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To Mary (Paul Guinness)
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3
Contents
Introduction

Theme 1 Population and settlement

1.1 Population dynamics
1.2 Migration
1.3 Population structure
1.4 Population density and distribution
1.5 Settlements and service provision
1.6 Urban settlements
1.7 Urbanisation

Theme 2 The natural environment

2.1 Earthquakes and volcanoes
2.2 Rivers
2.3 Coasts
2.4 Weather
2.5 Climate and natural vegetation

Theme 3 Economic development

3.1 Development
3.2 Food production
3.3 Industry
3.4 Tourism
3.5 Energy
3.6 Water
3.7 Environmental risks of economic development

Theme 4 Geographical skills and investigations

4.1 Geographical skills

4
4.2 Geographical investigations: coursework and the alternative
to coursework

Answers
Index
Acknowledgements

5
Introduction
Welcome to the Cambridge IGCSE™ and O Level Geography Study and
Revision Guide. This book has been written to help you revise everything
you need to know for your Geography exam alongside the Cambridge
IGCSE and O Level Geography Third Edition Student’s Book. Following
the Geography syllabus, it covers all the key content as well as sample
questions and answers, case studies and practice questions to help you learn
how to answer questions and to check your understanding.

How to use this book

Key objectives
A summary of the main information.

Test yourself
Questions for you to check your understanding and progress.

Cross-references to the Student’s Book are shown by this icon .

Key definitions
Definitions of the key terms you need to know.

Tip
Advice to help you give the perfect answer.

Sample exam questions

Exam-style questions for you to think about.

6
Student’s answers
Model student answers to see how the question might be
answered.

Teacher’s comments
Feedback from an examiner showing what was good, and what
could be improved.

Exam-style questions
Exam questions for you to try to see what you have learned.

Common error
Mistakes that students often make, and how to avoid them.

Case study
Real examples to help you explain what you have learned.

Answers
Outline answers to the Test yourself questions and the Exam-style
questions from page 125.

7
1.1 Population dynamics
Key objectives
You should be able to:
• describe and give reasons for the rapid increase in the world’s
population
• show an understanding of over-population and under-population
• understand the main causes of a change in population size
• give reasons for contrasting rates of natural population change
• describe and evaluate population policies.
Case studies required
• A country which is over-populated.
• A country which is under-populated.
• A country with a high rate of natural population growth.
• A country with a low rate of population growth (or population
decline).

Key definitions

8
Term Definition
Population The rapid population growth of the developing
explosion world in the post-1950 period.
Birth rate The number of live births per 1000 population in
a year.
Death rate The number of deaths per 1000 population in a
year.
Rate of natural The difference between the birth rate and the
change death rate. If it is positive it is termed natural
increase. If it is negative it is known as natural
decrease.
Rate of net The difference between the rates of immigration
migration and emigration.
Model of A model illustrating the historical shift of birth
demographic and death rates from high to low levels in a
transition population.
Total fertility rate The average number of children a women has
during her lifetime.
Infant mortality The number of deaths of children under one year
rate of age per 1000 live births per year.
Life expectancy at The average number of years a newborn infant
birth can expect to live under current mortality levels.
Depopulation A decline in the number of people in a
population.
Optimum The best balance between a population and the
population resources available to it. This is usually viewed
as the population giving the highest average
living standards in a country.
Under-population When there are too few people in an area to use
the resources available effectively.
Over-population When there are too many people in an area
relative to the resources and the level of
technology available.
Underemployment A situation where people are working less than
they would like to and need to in order to earn a
reasonable living.
Population policy Encompasses all of the measures taken by a

9
 government aimed at influencing population size,
growth, distribution or composition.
Pro-natalist Such policies promote larger families.
policies
Anti-natalist Such policies aim to reduce population growth.
policies

The rapid increase in the world’s

population PAGES 2–4

During most of the early period in which humankind first evolved, global
population was very low. Ten thousand years ago, when people first began
to domesticate animals and cultivate crops, world population was no more
than 5 million. The world’s population reached 500 million by about 1650.
From this time population grew at an increasing rate. By 1800 global
population had doubled to reach 1 billion. Figure 1.1 shows the time taken
for each subsequent billion to be reached, with the global total reaching 7
billion in 2011. China and India together account for 36.5 per cent of the
world’s population.

Figure 1.1 World population growth by each billion

10
Figure 1.2 Population growth in more and less developed countries,
1950–2050

Recent demographic change

In 2016, world population increased by 89.8 million, the result of 147.2
million births and 57.4 million deaths. The bulk of this population increase
is in the developing countries (Figure 1.2). The very rapid growth of the
world’s population over the last 70 years or so is the result of the largest
ever difference between the number of births and deaths in the world as a
whole.
However, only since the Second World War has population growth in the
poor countries overtaken that in the rich. The rich countries had their period
of high population growth in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.
For the less developed countries high population growth has occurred since
about 1950.
The highest-ever global population growth rate was reached in the early to
mid 1960s. At this time the term population explosion was widely used to
describe this rapid population growth. But by the late 1990s the rate of
global population growth was down to 1.8 per cent and by 2016 it had
reduced further to 1.2 per cent. However, even though the rate of growth has
been falling for about 50 years the number of people added each year
remains very high. This is because there are currently so many women in the
child-bearing age range.

Tip

11
It is important to remember that while the world’s population
continues to increase, the rate of global population growth has been
falling for over 50 years.

The causes of a change in population

size PAGES 4–5

Population change in a country is affected by (a) the difference between the

birth rate and the death rate (the rate of natural change), and (b) the
balance between immigration and emigration (net migration). For most
countries natural change is a more important factor in population change
than net migration.
Table 1.1 Birth and death rates, 2016
Region Birth rate Death rate
World 20 8
More developed world 11 10
Less developed world 22 7
Africa 36 10
Asia 18 7
Latin America/Caribbean 17 6
North America 12 8
Oceania 17 7
Europe 11 11

12
Figure 1.3 The demographic transition model

The demographic transition model

PAGES 5–6
The demographic transition model helps to explain the causes of a change
in population size (Figure 1.3). No country as a whole retains the
characteristics of stage 1, which only applies to the most remote societies on
Earth. All the developed countries of the world are now in stage 4 or stage
5. The poorest of the developing countries are in stage 2. Most developing
countries which have undergone significant social and economic advances
are in stage 3 while some of the first newly industrialised countries such as
South Korea and Taiwan have entered stage 4. Stage 5, natural decrease, is
mainly confined to Eastern and Southern Europe at present.
• The high stationary stage (stage 1): The birth rate is high and stable
while the death rate is high and fluctuating due to the sporadic incidence
of famine, disease and war. Population growth is very slow and there may
be periods of decline.
• The early expanding stage (stage 2): The death rate declines to levels
never before experienced. The birth rate remains at its previous level as
the social norms governing fertility take time to change. The rate of
natural change increases to a peak at the end of this stage.
• The late expanding stage (stage 3): After a period of time social norms
adjust to the lower level of mortality and the birth rate begins to decline.
• The low stationary stage (stage 4): Both birth and death rates are low.
The former is generally slightly higher, fluctuating somewhat due to

13
 changing economic conditions. Population growth is slow.
• The natural decrease stage (stage 5): In a limited but increasing number
of countries, mainly European, the birth rate has fallen below the death
rate.

Tip
Population data change frequently over time, so when you quote
data you should also state the year to which they apply. For
example, in Table 1.1, the birth rate for ‘Latin America/Caribbean’ in
2012 was 19/1000, as stated in the previous edition of this book.

Contrasts in demographic transition

There are a number of differences in the way that developing countries have
undergone population change compared with the experiences of most
developed nations before them. In the developing world:
• birth rates in stages 1 and 2 were generally higher
• the death rate fell much more steeply
• some countries had much larger base populations. Thus the impact of high
growth in stage 2 and the early part of stage 3 has been far greater
• for those countries in stage 3 the fall in fertility has also been steeper
• the relationship between population change and economic development
has been much weaker.

Tip
It is very important to be clear where the boundary lines are
between each stage of the demographic transition model and to
understand, and be able to explain, why they are in those particular
places.

Test yourself
1 Define rate of natural change.
2 Which world region has the highest birth rate?
3 When is the world’s population projected to reach 8 billion?
Answers on page 125

14
Reasons for contrasting rates of
population change PAGES 6–12

Population change is governed by three factors: fertility, mortality and

migration.

Factors affecting fertility

The most common measure of fertility is the birth rate. However, other more
detailed measures are also used, such as the total fertility rate. Less than 10
countries in the world now have fertility rates over 6.0 while the 10 lowest
fertility countries have a total fertility rate of 1.3 or lower.

Common error
Error Why it is wrong
‘Birth rate is It is only a very broad indicator as it does not take into
the most account the age and sex distribution of a population.
accurate The total fertility rate takes into account these factors
measure of and is thus a much more accurate measure of fertility.
fertility.’
The factors affecting fertility can be grouped into four categories (Table
1.2).
Table 1.2 The factors affecting fertility

15
Demographic Other population factors, particularly infant
mortality rates, influence fertility.
Social/cultural In some societies, particularly in Africa, tradition
demands high rates of reproduction. Education,
especially female literacy, is the key to lower fertility.
In some countries religion is an important factor
influencing fertility.
Economic In many of the least developed countries children
are seen as an economic asset. In the more
developed world the general perception is reversed
and the cost of the child dependency years is a
major factor in the decision to begin or extend a
family.
Political There are many examples in the past century of
governments attempting to change the rate of
population growth for economic and strategic
reasons.

Factors affecting mortality

In 1900 the world average for life expectancy was about 30 years. It is
presently 72 years. The highest life expectancy of 79 years is in North
America, while the lowest of 61 years is in Africa.

Tip
Using ‘categories’ to structure your explanation, as in Table 1.2, can
help to produce a logical sequence of arguments for questions
requiring detailed answers.

The causes of death vary significantly between the developed and

developing worlds (Figure 1.4). Apart from the challenges of the physical
environment in many developing countries, a number of social and
economic factors contribute to the high rates of infectious diseases. These
include:
• poverty
• poor access to healthcare
• antibiotic resistance
• evolving human migration patterns
• new infectious agents.

16
Increasing mortality due to HIV/AIDS
Although, in general, mortality continues to fall around the world, in some
countries it is rising, due mainly to HIV/AIDS. However, globally, deaths
from AIDS are falling. In 2015, 1.1 million people died from AIDS-related
causes worldwide – 45 per cent fewer deaths than in 2005. Eastern and
southern Africa remained the region most affected. Factors linked to such a
high incidence include:
• high levels of other sexually transmitted infections
• the low status of women
• sexual violence
• high mobility, which is mainly linked to migratory labour systems
• ineffective leadership during critical periods in the epidemic’s spread.

Figure 1.4 World Health Organization – What are the main

differences between rich and poor countries with respect to causes of
death?

17
Table 1.3 The impact of HIV/AIDS
Labour The economically active population reduces as more
supply people fall sick and are unable to work.
Dependency An increasing death rate in the economically active
ratio age group increases the dependency ratio.
Family AIDS is impoverishing entire families, and many
children and old people have to take on the role of
carers. There are a large number of orphaned
children.
Education With limited investment in education many young
people are still unaware about how to avoid the risk of
contracting HIV.
Poverty There is a vicious cycle between HIV/AIDS and
poverty.

Case study: Kenya – a country with a high rate of

population growth
• Kenya has a high rate of population growth due to high fertility
and falling death rates, particularly in infant mortality.
• Although Kenya’s total fertility rate is falling, the population is
forecast to grow to 65.9 million by 2030. Rapid population
increase puts heavy pressure on a country’s resources.
• Kenya has a very high youth dependency ratio (Figure 1.5) with
over 42 per cent of the population under 15.
• A rapidly growing population results in a lower amount of land per
capita available to farmers and their children.
• Young people who cannot find work on the land often migrate to
urban areas.
• Youth unemployment is a considerable problem as the rate of
population increase is greater than the rate of job creation.
• Although the poverty rate fell from 47 per cent in 2005 to 38 per
cent in 2012, Kenya remains among the most unequal countries
in Africa.
• While progress has been made in health, education, infrastructure
and other aspects of society, a significant proportion of the
population continue to live in fragile conditions with sub-standard
access to water, sanitation and energy.

18
Figure 1.5 The growth in Kenya’s population between 1969 and
2030

Case study: Population decline in Russia

• In 2016, Russia’s birth and death rates were equal, at 13/1000.
Such stagnant population change or natural decrease is common
in Eastern Europe.
• Russia’s population reached its highest level of almost 148.7
million in 1991 (Figure 1.6). Since then it has been mainly in
decline.
• Population decline/very slow growth has been due to: low birth
rates; high death rates, particularly among men; emigration.
• Unemployment and poverty are major concerns for many people.
The cost of raising children is perceived to be high when both
parents need to work to make ends meet.
• Education standards for women in Russia are high and thus
women in general have a major say in decisions about family size.
The use of contraception is high.
• In 2016 life expectancy for women was 77 years, but only 66 for
men.
• Population decline has had its greatest impact in rural areas, with
8500 villages said to have been abandoned since 2002. The cold

19
 northern regions of Russia have experienced the highest levels of
depopulation.

Figure 1.6 Russia’s population 1950–2015

Over-population and under-

population PAGES 13–15

As a country develops, the highest average living standards mark the

optimum population (Figure 1.7). Before that population is reached the
country or region can be said to be under-populated. As the population
rises beyond the optimum the country or region can be said to be over-
populated.

Figure 1.7 Optimum population, over-population and under-

population

20
There are many indications that the human population is pushing up against
the limits of the Earth’s resources. For example:
• One quarter of the world’s children have protein-energy malnutrition.
• The long-term trend for grain production per person is falling.
• Water scarcity already affects every continent and 4 of every 10 people in
the world.
The Netherlands and the UK are two of the most densely populated
countries in Europe. Signs of population pressure in both countries include:
• intense competition for land
• heavy traffic congestion
• high house prices
• pressure on water resources.
Two of the most sparsely populated developed countries in the world are
Australia and Canada. Throughout the history of both countries the general
view has been that they would benefit from higher populations. Thus
Australia and Canada have welcomed significant numbers of immigrants.
However, in recent years, with an uncertain economic climate, both
countries have been much more selective in terms of immigration. Although
both countries are very large in size, they have large areas of inhospitable
landscape.
In the developing world, China and Bangladesh are countries that many
would view as over-populated. The ‘one-child policy’ (changed in 2016)
confirmed the Chinese government view. Bangladesh has one of the highest
population densities in the world and struggles to provide for many in its
population.

Test yourself
4 List the four general factors affecting fertility.
5 Define life expectancy.
6 Give two examples of population pressure.
Answers on page 125

Case study: Bangladesh – an over-populated

country?
• At 1128 people per km2 Bangladesh’s population density is about
20 times the global average. In 1971 the population was about 75
million. By 2016, it had reached 163 million.

21
• The paucity of natural resources is a major factor in over-
population, as is rapid population growth.
• Almost four-fifths of the population live in rural areas. The very
small amount of cultivable land per person has resulted in a very
high level of rural poverty.
• About 40 per cent of the population is underemployed, working a
limited number of hours a week on low wages.
• The regular threat of cyclones and flooding hugely exacerbates
this problem. Eighty per cent of the country is situated on
floodplains.
• Much of the country is close to sea level and about 40 per cent
gets flooded during the monsoon season.
• Major floods increase the level of rural to urban migration, with the
majority of migrants heading for the capital city Dhaka.
• Living conditions in Dhaka and the other main urban areas are in
a very poor state. Many people lack basic amenities. Dhaka has
become one of the most crowded cities in the world.
• Poor governance and corruption have hindered development in
Bangladesh. However, the number of people in poverty in
Bangladesh fell from 63 million in 2000 to 47 million in 2010.

Case study: Australia – an under-populated

country?
• Australia is generally regarded as an example of an under-
populated country.
• With a population of only 24 million in 2016, the population density
is only 3 per km2.
• Australia is a resource-rich nation, exporting raw materials all over
the world.
• Australia also has great potential for renewable energy,
particularly in terms of wind and solar power.
• The country has a well-developed, highly skilled population and
generally high incomes. It attracts potential migrants from many
countries.
• Australia scores highly for most measures of the quality of life,
including health and education.
• Although Australia’s population is highly concentrated in certain
areas, there are more opportunities for population increase here
than in most other parts of the world.

22
Figure 1.8 Population density map of Australia

The effectiveness of population

policies PAGES 16–19

China, with a population in excess of 1.3 billion, operates the world’s most
severe anti-natalist policy. The balance between population and resources
has been a major cause of concern for some time. After the communist
revolution in 1949 and prior to the 1970s China had periods when it
encouraged population growth and when it tried to reduce the population
growth rate. The controversial one-child policy was imposed in 1979.
The one-child policy has been most effective in urban areas where the
traditional bias of couples wanting a son has been significantly eroded.
However, the story is different in rural areas where the strong desire for a
male heir remains the norm. In most provincial rural areas, government

23
policy was relaxed so that couples could have two children without
penalties.
Although the one-child policy reduced China’s birth rate considerably, it
caused other problems:
• The policy has had a considerable impact on the sex ratio.
• China had 32 million more men aged under 20 than women.
• China’s low birth rate, 12/1000 in 2016, has contributed to the country’s
ageing population.
In 2016, the government relaxed the rules to allow all couples to have two
children.
A small, but growing, number of countries now see their fertility as too low.
Some have pursued clear pro-natalist policies. Such countries are
concerned about:
• the socioeconomic implications of population ageing
• the decrease in the supply of labour
• the long-term prospect of population decline.
France has taken steps to encourage fertility on a number of occasions over
the last 80 years, beginning in 1939 when the government passed the ‘Code
de la Famille’.
Recent measures to encourage couples to have more children include:
• longer maternity and paternity leave
• higher child benefits
• improved tax allowances for larger families
• preferential treatment in the allocation of government housing.
Overall, France is trying to reduce the economic cost to parents of having
children. With a total fertility rate of 1.9 (2016), France is close to the
replacement level of 2.1 children per woman.

Common error
Error Why it is wrong
‘The one-child policy was While the one-child policy was
the first time China had introduced in 1979, this was not the first
tried to reduce fertility.’ time China had tried to reduce fertility.

Sample exam question

24
a Define birth rate.
[2]

Student’s answer
a The number of births per 1000 population.

Teacher’s comments
The student has achieved 1 mark out of the maximum of 2 because
no time frame has been stated. The correct definition is ‘The
number of live births per 1000 population per year’. At
IGCSE/GCSE a student would not be penalised for omitting ‘live’.

b Describe and explain the rate of natural change at each stage of

the model of demographic transition.
[5]

Student’s answer
b In stage 1 the birth rate is high and slightly above the death rate,
which varies due to factors such as disease and famine. There is
a low rate of natural increase.
In stage 2 the birth rate remains high while the death rate falls
significantly. The rate of natural increase becomes greater as
stage 2 progresses, reaching a maximum at the boundary
between stages 2 and 3.
In stage 3 the birth rate begins to fall, gradually reducing the gap
with the death rate. As a result the rate of natural increase
declines to reach a low level at the end of this stage.
In stage 4 birth and death rates are low, resulting in a low rate of
natural increase.
In stage 5 the birth rate is lower than the death rate, resulting in
natural decrease.
In summary, natural increase is low in stages 1 and 4. It is high in
stages 2 and 3. Stage 5 is characterised by natural decrease.

25
Teacher’s comments
This is a very good answer, scoring the maximum 5 marks. The
student has accurately described and explained the situation in
each of the five stages as well as supplying a concise summary.

Exam-style questions
1 a Define the birth rate and the total fertility rate.
[3]
b Which continent has the highest total fertility rate and which
has the lowest?
[2]
c Suggest why the total fertility rate is a more detailed measure
of fertility than the birth rate.
[3]
2 a How does the infant mortality rate influence fertility?
[3]
b Explain the relationship between education and fertility
illustrated by Figure 1.9.
[4]

Figure 1.9 A comparison between female secondary education and

total fertility rates
Answers on page 128

26
1.2 Migration

Key objectives
You should be able to:
• explain and give reasons for population migration
• demonstrate an understanding of the impacts of migration.
Case study required
• An international migration.

Key definitions
Term Definition
Migration The movement of people across a specified boundary,
national or international, to establish a new permanent
place of residence.
Push and Push factors are negative conditions at the point of
pull factors origin, which encourage or force people to move. In
contrast, pull factors are positive conditions at the point
of destination, which encourage people to migrate.
Refugees People forced to flee their homes due to human or
environmental factors and who cross an international
border into another country.
Internally People forced to flee their homes due to human or
displaced environmental factors who remain in the same country.
people
Rural-to- The movement of significant numbers of people from
urban the countryside to towns and cities.
migration
Remittances Money sent back to their families in their home
communities by migrants.

27
The nature of and reasons for
population migration PAGES 20–23

Migration is the result of the interaction of push and pull factors (Figure
1.10). For example, a high level of unemployment is a major push factor in a
region or a country. An important pull factor is often much higher wages in
another country or region.

Voluntary and involuntary migrations

In voluntary migration the individual has a free choice about whether to
migrate or not. In involuntary migration, people are made to move against
their will. This may be due to human or environmental factors. The forcible
movement of people from parts of the former Yugoslavia under the policy of
‘ethnic cleansing’ is a recent example of involuntary migration. Migrations
may also be forced by natural disasters or by environmental catastrophe.
In recent decades some of the world’s worst conflicts have been in the
developing world. These troubles have led to numerous population
movements on a significant scale. Not all have crossed international frontiers
to merit the term refugee movements. Instead many are internally displaced
people. The current conflict in Syria has produced large numbers of both
refugees and internally displaced people. Major natural disasters such as the
Pakistan floods of 2010 create large numbers of internally displaced people.
The United Nations High Commission for Refugees (UNHCR) put the
number of forcibly displaced people worldwide at 65 million at the end of
2015. This included 21.3 million refugees, the remainder being internally
displaced people.

Tip
Remember that forced migration is not just the result of armed
conflict, but can also occur due to environmental factors such as
volcanic eruptions and desertification.

28
Figure 1.10 Push and pull factors

Common error
Error Why it is wrong
‘Immigration and Immigration is migration into a country
emigration have the same and emigration is migration out of a
meaning.’ country.

