy
∴ m = ybρ ; v = − , f = g sin α
dt
FdI
Hence, equation of motion GH JK ( mv) = ρ, becomes
dt
F d I [− ybρ ( dy / dt )] = ybρg sin α
GH JK [∵ ρ = mb]
dt
F d I L y F dy I O = − gy sin α
or GH dt JK M GH dt JK P
N Q
F d I L F dy I O F dy I
or GH dy JK M y GH dt JK P GH dt JK = − gy sin α
N Q
L F dy I O F d I L F dy I O 2
or M y GH dt JK P GH dy JK M y GH dt JK P = − gy sin α
N Q N Q
F 1 I LM y F dy I 2 OP = A − 1 gy 3 sin α ,
Integrating, GH JK GH JK ...(i)
2 M
N dt PQ 3
where A is constant of integration.
dy 1
Initially, at y = a, = 0, ∴ A = ga 3 sin α
dt 3
Putting the value of A in (i), we get
F 1I 2 F dy I 2 1
GH JK y GH JK = ( a 3 − y 3 ) g sin α
2 dt 3
dy F2 IR U
or =− GH g sin αJK S a 3 − y 3 / y V
dt 3 T W
R U
F3 I| y |
or dt = − GH g sin αJK S 3 3 V dy ...(ii)
2 |T ( a − y ) |W
Integrating (ii) from y = a to y = b, the time t in which the roof will be cleared off is given by
R U
F3 I | y | dy
t=− GH g sin αJK za0 S V
2
T|
3 3 |
(a − y ) W
3
Putting y 3/ 2 = a 3/ 2 sin θ, ∴ y1/ 2 dy = a3/ 2 cos θ dθ
2
F3 I 2
or t= GH g sin αJK z0π / 2 ( a1/ 2 sin 1/ 3 θ . a
3/ 2
cos θ dθ) / ( a 3/ 2 cos θ)
2 3
Motion of Particle of Varying Mass 791
F 6a I π / 2 1 1/ 3
= GH g sin α JK z0 3 sin θ dθ
F 6a I L 1 F 2 1 I F 7I O
= GH g sin α JK M 3 . GH Γ 3 . Γ 3JK / GH 2 . Γ 6 JK P
N Q
F 6πa I F 2 1 I
= GH g sin α JK GH Γ 3 / Γ 6 !JK
Let z be the portion of the roof cleared off in time t, then equation of motion will be
F d I F dz I
GH JK GH z JK = gz sin α.
dt dt

zG
F dz I . F d I F z dz I = gz 2 sin α
or H dt JK GH dz JK GH dt JK
2
1 F dz I 1
Integrating, GH z JK = gz 3 sin α + c, ...(iii)
2 dt 3
where c is constant of integration.
dz
Initially, z = 0, = 0, ∴ c = 0
dt
F dz I 2 2
Hence, from (iii), we get GH JK = gz sin α ...(iv)
dt 3
Differentiating (iv) with respect to t, we get
F dz I F d 2 z I 2 F dz I d2z
=
1
g sin α
2G
H dt JK GH dt 2 JK
gG
H dt JK
= sin α or
3 dt 2 3
1
Hence, the acceleration is g sin α.
3
F3 I dz
Again, from (iv), we get dt = GH g sin αJK
.
z 2
Integrating from z = 0 to z = a, the required time t is given by
F 3 sin I F a1/ 2 I F 6a I
t= GH g αJK G J = GH g sin α JK
2 H 1/ 2 K
4. A uniform chain of length 1 and mass ml is coiled on the floor and a mass mc is attached to
one end and projected vertically upwards wth velocity ( 2 gh ). Show that according as the chain
does or does not completely leave the floor, the velocity of the mass finally reaching the floor
1
again, is the velocity due to a fall through a height [2l − c + a 2 / (l + c )2 ] or a − c, where
3
3 2
a = c ( c + 3h ).
Solution. Let the length of the portion of the chain uncoiled in time t be x. Then the equation
of motion will be
F d I R ( mx + mc) U
GH JK S V = − g ( mx + mc)
dt T ( dx / dt ) W
792 Dynamics
F dx I F d I R x + c F dx I U = − g x + c 2
( x + c) G
H dt JK GH dx JK ST
or ( ) G JV ( )
H dt K W
2
1 R F dx I U 1
Integrating, we get S( x + c) GH JK V = − g ( x + c) 3 + A , ...(i)
2 T dt W 3
where A is constant of integration.
1
Initially, x = 0, dx / dt = ( 2 gh), ∴ A = gc 2 (3h + c)
3
Hence, (i) becomes

( x + c) 2
F dx I 2 2 2 3
GH JK = g [c ( 3h + c) − ( x + c) ]
dt 3
2 3 3
= g {a − ( x + c ) } ...(ii)
3
3 2
where a = c ( c + 3h ).
Now, we have
Case I. Let the coil does not completely leave the floor when the mass comes to rest at a height

dx
x above the floor. Putting = 0 in (ii), we get
dt
0 = a 3 − ( x + c ) 3 or x = a − c
Hence, the velocity of the mass on reaching the floor again is that due to fall through a height
a − c.
Case II. Let the initial velocity be sufficient enough so that the coil leaves the floor and mass
does not come to rest. Let V be the velocity of the mass just at the time coil leaves the floor, then
dx 2 2 2 3 3
putting x = l, = V in (ii), we get (l + c) V = g {g − ( l + c) }.
dt 3
Hence, total height attained by the mass
1
= l + V 2 / 2g = l + 3 2
{a / ( l + c) − ( l + c)}
3
1
[2l − c + a 3 / (l + c) 2 ]
= ...(iii)
3
Hence, the velocity of the mass on reaching the floor again is that due to a fall through a
height given by (iii).
5. A rocket whose total initial mass (fuel + shell) is m0 , ejects fuel at a constant rate cm0
and at a velocity V relative to the case. Show that lowest rate of fuel consumption that will permit
the rocket to rise at once is c = g / V . Assuming this design condition is wet, find the greatest
speed and height reached by the rocket.
Solution.We know that th e equation of motion of variable mass is
FdI F dm I
GH JK (vm) = P + V1 GH JK ...(i)
dt dt
where m is mass at time t.
Here P = − mg (since mass is moving in upward direction)
dm
= − cm0 as mass is ejected. ...(ii)
dt
V1 = velocity of ejecting mass = v − V
Motion of Particle of Varying Mass 793
Integrating (ii), we have m = − cm0 t + A
Initially, m = m0 , t = 0 ∴ A = m0
m = m0 (1 − ct ) ...(iii)
Substituting the values of P and V1 in equation (i), we get
F dv I m + v F dm I F dm I
GH JK GH JK = − mg + ( v − V ) G
H dt JK
dt dt
F dv I
m G J = − mg − V G
F dm I dv
H dt JK
or and = − g + (Vcm0 ) / m, from (ii) ...(iv)
H dt K dt
dv
or = − [− g + {Vc / (1 − ct )}], from (iii) ...(v)
dt
This equation holds for all values of t.
 dv  =− g + Vc
Initially, at t = 0, we have  dt 
t =0
In order, the rocket rise at once dv / dt must be positive.
g
i.e., Vc − g > 0 or c >
V
g
∴ minimum value of c = .
V
Now, let us assume that masses are so arranged that the rocket lifts at time zero (c > g / V ),
integrating (v), we get
t
v = z0 [− g + Vc / (1 − ct )] dt = − gt − V log (1 − ct ) ...(vi)
dx
∴ = − gt − V log (1 − ct )
dt
t
Integrating, we get x = z0 [− gt − V log (1 − ct ) dt ]
F 1 I 2 − [ log (1 − ) + t { / (1 − )}]t
x=−G
H 2 JK
or gt v t ct c z0 t dt ct 0

F 1I
= − G J gt 2 − Vt log (1 − ct ) + V z0t [(1 − ct − 1) / (1 − ct)] dt
H 2K
F 1I
= − G J gt 2 − Vt log (1 − ct ) + V z0t [1 − 1 / (1 − ct )] dt
H 2K
F 1I
= − G J gt 2 − Vt log (1 − ct ) + V [t + (1 / c) log (1 − c)]
H 2K
F 1I
= − G J gt 2 + (V / c ) (1 − ct ) [log (1 − ct) − 1] + ( V / c )
H 2K ...(vii)
Now, let M be the mass of the shell (or case). The rocket will be lightest when all fuel is burnt,
i.e., when m = − M. Putting this value of m in (iii), we get
M = m0 (1 − ct ) or ct = 1 − M / m0 ...(viii)
The speed v will be maximum when all fuel is burnt, i.e., when (viii) holds.
Using this value of t in (vi), we get
F g I L1 − F M I O − V log F M I
H ct JK MMN GH m0 JK PPQ
Vmax = − G GH m JK ...(ix)
0
And at this instant, the height x will be
F g I 2
x=−G [1 − ( M / m0 )] + ( V / c) [( M / m0 ) log ( M / m0 ) + 1 (1 − M / m0 )]
H 2c 2 JK ...(x)
794 Dynamics
When the shell (rocket) reaches this height, it moves freely as projectile under gravity with
initial vertical velocity vmaximum .
2
Hence, additional height reached = ( vmax ) / ( 2g)
F1 I
= G gJ [g 2 c 2 (1 − M / m0 ) 2 + 1 / 2 (log M / m0 ) 2
H2 K
+ (2 gV / c) (1 − M / m0 ) 2 × log M / m0 ] ...(xi)
Adding (ix) and (x), we get
2
F V I F1 − M M I F V2 I F MI
x max = G
H c JK GH m0
+ log J + G J G log m JK
m0 K H 2g K H 0

EXERCISES
1. A spherical raindrop of radius a cms falls from rest through a vertical height h, receiving
throughout the motion an accumulation of condensed vapour at the rate of k grammes per
square cm. per second, no vertical force but gravity acting. Show that when it reaches the
ground its radius will be

(2 hg) [1 + ( ga 2 / 2 hk 2 ) ]
2. A mass in the form of a solid cylinder, the area of whose cross-section is A, moves parallel
to its axis, being acted on by a constant force F, through a uniform cloud of fine dust of
volume density ρ which is moving in a direction opposite to that of cylinder with constant
velocity V. If all the dust that meets the cylinder clings to it, the cylinder starts from rest and
its initial mass was m;show that the velocity after time t is ( mV + Ft / k ) − V and the dis-
tance described in that time is
k m
− Vt − where k = ( m 2 + 2 mAρ vt + AFρ t 2 ).
Aρ Aρ
3. A particle of mass M is at rest an d beings to move under the action of a constant force F in
a fixed direction. It encounters the resistance of a stream of fine dust moving in the opposite
direction with velocity V, which deposits matter on it at a constant rate c. Show that its mass
will be m when it has travelled a distance

FkI
GH 2 JK [m − M (1 + log m / M )], where k = F − cV .
c
4. A chain of length l is coiled at the edge of a table. One end is fastened to a particle whose
mass is equal to that of the whole chain and the other end is put over the edge. Show that
1
immediately after leaving the table, the particle is moving with velocity (5 / 6) gl .
2

  
 Central Orbits
7.1 DEFINITIONS
(i) Central force : A force which is directed towards a fixed point O is called central force. The
fixed point O is called the centre of force.
(ii) Central Orbit : The path described by the particle moving along a plane curve under a
central force is called the central orbit.
7.2 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION OF CENTRAL ORBIT (POLAR FORM)
A particle is moving in a plane with an acceleration F which is
always directed towards a fixed point O in the plane, to find the
differential equation of the path. P (r, θ)
Let a particle moves in a plane curve under an acceleration F which
is always directed towards a fixed point O in the plane. Let OX be a
fixed line in the plane of orbit. Let O be the pole and OX as the initial
line. Let the position of the particle at time t be P ( r, θ).
Since the acceleration F is always directed towards O, hence the
particle has only radial acceleration towards O of magnitude F and no O
transverse acceleration. P N
Hence, the equation of motion in the radial and transverse
directions will be
d 2r F dθ I 2 = − F
−rG
dt
2 H dt JK ...(i)

1 d F 2 dθ I
and Gr J =0 ...(ii)
r dt H dt K
Integrating (ii), we get
dθ
r2 = constant = h (say) ...(iii)
dt
To integrate these equations, let
1
r=
u
dr 1du 1 du dθ
∴ =− . =− . .
dt 2 dt 2 dθ dt
u u
dr 1 du R h U dθ h
or =−
2 S 2 V, ∴ from (iii) =
2
.
dt u dθ T r W dt r
dr du
or =− h ...(iv)
dt dθ
d 2r d R du U d R du U dθ
and 2
= S− h V = − h S V.
dt dt T dθ W dθ T dθ W dt
d 2u h
=−h . , from (iii)
dθ 2 r2
796 Dynamics
2 2
d r d u
or = − h2u2
dt 2 dθ 2
dθ d 2r
Substituting the values of and from (iii) and (v) in (i), we get
dt dt 2
2
d 2u RhU
− h 2u 2 −rS V =−F
2
dθ Tr2 W
d 2u
or h2u2 + h2u3 = F ...(v)
dθ 2
2
d u F
or +u= ...(vi)
dθ 2 h 2u 2
This is the required differential equation of the central orbit in polar form as it is satisfied by
the coordinates (u, θ) of a point on the orbit.