Migration trends
In 2015, 244 million people lived outside the country of their birth, higher
than ever before. This is about 3.3 per cent of the world’s population. The
number of international migrants more than doubled in the 30 years to 2015.
Globalisation has led to an increased awareness of opportunities in other
countries. With advances in transportation and communication and a
reduction in the real cost of both, the world’s population has never had a
higher level of potential mobility.

29
Figure 1.11 Bar graph showing number of international migrants by
major area of destination, 2000 and 2015

Internal population movements

Population movement within countries is at a much higher level than
movements between countries. In both developed and developing countries
significant movements of people take place from poorer regions to richer
regions as people seek employment and higher standards of living. In
developing countries, much of this migration is from rural to urban areas.
Developed countries had their period of high rural-to-urban migration in
the nineteenth century and the early part of the twentieth century. Developing
countries have been undergoing high rural-to-urban migration since about
1950, resulting in the very rapid growth of urban areas such as Cairo,
Nairobi and Dhaka. The largest rural-to-urban migration in history is now
taking place in China where more than 150 million people have moved from
the countryside to the rapidly expanding urban/industrial areas to satisfy the
demand for workers in China’s factories.

Depopulation and counterurbanisation

In developed countries two major trends can be identified concerning the
redistribution of population since the late eighteenth century. The first,
urbanisation, lasted until about 1970, while the second, counterurbanisation,
has been dominant since that time.
The process of urbanisation had a big impact on many rural areas where
depopulation occurred because of it. Depopulation is an absolute decline in
the population of an area, usually due to a high level of out-migration. It is
generally the most isolated rural areas that are affected.

30
Counterurbanisation is the process of population decentralisation as people
move from large urban areas to smaller urban settlements and rural areas.
The objective is usually to seek a better quality of life by getting away from
the problems of large cities.

Test yourself
1 What is a refugee?
2 When did developed countries have their period of high rural–
urban migration?
3 What is counterurbanisation?
Answers on page 125

Common error
Error Why it is wrong
‘Confusing Immigration and emigration are the terms
immigration and used for crossing international borders. In-
emigration with in- migration and out-migration are internal
migration and out- movements within one country.
migration.’

The impacts of migration PAGES 24–28

Figure 1.12 shows some of the possible impacts of international migration.

Many of these factors are also relevant to internal migration.

31
Figure 1.12 Matrix showing the impact of migration

Remittances
Remittances are often seen as the most positive impact on the country of
origin. They are a major economic development factor in developing
countries. Remittances to developing countries are estimated to have totalled
$429 billion in 2016. Remittances exceed considerably the amount of official
aid received by developing countries. These revenue flows:
• help alleviate poverty
• spur investment and create a multiplier effect.
The major sources of remittances are the USA, Western Europe and the
Persian Gulf. In 2016, the top recipients of remittances were: India, China,
the Philippines and Mexico.

Case study: International migration from Mexico to

the USA
One of the largest labour migrations in the world has been from
Mexico to the USA (Figure 1.13). This is the largest immigrant
community in the world. Most migration has taken place in the last
four decades. This migration has largely been the result of:
• much higher average incomes in the USA
• lower unemployment rates in the USA
• the faster growth of the labour force in Mexico

32
• the much better quality of life in the USA.
In the USA the Federation for American Immigration Reform (FAIR)
has opposed large-scale immigration from Mexico arguing that it:
• undermines the employment opportunities of low-skilled US
workers
• has negative environmental effects because of the increased
population
• threatens established US cultural values.
Those opposed to FAIR see its actions as uncharitable and arguably
racist. Such individuals and groups highlight the advantages that
Mexican and other migrant groups have brought to the country.
The impact of this migration on Mexico includes:
• the high value of remittances, which totalled over $24 billion in
2014
• reduced unemployment pressure as migrants tend to leave areas
where unemployment is particularly high
• lower pressure on housing stock and public services
• changes in population structure with emigration of young adults,
particularly males
• loss of skilled and enterprising people
• migrants returning to Mexico with changed values and attitudes.

Figure 1.13 Increase in the Mexican-born population in the USA

Exam-style questions

33
Figure 1.14 Types of migration and barriers to migration
1 a Define migration.
[2]
b Explain the difference between voluntary and involuntary
(forced) migration.
[2]
c Discuss the barriers to migration.
[3]
2 a What is the distinction between push and pull factors?
[3]
b Discuss the reasons for an international migration you have
studied.
[6]
Answers on pages 128–129

34
1.3 Population structure

Key objectives
You should be able to:
• identify and give reasons for and implications of different types of
population structure.
Case study required
• A country with a high dependent population.

Key definitions
Term Definition
Population The composition of a population, the most important
structure elements of which are age and sex.
Population A bar chart arranged vertically, that shows the
pyramid distribution of a population by age and sex.
Dependency The ratio of the number of people under 15 and over
ratio 64 years to those 15–64 years of age.

Variations in population structure

PAGES 29–33
The structure of a population is the result of the processes of fertility,
mortality and migration. The most studied aspects of population structure
are age and sex. Age and sex structure can be illustrated by the use of
population pyramids. Each bar represents a five-year age group. The male
population is represented to the left of the vertical axis with females to the
right.

35
Figure 1.15 Four population pyramids for Niger, Bangladesh, the UK,
Japan

Demographic transition and changing

population structure
Population pyramids change in shape as a country progresses through
demographic transition and economic development. In Figure 1.15 the wide
base of Niger’s pyramid reflects extremely high fertility. The base of the
pyramid for Bangladesh is narrower than that of Niger reflecting a
considerable fall in fertility after decades of government-promoted birth
control programmes. In the pyramid for the UK much lower fertility still is
illustrated by narrowing of the base. The final pyramid (Japan) has a
distinctly inverted base, reflecting the lowest fertility of all four countries.
Table 1.4 shows how demographic data differ between these four countries at
different stages of demographic transition.
Table 1.4 Population data changes with stage of demographic
transition

36
Population structure: differences within
countries
In countries where there is strong rural-to-urban migration, the population
structures of the areas affected can be markedly different. These differences
show up clearly on population pyramids. Out-migration from rural areas is
age-selective with single young adults and young adults with children
dominating this process. Thus the bars for these age groups in rural areas
affected by out-migration will indicate fewer people than expected in these
age groups.
In contrast, the population pyramids for urban areas attracting migrants will
show age-selective in-migration, with substantially more people in these age
groups than expected. Such migrations may also be sex-selective. If this is
the case it should be apparent on the population pyramids.

Tip
When describing and explaining population pyramids a good starting
point is to divide the pyramid into three sections: the young
dependent population; the economically active population; the
elderly dependent population. You can then comment on each
section in turn.

Implications of different types of

population structure
The fact that Niger and Bangladesh have large numbers of young people in
their populations has implications for both countries. For example, these
young people have to be housed, fed, educated and looked after in terms of
health. All this costs money and governments have to allocate resources to
cater for these needs. Conversely, countries such as the UK and Japan have
large numbers of older people in their populations. Older people have
different needs that governments have to provide for.

37
Test yourself
1 At what stages of demographic transition are Bangladesh, Japan,
Niger and the UK?
2 Define dependency ratio.
3 What does a dependency ratio of 80 mean?
Answers on page 125

The dependency ratio

Dependents are people who are too young or too old to work. The
dependency ratio is the relationship between the working population and
the non-working population. The formula for calculating the dependency
ratio is:

A dependency ratio of 60 means that for every 100 people in the

economically active population there are 60 people dependent on them. The
dependency ratio in developed countries is usually between 50 and 75, but in
developing countries it may reach over 100. In developing countries,
children form the great majority of the dependent population. An increase in
the dependency ratio can cause significant financial problems for
governments if it does not have the financial reserves to cope with such a
change.

Case study: The Gambia – a country with a high

dependent population
• The Gambia has a young and fast-growing population. This has
placed big demands on the resources of the country.
• 95 per cent of the country’s population are Muslim. Until recently
religious leaders were against the use of contraception. In
addition, cultural tradition meant that women had little influence on
family size.
• Children were viewed as an economic asset because of their help
with farming. One in three children aged 10–14 is working.
• In 2016 the infant mortality rate was 45/1000. With 46 per cent of
the population classed as young dependents and only 2 per cent
elderly dependents, the dependency ratio is 92.

38
• Many parents in the Gambia struggle to provide basic housing for
their families. There is huge overcrowding and lack of sanitation,
with many children sharing the same bed.
• Rates of unemployment and underemployment are high and
wages are low, with parents struggling to provide even the basics
for large families.
• Many schools operate a two-shift system with one group of pupils
attending in the morning and a different group attending in the
afternoon.
• Another sign of population pressure is the large number of trees
being chopped down for firewood. As a result desertification is
increasing at a rapid rate.
• In recent years the government has introduced a family planning
campaign that has been accepted by religious leaders.

Exam-style questions

Figure 1.16 Population pyramid for the Gambia

1 a What aspects of population structure are shown in a population
pyramid?
[2]
b On Figure 1.16, draw lines to divide the population pyramid into
the young dependent population, the economically active
population, and the elderly dependent population.
[3]
c Describe the age structure of the Gambia.
[3]

39
2 a Define the dependency ratio.
[2]
b What does a dependency ratio of 80 mean?
[1]
c How does the structure of dependency vary between developed
and developing countries?
[4]
Answers on page 129

40
1.4 Population density
and distribution

Key objectives
You should be able to:
• describe the factors influencing the density and distribution of
population.
Case studies required
• A densely populated country or area (at any scale from local to
regional).
• A sparsely populated country or area (at any scale from local to
regional).

Key definitions
Term Definition
Population The average number of people per square kilometre in
density a country or region.
Population The way that the population is spread out over a given
distribution area, from a small region to the Earth as a whole.
Densely Areas with a high population density.
populated
Sparsely Areas with a low population density.
populated

Population density and distribution

PAGES 34–37

41
The average population density in the less developed world is more than
two and a half times that of the more developed world. North America (16
per km2) and Oceania (5 per km2) have the lowest population densities of all
the world regions. However, the overall difference between the developed
and developing worlds is largely accounted for by the extremely high figure
for Asia (136 per km2).
• The most uniform distributions of population occur where there is little
variation in the physical and human environments. Steep contrasts in these
environments are sharply reflected in population density.
• Low population densities are associated with hostile environments such as
mountain ranges, polar regions, deserts and rainforests.
• Areas of low soil fertility have been avoided from the earliest times of
settlement as people looked for more productive areas in which to settle.
• Water supply has always been vitally important.
• Mineral resources, particularly coalfields, have led to the development of
large numbers of settlements in many countries. Although mining may
eventually cease when the resource runs out, the investment in
infrastructure over time usually means that the settlement will continue.
• The more advanced a country is the more important the elements of human
infrastructure become in influencing population density and distribution.

Tip
When describing variations in population density on a map with, say,
four colours or types of shading, refer to each class (for example,
over 100 per km2) to produce a detailed answer.

Common error
Error Why it is wrong
‘Population Population density can change considerably over time.
density Population density is increasing most in regions and
does not countries with the fastest rates of population growth.
change.’

Case study: Sparsely and densely populated areas

in North America
North America has a low population density compared with most
other parts of the world. The USA has an average of 35 people per

42
km2, while Canada has only 4 per km2. In both countries population
is highly concentrated in some areas while large expanses of land
elsewhere are very sparsely settled.
The Canadian Northlands: a sparsely populated region
The Canadian Northlands is one of the most sparsely populated
regions in the world. Table 1.5 summarises the region’s most
important characteristics.
Table 1.5 Characteristics of the Canadian Northlands
Location Located north of 55 degrees N.
Population Less than one person per km2.
density
Temperature Most of the region has a mean January temperature
below −20 °C. Summers are short.
Permafrost Much of the region is affected by permafrost. Here the
ground is permanently frozen to a depth of about 300
metres.
Economic Very limited. Much of the region is beyond the limits of
activities agriculture. Most employment is in the exploitation of
raw materials, public services, tourism and defence
installations.
Transport Very limited. Not one of the railway lines in the region
crosses the Arctic Circle. The road system is also
very sparse. Many water transportation routes are
frozen over for much of the year. For many
communities air transport is the only link to the
outside world.
Settlement Yellowknife, population 19 000, is the largest
settlement in the Northwest Territories.

The northeast of the USA: a densely populated region

• In the USA the most densely populated region is in the northeast.
• The region stretches inland from Boston and Washington to
Chicago and St Louis.
• The other main cities in this region are New York, Philadelphia and
Baltimore.
• New York is a ‘global city’. The population of the larger
Metropolitan Area of New York is 18.9 million.

43
• The region also contains many smaller urban areas. Much of the
area has an average density over 100 per km2.
• The rural parts of the region are generally fertile and intensively
farmed. The climate and soils at this latitude are conducive to
agriculture. Many people living in the rural communities commute
to work in the towns and cities.
• The region has the most highly developed transport networks in
North America.

Test yourself
1 Define population density.
2 What is the population density of the Canadian Northlands?
3 Name four major cities in the northeast of the USA.
Answers on page 125

Exam-style questions

44
Figure 1.17 Population density of North America
1 a Explain the difference between population density and
population distribution.
[2]
b Describe the differences in population density shown in Figure
1.17.
[3]
2 a What are the main reasons for low population density?
[4]
b For a densely populated region you have studied, discuss the
reasons for high population density.
[6]
Answers on pages 129–130

45
46
1.5 Settlements and
service provision

Key objectives
You should be able to:
• explain the patterns of settlement
• describe and explain the factors which may influence the sites,
growth and functions of settlements
• give reasons for the hierarchy of settlements and services.
Case studies required
• Settlement and service provision in an area.

Key definitions

47
Term Definition
Dispersed When farms or houses are set among their fields or
settlement spread along roads.
Nucleated Houses and buildings are tightly clustered around a
settlement central feature.
Linear Settlements are found along a geographical feature
pattern such as a river valley or a major transport route.
Site The actual land on which a settlement is built.
Situation The relationship between a settlement and its
surrounding area.
Low-order Basic functions found in smaller settlements (e.g.
functions hamlets).
High-order More specialised functions and services found in larger
functions settlements (villages and market towns).
Range of a The maximum distance a person is prepared to travel to
good buy a good.
Threshold The minimum number of people needed to support a
population good or service.
Sphere of The area that a settlement serves.
influence

Pattern PAGES 38–40

A dispersed settlement pattern occurs when farms or houses are set among
their fields or spread along roads, rather than concentrated on one point.
Nucleated settlements are ones in which houses and buildings are tightly
clustered around a central feature such as a church, village green or
crossroads. A number of factors favour nucleation:
• defence, for example hilltop locations or sites within a meander
• shortage of water causing people to locate in areas close to springs
• near important junctions and crossroads for trade and communications.
A linear pattern occurs when settlements are found along a geographical
feature such as a river valley or a major transport route.

Site and situation PAGE 40

48
The site of a settlement is the actual land on which a settlement is built
whereas the situation or position is the relationship between a particular
settlement and its surrounding area. The advantages and disadvantages of
alternative sites for agriculture and housing include:
• availability of water – necessary for drinking, cooking, washing, as a
source of food supply and transport
• relief – high enough not to flood and level sites to build on
• fertile soils – often located close to rivers
• good accessibility – increases the potential for trade and commerce, such
as close to bridges, weirs, confluence sites, estuaries and at points of
navigation
• access to resources such as minerals.

Test yourself
1 Distinguish between dispersed and nucleated settlements.
2 Distinguish between the site and situation of a settlement.
Answers on page 125

Growth of settlements PAGES 40–42

There are a number of factors that affect settlement growth. Areas that are
too hot or cold, wet or dry usually have small, isolated settlements. In
contrast, in areas where food production is favoured, settlements have
managed to grow. Settlements in more favoured areas have greater potential
for growth.

Function of settlements PAGES 40–42

Function refers to what a settlement does. Some settlements have a

dormitory function. Others may have an agricultural function. Others may be
tourist locations, mining villages, fishing villages, and so on.

Settlement hierarchy PAGES 42–44

The term hierarchy means order. Only basic or low-order functions are
found in the smaller hamlets whereas the same functions and services are
found in larger settlements (villages and market towns) together with more
specialised ones – high-order functions.

49
The maximum distance that a person is prepared to travel to buy a good is
known as the range of a good. Low-order goods have a small range whereas
high-order goods have a large range. The number of people needed to
support a good or service is known as the threshold population. Low-order
goods may only need a small number of people to support a small shop,
whereas high-order goods require a greater threshold population.

Test yourself
3 State one example of a high-order function and one example of a
low-order function.
4 Define the terms threshold population and sphere of influence.
Answers on page 125

Tip
When providing examples (for example, low-order goods or high-
order goods), give real-life examples or examples from your own
area if possible and appropriate, or refer to the examples in the
textbook (pages 42–43).
The area that a settlement serves is known as the sphere of influence.
Hamlets and villages generally have low spheres of influence whereas larger
towns and cities have large spheres of influence.
In general, as population size in settlements increases, the number and range
of services increase (see the textbook, Figure 1.68, page 44). However, there
are exceptions. Some small settlements, notably those with a tourist-related
function, may be small in size but have many services. In contrast, some
dormitory (commuter) settlements may be quite large but offer few functions
or services other than a residential one. In these settlements, people live
(reside) in the village but work and shop elsewhere.

Case study: Settlement hierarchy at Lozère, France

Lozère is located in southeast France. It is a mountainous region,
and the main economic activities are farming and tourism. Due to the
mountainous relief and poor-quality soil, farming is mainly cattle
rearing. Surprisingly, the region has a very low rate of
unemployment. This is due to a long history of out-migration of
young people in search of work. Table 1.12 (page 45 of the textbook)
shows how the population of St-André-Capcèze fell between the

50
1860s and the mid 2000s (Figure 1.18). Nevertheless, in recent
years the population has increased slightly due to improved
communications and easier travel. However, the population is an
ageing one. Tourism offers some employment, and the services
available relate partly to tourist potential (see the textbook, Table
1.14, page 45).

Figure 1.18 Population change in St-André-Capcèze, 1800–2006

Exam-style questions
1 Compare the characteristics of a linear village shape with those of
a nucleated village shape.
[2]
2 Describe the relationship between population size and number of
services, as shown in Figure 1.66, page 43 of the textbook.
[2]
Answers on page 130

51
1.6 Urban settlements
Key objectives
You should be able to:
• describe and give reasons for the characteristics of, and changes
in, land use in urban areas
• explain the problems of urban areas, their causes and possible
solutions.
Case studies required
• An urban area (including changing land use and urban sprawl).

Key definitions

52
Term Definition
Urban land Activities such as industry, housing and commerce
use that may be found in towns and cities.
Bid rent When land value and rent decrease as distance
from the central business district increases.
Central An area of an urban settlement where most of the
business commercial activity takes place.
district
Suburbs The outer part of an urban settlement, generally
consisting of residential housing and shops of a low
order.
Rural–urban The boundary of a town or city, where new building
fringe is changing land use from rural to urban.
Urban sprawl Occurs when urban areas continue to grow without
any form of planning.
Urban Attempts to improve an urban area.
redevelopment
Urban renewal When existing buildings are improved.
Gentrification The movement of higher social or economic groups
into an area after it has been renovated and
restored.

Characteristics of urban areas

PAGES 48–69
Urban land use refers to the activities such as industry, housing and
commerce that may be found in towns and cities. The concept of bid rent
states that land value and rent decrease as distance from the central
business district increases (see the textbook, Figure 1.73 page 49).
The central business district (CBD) is where most of the commercial
activity is found. It is the most accessible (to public transport) and has the
highest land values. It tends to have high-rise buildings owing to the high
demand for land, but a shortage of space.
Most residential areas are found in the suburbs. The suburbs refer to the
outer part of an urban area. Suburbs generally consist of residential housing
and shops of a low order (newsagent, small supermarket). Often, suburbs

53
are the most recent growth of an urban area. Their growth may result in
urban sprawl. In contrast, the rural–urban fringe is the boundary of a
town or city, where new building is changing land use from rural to urban.
It is often a zone of planning conflict.
Industrial areas are found in a number of locations such as the inner city
(the area surrounding the CBD), along major transport routes, and in edge-
of-town locations. In many cities the inner city is the older industrial area
of the city and may suffer from decay and neglect, leading to social
problems. Inner cities are characterised by poor-quality terraced housing
with old manufacturing industry nearby.
However, urban areas are changing rapidly. Much retailing and commerce
is now taking place on the edge of town. Inner city areas are being used for
residential purposes. There are also important differences between high-
income countries (HICs) and low-income countries (LICs). LICs lack the
same industrial development that is associated with HICs. In addition,
many LICs have illegal settlements, known as shanty towns. Nevertheless,
some shanty towns are changing and becoming more up-market
(‘gentrified’).

Land use zoning in LICs PAGES 50–58

There are a number of models that describe and explain the development of
cities in LICs. There are several key points:
• the rich generally live close to the city centre whereas the very poor are
more likely to be found on the periphery
• higher quality land is occupied by the wealthy
• segregation by wealth, race and ethnicity is evident
• manufacturing is scattered throughout the city.

Urban change PAGES 54–55, 67–68

Many urban areas prove very attractive for young workers. This is on
account of job availability and access to better services. Consequently,
some urban areas continue to grow without any form of planning. This is
known as urban sprawl – the unchecked outward spread of built-up areas
caused by their expansion. Urban sprawl may be prevented by the use of
green belts – areas surrounding a city in which urban development is
severely limited.

54
Much of the change has been in edge-of-town locations. This is because
land prices are lower, land is available for development and accessibility to
private cars is high. Edge-of-town sites have become important for
retailing, industry and the provision of services.
Some parts of urban areas have gone into decline. Urban redevelopment
attempts to improve an urban area, where existing buildings are either
demolished and rebuilt or renovated. Other forms of improvement include
urban renewal, whereby existing buildings are improved. Both of these
methods may be carried out by the government or a mix of government and
private developers.

Tip
A model is a simplification. You should not expect any city to
illustrate all of the characteristics of any one model, although they
may show some of them.
In contrast, gentrification is the movement of higher social or economic
groups into an area after it has been renovated and restored. This may result
in the out-migration of the people who previously occupied the area. It
most commonly occurs in the inner city. This was originally a feature of
HICs but has been seen in some LICs such as in Woodstock in Cape Town
(South Africa) and Vidigal in Rio de Janeiro (Brazil).