7.2.1 Differential equation of a central orbit (pedal form)

To obtain differential equation to the path in `p’ and `r’ for a particle moving in a plane with
acceleration F, directed towards a fixed point O.
We know that if p be the length of the perpendicular drawn from the pole to the tangent to a
curve at any point p (r, θ) , then
2
1 1 1 R dr U
2
=
2
+
4 S dθ V
p r r T W
Putting u =
1 du 1 R dr U
, we have =− S V
2
r dθ r T dθ W
∴ Above equation reduces to
1
= u2 + S
R du U2
2 V ...(i)
p T dθ W
Differentiating (i) with respect to θ, we get
2
2 dp du du d u
− 3 . = 2u + 2 . 2
p dθ dθ dθ dθ
1 dp F d 2 u I du
− =G + uJ
p 3 dθ H dθ 2 K dθ
F F I F 1 dr I
=G . −
H h 2 u 2 JK GH r 2 dθ JK from (vi) of 7.2 above
. ,

du F 1 I dr 1 dp F dr
and =−G J or =
dθ H r 2 K dθ p 3 dθ h 2 d θ
2
h dp
or . =F ...(ii)
p 3 dr
This is the required differential equation of the central orbit in the pedal form.
EXAMPLES
1. Find the law of force to the pole if the path of the particle is cardioid r = a (1 + cos θ).
Solution. It is given that
1 1
u= =
r a (1 + cos θ)
Central Orbits 797
or log u = − log a − log (1 + cos θ)
Differentiating with respect to θ,
1 du sin θ θ
. = = tan
u dθ 1 + cos θ 2
du θ
∴ = u tan
dθ 2
2
d u du θ u θ θ u θ
or = tan + sec 2 = u tan 2 + sec 2
dθ 2 dθ 2 2 2 2 2 2
d 2u θ u θ 3u θ 3u
∴ u+ = u + u tan 2 + sec 2 = sec 2 =
dθ 2 2 2 2 2 2 (1 + cos θ)
= 3au 2
d 2u F
But u+ =
dθ 2 h 2u 2
2 4 3ah 2
∴ F = 3ah u =
r4
1
i.e., F∝ .
4
r
2. A particle describes a circle, pole on its circumference, under a force P to the pole. Find
the law of force.
Solution. The equation of the circle with pole on its circumference is
r = a cos θ
1
or = a cos θ ...(i)
u
or 1 = au cos θ
Differentiating both sides with respect to θ, we get
du
0= a cos θ + au ( − sin θ)
dθ
du
or = u tan θ
dθ
2
d u du
or = u sec 2 θ + tan θ
dθ 2 dθ
1 1
= sec 2 θ + sec θ tan 2 θ
a a
1
= sec 3 θ (sec2 θ + tan 2 θ)
a
1
= sec θ (2 sec2 θ − 1) ...(iii)
a
Now, the differential equation of the path will be
d 2u P
+u= ,
dθ 2 h2u2
1 P
or sec θ (2 sec 2 θ − 1) + u = , from (iii)
a h2u2
1 2 1 P
or sec θ (2 sec θ − 1) + sec θ = , from (i)
a a 2 2
h u
2 P 2
or sec 2 θ = or P= ( au)3 . h 2 u2 , from (i)
a h2u2 a
798 Dynamics
2 2
2a h 1
or P = 2a 2 h 2 u 5 = or P∝
r5 r5
3. A particle describes the curve r n = a n cos n θ under a force F to the pole. Find the law of
force.
Solution. The equation of given curve is
n n
r = a cos nθ
1
or 1 = a n u n cos nθ, ∵ u=
r
Differentiating both sides w.r.t. θ, we get
L du O
0 = a n Mu n ( − n sin nθ) + nu n −
1
cos nθP
N dθ Q
du
or = u tan nθ
dθ
Again differentiating w.r.t. θ, we get
d 2u du
= un sec 2 nθ + tan nθ
dθ 2 dθ
= un sec 2 nθ + u tan 2 nθ
The differential equation of the path is
d 2u F
+u=
dθ 2 h 2u 2
2 2 F
or (un sec θ + u tan nθ) + u =
2 2
h u
2 F
or u ( n + 1) sec nθ =
2 2
h u
or F = h 2 u 3 ( n + 1) sec 2 nθ
2
h
2 F an I rn
= ( n + 1) G J , ∵ cos nθ =
3
r H rn K an
2 2n
h ( n + 1) a 1
or F= or F∝
r2 + 3 r2 + 3
n n

4. A particle describes the curve au = tan h (θ / 2 ) under a force F to the pole. Find the law
of force.
Solution. The equation of given curve is
F θ I
au = tan h G J ...(i)
H 2K
Differentiating with respect to θ, we get
du 1 F θI
a = sec h 2 GH JK
dθ 2 2
d 2u 2 F θ I F θ I
= − sec h G tan h G
H 2 JK J
or a ...(ii)
dθ
2 H 2K
The differentiating equation of the path is
d 2u F
+u=
dθ 2 h 2u 2
Central Orbits 799
1 θ θ 1 θ F
or − sec h 2 tan h + tan h = , from (i), (ii)
a a 2 2
2 2 2 h u
1 L θ 2 θ O F
or
a
tan h M1 − sec h P= 2 2
N 2 2Q h u
L F θ IO F
u M tan h 2 G P= ,
or
MN H 2 JK PQ h 2 u 2 from (i)

1h 2 a2
or F = h 2 a 2 u5 = or F ∝ .
r5 r5
2
5. A particle describes the curve p = ar under a force F to the pole, find the law of force.
Solution. The equation of given curve is
2 ...(i)
p = ar
Differentiating with respect to r,
dp
2p . =a
dt
dp a a
or = = from (i)
dr 2 p 2 (ar )

1 F aI
= GH JK ....(ii)
2 r
We have the pedal equation of central orbit as
h2 dp h2 1 F aI h2 1
F=
3
. =
3/ 2
. GH JK = .
p dr ( ar ) 2 r 2a r 2
1
∴ F∝ .
r2
EXERCISES
1. A particle describes the equiangular spiral r = ae θ cot α under a force F to the pole. Fnid
L 1
the law of force. M Ans. F ∝ 3 P
N r
n
2. Find the law of force, if the path of the particle is r = A cos n θ + B sin nθ.
L 1 O
M Ans. F ∝ 2 n + 3 P
N r Q
L 1 O
3. Find the law of force, if the path of the particle is r 2 = a 2 cos 2θ. M Ans. F ∝ 7 P
N r Q
4. A particle is describing an ellipse under a force to a pole, find the law of force.
L 1 O
M Ans. F ∝ 2 P
N r Q
5. Find the force to the pole when an particle describes the curve r = a sin θ.
L R 2 2 |O
( n 2 − 1) U
MAns. F ∝ |S 2n 5a −
3 VP
MN T| r r W|PQ
800 Dynamics

cos hθ − 2
6. A particle describes the curve au = under a force F to the pole. Find th e law of
cos hθ + 1
L 1 O
force. MAns. F ∝ 4 P
N r Q
7. A particle describes the curve r n cos nθ = a n under a force F to the pole. Find the law of
force. [Ans. F ∝ r 2 n 3 ] −

8. A particle describes the curve r cos hnθ = a under a force F to the pole. Find the law of
L 1 O
force. M Ans. F ∝ 2 P
N r Q
9. A particle describes a parabola 2 p 2 = lr under a force to its pole, find the law of force.
L 1O
MAns. F ∝ 2 P
N r Q
2
b 2a
10. A particle describes the curve = + 1 under a force F to the pole, find the law of
2 r
p
L 1O
force. MAns. F ∝ 2 P
N r Q
7.3 AREAL VELOCITY
Let A and B be the two neighbouring positions of the particle at
B
times t and t + δ t respectively, moving along the curve. With O as (r + δr, θ + dθ)
A (r, θ)
pole, let coordinates of A and B be (r, θ) and ( r + δr, θ + δθ)
respectively.
θ
δ
Then in time δt, the sectorial area OAB swept out by OA
N
1 θ
= OA . OB sin δθ
2 O X
1
= . r (r + δr ) sin δθ
2
1
= r 2 dθ, to the first approximation.
2
Hence rate of description of the sectorial area OAB as radius vector passes through OA
L 1 r 2 δθ O
M2 P 1 2 dθ
= lim M P= r
δt → 0 M δt P 2 dt
NM QP
1
= h, from equation (iii), of 7.2
2
Hence, the rate of description of the sectorial area is constant or in other words the sectorial
area traced out by the radius vector to the centre of force increases uniformly per unit of time.
This rate of description of sectorial area is defined as the areal velcoity of particle at A about
the fixed point O.
Again, sectorial area OAB
1
= (base AB) . perpendicular from O on AB.
2
Central Orbits 801
∴ Rate of description of sectorial area OAB
L 1 . AB . perpendicular form O on AB O
M P
= lim M 2 P
δt → 0 M δt P
NM QP
1 L AB δs O
= lim M . . (perp. form O on AB)P
2 δt → 0 N δs δt Q
Now, as δt → 0, B → A and secant AB → tangent at A to the curve. Hence, perpendicular
AB
distance from O on AB → p and → 1.
δs
Hence, from (ii), we get
rate of description of sectorial area OAB
1 L ds O 1
= M1 . . pP = vp ...(iii)
2 N dt Q 2
Hence, from (i) and (iii), we get
1 1
h = vp
2 2
h
or h = vp or v = ...(iv)
p
Hence, the linear velocity varies inversely as the perpendicular from the centre upon the
tangent to the path.
Again from (iv)
2 2
h h v 1
v= or v 2 = or =
2
p p h2 p2
We have from differential calculus
1 1 1 R dr U2 = u 2 + R du U2 , 1
= + S V S dθ V where u =
p2 r2 r 4 T dθ W T W r
2
v2 2 R du U
∴ =u +S V
h2 T dθ W
L R du U2 O
or v 2 = h 2 Mu 2 + S V P ...(v)
MN T dθ W PQ
7.4 AREAS AND APSIDAL DISTANCE
An apse is a point on a central orbit at which the radius vector drawn from the centre of the
force is a maximum or minimum. The length of the radius vector at such a point is known as
apsidal distance and the angle between two apsidal distances is called the apsidal angle.
1
As u = , hence r will be maximum or minimum according as u will be minimum or maximum
r
du
and from differential calculus, we know that = 0.
dθ
Also, we know that
dθ dθ du
tan φ = r =r .
dr du dr
dθ R 1 U 1 dθ dθ
or tan φ = r S− 2 V = − = −u
du T r W r du du
802 Dynamics
du
∴ = − u cot φ = 0.
dθ
π
Hence, cot
. φ=0 or φ=
2
But φ is the angle between the tangent and radius vector. Hence, at an apse tangent is
perpendicular to radius vector.
7.4.1 Properties of The apse Line
If the central force is a single valved function of the distance, every apse line divides the
orbit into two equal and similar portions and thus there can only be two apse distances.
Let the central force be F, which is single valued depending upon the distances only say F( r ).
∴ F = F ( r) ...(i)
Equation of motion gives

d 2u F
u+ =
dθ 2 h2u2
du
Multiplying by 2 and integrating with respect to θ, we get
dθ
2
F du I 2 F 2 F du I 2 2 F 1I
u2 + G
H dθ JK
=
2
z 2
du or u +G
H dθ JK
=
2
z F(r ) . r 2 . d GH JK
h u h r
2
=−
2
z F(r ) dr
h
2
1
= u2 + S
R du U
But V
p2 T dθ W
1 2
∴ 2
=−
2
z f ( r) dr.
p h
It is clear that p is a function of r and hence φ is also a function of r only.
Above relation also gives,
h2
= − 2 z F(r ) dr
p2
∴ v 2 = − 2 z F( r ) dr ...(ii)
This gives that velocity and therefore, acceleration depends upon radius vector only, i.e., for
the same r, velocity remains the same.
Equation (ii) shows that F is a single valued function of the distance r, so the velocity is same
at the same distance r and does not depend on the direction of the motion. Also, acceleration is
same at the same distance because P is single valued function of r. Thus both velocity and
acceleration are the same distance r from the centre.
Hence if at an apse, direction of velocity is reversed it will describe a symmetrical curve on
both sides of the apsidal distance. When the particle arrives at the second apse, the path is again
symmetrical about this second apse. But this is possible only if the next, i.e., third apsidal distance
is equal to the one before it, i.e., first. Hence, there are only two different apsidal distances.

7.5 VELOCITY IN A CIRCLE

If v be the velocity with which a particle is projected at r = a from the centre of force at right
angles to the radius vector, then the particle describes a circle of radius a and the velocity v is
called velocity in a circle.
Central Orbits 803
Thus, along the radius vector,
2
v
= F = [ F( r )]at r = a
a
or 2
v = aF( a)
Velocity from infinity to r = a.
It is the velocity acquired by the particle in falling from infinity to a point r = a under the
attraction F = R( r) towards the centre of force.
2
v
Hence, = − z∞a F(r ) dr
2
Velocity of fall to the point of projection :
If a particle falls from the centre of repulsion under a force F to a point at a distance r. Then
1 2 r
v = z0 F dr.
2
7.6 Time in an Orbit
The time of passing through one point A to another point P of a central orbit is given from the
equation
dθ dy dx P
h = r2 =x −y
dt dt dt
where x, y are the coordinates of P with centre of force as origin.
Also, time for any are AP is given by
area AOP
t= .
1
h O A
2

EXAMPLES
R| a4 U
|
1. A particle moves with a central acceleration µ Sr + V being projected from an apse at
|T r3 W|
a distance a with a velocity 2 µ a. Prove that it describes the curve r 2 (2 + cos 3θ) = 3a 2 .
Solution. We have the differential equation of path as
2
d u F
+u= ...(i)
2 2 2
dθ h u
F a I
4
F 1 + a 4u 3 I
Given that F = µ Gr + J =µG JK
H r3 K Hu
Hence, from (i), we get
2
 d 2u   1 4 
h  2 + u = µ  3 + a u 
 d θ   u 
du
Multiplying both sides by 2 and integrating, we get
dθ
LF du I 2 O F 1 −2 1 4 2 I
2
v =h
2
MG J + u 2 P = 2µ G − u + a u J + C, ...(ii)
MNH dθ K PQ H 2 2 K
where C is the constant of integration.
1
Initially, r = a, i. e., u = ,
a
du
v=2 µ a and = 0 (at an apse).
dθ
804 Dynamics
Hence, from (ii) we get
2 2 1 L 1 2 1 2 O
4µa = h . = 2µ M − a + a PQ + C
2
a N 2 2
∴ h 2 = 4µa 2 and C = 4µa 2
Hence, from (ii), we get
 du 2   1 4 2
4µa2   2
 + u  = µ − 2 + a u  + 4µa
2

  d θ    u 

4a 2
 du  2 = − 1 + a 4u 2 + 4a2 − 4a 2u 2 = 4a2u 2 − 3a4u 4 − 1
or  d θ  u
2
u
2