Test yourself
1 Distinguish between urban sprawl and urban renewal.
2 Explain the meaning of the term gentrification.
Answers on page 125

Common error
Error Why it is wrong
‘Confusing The inner city is (or in some cases, was) the industrial
the CBD area surrounding the CBD. If you use the term (former)
with the industrial area it should help avoid confusion. However,
inner city.’ there are other industrial areas such as ports, along
major transport routes, and on the edge of cities.

55
Sample exam question
1 Explain two characteristics of the CBD.
[4]

Student’s answer
The CBD has lots of shops and offices. It also has many high-rise
buildings.

Teacher’s comments
This is purely descriptive and does not explain the characteristics.
The CBD has many shops and offices because it is very accessible
and can be reached by many potential customers and workers. The
buildings are high-rise because there is a shortage of land, and the
land value is very high. Therefore, developers create new land by
building upwards. Two marks awarded.

Case study: Urban sprawl

56
Figure 1.19 Urban sprawl has resulted in Seoul covering a very
wide area
Seoul has grown dramatically since the early 1960s. It currently
has a population of about 10 million in the main city (municipality)
and between 26 million and 36 million in the Metropolitan Region
(Figure 1.19). This includes important cities in their own right, such
as Incheon and Gwanju, as well as new towns. Seoul experiences
a number of problems, just like most large cities. These include
pollution, inequality, housing, traffic congestion and conflicts over
land use change.
Problems in Seoul
Pollution
As Seoul has grown, the amount of air and water pollution has
increased. A good example is the Cheong Gye Cheon River in

57
central Seoul. It had become heavily polluted with lead, chromium
and manganese and was a health risk. It was even covered up by
an elevated highway. Restoration of the river has been a central
part of the regeneration of central Seoul. Previously up to 87 per
cent of the city’s sewage flowed untreated into the Hangang River.
Now Seoul has the capacity to treat up to 3 million tonnes of
sewage each day.
Inequality
There has been increased inequality in Seoul since the financial
crisis of 1997. Unemployment has increased and there is a greater
gap between rich and poor in Seoul, compared with any other city
in Korea. Many migrants travel to Seoul every year in the hope of a
good job. However, not all of these migrants will get good jobs. The
richer area of Seoul is Gangnam-Gu, to the south of the city. This is
a relatively new high-tech industrial area with good accessibility,
good schools and high-income residents. In contrast, the poor tend
to be north of the river (or in the far west) in areas of traditional
manufacturing.
Housing shortage
Seoul’s population has grown from 2.5 million in 1960 to around 10
million today and over 25 million in the Seoul Metropolitan Region.
In-migration and the trend towards nuclear families (two
generations) rather than the extended family (three generations in
the one house) have created a major housing shortage, despite
massive building programmes. Less than 45 per cent of the land
around Seoul is available for urban development due to steep
terrain and mountains. The type of housing is changing too. The
typical one-storey one-family house with inner courtyards is being
replaced by high-rise apartment blocks. Such flats have increased
from 4 per cent of housing in 1970 to 35 per cent in 1990 and 50
per cent today. Until recently most of the housing was to the north
of the river, but a number of satellite towns have been built to the
south of the river. This has evened out population density, which is,
on average, over 16 000 people per km2.
Traffic congestion
Seoul experiences massive traffic congestion. In 1975 South Korea
manufactured fewer than 20 000 cars. By 1994 there were over 2
million cars registered in the Seoul area. Despite improvements to

58
the motorway network, the increase in the population of Seoul and
the number of cars in the area mean that congestion has
increased. In addition, many of the roads in central Seoul are
relatively small and unable to handle the large volumes of traffic.
Land use conflicts
There are many pressures on land for development in the Seoul
region. In 1971, Seoul introduced a green belt system (Restricted
Development Zone). Many people were against this as it lowered
the value of their house (and could not be improved by
developers). However, in 1979 the government released 40 per
cent of the green belt land for development. Opponents state that
these new developments will add to the urban sprawl, will increase
over-crowding and that there should be conservation of natural
resources, such as open spaces and forests/parks, for future
generations. Many of the new developments are taking place
towards the edge of the city or indeed in other cities at some
distance from Seoul (see Figure 1.19 for the distribution of new
towns around Seoul) and Figure 1.87 on page 63 of the textbook to
see the distribution of green belt land in Seoul.

Exam-style questions
1 Study Figure 1.107 photo (a) on page 78 of the textbook.
Suggest the environmental problems likely to be experienced in
the area shown in the photo.
[4]
2 a Study Figure 1.95 on page 68 of the textbook. Describe the
changes in Detroit’s population between 1900 and 2015.
[3]
b Suggest reasons for its changes.
[4]
Answers on page 130

59
1.7 Urbanisation
Key objectives
You should be able to:
• identify and suggest reasons for rapid urban growth
• describe the impacts of urban growth on both rural and urban
areas, along with possible solutions to reduce the negative
impacts.
Case studies required
• A rapidly growing urban area in a developing country and
migration to it.

Key definitions
Term Definition
Urbanisation The process by which the proportion of a population
living in or around towns and cities increases through
migration and natural increase.
Millionaire A city with over 1 million inhabitants.
city
Megacity A city with over 10 million inhabitants.

Rapid urban growth PAGES 70–71

Urbanisation is the process by which the proportion of a population living

in or around towns and cities increases through migration and natural
increase. It is one of the most important geographical features of the
twentieth and twenty-first centuries. Not only are more people living in
urban areas (over 50 per cent of the world’s population now live in urban
areas), but people are also living in larger settlements. Figure 1.20 shows
that the most rapid urban growth is taking place in LICs and newly

60
industrialising countries (NICs). In contrast, in many HICs, the urban
population is declining, due to an increase in counterurbanisation and the
movement into rural areas.

Figure 1.20 The process of urbanisation

There are a number of reasons for rapid urbanisation in LICs and NICs.
Some of these can be referred to as urban pull factors and rural push
factors. These include:
• the prospects of finding employment, better paid jobs and more secure
jobs in urban areas (economic pull factor)
• better provision of education and health facilities in urban areas (social
pull factor)
• fewer economic opportunities in rural areas – farming can be low paid,
insecure and subject to climate and natural hazards (economic and
physical push factors)
• poor access to clean water and sanitation, healthcare and education in
rural areas (social push factors).
Consequently, rural–urban migration may be large-scale, leading to rural
depopulation and the growth of population in urban areas. The majority of
those who migrate are young adults. Consequently, the rural area has a

61
population that is ageing, whereas the urban area has a youthful population.
The rural area therefore has higher death rates and lower birth rates on
account of its ageing population. In contrast, the younger population in the
urban areas has higher birth rates and lower death rates, contributing to the
increase of the urban population.

The effects of urbanisation on the people

and natural environment
In addition to the changes to the population structure, rural–urban
migration has a lasting effect on the rural economy. The departure of many
young adults removes some of the workforce and many skilled workers. In
extreme cases, most of the men will leave and women are left to raise their
families and look after the farm. Productivity may be reduced and poverty
levels increase. Some farmland may even be abandoned.
In rural areas close to the urban area, land may be used for development or
for squatter settlements. There may be theft of farm produce.

The characteristics of squatter

settlements
Squatter settlements are illegal settlements, in which the residents have no
legal rights. Often, the buildings may be made from any available materials
(for example, wood, corrugated iron, textiles and cardboard). Squatter
settlements generally lack access to running water and proper sanitation, as
well as electricity and gas supplies. Housing density is generally high, with
many people sharing a room. However, in some places, squatter settlements
are accepted and residents may upgrade their housing. A distinction is
made between ‘slums of hope’, which are located close to jobs, and ‘slums
of despair’, which are located further away from economic activity.

Strategies to reduce the negative

impacts of urbanisation PAGES 77–83

There are a number of options to reduce the negative impacts of

urbanisation:
• create more jobs in rural areas so that people do not need to leave the
area

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• legalise squatter settlements and give residents security
• provide more running water and sanitation both in rural and urban areas
• provide loans and subsidies for people to improve their homes.

Case study: Urbanisation in China

Since economic reforms began in China in 1978, between 150
million and 200 million Chinese have migrated from rural to urban
areas.
Shanghai
Shanghai has a population of over 24 million.
Shanghai experiences a number of problems such as rapid in-
migration, housing shortages, income inequality, pollution,
congestion and poor air quality.
Housing and demographic issues
Housing shortages and overcrowding problems are acute. Almost
half the population lives in less than 5 per cent of the total land
area, and in central Shanghai population density reaches 40 000–
160 000 people per km2. Population pressure is caused by in-
migration, overcrowding, disparities in wealth and the social
insecurity of Shanghai’s poor ‘floating population’, i.e. the migrant
labourers. From the 1990s whole neighbourhoods were
demolished. Over 2 million residents were moved to the outer
suburbs to live in better quality accommodation.
Economic growth has attracted an increasing number of foreign
migrants and Chinese living overseas to live in Shanghai. Many of
these live in luxury, gated apartments. This increases the rich–poor
gap in Shanghai.
Water and air quality
Water quality in Shanghai is a concern: less than 60 per cent of
waste water and storm water and less than 40 per cent of sewage
flows are intercepted, treated and disposed of. Waste disposal is
also a major problem: the Huangpu River receives 4 million cubic
metres of untreated human waste every day.

63
Figure 1.21 Special economic zones and open cities
Potential solutions
To deal with population issues, the Shanghai government has a
series of important policies:
• a combination of widespread family planning and medical care, to
reduce fertility levels among the young immigrant population
• compulsory work permits to control the number of migrants.
Water and waste
Since the 1990s there have been major improvements in access to
water and waste disposal. Most houses now have piped water,
electricity and waste disposal. Organic waste is now used as
fertiliser in surrounding rural areas.
Transport
The Shanghai authorities have invested greatly in transport. Eight
tunnels and four bridges have been built over/under the Huangpu
river. Shanghai’s underground system, with a daily capacity of 1.4

64
million, is now linked to Pudong airport by the world’s fastest
commercial magnetic levitation train – MAGLEV – capable of
reaching 431 km per hour. Other strategies to improve safety have
been pedestrianisation and a reduction in the number of bicycles,
currently estimated at 9 million and a cause of many road
accidents.
Shanghai master plan
In 2000 Shanghai introduced the New Master Plan for Shanghai
(2000–20). This includes the whole area and the development of
three satellite cities (new towns) to accommodate Shanghai’s
growth. The aim is to reduce congestion and high population
densities in central Shanghai.

Test yourself
1 Define the term urbanisation.
2 Distinguish between megacities and millionaire cities.
Answers on page 125

Common errors
Error Why it is wrong
‘Giving the answer You must have a named country and,
“e.g. Africa” or “e.g. preferably, a named city within that country.
Asia” when asked for a
named city in a
country.’
‘Urbanisation is rural- Urbanisation includes rural-to-urban
to-urban migration.’ migration, but it is also caused by natural
increase. It is defined as the increase in the
proportion of people living in urban areas.

Tip
When asked for an example of a squatter settlement, many
students write ‘Rio’ or ‘Cairo’, for example. Neither are squatter
settlements. Rocinha and Vidigal are squatter settlements in Rio de

65
Janeiro, just as the City of the Dead is a squatter settlement in
Cairo.

Exam-style questions
1 Suggest reasons for rapid urbanisation in low-income countries.
[4]
2 Contrast the advantages and disadvantages of living in squatter
settlements.
[5]
3 Outline ways in which it is possible to improve housing in
squatter settlements in LICs.
[3]
Answers on page 130

66
2.1 Earthquakes and volcanoes

Key objectives
You should be able to:
• describe the main types and features of volcanoes and earthquakes
• describe and explain the distribution of earthquakes and volcanoes
• describe the causes of earthquakes and volcanic eruptions and their effects on people and the
environment
• demonstrate an understanding that volcanoes present hazards and offer opportunities for people
• explain what can be done to reduce the impacts of earthquakes and volcanoes.
Case studies required
• An earthquake.
• A volcano.

Key definitions
Term Definition
Crater Depression at the top of a volcano following a volcanic eruption. It may contain a lake.
Lava Molten magma that has reached the Earth’s surface. It may be liquid or may have
solidified.
Shield Gently sloping volcano produced by very hot, runny lava.
volcano
Cone Steeply sloping volcano produced by thick lava.
volcano
Ash Very fine-grained volcanic material.
Cinders Small-sized rocks and coarse volcanic materials.
Magma Molten rock within the Earth. When magma reaches the surface it is called lava.
Magma The reservoir of magma located deep inside the volcano.
chamber
Pyroclastic
Superhot (700 °C) flows of ash, pumice (volcanic rocks) and steam at speeds of over
flow 500 km per hour.
Vent The channel through which volcanic material is ejected.
Dormant Volcanoes which have not erupted for a very long time but could erupt again.
Active A volcano currently showing signs of activity.
Extinct A volcano which has shown no signs of volcanic activity in historic times.
Intensity The power of an earthquake is generally measured using the Richter scale or
sometimes the Mercalli scale.
Richter An open-ended scale to record magnitude of earthquakes – the higher the number on
scale the scale, the greater the strength of the earthquake. There are more small earthquakes
than large earthquakes.
Mercalli Relates ground movement to commonplace observations of, for example, light bulbs,
scale book cases and building damage.
Epicentre The point on the Earth’s surface directly above the focus of an earthquake. The strength
of the shock waves generally decrease away from the epicentre.
Focus The position within the Earth where an earthquake occurs. Earthquakes may be divided
into shallow-focus and deep-focus earthquakes depending on how far below the Earth’s
surface they occur.

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Types of volcano PAGES 90–91

The shape of a volcano depends on the type of lava it contains. Very hot, runny lava produces gently sloping
shield volcanoes, while thick material produces cone volcanoes.

Figure 2.1 Types of volcano

Composite volcanoes (strato-volcanoes)

These are steep volcanoes formed of sticky (viscous) acidic lava, ash and cinders. They are found at
destructive plate margins. Mt St Helens in the USA is a good example. They may have several secondary cones
rather than just a single cone.

Shield volcanoes
Shield volcanoes are low-angle volcanoes formed of runny basaltic lava. They are found at constructive plate
margins and hotspots. Mauna Loa in Hawaii is a good example.

Features of earthquakes PAGE 91

An earthquake is a sudden, violent movement of the Earth. It occurs after a build-up of pressure causes rocks to
give way.

Tip
The Richter scale is logarithmic so an earthquake measuring 7.0 on the Richter scale is 10 times
more powerful than one measuring 6.0, and 100 times more powerful than one measuring 5.0.

Tectonic plates PAGES 93–95

The global pattern of plates and plate boundaries

The Earth’s surface consists of a number of tectonic plates. There are seven major plates: Eurasian, North
American, South American, African, Indo-Australian, Pacific and Antarctic. There are many minor plates such
as the Caribbean, Juan de Fuca, Cocos, Aegean, Adriatic and Turkish.

68
Figure 2.2 The world’s main tectonic plates

Structure of plates
The crust is the outer layer of the Earth’s surface. There are two main types of crust: continental crust and
oceanic crust. Their main differences are summarised in Table 2.1.
Table 2.1 A comparison of oceanic crust and continental crust
Type of plate Continental crust Oceanic crust
Thickness 35–70 km on average 6–10 km on average
Age of rocks Very old, mainly over 1500 million years Young, mainly under 200 million
years
Appearance Lighter, with an average density of 2.6; light in Heavier, with an average density
of rocks colour of 3.0; dark in colour
Nature of Numerous types, many contain silica and oxygen; Few types, mainly basalt
rocks granite is the most common

Tip
Although the map of plate boundaries is well known, in reality plate boundaries are often not clear-
cut, and there are many areas where the plate boundaries are uncertain. Scientists do not know
everything about the restless Earth.

Processes at plate boundaries

Table 2.2 Types of plate margin

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Destructive Constructive
a Convergent (destructive) boundary b Constructive boundary

The oceanic crust moves towards the continental Two plates move apart from each other; new
crust and sinks beneath it due to its greater density; oceanic crust is formed, creating mid-ocean
deep sea trenches and island arcs are formed; ridges; volcanic activity is common, e.g. the
volcanic activity is common, e.g. the Nazca plate Mid-Atlantic Ridge where Europe is moving
sinks beneath the South American plate away from North America
Collision Conservative
c Convergent boundary (collision) d Conservative boundary

Two continental crusts collide: as neither can sink Two plates move sideways past each other but
they are folded up into fold mountains, e.g. the land is neither destroyed nor created, e.g. the
Indian plate collided with the Eurasian plate to form San Andreas fault in California
the Himalayas

Test yourself
1 State the difference between dormant and extinct volcanoes.
2 Distinguish between destructive and constructive plate boundaries.
Answers on page 125

Causes of earthquakes and volcanoes PAGES 96–97

Most earthquakes occur at plate boundaries. They are caused by the release of pressure as two plates move in
different directions or at different speeds. Other earthquakes may be caused by human activity such as:
• nuclear testing
• the weight of large dams
• drilling for oil/fracking.

Tip
Earthquakes may occur anywhere: some of the largest ones in the USA have been at great
distances from plate boundaries. This makes them difficult – if not impossible – to predict with
accuracy (for example, where, when, how big?). Volcanic eruptions are also difficult to predict (how
big and when?).

Volcanoes also mainly occur at plate boundaries. However, some occur in the middle of a plate, at locations
known as hotspots. Over a long period of time, rising magma enters into a magma chamber. When the

70
pressure in the chamber is great enough, an eruption may occur.

Test yourself
3 Explain how humans can cause earthquakes.
Answer on page 125

Impacts of earthquakes and volcanic eruptions on

people and the environment PAGES 97–106

Earthquakes
Table 2.3 Earthquake hazards and impacts
Primary hazard Secondary hazard Impacts
• Ground • Ground failure and soil • Loss of life
shaking liquefaction • Loss of livelihood
• Surface • Landslides and rockfalls • Total or partial destruction of building
faulting • Debris flows and mudflows structure
• Tsunamis • Interruption of water supplies
• Breakage of sewage disposal systems
• Loss of public utilities such as electricity or
gas
• Floods from collapsed dams
• Release of hazardous material
• Fires
• Spread of chronic illness

Volcanoes
Table 2.4 Hazards associated with volcanic activity
Direct hazards Indirect hazards Socio-economic impacts
• Atmospheric ash • Destruction of settlements
Pyroclastic flows fallout • Loss of life
• Landslides • Loss of farmland and forests
• Volcanic bombs • Tsunamis • Destruction of infrastructure – roads, airstrips and
(projectiles) • Acid rainfall port facilities
• Lava flows • Disruption of communications
• Ash fallout • Reduced tourist arrivals
• Volcanic gases • Lack of investment
• Lahars (mudflows) • Fewer jobs
• Earthquakes • Reduced earnings for farmers
• Decreased productivity
• Out-migration

Opportunities provided by volcanoes

Volcanoes provide many opportunities for human activities:
• new land and islands for people to live on
• fertile soils
• soils rich in minerals
• important as tourist destinations.
On the other hand they can kill people and destroy properties and livelihoods.

Case study: Soufrière Hills, Montserrat

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The Soufrière Hills volcano erupted in 1995 after being dormant for nearly 400 years. Its biggest
eruption was in 1997 when 19 people were killed. The volcano is caused by the subduction of the
Atlantic plate under the Caribbean plate.
To reduce the impact of the volcano, the capital city Plymouth was evacuated, and most of the
islanders fled to the north of the island or overseas. Emergency shelters and facilities were provided
in the north of the island. In the long term there has been major redevelopment of housing, schools,
hospitals and a new airport.
The Montserrat Volcano Observatory was set up to monitor changes in the volcano. Scientists
regularly:
• check the size and shape of the volcano
• use seismometers to check for internal changes within the Earth’s crust
• measure emissions of sulfur.
It is possible, in some cases, to divert lava flow by spraying vast volumes of water onto the
advancing lava flow. Alternatively, diversion channels have been dug to divert lava flows away from
settlements.

Reducing the impact of earthquakes

The main ways of dealing with earthquakes include:
• better forecasting and warning
• building location (see the textbook, Figure 2.16, page 101)
• building design (see the textbook, Figure 2.14, page 100)
• emergency procedures.
There are a number of ways of predicting and monitoring earthquakes. These include measurement and
observation of:
• small-scale ground surface changes
• ground tilt
• changes in rock stress
• micro-earthquake activity (clusters of small quakes)
• changes in radon gas concentration
• unusual animal behaviour, especially toads.

Case study: Nepal, 2015 – an earthquake in an LEDC

The 2015 Nepal earthquake – magnitude 7.8 – occurred on 25 April as a result of the Indian plate
colliding with the Eurasian plate. The epicentre of the earthquake was 80 km north of the capital,
Kathmandu, with a shallow focus of 15 km. It occurred around midday. There were over 300
aftershocks, some reaching magnitudes of over 7.0. Over 9 000 people died in the main earthquake
and at least 200 were killed in an aftershock of 7.3 in May 2015. Fatalities were much lower in rural
parts of Nepal because most people were outdoors, and were not affected by collapsing buildings.
The economic cost of the earthquake is estimated at about US $7 billion – around 35 per cent of
Nepal’s GDP. The Asian Development Bank provided a US $3 million grant for emergency relief,
including temporary shelters, food, blankets and cooking utensils.

Exam-style questions
1 State the main differences between cone volcanoes and shield volcanoes.
[4]
2 State the meaning of the terms epicentre and focus.
[2]
3 Describe the advantages of volcanoes.
[3]
4 Compare the primary and secondary effects of earthquakes.
[4]
Answers on page 130

72
2.2 Rivers
Key objectives
You should be able to:
• explain the main hydrological characteristics and processes which
operate within rivers and drainage basins
• demonstrate an understanding of the work of a river in eroding,
transporting and depositing
• describe and explain the formation of the landforms associated
with these processes
• demonstrate an understanding that rivers present hazards and
offer opportunities for people
• explain what can be done to manage the impacts of river flooding.
Case studies required
• The opportunities presented by a river, the hazards associated
with it and their management.