L 2 O2 4 1 R 2 U2
− Ma 2 u 2 3− P + −1 − Sa 2 u 2 3− V
N 3Q 3 3 T 3W
= =
u2 u2

du 1
L1 F 2 I
2 O
or 2a
2
=− M − G a2u2 3− JK PP
dθ u M3 H 3
N Q
− 2 3 a 2 u du
or
= 3dθ
L1 F 2 I 2 OP
M − G a 2u2 3− J
M3 H 3K P
N Q
2
Let a 2u2 3− =t
3
∴ 2 3a 2 u du = dt
− dt
= 3dθ
or F 1 − t2 I
GH JK
3
Integrating, we get
cos −1 ( t 3 ) = 3θ + A ...(iii)
where A constant of integration.
1 F 2 I 1
Initially, u = , i. e., t = G 3 − J= and let θ = 0, then A = 0.
a H 3K 3
Hence, from (iii), we get
cos −1 ( t 3) = θ 3 or t 3 = cos (θ 3)
F2 2 2 I
or 3 Ga u 3− J = cos (θ 3 ) or 3a 2 u 2 − 2 = cos ( θ 3 )
H 3K
3a 2
or 3a 2 u 2 = 2 + cos ( 3θ) or = 2 cos ( 3θ)
r2
or r 2 (2 + cos 3θ) = 3a 2
This is the required equation of the path.
2. A particle moves under a force mµ {3au 4 − 2 ( a 2 − b 2 ) u 2} a > b and is projected from an
µ
apse at a distance (a + b) with velocity . Show that the equation of its path is
a+b
r = a + b cos θ.
Central Orbits 805
Solution.We know that the differential equation of the path is
d 2u F
+u=
dθ h2u2
We have F = µ {3au 4 − 2 ( a 2 − b 2 ) u5}
Hence, the path becomes
d 2u µ
+u= {3au 2 − 2 ( a 2 − b 2 ) u 3}
dθ 2 h2
2
L d 2u O
or h M 2 + u P = µ {3au 2 − 2 ( a 2 − b 2 ) u 3}
MN dθ PQ
du
multiplying both sides by 2 and integrating, we get
dθ
LF du I 2 O
v2 = h2 MG J + u 2 P = µ {2au 3 − ( a 2 − b 2 ) u 4} + c ...(i)
MNH dθ K PQ
w h e r e c is constant of integration.
1 µ du
Initially, r = a + b, i. e., u = ,v= , =0
( a + b) ( a + b) dθ
∴ From (i),
µ L O L 2a 1 (a 2 − b2 ) O
= h 2 M0 + P=µM − P+c
2 3 2
( a + b) MN ( a + b) PQ MN ( a + b) ( a + b) 4 PQ
µ h2 L 2 a − ( a − b) O
or = =µM P+c
2
( a + b) ( a + b) 2 MN ( a + b)3 PQ
µ h µ
or = = +c
2 2 2
( a + b) ( a + b) ( a + b)
∴ h= µ, c = 0
Then, from (i)
LF du I 2 2 O
µ MG J + u P = µ [2 au 3 − ( a 2 − b2 ) u 4 ]
MNH dθ K PQ
2
F du I = 2au 3 − ( a 2 − b2 ) u 4 − u2
or GH JK
dθ
1 du 1 dr
Putting u = ⇒ =− we get
r dθ r2 d θ
1 F dr I 2 = 2a − ( a 2 − b 2 ) − 1
4
GH JK
r dθ r3 r4 r2
2
F dr I = 2ar − (a 2 − b 2 ) − r 2 = b 2 − ( r − a) 2
or GH JK
dθ
dr
or = ± {b 2 − (r − a) 2}
dθ
dr
− = dθ
or 2 2
{b − ( r − a) }
806 Dynamics

Integrating, cos −1
R (r − a) U = θ + c
S V 1
T b W
Initially, r = a + b, θ = 0, so we get c1 = 0
−1  r − a  =θ
⇒ r − a = b cos θ
∴ cos  
b  
or r = a + b cos θ.
This is the required equation of the path.
3. A particle moves with a central acceleration which varies inversely as the cube of the
distance. If it be projected from an apse at a distance a from the origin with a velocity which is
2 times the velocity for a circle of radius a. Show that the equation of its path is
r cos ( θ / 2 ) = a.
Solution. Let v1 be the velocity for a circle of radius a with a central acceleration
∝ (distance) −3 . Then
v12 µ µ µ
= or v12 = or v1 =
a a3 a2 a
v
Hence, if 2 be the velocity of projection, then
µ (2µ)
v2 = 2. v1 = 2. = ...(i)
a a
Now, the differential equation of the path is
d 2u F
+u= ,
dθ 2 h 2u 2
F µI 3 1
it is given that F = G 3 J = µu , where u = .
Hr K r
d 2u µu 3 L d 2u O
or +u= or h2 M 2 + u P = µu
2 2 2
dθ h u MN dθ PQ
du
Multiplying both sides by 2 and integrating, we get
dθ
L
2 F du I
2 O F u2 I
v = h MG J + u P = 2µ G
2 2
MNH dθ K PQ J +C ...(ii)
H2K
1 F du I
Initially, r = a, i. e., u = , G J = 0 and v = (2µ ) / a.
a H dθ K
Hence, from (ii), we have
2µ h2 µ µ
= = + C or h 2 = 2µ and C =
2 2 2 2
a a a a
Hence, from (ii) we get
LF du I 2 2 O
MG J + u P = µ FG u 2 + 12 JI
2µ
MNH dθ K PQ H a K

F du I + u 2 = 1 F u 2 + 1 I or F du I 2
2
1 F 1
− u2 J =
I 1 − a 2u2
or GH JK G J GH JK = G
dθ 2H a2 K dθ 2 H a2 K 2a 2
a du 1
= dθ
or
[(1 − a 2 u 2 )] 2
Central Orbits 807
F θ I
Integrating, we have sin −1 ( au) = G J + A, ...(iii)
H 2K
where A is the constant of integration.
1 π
Initially, u = and θ = 0, ∴ A=
a 2
Hence, from (iii) we get
1 F θ I
sin −1 ( au) = π+G J
2 H 2K
Fπ θ I F θ I
or au = sin G + JK = cos GH J
H2 2 2K
F θI
a = r cos G .
or
H 2 JK
This is the equation of the path.
4. A particle moves with a central acceleration [µ / (distance) 5 ] and projected from the apse
at a distance a with a velocty equal to n times that which would be acquired in falling from

infinity, show that the other apsidal distance is a / ( n 2 − 1).

If n = 1 and particle be projected in any direction, show that the path is a circle passing
through the centre of force.
dv µ
Solution. If v be the velocity at a distance x from the centre, then v =− , negative sign
dx x5
indicates that the particle is moving towards the centre.
Hence, if V be the velocity from infinity to a distance a from the centre then
1  1 a µ
∫0v v du = − µ ∫∞a 5
dx or V 2 = 2µ  4  = 4
x  4x  ∞ 2a
F µ I
or V= GH 4 JK
2a
Hence, the velocity of projection of the particle
F µ I
= nV = n GH 4 JK ...(i)
2a
We know that the differential equation of the path is
d 2u F
+u= ...(ii)
dθ 2 h 2u 2
d 2u µu5 L d 2u O
or +u= or h 2 M + u P = µu 3
dθ 2 h2u 2 MN dθ 2 PQ
du
Multiplying both sides by 2 and integrating, we get
dθ
LF du I 2 O u
4
2
v =h
2
MG J + u2 P = µ + C, ...(iii)
MNH dθ K PQ 2
where C is constant of infegration.
F µ I du 1
Initially, v = n GH 4 JK , = 0 and u =
2a dθ a
808 Dynamics
∴ From (iii), we get
2 2
n µ L1O µ n µ µ ( n 2 − 1)
= h2 M P = + C or h 2 = and C =
4 2 4 2
2a N a Q 2a (2a ) 2a 4
Hence, from (iii), we get
2
n µ LF du I 2 2 O µu 4 µ (n 2 − 1)
MG J + u P = +
2 a MNH dθ K
2
PQ 2 2a 4

F du I 2 + u 2 = 1 [a 4 u 4 + (n 2 − 1)]
or GH JK 2 2
dθ a n
2
F du I = L 1 O [a 4 u 4 − a 2 n 2 u 2 + (n 2
or GH JK M 2 2 P − 1)] ...(iv)
dθ Na n Q
du
Now, at any apse = 0 , so form (iv) the apsidal distances are given by
dθ
4 4 2 2 2 2
a u − a n u + (n − 1) = 0 or ( n 2 − 1) r 4 − a 2n 2 r 2 + a 4 = 0
Let r12 and r22 be the roots of this quadratic equation in r 2 . Then
a4 a2
r12 . r22 = or r1r2 =
2
( n − 1) 2
( n − 1)
But one of the apsidal distance is a. Let r1 = a.
a2 a
ar2 = or r2 =
∴ 2 2
[( n − 1)] [( n − 1)]
If n = 1, from (iv), we have
L du O 2 =
1
( a 4 u 4 − a 2 u 2 ) = u 2 (a 2 u 2 − 1)
MN dθ PQ 2
a
du
= dθ
or 2 2
u [( a u − 1)]
Integrating, we get
sec −1 ( au) = θ + A
1
Initially, u = and θ = 0, ∴ A = 0. Hence,
a
sec −1 ( au) = θ
a
or au = sec θ or = sec θ or r = a cos θ
r
This is the polar equation of a circle passing through the pole, i.e., centre of force.
5. A particle subject to a force producing an acceleration µ ( r + 2 a) / r 5 towards the origin
is projected from the point (a, 0) with a velocity equal to the velocity from infinity at an angle
cot −1 2 with the initial line. Show that the equation to the path is
r = a (1 + 2 sin θ)
Solution. The differential equation of the path is
d 2u F
+u=
dθ 2 h 2u 2
µG
F 1 + 2aI
µ ( r + 2 a) Hu JK
Here, F= = = µ (u 4 + 2 au5 )
r5 1 / u5
Central Orbits 809
2 4 5
d u µ (u + 2au )
∴ +u=
dθ 2 h2u2
F d 2u I
or h2 G + uJ = µ (u 2 + 2au 3 )
H dθ 2 K
du
Multiplying both sides by 2 and integrating, we have
dθ
|RF du I + u 2 U|
2
2 2
v =h SGH JK V
T| dθ W|
R 1 3 1 U
= 2µ S u + au 4 V + c ...(i)
T3 2 W
Now, the velocity of projection of the particle is equal to the velocity acquired by a particle in
falling from infinity to the point of projection under given acceleration. Let v1 be the velocity thus
acquired. We have,
dv R x + 2a U
v =−µS V
dx T x5 W
R 1 2a U
or v dv = − µ S + V dx
T x4 x5 W
F 1 2a I
∴ zvv1= 0 v dθ = − µ zxa = 0 G 4 + 5 J dx
Hx x K
v12 L 1 Oa 2a
= − µ M− −
4P
or 3
2 N 3x 4x Q
L 1 1 O
=µ M +
3P
N 3a 3 2a Q
2 5µ
or v1 =
3
(3a )
Also, from p = r sin φ, we have initially, p0 = a sin φ 0 .
Here, φ 0 = cot −1 2 or cot φ 0 = 2
1
or sin φ 0 =
5
a
∴ p0 = a sin φ 0 =
5
1 1 1 F dr I 2 = u2 + G
F du I 2
Also, we have
2
=
2
+
4 GH θ JK H dθ JK
p r r d

F du I 2 2 1 5
∴ Initially, GH JK +u = =
dθ p02 a2
∴ From (i), initially, we have
5µ 5 L 1 1 O
= h2 = 2µ M 3 + P+c
3 2 3
3a a N 3a 2a Q
5µ 5h 2 5µ
or = = +c
3a 3 a2 3a 3
810 Dynamics
µ
∴ h2 = and c = 0 .
3a
∴ From (i), we get
µ LF du I 2 2 O L 3 4O
MG J + u P = 2µ M u + au P
H
3a M dθ K PQ MN 3 2 PQ
N
2
F du I = 2au 3 + 3a 2 u 4 − u 2
or GH JK
dθ
1 du 1 dr
Putting u= , =− , we get
r dθ r 2 dθ
1 F dr I 2 = 2a + 3a 2 1
4
GH JK −
r dθ r3 r4 r2
2
F dr I = 2ar + 3a 2 − r 2 = 4 a 2 − (r − a) 2
or GH JK
dθ
dr
= dθ
{( 2a) 2 − ( r − a) 2}
Integrating, we get
R (r − a) U
sin −
1
S V = θ + c1
T 2a W
Initially, θ = 0, r = a ∴ c1 = 0

sin −
1 Rr − a U = θ
Hence, S V
T 2a W
or r − a = 2a sin θ
or r = a (1 + 2 sin θ)
This is the required equation of the path.
F 5 8c 2 I
6. A particle of mass m moves under a central attractive force mµ G + J. and is
3 5
Hr r K
3 µ 2
projected from an apse at a distance c with velocity , prove that the orbit is r = c cos θ,
c 3
2
πc
and that it will arrive at the origin after a time .
8 µ
Solution. Here, the central acceleration is
F 5 8c 2 I 3
F=µG + J = µ (5u + 8c 2 u5 )
3
r5 K
Hr
The differential equation of the central orbit is
d 2u P
u+ =
dθ 2 h 2u 2
2
L d 2u O µ
or h Mu + P= (5u 3 + 8c 2 u5 ) = µ (5u + 8 c2 u 3 )
MN dθ 2 PQ u2
du
Multiplying both sides by 2 and integrating, we get
dθ
Central Orbits 811
L 2 F du I 2 O
2
v =h
2
Mu + G J P = µ (5u 2 + 4c 2 u 4 ) + c ...(i)
MN H dθ K PQ
1 du
Initially, at an apse r = c, u = , = 0, v = 3 µ / c,
c dθ
∴ From (i), we get
9µ h2 F5 4 I
= =µG + JK + C
c
2
c
2 H c2 c
2

9µ h2 9µ
or = = +C
c2 c2 c2
2
∴ h = 9 µ, c =0
Substituting these values in (i), we get
L F du I 2 OP = µ [5u 2
9µ Mu 2 + G + 4c 2 u 4 ]
MN H dθ JK P
Q
F du I 2
9G = 4 c 2 u 4 − 4u 2
or
H dθ JK
1 du 1 dr
Putting u = , so that =− , we get
r dθ r 2 dθ
1 F dr I 2 F c2 1 I
or 9.
4
GH JK =4G
4
−
2 J
r dθ Hr r K
F dr I 2
9G J = 4 (c 2 − r 2 )
H dθ K
dr 2
or =− (c 2 − r 2 )
dθ 3
2 − dr
dθ =
or 3 22
(c − r )

Integrating, 2 θ + A = cos −1 FG r IJ , where A is constant of integration.