Key definitions

73
Term Definition
Tributary A stream or river which joins a larger river.
Drainage The area of land drained by a river system (a river and
basin its tributaries).
Watershed A ridge or other line of separation between two river
systems.
Confluence The point at which two rivers meet.
Interception The precipitation that is collected and stored by
vegetation.
Infiltration The movement of water into the soil. The rate at which
water enters the soil (the infiltration rate) depends on
the intensity of rainfall, the permeability of the soil, and
the extent to which it is already saturated with water.
Throughflow The downslope movement of water in the subsoil.
Evaporation The process in which a liquid turns to a vapour.
Overland Overland movement of water after a rainfall. It is the
flow fastest way in which water reaches a river. The
amount of overland runoff increases with heavy and
prolonged rainfall, steep gradients, lack of vegetation
cover, and saturated or frozen soil.
Abrasion (or The wearing away of the bed and bank by the load
corrasion) carried by a river.
Attrition The wearing away of the load carried by a river. It
creates smaller, rounder particles.
Hydraulic The force of air and water on the sides of rivers and in
action cracks.
Groundwater The movement of water from land to river through
flow rock. It is the slowest form of such water movement,
and accounts for the constant flow of water in rivers
during times of low rainfall.
Suspension Small particles are held up by turbulent flow in the
river.
Saltation Heavier particles are bounced or bumped along the
bed of the river.
Solution The removal of chemical ions, especially calcium,
which cause rocks to dissolve. The chemical load is
carried dissolved in the water.

74
Traction The heaviest material is dragged or rolled along the
bed of the river.

Channel characteristics and

processes PAGES 107–109

There are many changes to rivers as they move from their source (start) to
the mouth (end). These changes are summarised in Figure 2.3. Most of the
changes that occur result from the contribution of more water from
tributaries further down the drainage basin.

Figure 2.3 Downstream changes in a river

75
Figure 2.4 The drainage basin hydrological cycle
The hydrological cycle (water cycle) is the movement of water between air,
land and sea (Figure 2.4). It varies in scale from the global hydrological
model to a small-scale drainage basin hydrological model. Precipitation
includes rain, snow, frost and dew. Evapotranspiration includes the
combined losses of water from the ground/water bodies and vegetation.

River processes PAGES 113–120

Factors affecting erosion

The heavier and sharper the load the greater is the potential for erosion. The
greater the velocity and discharge the greater is the potential for erosion.
Increased gradient increases the rate of erosion. Soft rocks, such as sand and
gravel, are more easily eroded. Rates of solution are increased when the
water is more acidic. Human impact (for example, deforestation, dams and
bridges) interferes with the natural flow of a river and frequently results in
an increase in the rate of erosion.

Tip

76
Remember that the factors affecting erosion interact with each
other. In any single case, the impact of one factor may be altered
through the impact of others.

Transport
The main types of transport include suspension, saltation, solution,
traction and flotation.

Deposition
Deposition occurs due to a decline in energy or velocity. This may happen
because a river becomes shallower – for example, when a flood spills onto a
floodplain; the river gets trapped behind a dam or enters a lake or the sea;
vegetation slows down the river; or the gradient becomes gentler.

Test yourself
1 Compare hydraulic action with abrasion.
2 Outline the difference between saltation and traction.
Answers on page 125

Common error
Error Why it is wrong
‘Erosion only occurs in the upper course Both processes occur
and deposition in the lower course.’ throughout the river’s
course.

Long and cross-profiles

The shape of a river valley generally changes downstream from being steep
and V-shaped in its upper course, to being much flatter and wider in its
lower course. The shape of the valley cross-section is known as the cross-
profile. The change in gradient from source to mouth is known as the long
profile.

77
Figure 2.5 Long and cross-profiles
There are a number of reasons for these changes including tributary streams,
changes in climate and vegetation, human impacts and river processes. The
main river processes include erosion, transport and deposition.

Landforms caused by erosion

These include waterfalls, gorges and potholes. Rivers erode softer rocks and
undercut harder rocks. This causes the harder rocks to collapse and form a
waterfall (for example, Niagara Falls). If a waterfall retreats, it may form a
gorge of recession.

Landforms caused by erosion and

deposition
These include meanders and oxbow lakes. Erosion occurs on the outer bank
of a meander whereas deposition occurs on the inner bank. This produces a
river cliff on the outer bank and a slip-off slope (river beach) on the inner
bank. In some cases, the meanders may become so exaggerated that

78
successive meanders touch. In times of flood, the river may break through
the meander to form an oxbow lake or meander cut-off.

Tip
When drawing a diagram of oxbow lakes make sure you label
where the erosion and deposition are occurring.

Landforms caused by deposition

Levées and floodplains are formed by deposition. They occur in the lower
course of a river. When the river floods, the larger, coarser material is
deposited next to the river channel, whereas the finer clays and silts are
carried further away from the river. The coarser sand and gravel may build
up a small bar by the edge of the river – a levée – whereas the finer material
produces a flat floodplain. When a river enters a lake or the sea where there
is very little current, the river slows down and deposits its load, forming a
delta.

Sample exam question

a Briefly explain how waterfalls and gorges are formed.
[4]

Student’s answer
a Waterfalls frequently occur on horizontally bedded rocks. The soft
rock is undercut by hydraulic action and abrasion, to form a
plunge pool. The softer rock is eroded by fragments of the harder
rock that break off. The weight of the water and the lack of
support cause the waterfall to collapse and retreat. Over
thousands of years the waterfall may retreat enough to form a
gorge of recession.

Teacher’s comments
The question did not ask for an annotated diagram, although one
could have been provided. Some aspects of physical geography are
easier to revise and explain using diagrams. Nevertheless, the
student has identified: differences in rock strength; the horizontal

79
layering of rocks; the types of erosion; an implied reason for the
effectiveness of erosion (hard rock eroding softer rock); progression
over time, leading to the formation of a gorge. Full marks awarded.

b Draw an annotated diagram to show the formation of an oxbow

lake.
[4]

Student’s answer
b

Teacher’s comments

80
Very clear answer. Shows progression/sequencing. Clearly
annotated. Full marks.

River hazards and opportunities

PAGES 121–128
Rivers can cause problems through flooding and river erosion. The flood
hazard is extremely dangerous for people’s lives and their possessions.
Many settlements are built on raised ground in order to reduce the risk of
flooding. In addition, rivers may erode their banks thereby making some
people extremely vulnerable to losing their homes and fields.

Figure 2.6 The causes of floods

Opportunities presented by rivers

Rivers are very attractive to people for a variety of reasons. Rivers provide:
• a source of drinking water
• fertile silt for agriculture

81
• a line of communications and navigation
• a source of power
• fishing
• recreation.
Rivers are affected by the building of dams, which:
• reduce the speed of water flow
• control the amount of water in a river
• cause deposition behind the dam
• increase the amount of erosion downstream of the dam
• change ecosystems
• increase pressure on rocks and may cause earthquakes.
But dams provide:
• reliable water throughout the year
• navigation
• hydro-electric power
• water for irrigation
• safety from flooding.

Test yourself
3 Briefly explain the main causes of floods.
Answer on page 125

Managing the impacts of river flooding

There are many ways in which people can manage the impacts of flooding.
These include:
• building dams or reservoirs to hold back excess water (see the case study
‘Hard engineering – the Three Gorges Dam’ on page 123 of the textbook
for more information)
• raising the banks of rivers
• dredging the river channel so that it can hold more water
• diverting streams and creating new flood relief channels
• using sandbags to prevent water getting into houses
• building houses on stilts so that water can pass underneath
• land use planning (i.e. build only on land that is free from flooding)
• afforestation (plant forests) to increase interception and reduce overland
flow
• have insurance cover for vulnerable areas and communities
• improved forecasting and warning

82
• river restoration and allowing rivers to flood naturally (see the case study
‘Soft engineering – the Kissimmee River Restoration Project’, on pages
124–5 of the textbook for more information).
Even with all these measures flooding cannot be prevented. However, the
impacts can be minimised.

Test yourself
4 Briefly explain how flood risk can be managed.
Answer on pages 125–126

Sample exam question

1 Outline the hazards and opportunities of living in a named river
valley.
[7]

Student’s answer
The Nile Delta is one of the oldest intensively cultivated areas in the
world. It is heavily populated and has a population density of about
16,000 people per km2. Only 2.5 per cent of Egypt’s land area is
suitable for intensive agriculture – up to 95 per cent of Egypt’s
agricultural production comes from the Nile valley and delta. The
delta has long been a source of freshwater and fertile silt, as well as
an excellent location for the import and export of goods. The flat
land makes building easy. However, it is increasingly under stress.
The delta covers around 25,000 km2, is home to around 66 per cent
of the country’s rapidly growing population and provides over 60 per
cent of the nation’s food supply. However, most of the delta is very
low lying, and an increase in sea level of just 1 m would flood 20 per
cent of the area. Flooding by the river Nile is a potential problem.
Excessive irrigation has led to waterlogging, whilst significant
amounts of fertilisers and pesticides are leached into water courses
along the delta. Seawater intrusion has led to the salinisation of
groundwater.

83
Teacher’s comments
The student has offered a range of benefits, two of which are
supported with quantification. The student has made some general
points about the risk of flooding – a recent example would be useful,
or mention of the 2016 floods that killed 98 people in the upper Nile
valley. A reason for the increased flood risk is given – numbers of
people at risk, or names of cities at risk, or dates of the floods would
have made this answer complete. Six marks awarded out of a
maximum of seven.

Exam-style questions
1 Compare infiltration and throughflow.
[2]
2 Compare the cross-section of a river in its upper course with that
of a river in its lower course.
[4]
3 Compare the long profile of an upper-course river with that of a
lower-course river.
[2]
Answers on page 130

84
2.3 Coasts

Key objectives
You should be able to:
• demonstrate an understanding of the work of the sea and wind in
eroding, transporting and depositing
• describe and explain the formation of the landforms associated
with these processes
• describe coral reefs and mangrove swamps and the conditions
required for their development
• demonstrate an understanding that coasts present hazards and
offer opportunities for people
• explain what can be done to manage the impacts of coastal
erosion.
Case studies required
• The opportunities presented by an area of coastline, the hazards
associated with it and their management.

Key definitions
Term Definition
Abrasion (or The wearing away of the cliffs by the load carried by
corrasion) the sea.
Hydraulic The force of air and water when the waves break.
action
Solution (or The removal of chemical ions, especially calcium,
corrosion) which cause rocks to dissolve.
Attrition The wearing away of the load carried by the sea.
Fringing reefs Reefs that grow outwards around an island.
Barrier reef A reef that is separated from the coast by a deep
channel.
Atoll A circular reef enclosing a shallow lagoon.

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Marine processes PAGES 129–131

There are a number of processes that occur in coastal zones. These include:
• wave action from constructive and destructive waves
• wind action
• mass movements and weathering
• river and ice actions.

Types of wave
Table 2.5 Destructive and constructive waves
Destructive waves (erosional Constructive waves (depositional
waves) waves)
Short wavelength Long wavelength
High height (> 1 metre) Low height (< 1 metre)
High frequency (10–12/minute) Low frequency (6–8/minute)
Backwash > swash Swash > backwash

Processes of transportation
In the water, particles are moved in different ways:
• larger particles are dragged along the sea floor by traction
• smaller particles may be bounced along the sea floor by saltation
• very fine materials are held up in suspension
• dissolved sediments (for example, calcium) may be carried in solution.

Deposition
Deposition occurs for a variety of reasons:
• a decrease in wave energy or velocity
• a large supply of material
• an irregular, indented coastline (for example, river mouths).

Wave refraction and longshore drift

Test yourself
1 Distinguish between destructive and constructive waves.
Answer on page 126

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Wave refraction occurs when waves approach an irregular coastline or at an
oblique angle. Refraction reduces wave velocity and, if complete, causes
wave fronts to break parallel to the shore. Wave refraction concentrates
energy on the flanks of headlands and disperses energy in bays. However,
refraction is rarely complete and consequently longshore drift occurs. The
swash is the movement up the beach while the backwash is the movement
down the beach.

Landscapes of erosion PAGES 131–133

Headlands and bays form when rocks are of differing strengths. Hard rocks
form resistant headlands while the softer rocks are eroded to form bays.
Cliffs are steep slopes. They occur due to erosion by waves at their base.
They may be helped by weathering and mass movements.
Wave-cut platforms are typically less than 500 m wide with an angle of
about 1°. Steep cliffs are eroded and replaced by a lengthening platform and
lower-angle cliffs, which are then subjected to weathering and mass
movements rather than marine forces (Figure 2.7).

87
Figure 2.7 Formation of a wave-cut platform
On a coastline of a single rock type, weaknesses such as fault lines may be
eroded to form a cave. Over time, the cave may be eroded so much that it
goes all the way through the rock to form an arch. In time, the arch may be
eroded to form a single column, known as a stack.

Test yourself
2 Briefly explain how a wave-cut platform is formed.
Answer on page 126

Features of deposition PAGES 133–139

88
Figure 2.8 Features of coastal deposition
A beach is a deposit of sand or shingle formed in an area where there is a
large supply of material, constructive waves and/or strong onshore winds
that carry sediment inwards during low tides.
A spit is a beach of sand or shingle linked at one end to land. They are found
on indented coastlines or at river mouths (Figure 2.8).

Coral reefs
Corals are small marine organisms. They absorb calcium salts from seawater
and combine them with carbon dioxide to build a skeleton of calcium
carbonate. Coral requires certain conditions in which to thrive:
• clear, salt water with a temperature of over 20 °C
• shallow coastal water
• a good supply of water and plankton.
There are three main types of coral reef: fringing reefs, barrier reefs and
atolls (Figure 2.9).

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Figure 2.9 Formation of coral reefs

Mangroves
Mangroves are salt-tolerant forests of trees and shrubs that grow in the tidal
estuaries and coastal zones of tropical areas. The muddy waters are rich in
nutrients from decaying leaves and wood. Mangroves cover about 25 per
cent of the tropical coastline, the largest being the 570 000 ha mangrove
forest in the Sundarbans in Bangladesh.

Test yourself
3 Outline the differences between fringing reefs and atolls.
Answer on page 126

Coastal hazards and opportunities

PAGES 139–143
Approximately 40–45 per cent of the world’s population live within 150 km
of the coast. Coastal areas are popular because they enable trade and
commerce; they offer opportunities for tourism and recreation; they allow
fishing and energy developments (for example, offshore wind farms).
However, coastal areas are vulnerable to coastal erosion, rising sea levels,
tropical storms and associated storm surges, and, in some locations, tsunami
events.

Tropical storms
Hurricanes are intense tropical storms that bring heavy rainfall, strong winds
and high waves, and cause other hazards such as flooding and mudslides.
Their paths are erratic, which means it is not always possible to give more
than 12 hours’ advance warning.

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Hurricanes typically:
• develop as intense low-pressure systems over tropical oceans
• have a calm central area, known as the eye, around which winds spiral
rapidly
• have a diameter of up to 800 km, though the strong winds that cause most
of the damage are found in a narrower belt up to 300 km wide.
In order for a hurricane to develop, water temperatures need to be above 27
°C for sufficient evaporation to occur. Hurricanes also occur away from the
Equator, since there is insufficient rotation there. Once they pass over land,
they are starved of moisture and begin to lose strength.
The impact of a hurricane depends very much on the degree to which an area
is prepared. In general, HICs have better access to satellite equipment
(improved monitoring), enforced building codes resulting in stronger
buildings (better protection), better communications (to issue warnings, i.e.
better prediction), more advanced emergency services, more widespread
insurance cover, and more training and evacuation drills (better preparation).
Nevertheless, poorer communities in a wealthy country may suffer
disproportionately compared with their richer neighbours (for example, the
black population in New Orleans as a result of Hurricane Katrina).

Tsunami
The term ‘tsunami’ is Japanese for harbour wave. Most (90 per cent) occur
in the Pacific Basin. The cause of the 2004 South Asian tsunami was a giant
earthquake (9.0 on the Richter scale) and landslide caused by the sinking of
the Indian plate under the Eurasian plate. Over 240 000 people were killed,
mainly in Sumatra, Indonesia. Many homes were wiped out, boats washed
away, forest damaged and infrastructure destroyed.

Rising sea levels

Many countries worldwide are under threat from rising sea levels. This is a
longer-term consequence of global climate change. Some of the areas most at
risk are LICs, such as Bangladesh, although low-lying HICs are also at risk.
HICs, however, may have the resources to combat the perceived risk.

Coastal management PAGES 144–145

Coastal defence covers protection against coastal erosion (coast protection)

and flooding by the sea. Coastal zone management is concerned with the

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whole range of activities that take place in the coastal zone and promotes
integrated planning to manage them.

Hard engineering structures

Hard engineering structures include groynes, sea walls, revetments, rock
armour and cliff drains (see Table 2.6). They try to alter natural processes to
reduce the potential for erosion of the coastline. Sometimes they may have
unexpected results (for example, the building of groynes may reduce erosion
in nearby locations but increase coastal erosion downdrift). Sea walls may
also lead to the scouring of the sea bed.

Soft engineering
Soft engineering refers to working with nature. Examples include the
maintenance of a mangrove forest to reduce the impact of tropical storms.
Beach nourishment increases the size of a beach by using sediment dredged
from elsewhere. Some soft engineering may allow the coastline to retreat
naturally.
Managed retreat allows nature to take its course – erosion in some areas,
deposition in others. Benefits include less money being spent and the
creation of natural environments. However, some homes or farms may be
lost to the power of the sea.

Test yourself
4 Distinguish between gabions and sea walls.
Answer on page 126
Table 2.6 Different forms of coastal management

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Common error
Error Why it is wrong
‘Management The 10 m sea walls along the Japanese coastline
schemes were not high enough to protect against the 11 m
guarantee waves generated by the 2011 tsunami.
safety.’

Tip

93
Many stretches of coastline have a range of management types –
usually they will be a mix of hard and soft engineering, often side by
side.

Case study: Opportunities, associated hazards and

the management of the Dubai coastline
Some coastal areas provide an excellent opportunity for tourism.
Coastal areas that can guarantee hot, sunny conditions have an
added advantage. Coastal reclamation in the United Arab Emirates
has been developing on a large scale since 2001 (Figure 2.10). Two
palm-shaped artificial islands, Palm Jumeirah and Palm Jebel Ali,
were completed in 2007. In 2003 plans were unveiled for a third,
Palm Deira, as well as ‘The World’, a collection of over 300 islands,
each one in the shape of a country.
Palm Jumeirah not only created a new shoreline; it also became the
centre for world-class hotels, over 200 shopping outlets, and a range
of luxury housing and leisure and entertainment developments. Sea-
front projects ranging from desalination plants to artificial islands
have transformed the entire coastline in the past few decades. More
than 40 per cent of the shores of some countries in the region are
now developed. According to a report in the journal Nature,
uncontrolled development and a lack of scientific monitoring are
seriously threatening ecosystems along this coast.
To create the islands for Palm Jumeirah, some 94 million m3 of
sediment were dredged from the sea. Such large-scale projects are
changing the ecology in ways that will only become clear in the
coming decades. One of the problems is water circulation. Water
around some parts of the islands can remain almost stationary for
several weeks, increasing the risk of algal blooms. In addition, the
fish that have colonised the new environment are invasive species
(species from outside the area).
The Gulf region has already lost 70 per cent of its coral reefs since
2001, and most of the remaining reefs are threatened or degraded.
Construction of Palm Jebel Ali – a larger archipelago than Palm
Jumeirah – has already destroyed 8 km2 of natural reef.
Between 2009 and 2015 there was an increase in the size of a
number of beaches, for example, Jumeirah One Beach, and the
construction of a number of breakwaters in order to protect the coast

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from medium-height waves. Sand barriers have also been
constructed to preserve the coast by preventing coastal erosion and
sediment transport. The Dubai Coastal Zone Monitoring Programme
records wave height, speed, frequency and direction, water
temperature, salinity, dissolved oxygen and sediment movement in
the coastal zone.

Figure 2.10 Coastal engineering schemes in Dubai

Exam-style questions
1 Describe the process of longshore drift.
[3]
2 Explain how a stack is formed.
[4]
3 Explain the formation of spits.
[4]
4 Identify the hazards associated with tropical storms (hurricanes).
[2]
5 Suggest why the Nile Delta is vulnerable to sea level change.
[3]
6 Identify the advantages of the Nile Delta for people.

95
 [4]
Answers on page 131

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2.4 Weather
Key objectives
You should be able to:
• describe how weather data are collected
• make calculations using information from weather instruments
• use and interpret graphs and other diagrams showing weather
and climate data.

Key definition
Term Definition
Isohyet A line on a map which joins areas of equal rainfall.

Measuring the weather PAGES 149–153

Stevenson screen
A Stevenson screen is a wooden box standing on four legs at a height of
about 120 cm (Figure 2.11). The screen is raised so that air temperature can
be measured. The sides of the box are slatted to allow air to enter freely. The
roof is usually made of double boarding to prevent the Sun’s heat from
reaching the inside of the screen. Insulation is further improved by painting
the outside of the screen white to reflect much of the Sun’s energy. The
screen is usually placed on a grass-covered surface, thereby reducing the
radiation of heat from the ground.

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Figure 2.11 Stevenson screen
Instruments kept inside the Stevenson screen include a maximum-minimum
thermometer and a wet- and dry-bulb thermometer (also called a
hygrometer).

Rain gauge
A rain gauge is used to measure rainfall. It consists of a cylindrical
container, in which there is a collecting can containing a glass or plastic jar,
and a funnel that fits on to the top of the container (Figure 2.12). It is
important to check the rain gauge every day, preferably at the same time.

Figure 2.12 Rain gauge

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Maximum-minimum thermometer
Maximum thermometer
When the temperature rises, the mercury expands and pushes the index
along the tube (Figure 2.13). When the temperature falls, the mercury
contracts and the index remains behind. The maximum temperature is
obtained by reading the scale at the base of the index, which was in contact
with the mercury. The index is then drawn back to the mercury by a magnet.

Figure 2.13 Maximum-minimum thermometer

Minimum thermometer
When the temperature falls, the alcohol contracts and its meniscus pulls the
index along the tube. When the temperature rises, the alcohol expands. The
daily readings of maximum-minimum thermometers are used to work out
the average or mean temperature for one day (called the mean daily
temperature) and the temperature range for one day (called the daily or
diurnal temperature range).
To find the mean daily temperature, the maximum and minimum
temperatures for one day are added together and then halved. For example:
(maximum temperature 35 °C + minimum temperature 25 °C) ÷ 2 = mean
daily temperature 30 °C.