3 H cK
−1
Initially, when r = c, let θ = 0. Then, A = cos 1=0
2 F rI
θ = cos −1 G J
∴ 3 H cK
r 2
or = cos θ
c 3
2
or r = c cos θ
3
This is the required equation of the path.
Again, we have
2 F dθ I
h=r G J
H dt K
2
But h = 3 µ and r = c cos θ
3
2
c 2 cos 2 θ
r2 3
∴ dt = dθ = dθ ...(ii)
h 3 µ
812 Dynamics
At the point of projection, we have taken θ = 0. Also, at the point O, r = 0.
Putting r = 0 in the equation of path, we get
2
0 = c cos θ
3
2 π 3
i.e., θ= or θ = π
3 2 4
3
So, at O, θ = π. Let t1 be the time from the point of projection to the point.
4
Then, integration (ii), we get
2
3π / 4 c 2 F2 I
t1 = z0 cos G θJ dθ
3 µ H3 K
2 2
Put θ = φ, so that dθ = dφ. When θ = 0, φ = 0 and when θ = 3 π, φ = π .
3 3 4 2
π/2 c2 2 2
∴ t1 = z0 (cos φ) dφ
3 µ 3
2
c
= z0π / 2 cos 2 φ dφ
2 µ
2
c 1 1 πc 2
= . . π= .
2 µ 2 2 8 µ
7. A particle is moving with central acceleration µ ( r 5 − c 4 r ) being projected from an apse
2µ
at a distance c with velocity c 3 , show that its path is the curve x 4 + y 4 = c 4 .
3
Solution. Here P = µ ( r 5 − c 4 r )
F 1 c
4 I L 1O
= µG − J MN r=
u PQ
∵
5
Hu u K
∴ Differential equation of central orbit
d 2u P
+u= becomes
dθ 2 h 2u 2
L1 c
4 O
2 M 5− P
d u u
+u =µ Mu P
dθ 2 M h 2u2 P
M P
NM PQ
d u
2
µ  1 c4 
or 2
+u= 2
 7 − 3
dθ h  u u 
du
Multiplying both sides by 2 and in tegrating above, we get
dθ
LF du I 2 2 O
v =h
2
MG J + u P
2
MNH dθ K PQ
L 1 c4 O
= 2µ M − + P + C1 ..(1)
MN 6u 2u 2 PQ
6
Central Orbits 813
From initial conditions, i.e., at an apse;
1 du
u= , =0
c dθ
2µ 3
and v= c .
3
2µ 6 h 2 F c6 c6 I
c = = 2µ G − + J + C1
∴ 2
3 c H 6 2K
2 8 2µ
∴ h = c and C1 = 0
3
Substituting values of h 2 and C1 in (1), we get
2µ 8 LF du I 2 O L 1 c4 O
c MG J + u 2 P = 2µ M − + P
3 MNH dθ K PQ MN 6u 6 2u 2 PQ

c8   du  2 2   1 c4 
or   + u  = − 6 + 2 
3   d θ    6u 2u 
F du I 2 L 1 c
4 O 8 2
or c8 GH JK = 3 M− + P−c u
dθ 6 2
MN 6u 2u PQ
1 4 4 8 8
= [−1 + 3c u − 2c u ]
2u 6
1 L 1 3 4 4 8 8O
= MN− 2 + 2 c u − c u PQ
u6
1 L 1 F 4 4 3I 2 9 O
= M− − G c u − J + P
u6 MN 2 H 4K 16 P
Q
du 1
or c4 =± 4 4
1 − (4c u − 3)
2
dθ 3
4u
4 3
4.4c u du
− = 4 dθ
∴ 4 3 2
1 − ( 4c u − 3)
Putting 4c 4 u 4 − 3 = V , so that 4.4c 4u 3 du = dV we get
dV
− = 4dθ
2
1− V
Now integrating above, we get
−
cos 1 ( V ) = 4θ + C2
or cos −1 ( 4c 4 u 4 − 3) = 4θ + C2 ..(2)
1
Intially when u = , then θ = 0; C2 = 0
c
∴ (2) becomes
cos −1 ( 4c 4 u 4 − 3) = 4θ
or 4c 4 u 4 = 3 + cos 4θ
or 4c 4 = r 4 [3 + cos 4θ]
= r 4 [2 + ( 2 cos 2 θ − 1) 2 ]
= r 4 [4 + 8 cos 4 θ − 8 cos 2 θ]
814 Dynamics
4 4 2
= 4r [1 + 2 cos θ − 2 cos θ]
= 4r 4 [cos 4 θ + (1 − cos 2 θ)]2
or c = r 4 [cos 4 θ + sin 4 θ]
4

or c4 = x 4 + y4 [∵ x = r cos θ, y = r sin θ]
EXERCISES
1. A particle describes an orbit with a central acceleration µu 3 − λ u 5 , being projected from an
apse at distance a with a velocity equal to that from infinity, show that the path is
θ 2µa 2
r = a cos h , where n 2 + 1 = .
n λ
2. A particle moves is a curve under a centarl acceleration so that its velocity at any point is
equal to that in a circle at the same distance and under the same attraction. Show that law of
force is inverse cube and path is an equiangular spiral.
3. A particle moving with a central acceleration µ /(distance)3 is projected from an apse at a
 (µ − a 2V 2 ) 
distance a with velocity V, show that the path is r cosh  θ  = a, or
 aV 
 
 (a 2V 2 − µ) 
r cos  θ  = a according as V >< the velocity from infinity..
 aV 
 
4. In a central orbit the force is µu 3 (3 + 2a 2u 2 ); if the particle be projected at a distance a

with a velocity 2 −1  1 
(5µ / a ) in a direction making an angle tan   with the radius, show
2
that the equation of the path is r = a tan θ.
5. A particle is acted on by a central repulsive force which varies as the nth power of the
distance. If the velocity at any point be equal to that which would be acquired in falling
from the centre to the point, show that the equation of the path is of the form
1
r ( n + 3) / 2 cos ( n + 3) θ = constant .
2
6. A particle of mass m moves under a central force mµ /(distance)3 and is projected at a dis-
tance a from the centre of force with the velocity which at angle α to the radius would be
acquired by a fall from rest at infinity to the point of projection, prove that the orbit is an
equiangular spiral.
7. A particle is projected from an apse at a distance a with the velocity from infinity, the accel-
eration being µu 7 , show that the equation to its path is r 2 = a 2 cos 2θ.
8. A particle moves with central acceleration (µu 2 + λu 3 ) and the velocity of projection at
disatnce R is V. Show that the particle will ultimately go off to infinity if
2 2µ λ
V + > .
R R2
9. A particle of mass m is attached to a fixed point by an elastic string of natural length a, the
coefficient of elasticity nmg. It is projected from an apse at a distance a with velocity
(2 pgh); show that the other apsidal distan ce is given by the equation
nr 2 ( r − a ) − 2 pha ( r + a ) = 0
Central Orbits 815

 2µ  µ
10. A particle is projected with velocity  3  from a point P in a field of attractive force 4
 3c  r
to a point O distant C from P, where r denotes the distance from O.
If the direction of projection makes an angle 45° with PO, prove that the orbit is cardioid

 3π   3c5 
and the particle will arrive at O after a time  − 2  .
 4   4 
 
11. A particle subject to a central force per unit of mass equal to µ {2 (a 2 + b2 ) u5 − 3a 2 b 2u 7 }
(µ)
is projected at the distance a with velocity in a direction at right angles to the initial
a
distance. Show that the path in the curve r = a cos 2 θ + b2 sin 2 θ.
2 2

mµ  
12. A particle moves under a repulsive force =   and is projected from an apse at a
2
 (distance) 
distance a with velocity V. Show that the equation to the path is r cos pθ = a, and the angle
2 2
1 −1  pVt  2 (µ + a V )
θ , described in time t is p tan  a  , where p = .
  2 2
a V
µ
13. A particle subject to a central attractive acceleration  3  + f is projected from an apse
r 
µ 1 2
at a distance a with a velocity . Prove that the at any subsequent time t, r = a − ft .
a 2
14. A particle moves with a central acceleration λ 2 (8au 2 + a 4 u 5 ), it is projected with velocity
λ from an apse at a distance a/3 from the origin, show that equation to its path is
1  au + 5  θ
  = cot
3  au − 3  6
15. A particle moves under a central force mλ [3a3u 4 + 8au 2 ], it is projected from an apse at a
distance a from the centre of force with velocity (10λ ). Show that the second apsidal
 θ 
distance is half the first, and th at the equation to path is 2r = a 1 + sec h  .
 5
 4 10 5
16. If the law of force is µ  u − au  and the particle be projected from an apse at a dis-
 9 
5
tance 5a with a velocity equal to  7  of that in a circle at the same distance, show that
 
the orbit is the limacon r = a (3 + 2 cos θ).
17. Show the only law for a central attraction for which velocity in a circle at any distance is
equal to the velocity acquired in falling from infinity to the distan ce is that of inverse cube.
µr
18. A particle is acted on by a repulsive central force 2 2 2 is projected from an apse at
( r − 9c )
 µ 
a distance c with velocity  2  . Find the equation of its path and show that the time to
 8c 
4 2
the cusp is πc 2  . [ Ans .8 p 2 = 9c 2 − r 2 ]
3 µ
  
 Planetary Motion
8.1 NEWTONIAN LAW OF ATTRACTION
According to this law the mutual attraction between two particles of masses m1 and m2 an d

m1m2
placed at a distance r apart is γ . , where γ is universal constant. This law is found to hold
r2
good in the case of the motion of all planets in the solar system. Therefore motion of earth about
the Sun, that of planets about the earth or of moon about the Sun is governed by this law. Here in
this chapter we will discuss the case of central orbits when the force is an attraction varying inversely
as the square of the distance from the centre of force.
8.2
A particle moves in a path so that its acceleration is always directed to a fixed point and is
µ
equal to ; Show that the path is a conic section, and distinguish between the three
2
(distance)
cases that arise.
This is a case of central orbit as force is always directed towards a fixed point.
µ
Here . P=
2
r
Also pedal form of differential equation is
2 2
h dp µ h µ
=P= or dp = dr.
p dr
3
r
2 p3 r2
Integrating above, we get
h µ h2 2µ
− =− +A or = + B.
2 p2 r p2 pr
Also we know that h = p v; hence the equation reduces to
2
2µ 2µ 2 h
v2 = + B. ∴ 2
= v =
+ B.
r p r
Also we know that pedal equation of ellipse, parabola and hyperbola (that branch which is
nearer to centre of force) all referred to focus as pole are
2 2
b 2a 2a b
= − 1, p 2 = ar 2
= + 1,
and
2 r r
p p
respectively, where 2a and 2b are the lengths of major and minor or transverse and conjugate axes.
Now comparing equation (1) with th ese pedal equations of ellipse, parabola and hyperbola, we
get
Case 1. With ellipse
h
2
µ B µb 2 µ
= = ; ∴ h2 = and B = − .
2 a −1 a a
b
Planetary Motion 817
Therefore (1) reduces to
2
h 2µ µ 2 1
v2 = = − =µ − .
2
p r a r a
2 1 2 2µ
From v 2 = µ  −  , we see that v < .
 r a r

Case 2. With parabola.

On comparing (1) with pedal equation of parabola, we get B = 0 and h 2 = 2aµ .
2 2µ
∴ (1) reduces to v = .
r
Case 3. With hyperbola.
h2 µ B b2 µ
= = ; h2 = µ and B = .
2 a 1 a a
b
2 2µ µ  2 1
∴ (1) reduces to v = + = µ + .
r a  r a 
2  2 1 2 2µ
From v = µ  + , we see that v >
 r a  r
2µ
Thus from above three cases, we conclude that v2 = + B always represents a conic section
r
whose focus is at the centre of force and it represents an ellipse, parabola or hyperbola according
as B is – ve, 0 or + ve.
Also we have found that
 2 1
if v 2 = µ  −  , it is an ellipse;
 r a
2 2µ
if v = , it is a parabola;
r
2  2 1
if v = µ  +  , it is a hyperbola;
 r a
or from above relations, we conclude that
2µ
if v 2 < , it is an ellipse;
r
2 2 µ
if v = , it is a parabola;
r
2 2 µ
if v > , it is a hyperbola;
r
Also we have found that
2
2 b
h =µ = µl in case of ellipse;
a
2
h = 2aµ = µl in case of parabola;
2
2 b
h =µ = µl in case of hyperbola.
a
Therefore in all the three cases.
h 2 = µl
or h = { (µl )} [where l is semi-latus rectum].
We observe that velocity at any point in in dependent of the direction of the velocity.
818 Dynamics
Cor 1. If a particle be projected from a point at a distance R from the focus with velocity V in
any direction, the path will be an ellipse, parabola or hyperbola according as
2µ
V2 < = >
R
2µ
Here we observe that is the square of the velocity the paraticle will acquire in falling from
R
infinity to the distance R from the centre as
dv µ V1 R 1
v
dr
=−
r2
;
0
v dv = − µ ∫
∞ r2
dr ∫
2 R
V1 µ  µ 2 2µ
or =  = ; V1 =
2  r ∞ R R
Therefore the path will be an ellipse, parabola or hyperbola according as the velocity at any
points is < = > the velocity the particle will acquire in falling from infinity to that point.
Cor 2. The velocity V2 for the description of a circle of R is given by
2
V2 µ
= (normal acceleration)
R R
µ 1 2µ 1  2µ 
∴ V22 = = . or V 2 =  
R 2 R 2 R
 2µ 
As we have already proved above that   is velocity the particle would acquire in falling
R
from infinity to the point distant R from the centre, hence
1
V2 = (velocity from infinity)
2
1
or velocity for the description of a circle of radius R =(velocity from infinity) to the distance
2
R from the centre.
Note. In the above article, when the central acceleration was towards the focus, the branch
of hyperbola described in the one nearest to the focus.
Now if we consider the case when the central acceleration is away from the focus, then the
further branch of hyperbola is described.
Now in this case equation of motion (orbit) is
2 2
h dp µ h µ
=− or dp = − dr.
p dr
3
r2 p3 r2
Integrating above, we get
2
2µ 2 h
=− v =
+ A. ...(1)
2 r
p
Also the pedal equation of further branch of hyperbola is
b2 2a
=1− ...(2)
2 r
p
Now comparing (1) and (2), we get
2
h2 µ A 2 b µ
= = . ∴ h =µ and A= .
b 2 a 1 a a
Therefore (1) reduces to
1 2
v2 = µ  −  .
a r 
Planetary Motion 819
8.3 KEPLER’S LAWS
There are three laws discovered by the astronomer Kepler connecting the motion of various
planets about the sun :
(i) Each planet describes an ellipse with the Sun as one of its foci.
(ii) The areas described by the radii drawn from the planet to the Sun are, in the same orbit,
proportioanl to the times of describing them.
(iii) The squares of the periodic times of the planets are proportional to the cubes of the major
axes of their orbits.
Deductions
(1) We have proved in chapter of central forces that if the orbit is an ellipse under an acceleration
towards one of its foci, then the law of the acceleration is that of the in verse square of the distance
from the centre (focus). Therefore we conclude that the acceleration of each planet towards the
Sun varies inversely as the square of its distance from the Sun.
(2) From the second law we find that the rate of description of sectorial area is constant and
this is true only when the acceleration of the planet and therefore force on it is directed towards
the sun.
(3) We know that periodic time of a central orbit under inverse law is given by
2π a3 / 2 2 4 π 2 a3
T = or T = ,
µ µ
i.e., the square of periodic time varies as the cube of the major axes.
Hence from the third law we conclude that µ is same for all the planets, i.e., absolute
acceleration µ (acceleration at unit distance from the sun) is the same for all planets.