99
Wet- and dry-bulb thermometer
(hygrometer)
Wet- and dry-bulb thermometers are used to measure relative humidity. The
dry-bulb is a glass thermometer which records the actual air temperature.
The wet-bulb is a similar thermometer, but with the bulb enclosed in a
muslin bag which dips into a bottle of water (Figure 2.14). This
thermometer measures the wet-bulb temperature which, unless the relative
humidity is close to 100 per cent, is generally lower than the dry-bulb
temperature.

Figure 2.14 Wet- and dry-bulb thermometer

Sunshine recorder
The number of hours and minutes of sunshine received at a place can be
measured and recorded by a sunshine recorder (such as a Campbell-Stokes
sunshine recorder – Figure 2.15).

100
Figure 2.15 A sunshine recorder

Test yourself
1 Outline the main features of a Stevenson screen.
Answer on page 126

Barometer
A mercury barometer consists of a hollow tube from which the air is
extracted before the open end is placed in a bath of mercury. Mercury is
forced up the tube by the pressure of the atmosphere on the mercury in the
bath (Figure 2.16). When the pressure of the mercury in the tube balances
the pressure of the air on the exposed mercury, the mercury in the tube stops
rising. The height of the column of mercury changes as air pressure changes
(i.e. it rises when air pressure increases and falls when air pressure
decreases).

101
Figure 2.16 A mercury barometer

Anemometer
An anemometer is used to measure wind speed. It consists of three or four
metal cups fixed to metal arms that rotate freely on a vertical shaft (Figure
2.17). When there is a wind, the cups rotate. The stronger the wind, the
faster is the rotation. The number of rotations is recorded on a meter to give
the speed of the wind in km/hr.

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Figure 2.17 An anemometer

Wind vane
A wind vane is used to indicate wind direction. It consists of a horizontal
rotating arm pivoted on a vertical shaft (Figure 2.18). The rotating arm has a
tail at one end and a pointer at the other. When the wind blows, the arm
swings until the pointer faces the wind. The directions north, east, south and
west are marked on arms that are rigidly fixed to the shaft.

Figure 2.18 A wind vane

Digital instruments

103
Digital instruments can be used for weather observations. The main
advantage is that they give a reliable reading whereas other methods are
more subjective.

Recording the weather PAGE 154

Observations of types and amounts of

cloud

Figure 2.19 Cloud types

Clouds can be separated into three broad categories according to the height
of their base above the ground: high clouds, medium clouds and low clouds
(Figure 2.19). High clouds are usually composed solely of ice crystals and
have a base between 5500 and 14 000 m. Medium clouds are usually
composed of water droplets or a mixture of water droplets and ice crystals,
and have a base between 2000 and 7000 m. Low clouds are usually
composed of water droplets, though cumulonimbus clouds include ice
crystals, and have a base below 2000 m.
Cloud cover
Cloud cover is measured in oktas (eighths). This is made by a visual
assessment of how much of the sky is covered by cloud. If the sky is
completely covered with clouds it has 8/8 cloud cover.

Test yourself
2 Identify the instruments used to record:

104
 a relative humidity
b wind speed
3 Outline the difference between a cirrus cloud and a
cumulonimbus cloud.
Answers on page 126

Climate graphs
Figure 2.20 shows two simple climate graphs (or climographs). Climate
graphs tell us a great deal about the pattern of temperature and rainfall. They
are often used to show annual variations or sometimes variations over a few
weeks.

Figure 2.20 Climate graphs for (a) Manaus and (b) Cairo

105
The mean monthly average temperature occurs between the mean monthly
maximum and the mean monthly minimum. (The mean monthly maximum
is the average of all the maximum temperatures for each day of the month.
The mean monthly minimum is the average of all of the minimum
temperatures recorded for each day in a month.)
Rainfall is normally shown as a bar chart. Different scales are used – in this
case temperature is shown on the left-hand side and rainfall on the right-
hand side.

Exam-style questions
Study the climate graphs in Figure 2.20. For both climate graphs:
[1]
1 State the mean monthly temperature for July.
[1]
2 State the mean monthly temperature for February.
[2]
3 Calculate the annual temperature range.
4 Describe the pattern of rainfall over the year.
[3]
Answers on page 131

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2.5 Climate and natural
vegetation

Key objectives
You should be able to:
• describe and explain the characteristics of two climates:
equatorial and hot desert
• describe and explain the characteristics of tropical rainforest and
hot desert ecosystems
• describe the causes and effects of deforestation of tropical
rainforest.
Case studies required
• An area of tropical rainforest.
• An area of hot desert.

Key definition
Term Definition
Specific heat The amount of heat needed to raise the
capacity temperature of a body by 1 °C.

Equatorial climate PAGES 156–157

Equatorial areas have a very distinct climate:

• annual temperatures are high (26–27 °C), being close to the Equator
• seasonal ranges are low (1–2 °C), but diurnal (daytime) ranges are greater
(10–15 °C)
• rainfall is high (more than 2 000 mm per year), convectional in nature and
occurs throughout the year.

107
Hot desert climates
Desert climates are very severe. Typical characteristics include:
• high daytime temperatures (30–40 °C) throughout the year
• a large temperature difference, often as much as 50 °C, between day and
night
• low, unreliable and irregular rainfall (about 250 mm per year).

Factors affecting climate PAGES 157–159

Latitude
Areas that are close to the Equator receive more heat than areas that are
close to the poles. This is due to two reasons:
1 Incoming solar radiation (insolation) is concentrated near the Equator, but
dispersed near the poles.
2 Insolation near the poles has to pass through a greater amount of
atmosphere and there is more chance of it being reflected back out to
space.

Altitude
Temperature decreases with altitude. On average it drops about 1 °C for
every 100 m. That means 10 °C over 1 000 m. This is because air at higher
altitudes is thinner and less dense.

Pressure systems
Low-pressure systems are associated with uplift (rising) of air,
condensation, cloud formation and rain – as in a rainforest. In contrast, high-
pressure systems are associated with descending (sinking) air, and dry
conditions, such as in hot deserts.

Distance from the sea

It takes more energy to heat up water than it does to heat land. This is
known as the specific heat capacity (you may come across this term in
science, too). However, it takes longer for water to lose heat. Hence, land is
hotter than the sea by day, but colder than the sea by night. Places that are
close to the sea are cool by day, but mild by night. With increasing distance
from the sea this effect is reduced.

108
Prevailing winds
Prevailing winds are the most frequent winds in an area. Their effect
depends upon where they come from. The south-west winds that affect the
British Isles bring warm air from the mid Atlantic. By contrast, north-east
winds from Siberia bring bitterly cold conditions in winter.

Ocean currents
The effect of an ocean current depends upon whether it is a cold ocean
current or a warm ocean current. Cold ocean currents lower the temperature
of the coastlines they affect. This is very noticeable with the Labrador
current, which reduces the temperature of coastal areas in north-east North
America. Cold currents in tropical areas, for example, the Benguela current
off the coast of Namibia, can cause deserts to form because they produce
very little rain.

Aspect
Aspect is the direction a place faces. On a local scale aspect is very
important. In the northern hemisphere south-facing places are warmer than
north- and east-facing places.

Test yourself
1 Compare the main climate characteristics of:
a equatorial climates
b hot desert climates
2 Briefly explain how climate is affected by:
a latitude
b altitude
Answers on page 126

Tropical rainforests PAGES 159–160

109
Figure 2.21 World distribution of tropical rainforests
Vegetation in the rainforest is well adapted to the climatic conditions (see
the textbook, Figure 2.99 page 160). Photosynthesis and growing can take
place all year. The vegetation is layered, and the shape of the crowns varies
with the layer, in order to receive light. There are up to 200 species of tree
per hectare (an area the size of a rugby pitch) including fig, teak, mahogany
and rosewood.
Over 50 per cent of all animal species on Earth are found in tropical
rainforest areas (6 per cent of the land), and most of these are arboreal (live
in trees). Many species are still to be identified – between 2010 and 2013
over 440 new species were identified in the Amazon alone.
However, tropical soils are very deep and infertile. The heavy rain washes
out much of the clay, salts and other nutrients. Decaying vegetation is
broken down rapidly under hot, wet conditions and releases some nutrients
back into the soil. As a result of the poor soil, plants that grow throughout
the year take up these nutrients before they are washed away. This is called
nutrient recycling. The cycle is broken when the rainforest is disturbed. This
could be through fires or cutting trees down.

Tip

110
When writing about ecosystems, give specific details (for example,
mean temperature, rainfall total, names of selected plants and
animals), rather than a generalised account that could refer to any
ecosystem.

Some areas never recover from this, and the rainforest disappears gradually.
This means that tropical rainforests cannot support many people, and that
any part of the rainforest can become infertile quickly. However, more and
more people are living in the rainforest, so the pressures are increasing. The
area has a year-round growing season, but it is limited in the number of
people it can support.

Hot deserts PAGES 164–167

Figure 2.22 World distribution of hot deserts

Hot deserts are found in a number of locations (Figure 2.22):
• in subtropical areas between 20° and 30° north and south of the Equator
(for example, the Sahara)
• in areas of rain shadow (for example, Patagonia)
• at great distance from the sea (for example, parts of the Central Australian
desert)

111
• where there are cold, upwelling offshore sea currents (for example, the
Namib desert in Namibia).
Soils are poor because they contain very few nutrients and organic matter
and because they are very dry.
Vegetation from desert margins is often referred to as scrub. Plants adapt to
life in hot deserts by:
• growing long water-seeking roots
• producing only a few leaves, to reduce transpiration (moisture loss)
• storing water (the cactus is a good example)
• producing seeds that wait for rainfall before growing and completing a
very quick life cycle.
Typical species include saguaro cactus, prickly pear, creosote bush and palo
verde.
Animals are adapted to living in the desert by:
• being nocturnal
• remaining underground for much of the day
• having large ears/panting to reduce body heat
• becoming dormant during periods of extreme heat and moisture shortages.

Test yourself
3 Briefly describe the vegetation characteristics of tropical
rainforests.
4 Explain how plants are adapted to hot desert environments.
Answers on page 126

Causes and effects of tropical

rainforest deforestation PAGES 161–163

There are a large number of effects of deforestation including:

• disruption to the circulation and storage of nutrients
• surface erosion and compaction of soils
• sandification
• increased flood levels and sediment content of rivers
• climatic change
• loss of biodiversity.

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Deforestation disrupts the closed system of nutrient cycling within tropical
rainforests. Inorganic elements are released through burning and are quickly
flushed out of the system by the high-intensity rains.
Soil erosion is also associated with deforestation. As a result of soil
compaction, there is a decrease in infiltration and an increase in overland
runoff and surface erosion.
Sandification is a process of selective erosion. Raindrop impact washes
away the finer particles of clay and humus, leaving behind the coarser and
heavier sand.
As a result of the intense surface runoff and soil erosion, rivers have a
higher flood peak and a shorter time lag. However, in the dry season river
levels are lower, the rivers have greater turbidity (murkiness due to more
sediment), an increased bed load, and carry more silt and clay in suspension.
Other changes relate to climate. As deforestation progresses, there is a
reduction of water that is re-evaporated from the vegetation, hence the
recycling of water must diminish.

Case study: Danum Valley Conservation Area

Danum Valley Conservation Area (DVCA) contains more than 120
mammal species, including 10 species of primate. DVCA and the
surrounding forest form an important reservation for orangutans, as
well as being particularly rich in other large mammals, including the
Asian elephant, Malayan sun bear, clouded leopard, bearded pig
and several species of deer. Over 340 species of bird have been
recorded at Danum, including the argus pheasant, Bulwer’s
pheasant, and seven species of pitta bird. The area also provides
one of the last refuges for the endangered Sumatran rhinoceros.
DVCA covers 43 800 hectares, comprising almost entirely lowland
dipterocarp forest (dipterocarps are valuable hardwood trees). It is
the largest expanse of pristine forest of this type remaining in
Sabah, north-east Borneo.
Until the late 1980s, the area was under threat from commercial
logging. The establishment of a long-term research programme
between Yayasan Sabah and the Royal Society in the UK created
local awareness of the conservation value of the area and provided
important scientific information about the forest and what happens
to it when it is disturbed through logging. Danum Valley is controlled
by a management committee representing all the relevant local

113
institutions, including wildlife, forestry and commercial sectors. To
the east of DVCA is the 30 000-hectare Innoprise-FACE Foundation
Rainforest Rehabilitation Project (INFAPRO), one of the largest
forest rehabilitation projects in South East Asia, which is replanting
areas of heavily disturbed logged forest.
Because all areas of conservation and replanting are embedded
within the larger commercial forest, the value of the whole area is
greatly enhanced. Movement of animals between forest areas is
enabled and allows the continued survival of some important and
endangered Borneo animals such as the Sumatran rhinoceros, the
orang-utan and the Borneo elephant.
In the late 1990s, a hotel opened on the north-eastern edge of
DVCA. It has established flourishing ecotourism in the area and
exposed this unique forest to a wider range of visitors than was
previously possible. As well as raising revenue for the local area, it
has raised the international profile of the area as an important
centre for conservation and research.

Figure 2.23 Map of Malaysia

114
Figure 2.24 Map of Sabah

Case study: The Sonoran Desert

The Sonoran Desert is located in southern USA (southern California
and southern Arizona) and northern Mexico.
Its vegetation includes the saguaro cactus, which can grow to a
height of 15 m and live for up to 175 years. Its ribbed stem expands
as it fills with water during the winter wet season. Its stem shape
reduces wind speed and water loss from the plant, while sunken
stomata also reduce water loss. It has shallow roots to catch water
from storms before it evaporates. The palo verde is a small,
drought-tolerant tree that loses its leaves in the dry season, but its
green bark allows it to photosynthesise without leaves. Creosote
bushes have small, dark leaves to reduce transpiration. Plant
density depends upon water availability.
Soils in the Sonoran Desert are typically thin, relatively infertile and
alkaline. Seasonal rains carry soluble salts down through the soil.
However, during the dry season these are drawn up to surface by
evaporation. Concentrations may become toxic for some plants. In
addition, flash flooding can compact the soil, leaving the surface
impermeable.
There has been considerable human impact in the area. Some
cities, notably Phoenix in Arizona, have expanded rapidly at the

115
expense of the desert. The increased demand for, and abstraction
of, water has lowered water tables. Road construction and pipelines
have affected the movement of mammals, and fenced highways
have prevented pronghorn antelopes, for example, from reaching
water supplies. Domesticated animals have escaped into the wild
and reduced grazing availability for wild mammals. The introduction
of exotic plant species, such as tamarisk, has displaced native
species such as cottonwoods and desert willows.

Exam-style questions
1 Briefly explain why tropical rainforests are hot and wet.
[4]
2 Explain why soils in the tropical rainforest are usually infertile.
[3]
3 Describe the main difficulties in developing hot, arid areas.
[3]
Answers on page 131

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3.1 Development
Key objectives
You should be able to:
• use a variety of indicators to assess the level of development of a
country
• identify and explain inequalities between and within countries
• classify production into different sectors and give illustrations of
each
• describe and explain how the proportions employed in each
sector vary according to the level of development
• describe and explain the process of globalisation, and consider its
impacts.
Case study required
• A transnational corporation and its global links.

Key definitions

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Term Definition
Development The use of resources to improve the quality of life in a
country.
Gross The total value of goods and services produced by a
National country in a year, plus income earned by the
Product country’s residents from foreign investments and
(GNP) minus income earned within the domestic economy
by overseas residents.
Gross The total GNP of a country divided by the total
National population.
Product per
capita
Development The differences in wealth, and other indicators,
gap between the world’s richest and poorest countries.
Human Combines four indicators of development: life
Development expectancy at birth; mean years of schooling for
Index (HDI) adults aged 25 years; expected years of schooling for
children of school entering age; GNI per capita
(PPP$).
Least The poorest of the developing countries. They have
developed major economic, institutional and human resource
countries problems.
(LDCs)
Newly Nations that have undergone rapid and successful
industrialised industrialisation since the 1960s.
countries
(NICs)
Gini Technique used to show the extent of income
coefficient inequality.
Cumulative The process whereby a significant increase in
causation economic growth can lead to even more growth as
more money circulates in the economy.
Formal That part of an economy known to the government
sector department responsible for taxation and to other
government offices.
Informal That part of the economy operating outside official
sector recognition.
Product The full sequence of activities needed to turn raw

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chain materials into a finished product.
Globalisation The increasing interconnectedness and
interdependence of the world economically, culturally
and politically.
Transnational A firm that owns or controls productive operations in
corporation more than one country through foreign direct
(TNC) investment (FDI).
Diffusion The spread of a phenomenon over time and space.
Internet A group of protocols by which computers
communicate.
New Divides production into different skills and tasks that
international are often spread across a number of countries.
division of
labour (NIDL)

Indicators of development PAGES 172–

176
Development, or improvement in the quality of life, includes increasing
wealth, but also involves other important aspects of our lives (Figure 3.1).
For example, development occurs in a low-income country when:

119
Figure 3.1 Factors comprising the quality of life
• local food supply improves due to investment in farm machinery and
fertilisers
• the electricity grid extends outwards from the main urban areas to rural
areas.

Gross National Product

One of the traditional indicators of a country’s wealth is the Gross National
Product (GNP). To take account of the different populations of countries
the Gross National Product per capita is often used. Figure 3.3 on page
173 of the textbook shows GNP per capita of countries for 2013. It is clear
to see where regions of high and low GNP per capita are located. The
development gap between the world’s wealthiest and poorest countries is
huge.
Table 3.1 Important indicators of development

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Literacy Adult literacy is an important measure of educational
standards. In 2015, the global adult literacy rate was
85 per cent, but in over a dozen African countries,
literacy rates are below 50 per cent. Female literacy is
particularly important because so many aspects of
development depend on it.
Life Life expectancy is, to a large extent, the end result of
expectancy all the factors contributing to the quality of life in a
country. Rates of life expectancy have converged
significantly between rich and poor countries during the
last 50 years, in spite of a widening wealth gap.
Infant The infant mortality rate is an important measure of
mortality health inequality. Fortunately, infant mortality rates
have fallen sharply in many developing countries over
the last 20 years. However, the infant mortality rate in
Africa is more than 11 times that of Europe.
Other measures of development include:
• doctors per 100 000 people
• energy consumption per capita
• percentage of the population living in urban areas
• internet penetration rate.

Tip
It is important to understand the difference between economic
growth and development. The former is an increase in GDP while
development is a more wide-ranging concept concerning many
more aspects of the quality of life.

The Human Development Index: a broader

measure of development
The Human Development Index (HDI) was devised by the United Nations
in 1990. The current index combines four indicators of development:
• life expectancy at birth
• mean years of schooling for adults aged 25 years
• expected years of schooling for children of school entering age
• GNI per capita (PPP$, namely purchasing power parity, i.e. how much
you can buy for your income related to local prices).

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No single measure can provide a complete picture of the differences in
development between countries. This is why the United Nations combines
four measures for the HDI. Although the development gap can be measured
in a variety of ways it is generally taken to be increasing.
The HDI divides the countries of the world into four groups (Figure 3.2):
• Very high human development
• High human development
• Medium human development
• Low human development.

Figure 3.2 Map of the Human Development Index, 2011

Explaining inequalities between

countries PAGES 176–178

Stages of development
A reasonable division of the world in terms of economic development is
shown in Figure 3.3.
The least developed countries (LDCs) are the poorest of the developing
countries. Their problems are often made worse by geographical handicaps
such as very low rainfall and natural and man-made disasters. At present 48
countries are identified as LDCs. Of these 34 are in Africa.

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Figure 3.3 Stages of development
Newly industrialised countries (NICs) are nations that have moved up the
development ladder, having previously been considered developing
countries. The first countries to become newly industrialised countries (in
the 1960s) were South Korea, Singapore, Taiwan and Hong Kong. The
media referred to them as the ‘four Asian tigers’. A ‘tiger economy’ is one
that grows very rapidly.
The success of these four countries provided a model for others to follow,
such as Malaysia, Brazil, China and India. In the last 20 years the growth of
China has been particularly impressive. South Korea and Singapore have
developed so much that many people now consider them to be developed
countries.

Explaining the development gap

There has been much debate about the causes of development. Reasons for
variations between countries include:
• Physical geography: for example, landlocked countries have generally
developed more slowly than coastal nations, and tropical countries have
grown more slowly than those in temperate latitudes.
• Economic policies: for example, open economies which welcomed and
encouraged foreign investment have developed faster than closed
economies; institutional quality in terms of good government, law and
order and lack of corruption generally result in high rates of growth.

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• Demography: progress through demographic transition is a major factor,
with the highest rates of economic growth experienced by those nations
where the birth rate had fallen the most.

Consequences of the development gap

The development gap has significant consequences for people in the most
disadvantaged countries, as shown in Table 3.2.
Table 3.2 The consequences of poverty
Economic In 2015, about 10 per cent of the world’s population
lived on less than $2 per day. Poor countries
frequently lack the ability to pay for food,
agricultural innovation and investment in rural
development.
Social About 780 million people in poor countries cannot
read or write. Over 660 million people do not have
access to clean water and 2.4 billion to basic
sanitation.
Environmental Poor countries experience increased vulnerability to
natural disasters. They lack the capacity to adapt to
droughts induced by climate change. Poor farming
practices lead to environmental degradation.
Political Poor countries that are low on the development
scale often have non-democratic governments or
they are democracies that function poorly.

Explaining inequalities within

countries PAGES 179–183
• The Gini coefficient is a technique frequently used to show the extent of
income inequality.
• It is defined as a ratio with values between 0 and 1.0.
• A low value indicates a more equal income distribution while a high value
shows more unequal income distribution.
• In general, more affluent countries have a lower income gap than lower
income countries.
• Southern Africa and South America show up clearly as regions of very
high income inequality. Europe is the world region with the lowest

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 income inequality.

A theory of regional disparities

The model of cumulative causation helps to explain regional disparities.
Figure 3.4 is a simplified version of the model. There are three stages of
regional disparity:
• the pre-industrial stage when regional differences are small
• a period of rapid economic growth with increasing regional economic
divergence
• a stage of regional economic convergence.
In the model, economic growth begins with the location of new
manufacturing industry in the region with the best combination of
advantages. Once growth begins in this ‘core’ region, flows of labour,
capital and raw materials develop to support it. The growth region
undergoes further expansion by the cumulative causation process. A
detrimental negative effect (the backwash effect) is transmitted to the less
developed regions (the periphery) as skilled labour and locally generated
capital are attracted away. Manufactured goods and services produced under
the economies of scale of the core region undercut smaller-scale enterprises
in the periphery. The wealth gap between the core and the periphery widens
and regional inequality increases (regional economic divergence).