8.4 ACCURATE VALUE OF µ

Kepler’s third law is true only on the supposition that the
Sun is fixed and mass of the Sun is so great in comparison to
S β α P
that of the planet that the effect on its motion on account of its
attraction is negligible.
A more accurate form is obtained below :
Let S be the mass of the Sun and P that of any planet and γ the constant of gravitation.
Now mutual attraction between them at any instan t, when distance between them is r, is given
SP
by γ .
r2
SP S
Therefore planet’s acceleration α = γ 2
=γ
2
r .P r
S .P P
and sun’s acceleration β = γ 2 = γ 2 .
r S r
and the relative acceleration of the planet with respect to the sun is α + β .
γ ( S + P) µ
∴ α+ β = = .
r2 r2
Therefore here µ = γ (S + P ).
3/ 2
2 πa
Also periodic time is given by T = ;
µ
2π
therefore exact periodic time T = a3/ 2 . ...(1)
[ γ ( S + P)]
820 Dynamics

Now let T1 be the periodic time of another plan et of mass P1 and a1 be semi-major axes of its
orbit; then
2π
T1 = a13 / 2 . ...(2)
[ γ ( S + P1 )]
Therefore from (1) and (2), we get
2
T S + P1 a3 S+P T
2
a
3
= . or . = .
2 S + P a1 3 S + P1 T12 3
T1 a1
If D be the mean distance (distance between centres) of the planet from the Sun, then we can
also say
2π
T = D3 / 2 . ...(3)
[ γ ( S + P)]
Similarly if p be the mass of satellite of planet P and the mean distance between their centres
be a, then the periodic time t of satellite is given by
2π
t= d 3 / 2.
[ γ ( P + p)] ...(4)
Therefore from (3) and (4), we get
T2 P + p D3 S + P T2 D3
= . or . = .
t
2 S + P d3 P + p t2 d
3

8.5.
In solving questions in this chapter we will require help of properties of ellipse. So some of the
important properties are given below :
(1) The product of perpendiculars drawn from the foci
Z
on tangent at any point on ellipse is constant and is equal Y P
φ φ
to square of the semi-minor axis of the ellipse, i.e.,
SY . HZ = b2
(2) The sum of the focal distances of a point on an ellipse S C H
is 2a, where 2a is length of major axis of ellipse i.e.,
SP + HP = 2a.
2
b
(3) The length of latus rectum is 2 , where
a
2 2 2
b = a (1 − e ),
e being the eccentricity of the ellipse.
(4) The tangent and normal at any point are each equally inclined to focal radii of that point.

EXAMPLES
µ
1. A particle moves with a central acceleration ; it is projected with velocity V
2
(distance)
at a distance R. Show that its path is a rectangular hyperbola if the angle of projection is
µ
sin −1 .
1/ 2
 2 2µ 
VR V − 
 R
Sol. We know that in the case of hyperbola
2 2 1
v = µ  + .
r a
Therefore in this case
Planetary Motion 821
2  2 1
V =µ +  as [v = V , r = R given]
R a
2 2µ µ
or V − = ...(1)
R a
Also we know that h = pv.
Let p = p0 initially.
h = p0V = R sin α V (∵ p0 = R sin α) ...(2)
 b2 
Also we know that h = (l µ) = µ .
 a 
Therefore (2) reduces to
(µa) = R sin α . V or µa = R 2 sin 2 α . V 2
 
µ ×µ  µ 
2 2 2
or = R V sin α ∵ from (1), a = 2µ

 2 2µ   2
V − 
 V − R   R 
µ2 µ
or sin 2 α = or sin α =
1/ 2
 2µ   2 2µ 
R V V 2 −
2 2
 RV  V − 
 R  R
µ
or α = sin −1 .
1/ 2
 2 2µ 
V V − 
 R
µ
2. A particle describes an ellipse under a force towards the focus. If it was
[ distance]2
projected with velocity V from a point distant r from the centre of force, show that its periodic
time is
−3/ 2
2π 
2 V 
2

 − 
r
µ  µ 
Sol. Since orbit described is an ellipse, therefore
2
 2 1  or V = 2 − 1
V2 = µ  − 
 r a µ r a

1 2 V2
or = − . ...(1)
a r µ 
2πa 3/ 2
Now periodic time is given by T = . ...(2)
µ
Therefore from (1) and (2), we get
−3/ 2
2π  2 V2
T =  − 
µ r µ 
3. If a planet were suddenly stopped in its orbit supposed circular, show that it would fall
2
into the Sun in a time which is times the period of the planet’s revolution.
8
Sol. Let a be the radius circular path and the particle be suddenly stopped at point P, i.e., its
velocity suddenly reduces to zero; then th e planet will begin to move in the straight line PS towards
S under th e acceleration
822 Dynamics
µ
(distance) 2 P

Now equation of motion of the particle while falling from P to S is

dv µ µ
v =− ( r decreasing) or v dv = − 2 dr.
dr r2 r S
2 2µ
On integrating, we get v = + A.
r
2µ
Now when r = a, v = 0; ∴ A= −
a
2  1 1  2µ ( a − r )
Therefore v = 2 µ −
r a = .
  ar
dr  a − r
v= = − (2µ) (r decreasing).
∴ dt  ar 
0  r   2µ  t
∴ ∫a  a − r  dr = −  a 
   
∫0 dt ,

where r is time of reaching the planet to the Sun.

 2µ  0  r 
∴ −  t=
 a 
∫a   dr.
a − r 
Put r = a cos 2 θ, dr = − 2a cos θ sin θ d θ.
 2µ  π/2
∴ −   t =−
 a  0 ∫
2a cos 2 θ d θ.

 2µ  π/2
 a  t = 2a ∫0 cos θ d θ
2
or
 
 2µ  1 π πa3 / 2
or  a  t = 2a 2 . 2 or t =
2 (2µ)
If T be the periodic time of planet’s revolution, then.
2π a 3 / 2 t 2 (2µ )
T = ∴ =
µ T 3/ 2
2 πa
t 1 2 2
∴ = = or t= T.
T 4 2 8 8
4. If the velocity of a body in an elliptic orbit, major axis 2a, is the same at a certain point P,
whether the orbit is being described in a periodic time T about one focus S or in periodic time T ′
about the other focus S ′, prove that
2aT 2aT
SP = and S ′P = .
T +T′ T + T′
Sol. As we know that sum of focal distances of any point on the ellipse is equal to 2a , so if
SP = r, then
S ′P = 2a − r.
Now when S is the focus, then
2 2 1 2πa 3 / 2
v = µ  −  and T = . ...(1)
r a µ
Now when S ′ is the focus, then
Planetary Motion 823
3/ 2
 2 1 2πa
v2 = µ ′  −  and T ′ = . ...(2)
 2a − r a µ′
∴ From (1) and (2), we get
2 1  2 1
µ − = µ′  − .
a 
...(3)
r  2a − r a

4πa a
2 3 4π 2 a 3
But µ = from (1) and µ ′ = from (2)
T
2 T ′2
Therefore (3) reduces to
4π 2 a 3  2 1  4 π 2 a3  2 1
2 r − a =  − 
T   T ′2  2a − r a 
1 2a − r 1 r
or . = . or T 2 r 2 = T ′ 2 (2 a − r )2
2 ar 2 a (2 a − r )
T T′
or Tr = T ′(2a − r ) or (T + T ′ ) r = 2aT ′
2 aT ′ 2aT ′
or r= i.e., SP = .
T +T′ T + T′
2aT ′
Therefore S ′P = 2a − [as S ′P = 2a − SP]
T +T′
2aT
or S ′P = .
T + T′
5. A particle describes an ellipse about a centre of force at the focus; show that any point of
its path, the angular velocity about the other focus varies inversely as the square of the normal at
that point.
2 dθ dθ P
Z
Sol. r = h = pv in a central orbit where is angular Y
dt dt φ φ
velcoity about the focus S . Therefore the angular velocity (say
ω ) about the other focus H by above formula is given by
2 [∵ p = HZ ] S GC H
HP . ω = HZ . v,
h
or HP 2 ω = HZ . ,
SY
 h h 
∵ h = pv, ∴ v = p or v = SY  .
 
h . HZ h . HZ
∴ ω= or ω= . ...(1)
2 SY . HP . HP
SY . HP
Now since the ∆ s HZP and SYP are similar,
HZ SY
∴ = .
HP SP
Therefore from (1),
h HZ h SY h
ω= . . . = . ...(2)
SY . HP HP SY . HP SP SP . HP
But SP = a + ex ′ = a + ae cos φ and HP = (a − ae ′ ) = a − ae cos φ.
∴ from (2),
h h
ω= = 2 2 2 2
(a + ae cos φ ) ( a − ae cos φ) a − a e cos φ
824 Dynamics
h h
or ω= = . ...(3)
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
a − (a − b ) cos φ b cos φ + a sin φ
Normal at P, whose co-ordinates ar e (a cos φ, b sin φ ), is given by
ax by
− = a 2 − b2
cos φ sin φ
or 2 2
ax sec φ − by cosec φ = a − b .
Now above normal meets the major axis at G, where y = 0.
 a 2 − b2 
Hence co-ordiantes of G are  cos φ, 0 .
 a 
2
2
 a
2
− b
2  2 2
Therefore PG =  a cos φ − cos φ  + b sin φ
 a 
b2
= cos2 φ + b2 sin 2 φ
a2
b2
or PG 2 = (b2 cos2 φ + a 2 sin 2 φ)
a2
b2 1
or (b2 cos2 φ + a 2 sin 2 φ) = .
a 2 PG 2
2
h b 1
∴ from (3), ω= =h .
2 2 2 2
b cos φ + a sin φ a 2 PG 2
6. A planet of mass M and periodic time T, when at its greatest distance from the Sun, comes
into collision with a meteor of mass m, moving in the same orbit in the opposite direction with
velocity v; if m/M be small, show that major axis of the planet’s path is reduced by
4m vT 1 − e
M π  1 + e  M

Sol. Let v be the velocity of the planet and meteor at A,

before collision. Since orbit is same for planet and meteor, hence
their velocities are equal at A. A
S C
 2 1
∴ v2 = µ  − 
 a + ae a 
µ 1− e v
= . . m
...(1)
a 1+ e
[since SA = SC + CA = ae − a]
Let V be the velocity of combined body after the collision.
Since momentum is un altered by collision, by the principle of conservation of momentum, we
get
(M + m) V = Mv − mv
−1
M −m  m m 
or V = v = 1 −
 1 + M  v
M +m M  
 m m  m 
= 1 −  1 −  v nearly as is small
 M M  M 
Planetary Motion 825


2
 m m  m 
= 1 − − v neglecting   
 M M M 
 
 2m 
or V = 1 − v ...(2)
 M 
Hence from (2), we observe that
2µ 2  2 1 2µ
V 2 < v 2 or V 2 < as v =µ  −  or V2 < ,
a + ae  a + ae a SA
Therefore the subsequent path of the combined body is ellipse. Let its major axis be 2a ′.
Now for the new path i.e., ellipse at A,

2 1
V2 =µ  −  ...(3)
 a + ae a ′ 
2
 2m  2  2 1
or  1 − M  v = µ  a + ae − a ′  [from (2)]
 
 
2
 4m  2  2 1  m
or 1 − M  v = µ  a + ae − a ′  neglecting   and higher powers
   M 
 
 4m  1 − e  2 1
or  1 − M  . 1 + e = µ  a + ae − a ′  [from (1)]
 
 4m  1 1 − e 2 1
or 1 −  . = −
 M  a 1 + e a + ae a ′
1 1 2 1 − e 4m 1 − e  1  4m 1 − e 
= − + . = 1+ .
a ′ a  1 + e 1 + e M 1 + e  a  M 1 + e 
or
−1
 4m 1 − e   4m 1 − e 
a ′ = a 1 + = a 1 − . nearly.
M 1 + e  M 1 + e 
or
 
4m 1 − e
∴ 2a ′ − 2a = − . 2a.
M 1+ e
or major axis of subsequent path is reduced by
 4m 1 − e 
 M . 1 + e . 2a  .

2πa 3 / 2  µ 1 − e  2 πa3 / 2  2 µ 1 − e
Also T = ; ∴ vT =  a . 1 + e   as v = a . 1 + e 
µ µ
1 − e vT 1 + e
or vT = 2aπ  ; ∴ 2a =
 1 + e  π  1 − e 
4m 1 − e 4m 1 − e vT 1 + e
∴ . 2a = . .  1 − e  .
M 1+ e M 1+ e π
Hence major axis of subsequent path is reduced by

4m vT 1 − e
M π  1 + e  .
826 Dynamics
µ
7. A particle is moving in ellipse of eccentricity e, under the acceleration 2 to a focus; when
r
the particle is nearest to a focus, the acceleration is suddenly replaced by an acceleration µ r
towards the centre of the ellipse. If the particle continues to move in the same ellipse, prove that
µ = µ ′ (1 − e 2 ) a 2 .
Sol. Let v be the velocity of particle at point A which is nearest B

to the focus S; then

2  2 1
v = µ −
 AS a 
C
A A'
S
 2 1
=µ −
 a − ae a 
B'
µ 1+ e
or v2 = . ...(1)
a 1− e
Now the centre of force is shifted to centre i.e., at point C and new force is µ′ r.
Now distance of point A from C is a and velocity of particle at A is v.
du
Also = 0 at point A, being an apse at A
dθ
The differential equation of the path is
d 2u P µ′  µ′ 
+u= = as P = µ ′r = µ  .
d θ2 h 2u 2 h2 u 2  
Integrating above, we get
 2
2 2  du  2 2µ′
v = h   + u  = − 2 + A, ...(2)
  d θ   2u
1 du 2 µ 1+ e
Now when u = , = 0 and v = from (1),
a dθ a 1− e
µ 1 + e h2
∴ . = = − µ ′ a 2 + A.
a 1 − e a2
1 + e  du  
2
µ′ µ 1 + e
Therefore au .   + u 2  = − 2 + . + µ′a2 .
1 − e  d θ   u a 1− e

Therefore equation (2) reduces to
1 + e   du  
2
µ′ µ 1 + e
au .   + u 2  = − + . + µ′a2 . ...(3)
1 − e  d θ   u 2 a 1− e
 
Now as the particle continues to move in the same ellipse, the next apse will be at point B i.e.,
next apse be r = b.
1 du
Therefore when r = b or u = , = 0.
b dθ
1 du
Therefore in (3), putting u = and = 0, we get
b dθ
1+ e 1 µ 1+ e
aµ . = − µ ′b 2 + . + µ ′a 2
1 − e b2 b 1−e

µ 1+ e  a2 
or . . − 1 = µ ′ (a 2 − b2 )
a 1− e 2
b 
Planetary Motion 827
2 2
µ 1 + e (a − b )
or . . = µ ′ (a 2 − b 2 )
a 1 − e a 2 (1 − e 2 )
µ 1+ e 1
or . . = µ′ or µ = µ ′a3 (1 − e)2 .
a 1 − e a 2 (1 − e) (1 + e)