125
Figure 3.4 Simplified model of cumulative causation
However, increasing demand for raw materials from resource-rich parts of
the periphery may stimulate growth in such regions. This may set off the
process of cumulative causation, leading to the development of new centres
of self-sustained economic growth (spread effects). If the process is strong
enough, the inequality between core and periphery may begin to narrow.
Many developing countries are in the stage where the wealth gap between
core and periphery is still widening. Thus, they have a high Gini coefficient.

Factors affecting inequalities within

countries
• Residence: where people live can have a big impact on their quality of
life. This includes: regional differences within countries; urban/rural
disparities; and intra-urban contrasts.
• Ethnicity: some ethnic groups in a population often have income levels
far below the dominant group(s) in the same population. This is often the
result of discrimination.

126
• Employment: jobs in the formal sector of the economy generally provide
better pay and greater security than jobs in the informal sector.
• Education: higher levels of education generally lead to better-paid
employment. In developing countries there is a clear link between
education levels and family size, with those with the least education
having the largest families.
• Land ownership: the distribution of land ownership (tenure) has had a
major impact on disparities in many countries. The greatest disparities
tend to occur alongside the largest inequities in land ownership.

Test yourself
1 List the indicators used in the human development index (HDI).
2 How many countries are identified as LDCs?
3 What is the Gini coefficient?
Answers on page 126

Classifying production into different

economic sectors PAGES 183–184
• The primary sector exploits raw materials from land, water and air.
Farming, fishing, forestry, mining and quarrying make up most of the jobs
in this sector.
• The secondary sector manufactures primary materials into finished
products. Activities in this sector include the production of processed
food, furniture and motor vehicles.
• The tertiary sector provides services to businesses and to people. Retail
employees, drivers, teachers and nurses are examples of occupations in
this sector.
• The quaternary sector uses high technology to provide information and
expertise. Research and development is an important part of this sector.
Jobs in this sector include aerospace engineers, research scientists and
biotechnology workers.

Tip
You should take care with the word ‘industry’ as it can be applied to
all sectors of the economy (for example, the agricultural industry
and the service industry).

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The product chain can be used to illustrate the four sectors of employment.
The food industry provides a good example (Figure 3.5).

Figure 3.5 The food industry’s product chain

How employment structure varies

PAGES 184–185
As an economy develops, the proportion of people employed in each sector
changes (Figure 3.6). Countries such as the USA and the UK are ‘post-
industrial societies’ where most people are employed in the tertiary sector.
Yet in 1900, 40 per cent of employment in the USA was in the primary
sector. However, mechanisation drastically reduced the demand for labour in
primary industries. As these jobs disappeared, people moved to urban areas
where secondary and tertiary employment was expanding. Only about 2 per
cent of employment in the USA is now in the primary sector.

Figure 3.6 The sector model

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Human labour has been steadily replaced in manufacturing too. In more and
more factories, robots and other advanced machinery handle assembly-line
jobs that once employed large numbers of people. The tertiary sector is also
changing as computer networks have reduced the number of people required
in some occupations. But elsewhere, service employment is often rising,
such as in health and tourism. In developed countries employment in the
quaternary sector has become more and more important. Employment in the
quaternary sector is a significant measure of how advanced an economy is.
Table 3.3 compares the employment structure of a developed country, a
newly industrialised country and a developing country.
There is a very clear link between employment structure and indicators of
development. A graphical method often used to compare the employment
structure of a large number of countries is the triangular graph.

Table 3.3 Employment structure of a developed country, an NIC and

a developing country

The process of globalisation PAGES 186

–188
Globalisation is a term that describes rapidly increasing global links. Most
political borders are not the obstacles they once were and as a result goods,
capital, labour and ideas flow more freely across them than ever before.

Transnational corporations
• TNCs can exploit raw materials, produce goods such as cars and oil, and
provide services such as banking. The 100 largest TNCs represent a
significant proportion of total global production.
• TNCs and nation states (countries) are the two main elements of the
global economy. The governments of countries individually and

129
 collectively set the rules for the global economy, but the bulk of
investment is through TNCs.
• Under this process, manufacturing industry at first, and more recently
services, have relocated in significant numbers from developed countries
to selected developing countries as TNCs have taken advantage of lower
labour costs and other ways to reduce costs. It is this process which has
resulted in the emergence of an increasing number of newly industrialised
countries since the 1960s.
• Twenty years ago the vast majority of the world’s TNCs had their
headquarters in North America, Western Europe and Japan. However,
over the last two decades NICs such as South Korea, China and India
have been accounting for an increasing slice of the global economy. Much
of this economic growth has been achieved through the expansion of their
own most important companies.
• TNCs have a huge impact on the global economy in general and in the
countries in which they choose to locate in particular. They play a major
role in world trade in terms of what and where they buy and sell.

The role of technology

Advances in technology have affected all aspects of global economic
activity. Major advances in transportation and telecommunications systems
have significantly reduced the geographical barriers separating countries and
peoples. As time has progressed, the diffusion of new ideas has speeded up.

Test yourself
4 Define the product chain.
5 What is a TNC?
6 State the increase in the number of global internet users between
2000 and 2016.
Answers on page 126
The internet has been essential to the development and speed of
globalisation. It is the fastest-growing mode of communication ever. It has
been estimated that the number of internet users around the world increased
from 361 million in 2000 to 3.4 billion in 2016. The internet has allowed
TNCs to manage complex operations all over the world. TNCs can react
more quickly than ever before to changing consumer demand.

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Figure 3.7 Influences on the globalisation of economic activity

Other factors responsible for economic

globalisation
Figure 3.7 shows the main influences on the globalisation of economic
activity. Until the post-1950 period, industrial production was mainly
organised within individual countries. This has changed rapidly in the last
60 years or so with the emergence of a new international division of
labour (NIDL). The NIDL divides production into different skills and tasks
that are often spread across a number of countries.

The impacts of globalisation PAGES 189

–193
Table 3.4 shows some of the impacts of globalisation at global, national and
local scales. Table 3.5 summarises some of the costs and benefits of
globalisation to the UK.
Table 3.4 Examples of the impacts of globalisation at global, national
and local scales

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Global National Local
The growing Concerns about loss Small local businesses
power of TNCs of sovereignty to often find it difficult to
and global brands regional and compete with major global
international companies
organisations
The emergence Increased cultural Closure of a TNC branch
of an increasing diversity from plant can cause high local
number of NICs international unemployment
migration
Development of a Higher levels of The populations of many
hierarchy of incoming and local communities have
global cities outgoing become more multicultural
international tourism
The emergence TNCs employing an Families now more likely to
of powerful trade increasing share of be spread over different
blocs the workforce countries due to increased
international migration
Environmental Increasing The development of ‘ethnic
degradation incidences of trans- villages’ in large urban
caused by boundary pollution areas
increasing
economic activity
Table 3.5 The costs and benefits of globalisation to the UK

132
Perspective Benefits Costs
Economic As one of the world’s most High job losses in
‘open’ economies, the UK traditional industries
attracts a very high level of
due to global shift and
foreign direct investment, deindustrialisation.
creating employment and TNCs can move
contributing to GDP; a high investment away from
level of investment abroad the country as quickly
by UK companies also as they can bring it in,
increases national income. causing loss of jobs and
Financial deregulation has corporation tax.
enhanced the position of Speculative investment,
the City as one of the causing economic
world’s top three financial uncertainty, has
centres. Low-cost increased with financial
manufactured goods from deregulation. There is a
China and elsewhere have widening gap between
helped keep inflation low. the highest- and lowest-
paid workers.
Social Economic growth has A strong economy has
allowed high levels of attracted a very high
spending on education and level of immigration in
health in particular. recent years, with
Globalisation is a large increasing concerns
factor in the cosmopolitan that this is
nature of UK society. The unsustainable.
transport and
communications revolution
has transformed lifestyles.
Political Strong trading relationships Voter apathy as many
with a large number of other people see loss of
countries brings political political power to the
influence. EU and major TNCs.
International terrorism is
a growing threat with
increasing ethnic
diversity, rapid
transportation and more
open borders.
Environmental Deindustrialisation has Population growth has

133
 improved environmental an impact on the
conditions in many areas; environment, with
increasing international increasing demand for
cooperation to solve cross- land, water and other
border environmental resources. Rapid
issues gives a better industrial growth in
chance of such problems China and elsewhere
being addressed. has an impact on the
global environment,
including the UK.

Case study: Tata Group and its global links

• Indian companies are becoming increasingly transnational in their
operations.
• Tata is India’s best-known global brand. With its headquarters in
Mumbai, it encompasses seven business sectors.
• Tata Group has over 100 companies with each of them operating
independently. Some of the largest of these companies are Tata
Steel, Tata Motors, Tata Chemicals and Tata Global Beverages.
• In recent decades Tata has expanded rapidly around the world.
Tata Group now has operations in more than 100 countries and
receives more than 60 per cent of its revenue from outside India.
In 2016, the total number of employees worldwide was 666 000.
• Tata Group has steadily moved up the ‘value chain’ by producing
more sophisticated and higher-value products.
• Tata has a considerable presence in the UK. Key acquisitions
have included: Corus Group by Tata Steel for $13 billion in 2007;
Jaguar and Land Rover by Tata Motors for $2.5 billion in 2008.
• The objective has often been to buy world-renowned brands that
are synonymous with high quality.
• However, some Tata companies in the UK have encountered
financial problems in recent years.
• Tata Group has set great store by its reputation for social
responsibility. Tata was awarded the Carnegie Medal for
Philanthropy in 2007.

Sample exam question

a Which activities make up the primary sector of an economy?

134
 [2]

Student’s answer
a The primary sector exploits the raw materials in a country. The
main economic activities in the primary sector are farming,
fishing, forestry, mining and quarrying.

Teacher’s comments
A clear and concise answer, gaining the two marks available. The
answer comprises a good opening statement followed by relevant
and accurate elaboration.

b Why does the primary sector dominate employment in the

poorest countries of the world?
[3]

Student’s answer
b The poorest countries of the world have more than 70% of their
employment in the primary sector. Lack of investment in general
means that agriculture and other areas of the primary sector are
very labour intensive and jobs in the secondary and tertiary
sectors are limited in number.

Teacher’s comments
The opening sentence includes a useful statistic showing the extent
of the dominance of the primary sector in poor countries. The
following sentence provides the necessary explanation in terms of
both the primary sector and the other sectors of the economy. The
student gains the full three marks available.

c Explain the changes in employment structure that have occurred

in NICs.
[4]

135
Student’s answer
c In NICs such as China and Brazil employment in manufacturing
has risen rapidly in recent decades. NICs have attracted high
levels of foreign direct investment from transnational
corporations. This has not just been in manufacturing, but in the
service sector in some countries such as India. The increasing
wealth of NICs allows for greater investment in agriculture. This
includes mechanisation, which results in falling demand for
labour on the land. So, as employment in the secondary and
tertiary sectors rises, employment in the primary sector falls.

Teacher’s comments
This answer shows clear knowledge and understanding of
employment changes in the different sectors in NICs. Relevant use
of examples adds to the quality of the answer. The student gains all
four marks available.

Exam-style questions
1 a Define the primary sector of an economy.
[2]
b Why does the primary sector dominate employment in the
poorest countries of the world?
[3]
c Explain the changes in employment structure that have
occurred in NICs.
[4]
2 a Define a transnational corporation.
[2]
b Describe and explain the role of transnational corporations in
the global economy.
[6]
Answers on pages 131–132

136
3.2 Food production

Key objectives
You should be able to:
• describe and explain the main features of an agricultural system:
inputs, processes and outputs
• recognise the causes and effects of food shortages and describe
possible solutions to this problem.
Case studies required
• A farm or agricultural system.
• A country or region suffering from food shortages.

Key definitions
Term Definition
System A practice in which there are recognisable inputs,
processes and outputs.
Irrigation Supplying dry land with water by systems of ditches
and also by more advanced means.
Economies The reduction in unit cost as the scale of an operation
of scale increases.
Agricultural The application of techniques to control the growth and
technology harvesting of animal and vegetable products.
Land tenure The ways in which land is or can be owned.
Green The introduction of high-yielding seeds and modern
Revolution agricultural techniques in developing countries.

Agricultural systems PAGES 194–196

Individual farms and general types of farming can be seen to operate as a

system (Figure 3.8). A farm requires a range of inputs such as labour so that

137
the processes that take place on the farm, such as harvesting, can be carried
out. The aim is to produce the best possible outputs such as milk, eggs and
crops. A profit will only be made if the income from selling the outputs is
greater than the costs of the inputs and processes.

Figure 3.8 Systems diagram for a wheat farm

Different types of agricultural system can be found within individual
countries and around the world. The most basic distinctions are between:
• arable, pastoral and mixed farming
• subsistence and commercial farming
• extensive and intensive farming
• organic and non-organic farming.
Table 3.6 Farming types and their characteristics

138
Farming Characteristics
type
Arable Cultivation of crops and not involved with livestock. An
farming arable farm may concentrate on one crop
(monoculture), such as wheat, or may grow a range of
different crops.
Pastoral Involves keeping livestock such as dairy cattle, beef
farming cattle, sheep and pigs.
Mixed Involves cultivating crops and keeping livestock
farming together on a farm. Usually on a mixed farm at least
part of the crop production will be used to feed the
livestock.
Subsistence The most basic form of agriculture where the produce is
farming consumed entirely or mainly by the family who work the
land or tend the livestock.
Commercial The objective is to sell everything that the farm
farming produces. The aim is to maximise yields in order to
achieve the highest profits possible.
Extensive A relatively small amount of agricultural produce is
farming obtained per hectare of land, so such farms tend to
cover large areas of land. Inputs per unit of land are
low.
Intensive Characterised by high inputs per unit of land to achieve
farming high yields per hectare. Examples of intensive farming
include market gardening, dairy farming and
horticulture.
Organic Does not use manufactured chemicals, so production is
farming without chemical fertilisers, pesticides and herbicides.
Instead, animal and green manures are used along with
mineral fertilisers such as fish and bone meal.

The influence of natural and human

inputs on agricultural land use PAGES
196–200
North America has many different physical environments, allowing a wide
variety of crops to be grown and livestock kept. New technology and high
levels of investment have steadily extended farming into more difficult

139
environments. However, there are certain things that technology and
investment can do little to alter. So relief, climate and soils set broad limits
as to what can be produced. This leaves the farmer with some choices, even
in difficult environments. The farmer’s decisions are then influenced by
economic, social/cultural and political factors.

Physical factors
• Temperature is a critical factor as each type of crop requires a minimum
growing temperature and a minimum growing season.
• Latitude, altitude and distance from the sea are the major influences on
temperature.
• Precipitation is equally important: not just the annual total but the way it is
distributed throughout the year.
• Soil type and fertility have a huge impact on agricultural productivity.
• Locally, aspect and the angle of slope may also be important factors in
deciding how to use the land.
• Water is vital for agriculture. Irrigation is an important factor in farming
in many parts of the world.

Economic factors
• The cost of growing different crops or keeping different livestock varies.
The market prices for agricultural products will vary also and can change
from year to year.
• The necessary investment in buildings and machinery can mean that some
changes in farming activities are very expensive. Thus, it is not always
easy for farmers to react quickly to changes in consumer demand.
• In most countries there has been a trend towards fewer but larger farms.
Large farms allow economies of scale to operate, which reduce the unit
costs of production.
• The cost of transporting farm produce to market can be a big influence on
what is produced on a farm.
• The status of a country’s agricultural technology is vital for its food
security and other aspects of its quality of life.

Social/cultural factors
• What a farm has produced in the past can be a significant influence on
current farming practices. Tradition matters more in some farming regions
than others.
• Land tenure means the ways in which land is or can be owned. In the past
inheritance laws have had a huge impact on the average size of farms.

140
• In most societies women have very unequal access to, and control over,
rural land and associated resources.

Test yourself
1 List the three sub-sections of a system.
2 Define pastoral farming.
3 What is land tenure?
Answers on page 126

Political factors
The influence of government on farming has steadily increased in many
countries. For example, in the USA the main parts of government farm
policy over the past half century have been price support loans, production
controls and income supplements. An agricultural policy can cover more
than one country, as evidenced by the EU’s Common Agricultural Policy.

Case study: An agricultural system – intensive rice

production in the Lower Ganges Valley
Table 3.7

141
Physical Suitable for rice cultivation because:
conditions • temperatures of 21 °C and over throughout the year
allow two crops to be grown annually; rice needs a
growing season of only 100 days
• monsoon rainfall over 2000 mm provides sufficient
water for the fields to flood, which is necessary for
wet rice cultivation
• rich alluvial soils are built up through regular flooding
• an important dry period allows for harvesting the rice.
A water- Production systems are extremely water intensive.
intensive Much of Asia’s rice production is intensive subsistence
staple cultivation where the crop is grown on very small plots
crop of land using a very high input of labour. ‘Wet’ rice is
grown in the fertile silt and flooded areas of the
lowlands while ‘dry’ rice is cultivated on terraces on the
hillsides.
The
Paddy fields characterise lowland production. At first,
farming rice is grown in nurseries, then transplanted when the
system
monsoon rains flood the paddy fields. The main rice
crop is harvested when the drier season begins in late
October. A second rice crop can then be planted in
November.
Water buffalo are used for work. The labour-intensive
nature of rice cultivation provides work for large
numbers of people. A high labour input is needed to:
• build the embankments that surround the fields
• construct irrigation canals
• plant nursery rice, plough the paddy field, transplant
the rice from the nursery to the paddy field, weed and
harvest the mature rice crop
• cultivate other crops in the dry season and possibly
tend a few livestock.
Rice seeds are stored from one year to provide the
next year’s crop.

142
Causes and effects of food shortages
PAGES 200–202

Table 3.8 Causes of food shortages

Natural factors Economic and political factors
soil exhaustion low capital investment
drought rapidly rising population
floods poor distribution/transport difficulties
tropical cyclones conflict situations
pests Grain reserves at very low levels
disease Rising food prices
In late 2012, the UN warned of an imminent worldwide food crisis,
highlighting three major problems: (a) global grain reserves at critically low
levels; (b) rising food prices creating unrest in many countries; (c) extreme
weather resulting in climate being ‘no longer reliable’. The impact of such
problems has been felt most intensely in developing countries, where
adequate food stocks to cover emergencies affecting food supply usually do
not exist.

Short-term and long-term effects

The effects of food shortages are both short and longer term. Malnutrition
can affect a considerable number of people, particularly children, within a
relatively short period when food supplies are reduced. With malnutrition
people are less resistant to disease and more likely to fall ill. Malnutrition
reduces people’s capacity to work. This is threatening to lock parts of the
developing world into an endless cycle of ill health, low productivity and
underdevelopment.

Tip
A simple, but clearly labelled sketch map can considerably enhance
the presentation of a case study.

Case study: A region suffering from food

shortages – Sudan and South Sudan

143
• The countries of Sudan and South Sudan, which were the single
country of the Sudan until 2011, have suffered food shortages for
decades.
• The long civil war and drought have been the main reasons for
famine in the Sudan, but there are many associated factors as well
(Figure 3.9, page 78).
• One of the big issues between the two sides in the civil war was
the sharing of oil wealth between the government-controlled north
and the south of the country where much of the oil is found.
• The United Nations has estimated that up to 2 million people were
displaced by the civil war and more than 70 000 people died from
hunger and associated diseases.
• At times, the UN World Food Programme has stopped deliveries of
vital food supplies because the situation has been considered too
dangerous for the drivers and aid workers.
The separation of Sudan into two countries has not occurred easily.
There has been intermittent fighting in border regions. This has
undermined agricultural production. In March 2013 the World Food
Programme warned that more than 4.1 million people were likely to
be short of food in South Sudan in that year. In May 2016, the UN
warned that more than 5 million people in South Sudan would face
severe food shortage.

Figure 3.9 Summary of causes of famine in Sudan and South Sudan

144
Possible solutions to food shortages
PAGES 202–204

Food aid
There are three types of food aid:
• relief food aid
• programme food aid
• project food aid.
The USA and the EU together provide about two-thirds of global food aid
deliveries. At the international level, the main organisations are the UN
World Food Programme (WFP), the UN Food and Agriculture Organization
(FAO) and the Food Aid Convention.
Food aid is vital to communities in many countries, particularly in Africa but
also in parts of Asia and Latin America. However, it is not without
controversy:
• The selling of heavily subsidised food in African countries has undermined
the ability of African farmers to produce for local markets.
• Food aid is very expensive, not least because of the high transport costs
involved.
There have been recent concerns that food aid may be required for even
more people in the future. Steep increases in the price of food have caused
big problems in a number of countries, resulting in large-scale protests. The
World Bank warned that progress on development could be destroyed by
rapidly rising food costs.

Common error
Error Why it is wrong
‘Food aid Food aid is quite rightly viewed as a good thing, but the
should not way it is done is sometimes criticised. It is important to
be be aware of the ‘pros’ and ‘cons’ of this issue.
criticised.’

The Green Revolution

Much of the global increase in food production in the last 50 years can be
attributed to the Green Revolution. Although the benefits of the Green

145
Revolution are clear, serious criticisms have also been made:
• The necessary high inputs of fertiliser and pesticide are costly in both
economic and environmental terms.
• The problems of salinisation and waterlogged soils have increased with the
expansion of irrigation.
• High chemical inputs have had a considerable negative effect on
biodiversity.
• Ill health has increased due to contaminated water and other forms of
agricultural pollution.
• Green Revolution crops are often low in important minerals and vitamins.

UNEP’s options for improving food

security
The United Nations Environment Programme has argued that increasing
food energy efficiency provides a critical path for significant growth in food
supply without compromising environmental sustainability.

Sample exam question

a What is an agricultural system?
[3]

Student’s answer
a An agricultural system is a type of farming such as a wheat farm
or a dairy farm. Each type of farming has inputs, processes and
outputs.

Teacher’s comments
This is a good, clear answer as far as it goes, scoring two marks out
of the maximum of three. To gain the third mark the student should
have given examples of inputs (e.g. labour and energy), processes
(e.g. ploughing and harvesting) and outputs (e.g. crops and milk).

b With reference to examples, distinguish between intensive and

extensive farming.
[4]

146
Student’s answer
b Intensive farming is characterised by high inputs per unit of land
to achieve high yields per hectare. Extensive farming is where a
relatively small amount of agricultural produce is obtained per
hectare of land, so such farms tend to cover large areas of land.
Inputs per unit of land are low.

Teacher’s comments
The student has achieved two marks out of the maximum of four.
The answer clearly describes the difference between intensive and
extensive farming, but there is no reference at all to examples of
these types of farming. Examples of extensive farming are sheep
farming in Australia and wheat cultivation on the Canadian Prairies.
Examples of intensive farming are horticulture in the Netherlands
and dairy farming in Denmark.

c Discuss three physical factors that affect agricultural land use.

[6]

Student’s answer
c Temperature is a major factor influencing farming as each type of
crop requires a minimum growing temperature and a minimum
growing season. Latitude, altitude and distance from the sea are
the main influences on temperature.
Precipitation is another very important factor influencing the type
of farming possible in a region. It is not just the annual amount of
precipitation that is important, but the way it is distributed
throughout the year. Long, steady periods of rainwater to infiltrate
into the soil are best, making water available for crop growth
throughout the year. In contrast, short, heavy downpours can
result in surface runoff, leaving less water available for crop
growth and also contributing to soil erosion.
A third physical factor affecting farming is soil fertility.

Teacher’s comments

147
The student has gained five marks out of the six available. This
answer shows good understanding of the influences of temperature
and precipitation on agriculture. However, when it comes to the
consideration of a third physical factor, the student is only able to
name soil fertility, with no attempt to elaborate and gain the final
mark available.

Exam-style questions
1 a How can farming be seen to operate as a system?
[2]
b Explain the difference between (i) intensive and extensive
farming and (ii) subsistence farming and commercial farming.
[4]

Figure 3.10 Climate graph for Kolkata, India

2 a Describe the distribution of temperature and rainfall on the
graph (Figure 3.10).
[3]
b How can temperature and rainfall influence farming in a region?
[5]
Answers on page 132

148
3.3 Industry
Key objectives
You should be able to:
• demonstrate an understanding of an industrial system: inputs,
processes and outputs (products and waste)
• describe and explain the factors influencing the distribution and
location of factories and industrial zones.
Case study required
• An industrial zone or factory.

Key definitions
Term Definition
By-product Something that is left over from the main production
process, which has some value and therefore can be
sold.
Waste All manufacturing industries produce waste product
product that has no value and must be disposed of. Costs
will be incurred in the disposal of waste product.
Footloose Industries that are not tied to certain areas because
industries of energy requirements or other factors.
Industrial The clustering together of economic activities in
agglomeration close proximity to one another.
Industrial An area zoned and planned for the purpose of
estate industrial development.
Greenfield An area of agricultural land or some other
locations undeveloped site earmarked for commercial
development or industrial projects.

149
Industrial systems and types PAGES
205–206
Manufacturing industry as a whole or an individual factory can be regarded
as a system. Industrial systems, like agricultural systems, have inputs,
processes and outputs (Figure 3.11).
• Inputs are the elements that are required for the processes to take place.
Inputs include raw materials, labour, energy and capital.
• Processes are the industrial activities that take place in the factory to
make the finished product. For example, in the car industry processes
include moulding sheet steel into the shaped panels that make up the car,
welding and painting.
• Outputs comprise the finished product or products that are sold to
customers. Sometimes by-products and waste products may be
produced.

Figure 3.11 Industrial systems diagram

Manufacturing is often described or classified by the use of opposing terms,
such as heavy industry and light industry (Table 3.9). In this case iron and
steel would be an example of a heavy industry, using large amounts of bulky
raw materials, processing on a huge scale and producing final products of a
significant size. In contrast, the assembly of computers is a light industry.

Processing and assembly industries

• Processing industries are based on the direct processing of raw materials.
Again, the iron and steel industry would be an example, using large
quantities of iron ore, coal and limestone. Processing industries are often
located close to their raw materials.

150
• Assembly industries put together parts and components that have been
made elsewhere. A large car assembly plant will use thousands of
components to build a car. Assembly industries usually have a much
wider choice of location than processing industries and thus they are often
described as ‘footloose’ industries.

High-technology industry
• High-technology industry is the fastest growing manufacturing industry in
the world. Virtually all developed countries and NICs have at least one
high-technology cluster.
• ‘High-tech’ companies use or make silicon chips, computers, software,
robots, aerospace components and other very technically advanced
products. These companies put a great deal of money into scientific
research. Their aim is to develop newer, even more advanced products.
• High-technology industries often cluster together in science parks. They
are often found in close proximity to leading universities because of the
need to employ well-qualified graduates in science and technology and to
be aware of the latest research taking place in universities. The Cambridge
Science Park is a major example in the UK.
Table 3.9 Classification of industry

151
Classification Characteristics
contrasts
Large scale and Depending on the size of plant and machinery, and
small scale the numbers employed.
Heavy and light Depending on the nature of processes and
products in terms of unit weight.
Market oriented Where the location of the industry is drawn either
and raw towards the market or the raw materials required.
material
oriented
Processing and Processing involves the direct processing of raw
assembly materials; assembly is to do with putting together
parts and components.
Capital Depending on the ratio of investment in plant and
intensive and machinery to the number of employees.
labour intensive
National and Many firms in the small- to medium-size range
transnational manufacture in only one country. Transnationals
produce in at least two countries.

Factors affecting the location of

industry PAGES 207–208

The factors affecting industrial location can be broadly subdivided into

physical and human (Table 3.10). They relate both to individual factories
and to industrial zones.
Table 3.10 Human and physical factors influencing industrial location

152
Physical factors Human factors
Site: The availability and cost of Capital (money): Some areas
land is important. Large factories are more likely to attract
will need flat, well-drained land on investment than others.
solid bedrock. An adjacent water Labour: The quality and cost of
supply may be essential. labour are most important. The
Raw materials: Industries reputation, turnover, mobility and
requiring heavy and bulky raw quantity of labour can also be
materials tend to locate as close important.
as possible to these raw Transport and
materials.
communications: Transport
Energy: Energy-hungry costs remain important for
industries, such as metal heavy, bulky items. Accessibility
smelting, may be drawn to to airports, ports, railway
countries with relatively cheap terminals and motorways may
hydro-electricity such as Norway. be crucial for some industries.
Natural routeways and Markets: The location and size
harbours: Many modern roads of markets are a major influence
and railways still follow natural for some industries.
routeways. Natural harbours Government influence:
provide good locations for ports Government policies and
and the industrial complexes often decisions can have a big direct
found at ports.
and indirect impact on the
Climate: Some industries such as location of industry.
aerospace and film benefit directly Quality of life: Highly skilled
from a sunny climate. Indirect personnel will favour areas
benefits include lower heating bills
where the quality of life is high.
and a more favourable quality of
life.
The combined influence of a range of factors will impact on the decision-
making of a company in terms of:
• Location – companies decide on particular locations for a variety of
reasons. Most will look to the location that is seen as the ‘least-cost
location’ or the ‘highest-profit’ location. A poor choice of location can
mean a company making a loss and eventually closing.
• Scale of production – the amount of a product a company plans to produce
will be an important factor in deciding location. Companies can achieve
economies of scale by manufacturing more of a product.

153
• Methods of organisation – companies can follow various methods of
organisation from traditional to highly innovative. Location factors can
influence such decisions.
• The product or range of products manufactured – many large companies
produce a range of products. Some locations may be more suited to the
production of one product than another because of the cost factors
involved.

Test yourself
1 What are footloose industries?
2 Give an example of a science park.
3 State three human factors affecting the location of industry.
Answers on page 126

Industrial agglomeration PAGES 208–210

Industrial agglomeration can result in companies enjoying the benefits of

external economies of scale. This means the lowering of a firm’s costs due
to external factors. External economies of scale can be subdivided into
urbanisation economies and localisation economies.
Increasingly, industrial enterprises are located together on industrial
estates. Industrial estates are usually located close to transport
infrastructure, especially where more than one transport mode meet. The
logic behind industrial estates includes:
• concentrating dedicated infrastructure in a small area to reduce the per-
business expense of that infrastructure
• attracting new business by providing an integrated infrastructure in one
location
• separating industry from residential areas to try to reduce the
environmental impact
• eligibility of industrial estates for grants and loans under regional
economic development policies.

The changing location of manufacturing

Changes in the location of manufacturing industry can be recognised at a
range of scales:
• The global shift in manufacturing industry from the developed world to
NICs and developing countries.

154
• Within individual countries the most significant locational change has
been from traditional manufacturing regions, often on coalfields, to higher
quality of life regions.
• Within individual regions of countries, manufacturing has historically
concentrated in and around the major urban areas. However, in recent
decades there has been a significant shift of industry towards rural
greenfield locations.
• At the urban scale the relative shift from inner city to suburbs increased as
the twentieth century progressed.

Common error
Error Why it is wrong
‘Using the word “industry” without If you use it with reference
specifying. The term can be applied to to the manufacture of
all sectors of the economy (for example, goods then clearly state
the agricultural industry and the service that this is ‘manufacturing
industry).’ industry’.

Case study: Bangalore – India’s high-tech city

• Bangalore is the most important city in India for high-technology
industry. Known as the ‘Garden City’, Bangalore claims to have
the highest quality of life in the country.
• In the 1980s Bangalore became the location for the first large-
scale foreign investment in high technology in India when Texas
Instruments selected the city.
• Other TNCs soon followed as the reputation of the city grew.
Important backward and forward linkages were steadily
established over time.
• Apart from ICT industries, Bangalore is also India’s most important
centre for aerospace and biotechnology.
• Many European and North American companies that previously
outsourced their ICT requirements to local companies are now
using Indian companies.
• The city’s population grew from 2.4 million in 1981 to over 12
million in 2017. The city has grown into a major international hub
for ICT companies.
• Bangalore has built up a large pool of highly-skilled labour. There
has been very high investment into the city’s infrastructure.

155
Exam-style questions
1 a What is the difference between processing and assembly
industries? Give one example of each.
[4]
b Define high-technology industry.
[2]
c Discuss the factors that cause high-technology industries to
cluster together.
[3]
2 Discuss the reasons for the development of an industrial area you
have studied.
[6]
Answers on pages 132–133

156
3.4 Tourism
Key objectives
You should be able to:
• describe and explain the growth of tourism in relation to the main
attractions of the physical and human landscape
• evaluate the benefits and disadvantages of tourism to receiving
areas
• demonstrate an understanding that careful management of
tourism is required in order for it to be sustainable.
Case study required
• An area where tourism is important.

Key definitions

157
Term Definition
Tourism Travel away from the home environment: (a) for
leisure, recreation and holidays; (b) to visit friends
and relations (VFR); (c) for business and
professional reasons.
Package tour The most popular form of foreign holiday where
travel, accommodation and meals may all be
included in the price and booked in advance.
Growth pole A particular location where economic development,
in this case tourism, is focused, setting off wider
growth in the region as a whole.
Economic The part of the money a tourist pays for a foreign
leakages holiday that does not benefit the destination country
because it goes elsewhere.
Multiplier The idea that an initial amount of spending or
effect investment causes money to circulate in the
economy, bringing a series of economic benefits over
time.
Sustainable Tourism organised in such a way that its level can be
tourism sustained in the future without creating irreparable
environmental, social and economic damage to the
receiving area.
Destination The environmental impact caused by an individual
footprint tourist.
Ecotourism A specialised form of tourism where people
experience relatively untouched natural
environments, such as coral reefs, tropical forests
and remote mountain areas, and ensures that their
presence does no further damage to these
environments.
Preservation Maintaining a location exactly as it is and not
allowing development.
Conservation Allowing for developments that do not damage the
character of a destination.
Community A form of tourism which aims to include and benefit
tourism local communities, particularly in developing
countries.

158
Pro-poor Tourism that results in increased net benefits for poor
tourism people.
Over the last 50 years tourism has developed into a major global industry
that is still expanding rapidly (Figure 3.12). It is one of the major elements
in the process of globalisation.

Figure 3.12 The growth in global tourism

The growth of tourism PAGES 211–214

• Tourism has developed in response to the main attractions of the physical
and human landscape.
• During the seventeenth century, doctors increasingly began to
recommend the benefits of mineral waters, and by the end of the
eighteenth century there were hundreds of spas in Britain.
• The second stage in the development of holiday locations was the
emergence of the seaside resort as people were beginning to appreciate
coastal landscapes in a new way.
• The annual holiday was a product of the Industrial Revolution, which
brought big social and economic changes. However, until the latter part
of the nineteenth century only the very rich could afford to take a holiday
away from home.
• The first package tours were arranged by Thomas Cook in 1841 in the
UK. At the time it was the newly laid railway network that provided the
transport infrastructure for Cook to expand his tour operations.
• Of equal importance was the emergence of a significant middle-class
with time and money to spare for extended recreation. There was also a

159
 growing appreciation of what human landscapes such as major cities
could offer.
• By far the greatest developments have occurred since the end of the
Second World War.
• However, it took the jet plane to herald the era of international mass
tourism.

Common error
Error Why it is wrong
‘Tourism only The definition of tourism also includes business
includes people and professional travel, and visits to friends and
on holiday.’ relations.

Reasons for the growth of global tourism

Table 3.11 Factors affecting global tourism
Economic • Steadily rising real incomes and the decreasing real
costs of holidays
• Widening range of destinations within the middle-
income range
• Heavy marketing of shorter foreign holidays
• Expansion of budget airlines
• ‘Globalisation’ has increased business travel
considerably
Social • Increase in the average number of days of paid leave
• Increasing desire to experience different cultures and
landscapes
• Raised expectations of international travel due to
mass media
• High levels of international migration means that
more people have relatives and friends living abroad
Political • Many governments have invested heavily to
encourage tourism
• Government backing for major international events
such as the Olympic Games and the World Cup

Recent data

160
• In 2012 international tourist arrivals worldwide exceeded 1 billion for the
first time ever. The WTO forecasts an increase to 1.8 billion in 2030.
• International tourism receipts reached $1260 billion in 2015. Tourism
accounts for 7 per cent of the world’s exports in goods and services and
one in eleven jobs.
• Europe remains the world region with the greatest number of both tourist
arrivals and tourism receipts, but many emerging economies have shown
very fast growth rates in recent years.
• Leisure, recreation and holidays account for 53 per cent of inbound
tourism. The second most important reason was visiting friends and
relatives.
• Seasonality is the major problem with tourism as a source of
employment.

The benefits and disadvantages of

tourism to receiving areas PAGES 214–
216

The economic impact

Supporters of the development potential of tourism say that:
• Tourism brings in valuable foreign currency and benefits other sectors of
the economy.
• It provides considerable tax revenues.
• By providing employment in rural areas it can help to reduce rural–urban
migration.
• A major tourism development can act as a growth pole.
• It can create openings for small businesses and support many jobs in the
informal sector.

Tip
It is easy to fall into the trap of seeing only the advantages of the
economic impact of tourism. It is always important to consider the
other side of the coin, even if you can only come up with a few
points.

161
Figure 3.13 The direct and indirect economic impact of the tourist
industry

Figure 3.14 Economic leakages

However, critics say that the value of tourism is often overrated because:
• economic leakages (Figure 3.14) are high
• most local jobs created are menial, low-paid and seasonal
• money borrowed to invest in the necessary infrastructure for tourism
increases the national debt
• at some destinations tourists spend most of their money in their hotels
with minimum benefit to the wider community

162
• tourism might not be the best use for local resources that could in the
future create a larger multiplier effect if used by a different economic
sector
• locations can become over-dependent on tourism
• the tourist industry has a huge appetite for resources.

Test yourself
1 When did the number of international tourist arrivals first exceed
1 billion?
2 What is a growth pole?
3 Define economic leakages.
Answers on page 126

The social and cultural impact

Table 3.12 Disadvantages and advantages of the development of
tourism

163
Social/cultural Social/cultural advantages
disadvantages
• Loss of locally owned • Can increase the range of social
land facilities for local people
• Abandonment of • Can lead to greater understanding
traditional values between people of different cultures
• Displacement of people • Visiting ancient sites can develop a
• Traditional community greater appreciation of the historical
structures may be legacy of host countries
weakened • Can help develop foreign language
• Abuse of human rights skills in host communities
• Increasing availability of • May encourage migration to major
alcohol and drugs tourist generating countries
• Crime and prostitution, • Major international events such as
sometimes involving the Olympic Games can have a very
children positive global impact
• Visitor congestion at key
locations
• Denying local people
access to beaches
• Loss of housing for local
people as more visitors
buy second homes

The management and sustainability

of tourism PAGES 217–220

Tourism has reached such a large scale in so many parts of the world that it
can only continue with careful management. However, sustainable
tourism strategies have been much more successful in some areas than
others.
Environmental groups are keen to make tourists aware of their ‘destination
footprint’. This is the environmental impact caused by an individual
tourist. People are being urged to:
• ‘fly less and stay longer’
• carbon-offset their flights
• consider ‘slow travel’.

164
Virtually every aspect of the industry now recognises that tourism must
become more sustainable. Ecotourism is at the leading edge of this
movement.

Protected areas
Over time, more and more of the world’s most spectacular and ecologically
sensitive areas have been designated for protection. The world’s first
National Park was established at Yellowstone in the USA in 1872. Now
there are well over 1000 worldwide. Many countries have National Forests,
Country Parks, Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty, World Heritage Sites
and other designated areas that merit special status and protection.
In many countries and regions there are often differences of opinion when
the issue of special protection is raised. For example, in some areas jobs in
mining, forestry and tourism may depend on developing presently unspoilt
areas. Often, a clear distinction has to be made between the objectives of
preservation and conservation.

Tourist hubs
The idea is to concentrate tourism and its impact in one particular area so
that the majority of the region or country feels little of the negative impacts
of the industry. Benidorm in Spain and Cancun in Mexico are examples
where the model was adopted but both locations show how difficult it is to
confine tourism within preconceived boundaries as the number of visitors
increases and people want to travel beyond tourist enclaves.

Quotas
Quotas set limits on the number of people visiting a location. This is an
idea we are likely to hear much more about in the future.

Case study: Jamaica – the benefits and

disadvantages associated with the growth of
tourism
• Tourism has become an increasingly vital part of Jamaica’s
economy in recent decades.
• Tourism’s direct and indirect contribution to GDP in 2014
amounted to almost 27.2 per cent of total GDP.
• Direct employment in the industry amounted to 90 000.

165
• Tourism is the largest source of foreign exchange for the country.
• The Jamaican government sees the designation of the national
and marine parks as a positive environmental impact of tourism.
Entry fees to the Parks pay for conservation.
• The marine parks are attempting to conserve the coral reef
environments off the coast of Jamaica.
• Ecotourism is a developing sector of the industry.
• Considerable efforts are being made to promote community
tourism, which is seen as an important aspect of ‘pro-poor
tourism’.
• The physical attractions of Jamaica almost sell themselves, so
the government is putting much effort into trying to boost the
island’s human attractions.
• During the off-season, 25 per cent of hotel workers are laid off.
• Other negative aspects include: the environmental impact of
tourism; the heavy use of resources, particularly water, by hotels;
socio-cultural problems between residents and visitors.

Exam-style questions
1 a Define tourism.
[2]
b Discuss three reasons for the growth of international tourism.
[3]
c Examine the major social issues associated with the
development of tourism.
[4]
2 a Why is it important to be aware of the carrying capacity of a
tourist destination?
[3]
b With reference to an example, explain the meaning of
ecotourism.
[4]
Answers on page 133

166
3.5 Energy

Key objectives
You should be able to:
• describe the importance of non-renewable fossil fuels, renewable
energy supplies, nuclear power and fuelwood; globally and in
different countries at different levels of development
• evaluate the benefits and disadvantages of nuclear power and
renewable energy sources.
Case study required
• Energy supply in a country or area.

Key definitions
Term Definition
Fossil fuels Fuels consisting of hydrocarbons (coal, oil and natural
gas), formed by the decomposition of prehistoric
organisms in past geological periods.
Renewable Sources of energy such as solar and wind power that
energy are not depleted as they are used.
Energy mix The relative contribution of different energy sources to a
country’s energy consumption.
Biofuels Fossil fuel substitutes that can be made from a range of
crops including oilseeds, wheat and sugar. They can be
blended with petrol and diesel.
Geothermal The natural heat found in the Earth’s crust in the form of
energy steam, hot water and hot rock.

Non-renewable and renewable energy

supplies PAGES 221–224

167
Non-renewable sources of energy are the fossil fuels and nuclear fuel.
Eventually, these non-renewable resources could become completely
exhausted. The burning of fossil fuels creates pollution and is the major
source of greenhouse gas emissions. Climate change due to these emissions
is the biggest environmental problem facing the planet.
Renewable energy resources are mainly forces of nature that are sustainable
and which usually cause little or no pollution. Renewable energy includes
hydro-electricity, biofuels, and wind, solar, geothermal, tidal and wave
power.
At present, non-renewable resources dominate global energy. The challenge
is to transform the global energy mix to achieve a better balance between
renewables and non-renewables. There is a huge gap in energy consumption
between rich and poor countries. Wealth is the main factor explaining the
energy gap.
The demand for energy has grown steadily over time with a global increase
of over 60 per cent between 1990 and 2015 (Figure 3.15). The fossil fuels
dominate the global energy situation. Their relative contribution in 2015
was: oil 37 per cent, coal 17 per cent and natural gas 31 per cent. In contrast,
hydro-electricity accounted for 2.5 per cent and nuclear energy 8.3 per cent.
Consumption by type of fuel varies widely by world region.

Figure 3.15 Changes in world energy consumption by type, 1990–

2015

168
Figure 3.16 Model of the relationship between resource use and the
level of economic development
The highest energy consumers, such as the USA and Canada, use more than
6 tonnes oil equivalent per person, while almost all of Africa and much of
South America and Asia use less than 1.5 tonnes oil equivalent per person.
Figure 3.16 is a model showing the relationship between resource use in
general and the level of economic development. This model applies well to
energy consumption.