EXERCISES
1. Show that the velocity of a particle moving in an ellipse about a centre in the focus is
µ µe
compounded of two constant velocities, perpendicular to the radius and perpendicular
h h
to the major axis. Hence deduce that the r adial velocity is given by the equation
2
2  dr  µ
r 
  = a {a (1 + e) − r}{r − a (1 − e)}
dt 
2. A planet is describing an ellipse about the Sun as focus. Show that its velocity away from
the Sun is greatest when the radius vector to the planet is at righ t angles to the major axis of
2π ae
path and that is then , where 2 a is the major axis, e the eccentricity and T the
T (1 − e 2 )
periodic time.
3. Prove that the time taken by the earth to travel over half its orbit, remote from the Sun,
separated by the minor axis is 2 days more than h alf the year. The eccentricity of the orbit is
1
.
60
4. A body is moving in an ellipse about a centre of force in the focus. When it arrives at P, the
direction of motion is turned through a right angle, the speed being unaltered. Show that
the body will describe an ellipse whose eccentricity varies as the distance of P from the
centre.
5. A comet is moving in a parabola about the Sun as focus. When at the end of its latus rec-
tum its velocity suddenly becomes altered in the ratio of n :1, where n < 1. Show that the

comet will describe an ellipse whose eccentricity is (1 − 2n 2 + 2n 4 ) and whose major axis
l
is where 2l was the latus rectum of the parabolic path.
1 − n2
6. A particle is describing a parabola under a force to the focus. It meets and coalesces with
another particle of n times its mass which was at rest before the impact. Show that the
composite body will describe an ellipse whose eccentricity is given by
4 n ( n + 2) θ
1 − e2 = cos 2 ,
4 2
( n + 1)
where θ is measured from the apse in the parabola.
7. A particle of mass m when at any point of the ellipse of semi-major axis a is split by an
explosion into two particles of masses m1 and m2 . If the particle m1 describes a parabola,
µ m2 a E
prove the semi-major axis of the orbit described by m2 is , where is the energy
µm − aE 2
generated by the explosion.
8. A body describes an ellipse under a force to the focus and when at the extremity of the minor
axis, moving towards the nearer apse, it receives a blow in the direction of the other focus
which cause it to move towards the centre of the ellipse. Show that the eccentricity of the new
orbit is (3e2 − 3 + e − 2 )1/ 2 and that the major axis is turned through angle whose tangent is
ab
.
2
a (2e − 1)
828 Dynamics
8.6
(a) Time to Describe a given arc of Parabolic Orbit Starting from the Vertex
We know that polar equation of parabola is
1 θ P
= 1 + cos θ = 2 cos2
r 2
l θ θ
or r = sec2 = a sec2 θ
2 2 2 A S
[as l = 2a in parabola].
2 dθ
Also we know that r =h
dt
t θ 2
∫0 dt = ∫0 r
2
or h dt = r d θ or h dθ

θ 2 θ  2 θ
or ht = ∫0 a sec2
2
dθ as r = a sec


2
θ θ 2 θ 2 θ 1 3 θ
or ht a 2 ∫0 sec2 1 + tan 2  d θ = 2a  tan 3 + 3 tan 2 
2
 θ 1 θ
or (µ 2a) t = 2 a 2  tan ± tan 3  [as g = ( µl) , l = 2 a]
 2 3 2
 2a 2   θ 1 3 θ 
or t=    tan + tan  .
 µ   2 3 2

(b) To Find the Time of Description of given arc P

of an Elliptic Orbit Starting from the Nearer
End of the Major Axis. θ
A
Polar eqaution of an ellipse with S as focus and SA as initial C S
line is
1
= 1 + e cos θ, where e < 1.
r
dθ
Also r2 = h or h dt = r 2 d θ
dt
t θ 2 2 θ 1
or h dt =
0 ∫ 0 ∫
r d θ or ht = l
0 (1 + e cos θ) 2 ∫
d θ. ...(1)

d  sin θ  (1 + e cos θ) cos θ + e sin 2 θ

Now  =
d θ 1 + e cos θ  (1 + e cos θ) 2

e + cos θ e 2 + e cos θ
= =
(1 + e cos θ) 2 e (1 + e cos θ) 2

(1 + e cos θ) (1 − e 2 )
= [as e < 1]
e (1 + e cos θ) 2

d  sin θ  1 1 − e2 1
or  = −
d θ 1 + e cos θ  e (1 + e cos θ) e (1 + e cos θ) 2

1 − e2 1 d  sin θ 
or 2
= −  
e (1 + e cos θ) e (1 + e cos θ) d θ 1 − e cos θ 
On integrating above, we get
Planetary Motion 829
2
1− e 1 1 1 sin θ
e
∫ (1 + e cos θ) 2 d θ = e ∫ 1 + e cos θ d θ − 1 + e cos θ
1 1 1 e sin θ
or ∫ (1 + e cos θ) 2 d θ = (1 − e2 ) ∫ (1 + e cos θ) d θ − 1 − e2 . 1 + e cos θ
Also we know that
dθ  −1  1 − e 
2 θ
∫ 1 + e cos θ =  tan  1 + e  tan 2  if e < 1.
(1 − e) 
 
1 2   1 − e  θ
 e sin θ
∴ ∫ (1 + e cos θ) 2 d θ = (1 − e2 )3 / 2 tan −1  1 + e  tan 2  − 1 − e2 (1 + e cos θ)
 
Therefore from (1),
2 θ 1
ht = l
0 ∫ (1 + e cos θ)
2
d θ.

  1 − e 
 2 e sin θ 
or ht = l 2   tan −1   − 
  (1 − e2 )3 / 2  1 + e  1 − e2 1 + e cos θ  
 
Now as h = (µl ) = {µ .a (1 − e2 )},
b2 a 2 (1 − e2 )
and l= = = a (1 − e2 ).
a a
2a 2 (1 − e 2 ) 2 1 − e θ ea 2 (1 − e 2 )2 sin θ
∴ {µa (1 − e 2 )} t = tan −1   tan −
(1 − e )
2 3/2 1 + e 2 1−e
2 1 + e cos θ

a  3/ 2
1 − e θ sin θ 
or t=  2 tan −1   tan − e (1 − e2 ) .
µ   1 + e  2 1 + e cos θ 

(c) To find the time of description of a given arc of a hyperbolic orbit.
Polar equation of hyperbola is
l
= 1 + e cos θ, where e > 1.
r
Also we know that
2 dθ
r = h or dt = r 2 d θ
dt
t θ 2
or ∫0 h dt = ∫0 r dθ
2
t θ l
or ∫0 h dt = ∫0 (1 + e cos θ) 2
d θ. ...(1)

d  sin θ  cos θ (1 + e cos θ) + e sin θ 2

=
d θ  1 + e cos θ 
Now
(1 + e cos θ) 2
cos θ + e cos 2 θ + e sin 2 θ e + cos θ
= =
(1 + e cos θ )2 (1 + e cos θ)2
e cos θ + e 2 1 + e cos θ + e 2 − 1
= =
2
e (1 + e cos θ) e (1 + e cos θ) 2
d  sin θ  1 e4 − 1
or   = + (because e > 1)
d θ  1 + e cos θ  e (1 + e cos θ ) e (1 + e cos θ) 2
830 Dynamics
1 e d  sin θ  1 1
or  =  −
(1 + e cos θ) 2 e 2 − 1 d θ  1 + e cos θ  e2 − 1 (1 + e cos θ)
Integrating both sides of above, we get
1 e sin θ 1 1
∫
(1 + e cos θ) 2
dθ = −
e2 − 1 1 + e cos θ e 2 − 1 (1 + e cos θ)
d θ. ∫
Therefore (1) reduces to
2 2
t e sin θ l θ 1
ht =
2
(e − 1) (1 + e cos θ)
−
2
e −1 0
∫ (1 + e cos θ)
dθ

1
2 2 (e + 1) + (e − 1) tan θ
t e sin θ l 1 2
or ht = − . log
2 2 1
(e − 1) (1 + e cos θ) ( e − 1) (e2 − 1) (e + 1) − (e − 1) tan θ
2
as e > 1
 1 
(e − 1) + (e − 1) tan θ
l2  e sin θ 1 2 
or t=  − log .
h  (e 2 − 1) (1 + e cos θ) ( e 2 − 1) 3 / 2 1
(e + 1) − (e − 1) tan θ
 2 
l2 l2 l3 / 2 a3 / 2 ( e2 − 1)3 / 2
Now = = =
h (µl ) µ µ
 1 
2/3 (e + 1) + ( e − 1) tan θ
a  sin θ 2 
∴ t= e (e − 1) − log
1

µ  1 + e cos θ
(e + 1) − ( e − 1) tan θ
 2 

EXAMPLES
1. Find the time T of describing an arc C of a parbolic orbit Newtonian law; if C be bounded
by a focal chord, prove that

∫
3/ 2
T ∝ ( focal chord) .
P
Sol. We have already found the time of description of given arc of
parabolic orbit as S θ
π –θ A
 2a 3   1 1 3 1 
or    tan 2 θ + 2 tan 2 θ .
 µ   
Q
Let there be a focal chord PQ inclined at an angle θ to the initial
line, so that the vectorial angle of Q will be ( π − θ ) below the initial line.
Therefore the time of describing the arc bounded by the focal chord PQ is
 2a 3   1 1 3 1 
θ
T =    tan θ + tan θ
 µ   2 2 2  − ( π − θ)

 2a 3   1 1 3 1 1 1 3 1 
=    tan 2 θ + 3 tan 2 θ + cot 2 θ + 3 cot 2 θ
 µ   
 
 2a 3   1 1 1 3θ 3 θ 
=    tan θ + cot θ +  tan 2 + cot 2  
 µ   2 2 3 
Planetary Motion 831
 21 2 1 6 1 2 1 
 2a3   sin 2 θ + cos 2 θ 1 sin 2 θ cos 2 θ 
=  
 µ   
+
1 1 3 1 1
  sin θ cos θ sin 3 θ cos 3 θ 
 2 2 2 2 
  21 2 1  4 1 1 1 1 
sin θ + cos θ sin θ − sin2 θ cos2 θ + cos4 θ  
 2a 3   2 
8  2 2

  2 2 2 2 
=   +
 µ   sin θ 3 sin θ
3 
  
 
 2a3   2 8  1 1 
2
1 1 
 
  θ cos 2 θ 
2 2 2
=  +  sin θ + cos θ − 3 sin
 µ   sin θ 3sin3 θ  2 2 2 2 

 2a 3 
 2 8  2 1 2 1 

=    +
3  1 − 3 sin 2 θ cos 2 θ 
 µ 
 sin θ 3 sin θ 
  3 2 
3 sin θ + 4 1 − sin  
 2a3   4  = 2  2a   3 sin θ + 4 − 3 sin 6 
2 2
= 2     µ   3 
 µ   3 sin θ3
  3sin θ 
 
 2a 3  4 1  2
or T =2   cosec θ = [4a cosec2 θ ]3 / 2
 µ  3 3  µ 

1  2
= =   [focal chord]3 / 2 .
3  µ
l l
Since PQ = SP + SQ = +
1 + cos 1 + cos ( π + θ)
[as vectorial angle of Q = π + θ measured anti-clockwise]
l l
= + = 2l cosec 2 θ
1 + cos θ 1 − cos θ
or 2 (as l = 2a).
PQ = 4a cosec θ
 2
1 3/ 2
∴ T= [focal chord]
3  µ 
or T ∝ (focal chord)3 / 2
2. Prove that time taken to describe two portions into which an ellipse is divided by the latus
rectum through the centre of the force are in a ratio
{cos −1 e − e (1 − e2 )} : {π − cos −1 e + e (1 − e2 )}.
Sol. We have already found the time t of describing an arc of elliptic orbit given by

θ
A' A
C S

L'
832 Dynamics

a3 / 2  1 − e θ sin θ 
t=  2 tan −1   tan − e (1 − e2 ) 
µ   1 + e 2 1 + e cos θ 

Now in the above formula if we put θ = π / 2 it will give us time of description of arc AL : let it
be t1.

a3 / 2   1− e  π sin ( π / 2) 
∴ t1 =  2 tan −1   tan − e (1 − e2 ) 
µ   1 + e 4 1 + e cos ( π / 2) 


a 
3/ 2
1 − e 
or t1 =  2 tan −1   − e (1 − e)  .
µ   1+ e 


1− e  z −1  1 − cos z 
Now 2 tan −1  −1
 = 2 tan tan = tan   , by putting e = cos z
 1+ e  2  1 + cos z 

1 − e z
2 tan −1  = 2, = z = cos −1 e.
or
 1 + e  2

Therefore (1) reduces to

a 3/ 2
t1 = [cos −1 e − (1 − e2 ) ]
µ

The time of describing the arc LA′ L ′ = 2t1

or time of describing the arc LAL ′

2a3 / 2
= [cos −1 e − e (1 − e 2 ) ].
µ

2 πa 3 / 2
Now since the period to describe an ellipse is
µ
Therefore the time to describe the arc LA′ L ′ is

2a 3 / 2 2 a3 / 2
− [cos −1 e − e (1 − e 2 ) ]
µ µ

2a 3 / 2
or [ π − cos −1 e + e (1 − e 2 ) ].
µ

Hence the ratio of times of describing the arcs LA′ L and LA ′L ′ is

[cos −1 e − e (1 − e 2 ) ] : [ π − cos −1 e + e (1 − e 2 ) ].
Planetary Motion 833
EXERCISES
1. Prove that in a parabolic orbit the time taken to move from the vertex to a point distant r
from the focus is
1
(r + l ) (2 r − l ) ,
3 µ
where 2l is latus rectum.
1
2. If the period of a planet be 365 days and the eccentricity e = , show that times of
60
describing the two halves of the orbit bounded by the latus rectum through the centre of
force are
365  1 
1 ±  nearly.
2  15 π 
1
3. The perihelion distance of a planet describing a parabolic orbit is of the radius of the
n
earth’s path supposed circular, show that the time that the comet remain with the earth’s
orbit is
2 n + 2  n − 1
3π n
 2n  of a year .
2
Also prove that the longest time that the comet will remain within the earth’s orbit is of
3π
an year.

 Motion in Three Dimensions
9.1 ACCELERATION OF A PARTICLE IN POLAR CO-ORDINATES
To find the acceleration of particle in terms of polar Z
coordinates. L
Let at any instant particle be at P whose coordinates be P
r, θ and φ , where r is the distance of a P from a fixed origin
r
O, θ is the angle that OP makes with z-axis and φ is the
angle that the plane ZOP makes with a fixed plane ZOX (Z-X θ
O M
plane). φ X
Draw PN perpendicular to the plane XOY and let ON = ρ.
P
N K
d2x d2y d2z
Then the acceleration of P are , and , Y
dt 2 dt 2
dt 2
where x, y and z are th e coordinates of P.
The polar coordinates of N, which in always is the plane XOY are ρ and φ. This point N will
have radial and transverse accelerations whose magnitudes are
2
d ρ F dφ I 2 along ON ,
−ρG
dt 2 H dt JK
1 d F 2 dφ I
and Gρ J perpendicular to ON
ρ dt H dt K

2
d z
Also the acceleration of P relative to N is along NP.
dt 2
Hence, the acceleration of P are
2
d ρ
− ρG
F dφ I 2 along LP,
dt
2 H dt JK
1 d F 2 dφ I
GH ρ J perpendicular to the plane ZPK
ρ dt dt K

d2z
and parallel to OZ.
dt 2
d2z d 2ρ
Since z = r cos θ and ρ = r sin θ, the acceleration and , along and perpendicular to
2
dt dt 2
2 2
d r
−rG
F dθ I
H dt JK
OZ is the plane ZPK, are equivalent to along OP (radial acceleration) and
dt 2
1 d Fr2 dθ I
GH J perpendicular to OP (transverse acceleration) in the plane ZPK.
r dt dt K
Motion in Three Dimensions 835
2 2
Also the acceleation − ρ G
F dφ I F dφ I
along LP is equivalent to − ρ sin θ G along OP and
H dt JK H dt JK
− ρ cos θ G
F dφ I 2
H dt JK perpendicular to OP.

Hence, if α, β, γ be the accelerations of P respectively along OP, perpendicular to OP in the

plane ZPK in the direction of θ increasing, and perpendicular to the plane ZPK in the direction of
φ increasing, we have
2
d r
−rG
F dφ I 2 − ρ sin θ F dφ I 2
H dt JK GH JK
α=
2 dt
dt
2 2 2
=
d r F dφ I
− r G J − r sin 2 θ G J
F dφ I
dt
2 H dt K H dt K
2
1 d F 2 dθ I F dφ I
β= GH r JK − ρ cos θ GH JK
r dt dt dt
1 d F 2 dθ I F dφ I 2
= GH r JK − r sin θ cos θ GH JK ...(2)
r dt dt dt
1 d F 2 dθ I 1 d F 2 dφ I
and γ= Gρ J= G r sin 2 θ JK ...(3)
ρ dt H dt K r sin θ dt H dt
Cor. Acceleration in Cylindrical Coordinates : Sometimes we consider the motion of P with
reference to the coordinates z, ρ and φ , called cylindrical coordinates.
As in 9.1, the accelerations are then
2
d ρ F dφ I 2 along LP,
−ρG
dt
2 H dt JK
1 d F 2 dφ I
Gρ J perpendicular to the plane ZPK
ρ dt H dt K
d 2z
and 2
parallel to OZ.
dt
9.2
A particle is attached to one end of a string of length l, the other end of which is tied to a
fixed point O. When the string in inclined at an acute angle α to the downward-drawn vertical
the particle is projected horizontally and perpendicular to the string with a velocity V; to find
the resulting motion.

N
φ

mg sinθ
mg cosθ
mg
836 Dynamics

Taking O as origin, the components of weight mg of the particle are mg cos θ (along r),
− mg sin θ (perpendicular to OP) and 0 for P, we have r = l. Hence, the equations of motion will
L dl d 2l O
be Mas = = 0P
2
MN dt dt PQ

−lG
F dθ I 2 F dφ I 2
− l sin 2 θ G
T
H dt JK H dt JK
= + g cos θ ...(1)
m
2 2
l
d θ F dφ I
− l cos θ sin θ G J = − g sin θ ...(2)
dt
2 H dt K
1 d F 2 dφ I
and G sin θ JK = 0 ...(3)
sin θ dt H dt
Equation (3) gives
dφ L dφ O
sin 2 θ = constant = sin 2 α M
dt N dt PQ at 0
V sin α
= ...(4)
l
dφ V sin α
∴ =
dt 2
l sin θ
dφ
Substituting the value of in (2), we get
dt
2
d θ V 2 sin 2 α cos θ g
− =− sin θ ...(5)
2
dt l2 sin 3 θ l
dθ
Multiplying by 2 , and integrating, we get
dt
dθ d 2 θ 2V 2 sin 2 α cos θ 2g
z2 dθ − z dθ = − z sin θ dθ
dt dt 2 l
2
sin 3
θ l

F dθ I 2 V 2 sin 2 α 1 2g
i.e., GH JK + . = cos θ + A,
dt l2 sin θ l
dθ
at O, we have θ = α, = 0, we get
dt
2
V sin 2 α 1 2g
0+ . = cos α + A ...(6)
l2 sin 2 α l
Subtracting (6) from (5), we get
F dθ I 2 2
V sin α F 1 2
1 I 2g
GH JK = G 2 − 2 J − l (cos α − cos θ)
2
dt l H sin α sin θ K
V sin α F sin θ − sin α I 2 g
2 2 2 2
= G 2 J − (cos α − cos θ)
2 2
l H sin α sin α K l
V 2 F cos 2 α − cos 2 θ I 2 g
= G J − l (cos α − cos θ)
l2 H sin 2 θ K
2g L V 2 F cos α − cos θ I O
= (cos α − cos θ) M G J − 1P
l MN 2gl H sin 2 θ K PQ
Motion in Three Dimensions 837
2g F cos α + cos θ I
= (cos α − cos θ) G 2 n 2 − 1J where V 2 = 4 lg n 2 .
l H sin 2 θ K
dθ
Hence, is again zero-when
dt
2 2
2 n (cos α + cos θ) = sin θ
i.e., when 2 n 2 cos α + 2 n 2 cos θ = 1 − cos 2 θ
i.e., when cos 2 θ + 2 n 2 cos θ + 2 n 2 cos α − 1 = 0
i.e., when 2 2 4
cos θ = − n ± (1 − 2 n cos α + n )
dθ
The negative sign gives inadmissisable value for θ. The only inclination at which again
dt
vanishes is when θ = θ1, when

cos θ1 = − n 2 + (1 − 2 n 2 cos α + n 4 )
The motion is therefore confined between value α and θ1 of the θ.
The motion of the particle is along above or below the starting point, according as θ1 ≥ α,
i.e., according as cos θ1 ≤ cos α ,

i.e., according as (1 − 2n 2 cos α + n 4 ) ≥ n 2 + cos α,

i.e., according as 1 − 2 n 2 cos α ≥ cos α + 2n 2 cos α

2 sin 2 α
i.e., according as n ≥
4 cos α
V2 sin 2 α
i.e., according as ≥
4l g 4 cos α
i.e., according as V 2 ≤ l g sin α tan α.
The tension of the string at any instant is now given by equation (1). Let T does not vanish
during the motion.
The square of the velocity at any instant
2 2
F
= Gl
dθ I F dφ I
H JK + GH l sin θ JK
dt dt
L F d θ I 2
F d φ I 2 O
= l 2 MG J + G J sin 2 θP
MNH dt K H dt K PQ
Hence, the principle of conservation of energy gives
1 LF dθ I 2 F dφ I 2 2 O 1
ml
2
MG J + G J sin θP = mV
2
− mgl (cos α − cos θ)
2 MNH dt K H dt K PQ 2
Hence, from (1), we get
T (velocity) 2 V
2
− 2 gl (cos α − cos θ)
= g cos θ + = g cos θ +
m l l
V2
= + g (3 cos θ − 2 cos α).
l
838 Dynamics
EXAMPLES
1. A heavy particle moves in a smooth sphere. Show that, if the velocity be that due to the
level of the centre, the reaction of the surface will vary as the depth below the centre.
Solution. At time t, let P be the position of the particle of mass
m, such that OP makes an angle θ with the vertical through O, the A
centre of the sphere. Let PM be the perpendicular from P on the
vertical line AA ′. Then velocity of the particle at P
O
= ( 2 g . OM ) = ( 2 ga cos θ ) θ
M P
where a is the radius of the the sphere.
θ
Let R be the reaction of the surface at P, then OP = a, the radius R
A'
of the sphere being constant. Hence, the equations of motion are mg

−aG
F dθ I 2 F dθ I 2 = − R + g cos θ
− a sin 2 θ G
H dt JK H dt JK m
...(1)
2 2
a
d θ F dθ I
− a cos θ sin θ G J = − g sin θ ...(2)
dt 2 H dt K
1 d F 2 dφ I
and . G sin θ . JK = 0 ...(3)
sin θ dt H dt
Integration of equation (3), gives
2 dφ
sin θ . = A (constant)
dt
dθ dr
Let when θ = α, = 0, = 0.
dt dt
La sin θ dφ O
= V, i. e.,
dφ
=
V
∴ MN dt PQ θ = α dt a sin α
2 V V sin α
so that A = sin α . =
a sin α a
dφ V sin α
and hence sin 2 θ = ...(4)
dt a
dφ
Substituting the value of from (4) to (2), we get
dt
d 2θ v 2 sin 2 α g
− cos θ sin θ . =− sin θ
2 2 4 a
dt a sin θ
2 2
d θ V cos θ g
or − sin 2 α . =− sin θ
2 2
dt a sin 3 θ a
dθ
Multiplying the equation by 2 and integrating, we get
dt
2 2 2
F dθ I V sin α 1 2g
GH JK +
2
. = cos θ + B
dt a sin 2 θ a
dθ
when θ = α, = 0, then
dt
V2 2g
= cos α + B
a2 a
Motion in Three Dimensions 839
2
V 2g
i.e., B= − cos α
a2 a
F dθ I 2 + V 2 sin 2 α . 1 = 2g cos θ + V 2 − 2g cos α
Thus, GH JK 2
dt a sin 2 θ a a
2 a
2 2 F 2 I 2g
F dθ I V sin α
or GH JK = − 2 G 2 − 1J − (cos α − cos θ)
dt a H sin θ K a
V2 2g
=− (sin 2 α − sin 2 θ) − (cos α − cos θ)
2 2 a
a sin θ
2
V 2g
= (sin 2 θ − sin 2 α) − (cos α − cos θ)
2 2 a
a sin θ
2 2
F dθ I F dφ I
Substituting the values of GH JK and G
H dt JK
in (1), we get
dt
2
R V
= (sin 2 θ − sin 2 α) − 2 g (cos α − cos θ)
m 2
a sin θ
2 2 2
aV sin α sin θ
+ + g cos θ
2 4
a sin θ
2 2 2
V V sin α
= (sin 2 θ − sin 2 α) − 2 g (cos α − cos θ) + + g cos θ
2 2
a sin θ a sin θ
2
V
= − 2 g cos α + 3g cos θ
a
But when θ = α, V = ( 2 ga cos α )
R 3g 3g
∴ = 3g cos θ or R = (a cos θ) = . OM
m am am
i.e., R ∝ OM.
Hence, the reaction of the surface varies as the depth below the centre.
2. A particle moves on a smooth sphere under no force except the pressure of the surface.
Show that the path is given by the equation cot θ = cot β cos φ, where θ and φ are its angular
coordinates.
Solution. Since there are no forces, except the pressure, the equations of motion are

aG
F dθ I 2 + a sin 2 θ G
F dφ I 2 R
H dt JK H dt JK
= , ...(1)
m

d θ
2
− a cos θ sin θ G
F dφ I 2
H dt JK
a =0
2
dt

d 2θ
= sin θ cos θ G
F dφ I 2
i.e.,
dt
2 H dt JK ...(2)

1 d F 2 dφ I
and GH sin θ JK = 0 ...(3)
sin θ dt dt
Here a is the radius of the sphere.
840 Dynamics
Integration of (3) gives
dφ
sin 2 θ = A (constant)
dt
dφ A
i.e., = ...(6)
dt 2
sin θ

dφ
By putting the value of from (4) in (2), we get
dt
2 2 2
d θ A A cos θ
= sin θ cos θ . =
2 4
dt sin θ sin 3 θ
dθ
Multiplying both sides by 2 dt and integrating, we get
dt
2
F dθ I A2
GH JK =−
2
+ B.
dt sin θ
dθ
Initially, when θ = β, = 0.
dt
A2
∴ B= ,
sin 2 β
F dθ I 2 F 1 1 I
Thus, GH JK = A2 G 2 − J
2
dt H sin β sin θK
Dividing (4) by (5), we have
dφ sin β cosec2 θ
= =
dt sin θ (sin θ − sin β)
2 2 2 2
cot β − cot θ
cot θ
Integrating, φ = cos −1 +C
cos β
If φ = 0 when θ = β, ∴ C = 0.
F cot θ I
φ = cos −1 G
Hence,
H cot β JK
cot θ
or cos φ = or cot θ = cot β cos φ
cot β
3. A smooth circular cone of angle 2α , has its axis vertical and its vertex, which is pierced
with a small hole, downwards. A mass M hangs at rest by a string which passes through the
vertex, and a mass m attached to the upper end describes a horizontal circle on the inner surface
of the cone. Find the time T of a complete revolution and show that small oscillations about the
steady motion take place in the time

F M + mI
T cosec α GH J .
3m K

Solution. Let T1 be the tension is the string and l the total length of the string. Let P be the
position of mass m in the initial state such that the length OP = r, O being the vertex of the cone.
Therefore, the length of the hanging portion of the string below O is (l − r ).
Motion in Three Dimensions 841

dθ d 2θ
In this case, θ = α, hence, = 0, = 0. Hence, equations of motion will be
dt dt 2
L d 2r F dφ I OP = − T − mg cos α
2
mM − r sin 2 α G J 1 ...(1)
MN dt 2 H dt K P
Q
1 d F r 2 sin α dφ I = 0
. GH J ...(2)
r sin α dt dt K
2
d
and M (l − r ) = Mg − T1 ...(3)
dt 2
2
d r
The equation (3) gives −M = Mg − T1 ...(4)
dt 2
subtracting (4) from (1), we get
2
d r
− mr sin 2 α G
F dφ I 2
H dt JK
( M + m) = − mg cos α − Mg ...(5)
dt 2
The equation (2) gives
dφ
r2 =A ...(6)
dt
For the steady motion,
d2r
= 0, r = d
dt 2
dφ N φ
and therefore, (5) and (6), give on putting = ω,
dt P
mω 2 d sin 2 α = g ( M + m cos α), ...(7) T1
α
and A = d 2ω ...(8) mg
2π
Also the time period T is given by T = . ...(9) O
ω T1
2 2 2 2 −2
d r d ρ dφ A d ω d ω F1 + ρ I Mg
If we put r = d + ρ, = and = = = GH d JK
dt 2 dt 2 dt r2 ( d + ρ)
2
d2
L 2ρ O
= ω M1 − PQ neglecting squares of ρ as ρ is small
N d
Now we have from (5)
2
d ρ F 2ρ I 2 − g ( M + m cos α)
= m ( d + ρ) sin 2 α ω 2 G 1 +
H d JK
(m + M)
dt 2
F 4ρ I
= mω 2 ( d + ρ) G 1 − J sin 2 α − mω 2 d sin 2 α
H d K
from (7) and also neglecting the squares of ρ
= mω 2 sin 2α ( d − 3ρ) − mω 2 d sin α, neglecting squares of ρ
= − 3mω 2 sin 2 α . ρ.
This represents a S.H.M. of time period
M+m 2π F M + mI
= 2π = cosec α GH J
2 2
2 mω sin α ω 3m K
F M + mI
= T cosec α GH J [from (9)]
3m K
842 Dynamics
EXERCISES
1. A heavy particle is projected horizontally along the inner surface of a smooth spherical shell

of radius
a
with velocity 2 ag at a depth 2a below the centre. Show that it will rise to
2 3 3
a
a height above the centre, and that the pressure on the sphere just vanishes at the height
3
point of the path.
2. A heavy particle is projected with velocity V from the end of a horizontal diameter of a sphere
of radius a along the inner surface, the direction of projection making an angle β with the

F V2 I2
equator. It the particle never leaves the surface prove that 3 sin 2 β < 2 + G J .
H 3ga K
3. A particle constrained to move on a smooth spherical surface is projected horizontally from
a point at the level of the centre so that its angular velocity relative to the centre is ω. If
ω 2 α be very great compared with g, show that its depth c below the level of the centre at
2g 2 ωt
time t is approximately..
sin
ω2 2
4. A Smooth hollow right circular cone is placed with its vertex downwards and axis vertical,
and at a point on its interior surface at a height h above the vertex a particle is projected
2 gh
horizontally along the surface with a velocity . Show that the lowest point of path
2
n +n
4
will be at a height above the vertex of the cone.
n
5. A particle is projected horizontally along the interior surface of a smooth hemisphere whose
axis is vertical and whose vertex is downwards. The point of projection being at the angular
distance β from the lowest point. Show that the particle may just ascend to the rim of the
hemisphere is ( 2 ag sec β ).
6. A particle moves on the inner surface of a smooth cone, of vertical angle 2α, being acted
on by a force towards the vertex of the cone, and its direction of motion always cuts the
generators at a constant angle β. Find the motion and the law of force.
1
[Ans. F ∝ , r = r0 e sin α cot β . φ ]
r3
9.3 ACCELERATIONS ALONG THE TANGENT, THE PRINCIPAL NORMAL
AND THE BINORMAL
A particle is moving along any curve in three dimensions; to find its accelerations along (i)
the tangent to the curve, (ii) the principal normal, and (iii) the binormal.
Let (x, y, z) be the coordinates of the point at time t. The accelerations parallel to the axes of

d2x d2y d2z

coordinates are , and .
2 2
dt dt dt 2
dx dx ds
Now, = .
dt ds dt
2
d2x dx d 2 s d 2 x F ds I
∴ 2
= . + GH JK ...(1)
dt ds dt 2 ds 2 dt
Motion in Three Dimensions 843

d y
2
dy d s d y
2 2
F ds I 2
So, 2
= . + GH JK ...(2)
dt ds dt 2 ds 2 dt

d 2z dz d 2 s d 2 z F ds I 2
and = . + GH JK ...(3)
dt 2 ds dt 2 ds 2 dt
dx dy dz
(i) The direction cosines of the tangent are , and ,
ds ds ds
Hence, the acceleration along it
dx d 2 x dy d 2 y dz d 2 z
= . + . + .
ds dt 2 ds dt 2 ds dt 2
dx L dx d 2 s d2x F ds I 2 O dy L dy d 2 s d 2 y F ds I 2 O
= M . 2 + GH JK P + M . + GH JK P
ds MN ds dt ds 2 dt P
Q ds M ds dt 2
N ds 2 dt P
Q
dz L dz d s d z F dz I 2 O
2 2
+ M . + GH JK P
ds M ds dt 2 ds
2 ds P
N Q
d 2s LF dx I 2 F dy I 2 F dz I 2 O
= MG J + G J + G J P
dt
2
MNH ds K H ds K H ds K QP
F ds I 2 L dx d 2 x dy d y dz d z O
2 2
+G J M . 2 + . + P ...(4)
H dt K MN ds ds ds ds 2 ds ds 2 PQ

We have F dx I 2 + F dy I 2 + F dz I 2
GH JK GH JK GH JK = 1,
ds ds ds
differentiating w.r.t. s, we get
dx d 2 x
dy d 2 y dz d 2 z
. + .+ =0 ...(5)
ds ds ds ds 2 2ds ds
By putting these values in equation (4), we get
d 2s
Acceleration along the tangent = ...(6)
dt 2
d2x d2y d2z
(ii) The direction cosines of the principal normal are ρ ,ρ and ρ , where ρ is
2 2
ds ds ds 2
the radius of curvature.
Hence, the acceleration along principal normal
2 2 2 2 2 2
d x d x d y d y d z d z
=ρ . +ρ . +ρ .
ds 2 dt 2 ds 2 dt 2 ds 2 dt 2
d2x L dx d 2s d2x F ds I 2 O d 2 y L dy d 2 s d 2 y F ds I 2 O
=ρ M + GH JK P + ρ 2 M . 2 + 2G J P
MN ds dt P MN ds dt ds H dt K PQ
2 2 2
ds dt ds Q ds

d 2 z L dz d 2 s d 2 z F ds I O
2
+ρ M . 2 + 2G J P
2 M ds
ds N dt ds H K
dt P
Q
[from (1), (2) and (3)]
844 Dynamics

d s L dx d x dy d y dz d z O
2 2 2 2
=ρ
2
M . 2 + . 2 + . 2P
dt MN ds ds ds ds ds ds PQ
LF 2 I 2 F 2 I 2 F 2 I 2 O
+ρG
F ds I 2 M d x + d y + d z P ...(7)
H dt JK MGH ds 2 JK GH ds 2 JK GH dx 2 JK P
MN PQ
LF 2 I 2 F 2 I 2 F 2 I 2 O
M d x + d y d z P 1
We have
MGH dt 2 JK GH dt 2 JK GH dt 2 JK P = ρ2 .
MN PQ
and putting the value from (5), we get
Acceleration along the principal normal
2 2
=ρG
F ds I 1 1 F ds I
...(8)
H dt JK G J
× =
ρ 2 ρ H dt K
(iii) The direction cosines of the binormal are proportional to
dy d 2 z dz d 2 y dz d 2 z dx d 2 z dx d 2 y dy d 2 x
− . , . − . and . − . .
ds ds 2 ds ds 2 ds ds 2 ds ds 2 ds ds 2 ds ds 2
On multiplying (1), (2) and (3) in succession by these and adding, the result is zero, i.e., the
acceleration in the direction of the binormal vanishes
Remark : Let (l1, m1, n1 ), ( l2 , m 2 , n2 ) and ( l3 , m3 , n3 ) are th e direction cosines of the tangent,
the principal normal, and the binormal, then equations (1), (2), (3) can be written as
|R 1 F ds I |U
2
d 2s d 2s
2
= l1
2 S + l2G
H K VJ
dt dt T| ρ dt W|
2
d y
2
d s R| 1 F ds I 2 U|
= m1 + m2 S G J V
dt
2
dt
2
|T ρ H dt K |W
2
d z
2
d s R
| 1 F ds I 2 U|
and = n1 + n2 S G J V
dt
2
dt
2
|T ρ H dt K |W
These equations show that the accelerations along the axes are the components of an
d 2s 2
acceleration along the tangent, an acceleration 1 FG ds JI along the principal normal, and
dt 2 ρ H dt K
nothing is the direction of the binomal.
dv v2
Hence, for a particle describing a v , along the tangent and along the principal normal,
dt ρ
which lies in th e osculating plane of the curve.
9.4
A particle moves in a curve, there being no friction, under force such as occur in nature.
Show that the change in its kinetic energy as it passes from one position to the other is independent
of the path pursued and depends on its initial and final positions.
Proof : Let X, Y, Z be the components of the forces. Resolving the forces along the tangent to
the path, we have
d2s dx dy dz
m =X +Y +Z
dt 2 ds ds ds
ds
Multiplying by 2 and integratin g, we get
dt
Motion in Three Dimensions 845
2
F ds I = 2 ( X dx + Y dy + Z dz)
mG
H dt JK z
2
1 F ds I
∴ m G J = z ( X dx + Y dy + Z dz )
2 H dt K
Since the forces are such as occur in nature, hence the components are one-valued functions
of distances from fixed points. So, the quantity X dx + Y dy + Z dz is the differential of some
function φ ( x, y, z ), so that
2
1 2 1
mG
F dx I
H dt JK
mv = = φ ( x , y, z ) + C
2 2
1
where mv02 = φ ( x 0 , y0 , z0 ) + C.
2
Here ( x 0 , y0 , z0 ) is the starting point an v0 the initial velocity.
1 1
Hence mv 2 − mv02 = φ ( x, y, z) − φ ( x0 , y0 , z0 )
2 2
The right-hand member of this equation depends only on the position of the initial point and
on that of the point of the path under consideration, and is quite independent of the path pursued.

9.5 MOTION ON A SMOOTH SURFACE

If the particle moves on a surface whose equation in f ( x, y, z ) = 0, let the direction-cosines of
the normal point (x, y, z) of its path be (l1, m1 , n1 ) so that
l1 m1 n1
= =
df / dx df / dy df / dz
(l12 + m12 + n12 )
=
[( df / dx ) 2 + ( df / dy) 2 + ( df / dz) 2 ]
1
=
...(1)
[( df / dx ) 2 + ( df / dy) 2 + ( df / dz) 2 ]
Now, if R be the normal reaction, we have
d2x d2 y d2z
m = X + Rl1 , m = Y + Rm1 and m = Z + Rn1 ,
2 2 2
dt dt dt
where X, Y, Z are the components of the impressed forces.
dx dy dz
Multiplying these equations by , , and adding, we have
dt dt dt
1 d LF dx I 2 F dy I 2 F dz I 2 O dx dy dz
m MG J + G J + G J P = X +Y +Z
2 dt MNH dt K H dt K H dt K PQ dt dt dt
for the coefficient of R
dx dy dz
= l1 + m1 + n1
dt dt dt
F
= G l1
dx dy dz I ds
H
+ m1 + n1 J
ds ds ds K dt
ds
= (the cosines of the angle between a tangent line to the surface and
dt
the normal)
= 0.
846 Dynamics
Hence, on integration,
1 2
mv = z ( X dx + Y dy + Z dz)
2
Also, on eliminating R, the path on the surface is given by
2 2 2
d x d y d z
m − X m − Y n − Z
2 2 2
dt =
dt =
dt
l1 m1 n1

EXAMPLES
1. A smooth helix is placed with its axis vertical and a small bead slides down it under gravity.

F πa I
Show that it makes its first revolution from rest in time 2 GH g sin α cos α JK where α is angle of

the helix.
Solution. Equations of a helix are
x = a cos θ, y = a sin θ, z = a θ tan α,
dx dθ dy dθ dz dθ
so that = − a sin θ , = a cos θ , = tan α .
dt dt dt dt dt dt
F ds I 2 = F dx I 2 + F dy I 2 + F dz I 2
∴ GH JK GH JK GH JK GH JK
dt dt dt dt

= [a 2 sin 2 θ + a 2 cos 2 θ + a 2 tan 2 α] G

F dθ I 2
H dt JK
F dθ I 2
= a 2 (1 + tan 2 α ) G
H dt JK
F dθ I 2
= a 2 sec 2 α G J .
H dt K
Here a is the radius and α the angle of the helix.
Now, if z0 be initial value of z, then by the principle of energy

2 ( z − z0 ) g = G
F ds I 2 = a 2 sec 2 α G
F dθ I 2
H dt JK H dt JK
F dθ I 2 2g
or GH JK =
2
( z − z0 )
2
dt a sec α
we have z = a θ tan α and z0 = a θ 0 tan α
2
F dθ I = 2ga tan α (θ − θ ) = 2g sin α cos α (θ − θ )
∴ GH JK 2 2 0 0
dt a sec α a
F 2g sin α cos α I dt = dθ
∴ GH JK
a (θ − θ 0 )
Integrating,
F 2g sin α cos α I = zθθ0 + 2α
dθ
= 2 [ (θ − θ 0 )]θθ + π = 2 ( 2π)
2
t GH JK
a 0
(θ − θ 0 ) 0

F πa I
Hence, t=2 GH g sin α cos α JK .
Motion in Three Dimensions 847
2. A particle moving on a paraboloid of revolution under a force parallel to the axis crosses
the meridians at a constant angle. Show that the force varies inversely as the fourth power of the
distance from the axis.
Solution. Let the equation to the paraboloid in cylindrical coordinates be
ρ2 = 4 az ...(1)
The equation of motion is
1 d F 2 dφ I
Gρ J =0
ρ dt H dt K
dφ
i.e., ρ2 = constant = A (say) ...(2)
dt
Let the force F parallel to axis cross the meridians at a constant angle β then
dφ
r sin θ
dt = tan β,
dθ
r
dt
dθ dφ
i.e., r = r sin cot β,
dt dt
But we know that
ds dθ dθ
=r = r sin θ cot β
dt dt dt
dφ
= ρ cos β . [∵ ρ = r sin θ] ...(3)
dt
If z0 be the initial value of z, then by the principle of energy
1 2 F dφ I 2 1 F dφ I 2
zz0z F dz = ρ GH JK [1 + cot 2 β] = ρ2 cosec 2 β GH JK
2 dt 2 dt
2
A
= from (2)
2 sin . ρ2
2
2
A
= , from (1)
8a sin 2 β. z
2 2
A 2 aA 2
Integrating, F =− =− . , from (1)
8a sin 2 β. z 2 sin 2 β ρ4
1
∴ F∝ , i. e., the force varies inversely as the fourth power of the distance from the axis.
ρ2
EXERCISES
1. A particle, without weight, slides on a smooth helix of angle α and radius a under a force to
a fixed point on the axis equal to m µ (distance). Show that the reaction of the curve can

not vanish unless the greatest velocity of the particle is a µ sec α .

2. A smooth paraboloid is placed with its axis vertical and vertex downwards, the latus-rectum
of the generating parabola being 4a. A heavy particle is projected horizontally with velocity
V at a height h above the lowest point. Show that the particle is again moving horizontally

V2
when its height is . Show also that the reaction of the paraboloid at any point is inversely
2g
proportional to the corresponding radius of curvature of the generating par abola.
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