Common error
Error Why it is wrong
‘Production For some energy sources such as coal the figures are
and very similar, but for oil there is a very significant
consumption difference. The ease with which a type of energy can
are the same be transported is a major factor here.
thing.’

Fuelwood in developing countries

169
• In developing countries about 2.5 billion people rely on fuelwood as their
main source of energy.
• Fuelwood provides much of the energy needs for sub-Saharan Africa. It is
also the most important use of wood in Asia.
• In 2012, 1.1 billion people were still living without electricity.
• The transition from fuelwood and animal dung to ‘higher level’ sources of
energy (the energy ladder) occurs as part of the economic development
process.

The benefits and disadvantages of

nuclear power and renewable energy
PAGES 224–230

Nuclear power
The main concerns about nuclear power are:
• Power plant accidents, which could release radiation into air, land and sea.
• Radioactive waste storage/disposal. Most concern is over the small
proportion of ‘high-level waste’.
• Rogue state or terrorist use of nuclear fuel for weapons.
• High construction and decommissioning costs.
• Seen by some people as less ‘democratic’ than other sources of power.
• The possible increase in certain types of cancer near nuclear plants.
The advantages of nuclear power are:
• Zero emissions of greenhouse gases.
• Reduced reliance on imported fossil fuels.
• Not as vulnerable to fuel price fluctuations as oil and gas.
• In recent years nuclear plants have demonstrated a very high level of
reliability.
• Nuclear technology has spin-offs in fields such as medicine and
agriculture.

Renewable energy supplies

Countries are eager to harness renewable energy resources to:
• reduce their reliance on domestic fossil fuel resources
• lower their reliance on costly fossil fuel imports
• improve their energy security
• cut greenhouse gas emissions.

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Hydro-electricity
HEP is by far the most important source of renewable energy. The ‘big four’
HEP nations of China, Brazil, Canada and the USA account for almost 54
per cent of the global total. Most of the best HEP locations are already in use
so the scope for more large-scale development is limited.
Although HEP is generally seen as a clean form of energy, it is not without
its problems, which include:
• large dams and power plants can have a huge negative visual impact on the
environment
• the obstruction of the river for aquatic life
• deterioration in water quality
• large areas of land may need to be flooded to form the reservoir behind the
dam
• submerging large forests without prior clearance can release significant
quantities of methane, a greenhouse gas.

Newer alternative energy sources

The main drawback to the new alternative energy sources is that they usually
produce higher-cost electricity than traditional sources. However, the cost
gap with non-renewable energy is narrowing. Figure 3.17 shows the sharp
increase in the consumption of renewable energy (other than HEP) in the last
decade. In 2015 this accounted for almost 2.8 per cent of global primary
energy consumption. The newer sources of renewable energy making the
largest contribution to global energy supply are wind power and biofuels.

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Figure 3.17 Renewable energy consumption by world region, 1995–
2015
Wind power
The worldwide capacity of wind energy reached almost 432 GW by the end
of 2015. The leaders in global wind energy are China, the USA, Germany,
India and Spain. Together these countries account for over 67 per cent of the
world total. The main advantages of wind energy are that, compared with
most other forms of renewable energy, it can generate significant amounts of
electricity and it can be harnessed to a reasonable degree in most parts of the
world.
As wind turbines have been erected in more areas of more countries, the
opposition to this form of renewable energy has increased:
• People are concerned that huge turbines located nearby could blight their
homes.
• There are concerns about the hum of turbines disturbing both people and
wildlife.
• Skylines in scenically beautiful areas might be spoiled forever.
• Turbines can kill birds.
• Suitable areas for wind farms are often near the coast where land is both
scenically beautiful and expensive.

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The development of large offshore wind farms has become an increasingly
debatable issue. There has also been increasing debate about how much
electricity wind turbines in many areas actually produce. There can be a big
difference between the technical capacity of a wind turbine and the amount
of electricity it actually produces.
Biofuels
The biggest producers of biofuels are the USA, Brazil and Germany.
Advocates of biofuels argue that biofuels come from a renewable resource
(crops); can be produced wherever there is sufficient crop growth, helping
energy security; and often produce cleaner emissions than petroleum-based
fuels.
However, there are clear disadvantages in biofuel production. Increasing
amounts of cropland have been used to produce biofuels, adding to the
‘global food crisis’. Large amounts of land, water and fertilisers are needed
for large-scale crop production. The manufacture of biofuels also uses
significant amounts of energy, creating greenhouse gas emissions. In
addition, biofuels have a lower energy output than traditional fuels.
Geothermal energy
Geothermal energy can be used directly for industry, agriculture, bathing and
cleansing. For example, in Iceland, hot springs supply water at 86 °C to 95
per cent of the buildings in and around Reykjavik.
The USA is the world leader in geothermal electricity. At present virtually all
the geothermal power plants in the world operate on steam resources, and
have an extremely low environmental impact.
The advantages of geothermal power are:
• extremely low environmental impact
• geothermal plants occupy relatively small land areas
• not dependent on weather conditions (like wind and solar power)
• relatively low maintenance costs.
The limitations of this form of energy are:
• there are few locations worldwide where significant amounts of energy can
be generated
• total global generation remains very small
• some of these locations are far from where the energy could be used
• installation costs of plant and piping are relatively high.
Solar power

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In 2016 global solar power capacity reached 305 GW. China, Japan,
Germany, the USA and Italy currently lead the global market for solar power.
Solar electricity is currently produced in two ways:
• Photovoltaic systems – these are solar panels that convert sunlight directly
into electricity.
• Concentrating solar power (CSP) systems use mirrors or lenses and
tracking systems to focus a large area of sunlight into a small beam. This
concentrated light is then used as a heat source for a conventional thermal
power plant.
Table 3.13 Advantages and disadvantages of solar power
Advantages Disadvantages
A completely renewable Initial high cost of solar plants
resource
No noise or direct pollution Solar power cannot be harnessed
during storms, on cloudy days or at
night
Very limited maintenance Of limited use in countries with low
required annual hours of sunshine
Technology is improving and Large areas of land required to
reducing costs capture the Sun’s energy in order to
generate significant amounts of power
Can be used in remote areas
where it is too expensive to
extend the electricity grid
A generally positive public
perception

Tidal and wave power

Tidal power plants act like underwater windmills, transforming sea currents
into electrical current. Tidal power is more predictable than solar or wind
power, and the infrastructure is less obtrusive. However, start-up costs are
high. While generally predictable, tidal energy is not as dependable as fossil-
fired or nuclear generation.
Wave energy is where generators are placed on the ocean’s surface and
energy levels are determined by the strength of the waves. The costs and
benefits of wave energy are broadly similar to those of tidal power.
The development of both of these sources of energy is at a very early stage.

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Tip
Solar power is generally taken to mean the production of solar
electricity, as distinct from solar hot water systems.

Test yourself
1 What is renewable energy?
2 How many people in developing countries rely on fuelwood as
their main source of energy?
3 Name the leading countries in global wind energy production.
Answers on page 127

Case study: Energy supply in China

• China uses more energy than any other country in the world. In
2015 China’s main sources of energy were: coal (63.7 per cent),
oil (18.6 per cent) and hydro-electricity (8.5 per cent).
• China was an exporter of oil until the early 1990s although it is
now a very significant importer.
• Chinese investment in energy resources abroad has risen rapidly
in order to achieve long-term energy security.
• In recent years China has tried to take a more balanced approach
to energy supply and at the same time sought to reduce its
environmental impact. The development of clean coal technology
is an important aspect of this approach.
• The further development of nuclear and hydropower is another
important strand of Chinese policy.
• China aims to increase the production of oil while augmenting that
of natural gas and improving the national oil and gas network.
Priority has also been given to building up the national oil reserve.
• Total renewable energy capacity in China reached 502 GW in
2015. This included 319 GW of hydro-electricity, 129 GW of wind
energy, 43 GW of solar PV and 10 GW of bioenergy.
• The Three Gorges Dam across the Yangtze river is the world’s
largest electricity generating plant of any kind. This is a major part
of China’s policy in reducing its reliance on coal.

Sample exam questions

175
a Define renewable energy.
[2]

Student’s answer
a Renewable energy can be used over and over again. These
resources are mainly forces of nature that are sustainable and
which usually cause little or no environmental pollution. Examples
are wind and solar power.

Teacher’s comments
A good, clear definition with two examples provided. Full marks.

b Why is fuelwood such an important source of energy in the

developing world?
[3]

Student’s answer
b In developing countries about 2.5 billion people rely on fuelwood,
charcoal and animal dung for cooking. Fuelwood and charcoal
are collectively called fuelwood, which accounts for just over half
of global wood production. Fuelwood provides much of the energy
needs for sub-Saharan Africa. It is also the most important use of
wood in Asia. So many people rely on fuelwood because other
sources of energy are either not available where they live or they
cannot afford to pay for them.

Teacher’s comments
A very good answer that (a) shows how many people are reliant on
fuelwood worldwide, (b) accurately defines fuelwood, and (c) states
why so many people do not have access to other forms of energy.
The student gains all three marks here.

c Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of nuclear power.

[6]

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Student’s answer
c There are many disadvantages of nuclear power. A nuclear power
plant accident could release radiation into the atmosphere. There
are big concerns about the storage of nuclear waste, particularly
high-level waste. Nuclear power stations cost a great deal of
money not just to build, but also to decommission when they can
no longer produce energy effectively. There are also big security
concerns about nuclear power. An advantage of nuclear power is
that it does not produce greenhouse gases.

Teacher’s comments
This is a good answer with regard to disadvantages with four
significant concerns identified. However, only one advantage is
considered. Because of this lack of balance the student only
achieves four marks out of the six available. Other advantages that
could be considered include: (a) reduced reliance on imported fossil
fuels, (b) the increasing efficiency and reliability of nuclear energy,
and (c) the fact that nuclear power is not as vulnerable to fuel price
fluctuations as oil and gas.

Exam-style questions

Figure 3.18 Energy consumption per capita, 2012

177
1 a What is meant by the ‘energy mix’ of a country?
[2]
b Describe and explain the variation in energy consumption per
capita shown in Figure 3.18.
[4]
c How important is fuelwood in developing countries?
[3]
2 Discuss the concerns that some people have about nuclear
power.
[5]
Answers on pages 133–134

178
3.6 Water
Key objectives
You should be able to:
• describe methods of water supply and the proportions of water
used for agricultural, domestic and industrial purposes in
countries at different levels of economic development
• explain why there are water shortages in some areas and
demonstrate that careful management is required to ensure
future supplies.
Case study required
• Water supply in a country or area.

Key definitions
Term Definition
Water The provision of water by public utilities, commercial
supply organisations or by community endeavours.
Dam A barrier that holds back water.
Reservoir An artificial lake primarily used for storing water.
Wells and A means of tapping into various types of aquifers
boreholes (water-bearing rocks), gaining access to groundwater.
Potable Water that is free from impurities, pollution and bacteria,
water and is thus safe to drink.
Water When water supply is below 1700 cubic metres per
stress person per year.

The global water crisis PAGE 231

• For about 80 countries, with 40 per cent of the world’s population, lack
of water is a constant threat.

179
• Demand for water is doubling every 20 years.
• In the poorest nations water supplies are often polluted.

Methods of water supply PAGES 231–234

The objective in all methods of water supply is to take water from its
source to the point of usage. In 2015 about 91 per cent of the global
population had access to piped water supply through house connections or
an improved water source (including through standpipes). This left over
660 million people who did not have access to an improved water source.

Dams and reservoirs

In the twentieth century, global water consumption grew sixfold, twice the
rate of population growth. Much of this increased consumption was made
possible by investment in water infrastructure, particularly dams and
reservoirs, affecting nearly 60 per cent of the world’s major river basins.
Dams are mainly used to save, manage and prevent the flow of excess
water into specific regions. Not all reservoirs are held behind dams, but the
really large ones usually are. These are ‘on channel’ reservoirs where a dam
has been built across an existing river. In contrast, ‘off channel’ reservoirs
usually use depressions in the existing landscape or human-dug depressions
to store water.
Globally, the construction of dams has declined since the 1960s and 1970s.
This is because most of the best sites for dams are already in use or such
sites are strongly protected. An alternative to building new dams and
reservoirs is to increase the capacity of existing reservoirs by extending the
height of the dam.

Wells and boreholes

Wells and boreholes are sunk directly down to the water table. The water
table is the highest level of underground water. For many communities
groundwater is the only water supply source. Aquifers provide
approximately half of the world’s drinking water, 40 per cent of the water
used by industry and up to 30 per cent of irrigation water. Typically, a
borehole is drilled by machine and is relatively small in diameter. Wells are
relatively large in diameter and are often sunk by hand although machinery
may be used.

180
About 35 per cent of all public water supply in England and Wales comes
from groundwater. Groundwater is even more important in arid and semi-
arid areas. This is the main source of water of oasis settlements such as
those in the Sahara desert in North Africa.

Desalination: the answer to water

shortages?
Desalination plants are in widespread use in the Middle East where other
forms of water supply are extremely scarce. Most of these plants distil
water by boiling, generally using waste gases produced by oil wells.
Without the availability of waste energy the process would be extremely
expensive. This is the main reason why desalination plants are few and far
between outside of the Middle East.

Other methods of water supply

There are a number of other methods of water supply, shown in Figure 3.88
on page 232 of the textbook, which are largely self-explanatory.

How water use varies PAGES 234–235

Figure 3.19 contrasts water use in developed and developing countries. In

the latter, agriculture accounts for over 80 per cent of total water use. Large
variations in water allocation can also exist within countries. For example,
irrigation accounts for over 80 per cent of water demand in the west of the
USA, but only about 6 per cent in the east. In general, precipitation declines
from east to west in the USA.

Figure 3.19 Water used for agriculture, industry and domestic

purposes in developed and developing countries

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The amount of water used by a population depends not only on water
availability but also on levels of urbanisation and economic development.
As global urbanisation continues, the demand for potable water in cities
and towns will rise rapidly.

Water shortages PAGES 231–236

Much of the precipitation that falls to the Earth’s surface cannot be

captured and the rest is very unevenly distributed. For example:
• Over 60 per cent of the world’s population live in areas receiving only 25
per cent of global annual precipitation.
• The arid regions of the world cover 40 per cent of the world’s land area,
but receive only 2 per cent of global precipitation.
Water scarcity is to do with the availability of potable water:
• Physical water scarcity is when physical access to water is limited. This
is when demand outstrips a region’s ability to provide the water needed
by the population. It is the arid and semi-arid regions of the world that
are most associated with physical water scarcity.
• Economic water scarcity exists when a population does not have the
necessary monetary means to utilise an adequate source of water. The
crux of the problem is lack of investment. Much of sub-Saharan Africa is
affected by this type of water scarcity.
Securing access to clean water is a vital aspect of development. While
deaths associated with dirty water have been virtually eliminated from
developed countries, in developing countries most deaths still result from
water-borne disease.
Water scarcity has been presented as the ‘sleeping tiger’ of the world’s
environmental problems, threatening to put world food supplies in
jeopardy, limit economic and social development, and create serious
conflicts between neighbouring drainage basin countries. The UN estimates
that by 2025, 1.8 billion people are expected to be living in countries or
regions with absolute water scarcity, and two-thirds of the world population
could be under water stress conditions.
A country is judged to experience water stress when water supply is below
1700 cubic metres per person per year. When water supply falls below
1000 cubic metres per person a year, a country faces water scarcity for all
or part of the year.

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The link between poverty and water resources is very clear, with those
living on less than $1.25 a day roughly equal to the number without access
to safe drinking water.

The future
Scientists expect water scarcity to become more severe because:
• the world’s population continues to increase significantly
• increasing affluence is inflating per capita demand for water
• of increasing demands of biofuel production – biofuel crops are heavy
users of water
• climate change is increasing aridity and reducing supply in many regions
• many water sources are threatened by various forms of pollution.

Test yourself
1 How many people do not have access to an improved water
source?
2 What is the process that can change salt water into potable
water?
3 Define water scarcity.
Answers on page 127

Water management PAGES 237–240

Many experts say water should cost more for users. This would encourage
more careful use of water. However, many consumers still see water as a
‘free’ or very low-cost resource and there is concern that higher prices
would impact unfairly on people on low incomes.
Conserving irrigation water would have more impact than any other
measure. Most irrigation is extremely inefficient, wasting half or more of
the water used. Although some industries have significantly reduced their
use of water per unit of production, most water analysts believe that much
more can be done. Urban sanitation services are very heavy users of water.
Demand could be reduced considerably by adopting dry, or low water use,
systems.
As water scarcity becomes more of a problem, the investment required to
tackle this global challenge will have to rise significantly.

183
Case study: The water problem in southwestern
USA
• The USA is a huge user of water. The western states of the USA,
covering 60 per cent of the land area with 40 per cent of the total
population, receive only 25 per cent of the country’s mean annual
precipitation. Yet each day the west uses as much water as the
east.
• The southwest in particular has prospered due to a huge
investment in water transfer schemes. This has benefited
agriculture, industry and settlement.
• California has benefited most from this investment in water
supply. Seventy per cent of runoff originates in the northern one-
third of the state but 80 per cent of the demand for water is in the
southern two-thirds. While irrigation is the prime water user, the
sprawling urban areas have also greatly increased demand.
• The 2333-km long Colorado river is an important source of water
in the southwest. Over 30 million people in the region depend on
water from the river. Despite the interstate and international
agreements (between the USA and Mexico), major problems
over the river’s resources have arisen because population has
increased along with rising demand from agriculture and industry.
• The $4 billion Central Arizona Project (CAP) is the latest, and
probably the last, big money scheme to divert water from this
great river.
• Resource management strategies include: measures to reduce
leakage and evaporation losses; recycling more water in industry;
charging more realistic prices for irrigation water; extending the
use of the most efficient irrigation systems; changing from highly
water-dependent crops such as rice and alfalfa to those needing
less water.
• Future options include: developing new groundwater resources;
investing in more desalination plants; constructing offshore
aqueducts that would run under the ocean from the Columbia
river in the northwest of the USA to California.
• There is now general agreement that planning for the future
water supply of the southwest should embrace all practicable
options.

Exam-style questions

184
1 a Why do some water experts talk about a ‘global water crisis’?
[3]
b Define the term water supply.
[2]
c How important are dams and reservoirs to global water
supply?
[3]
2 a How are wells and boreholes used to provide water supply?
[2]
b Discuss two other methods of water supply illustrated in
Figure 3.88 on page 232 of the textbook.
[4]
Answers on page 134

185
3.7 Environmental risks
of economic
development
Key objectives
You should be able to:
• describe how economic activities may pose threats to the natural
environment, locally and globally
• demonstrate the need for sustainable development and
management
• understand the importance of resource conservation.
Case study required
• An area where economic development is taking place, causing
the environment to be at risk.

Key definitions

186
Term Definition
Pollution Contamination of the environment. It can take
many forms – air, water, soil, noise, visual and
others.
Prevailing The major direction of winds in a region.
winds
Externalities The side effects, positive and negative, of an
economic activity that are experienced beyond its
site.
Enhanced Large-scale pollution of the atmosphere by
greenhouse economic activities has created an enhanced
effect greenhouse effect.
Deforestation The loss of forested lands for a number of reasons
including the clearing of land for agricultural use,
for timber, and for other activities such as mining.
Overgrazing The grazing of natural pastures at stocking
intensities above the livestock carrying capacity.
Desertification The gradual transformation of habitable land into
desert.
Dust storm A severe windstorm that sweeps clouds of dust
across an extensive area, especially in an arid
region.
Resource The control of the exploitation and use of
management resources in relation to environmental and
economic costs.
Sustainable A carefully calculated system of resource
development management which ensures that the current level
of exploitation does not compromise the ability of
future generations to meet their own needs.
Environmental A document required by law detailing all the
impact impacts on the environment of an energy or other
statement project above a certain size.
Conservation of The management of the human use of natural
resources resources to provide the maximum benefit to
current generations while maintaining capacity to
meet the needs of future generations.
Recycling The concentration of used or waste materials,

187
 their reprocessing, and their subsequent use in
place of new materials.
Reuse Extending the life of a product beyond what was
the norm in the past, or putting a product to a new
use and extending its life in this way.
Quotas Involving agreement between countries to take
only a predetermined amount of a resource.
Rationing A last resort management strategy when demand
is massively out of proportion to supply. For
example, individuals might only be allowed a very
small amount of fuel and food per week.
Subsidies Financial aid supplied by the government to an
industry for reasons of public welfare.
Carbon credit A permit that allows an organisation to emit a
specified amount of greenhouse gases.
Carbon trading A company that does not use up the level of
emissions it is entitled to can sell the remainder of
its entitlement to another company.
Community Energy produced close to the point of
energy consumption.
Microgeneration Generators producing electricity with an output of
less than 50 KW.

The threat of economic activities to

the natural environment PAGES 241–245

As the scale of global economic activity has increased, the strain on the
natural environment has become more obvious at all scales. The planet is
experiencing a range of serious environmental challenges, many of which
are interlinked.

Pollution
Pollution has a major impact on people and the environment. The methods
of exposure to pollutants are inhalation, ingestion and absorption.
Air pollution

188
Of all types of pollution, air pollution has the most widespread effects on
human health and the environment. In many parts of the developing world
indoor air pollution is more severe than that experienced outdoors. This is
the result of the use of biomass fuels for cooking and heating.
The most serious polluters are the large-scale processing industries which
tend to form agglomerations. The impact of large industrial agglomerations
may spread well beyond the locality to cross international borders. For
example, prevailing winds in Europe generally carry pollution from west
to east.
Air pollution is a massive environmental problem leading to, among other
things, global warming, acid rain and the deterioration of the ozone layer.
The major air pollutants include ozone, carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide,
particulate matter, sulfur dioxide and lead.
Pollution is the major externality of industrial and urban areas. Pollution is
at its most intense at the focus of pollution-causing activities, declining
with distance from such concentrations. For some sources of pollution it is
possible to map the externality gradient and field (Figure 3.20).

Figure 3.20 Externality gradient and field

Water pollution

189
Each year about 450 km3 of wastewater are discharged into rivers, streams
and lakes around the world. While rivers in more affluent countries have
become steadily cleaner, the reverse has been true in much of the
developing world. It has been estimated that 90 per cent of sewage in
developing countries is discharged into rivers, lakes and seas without any
treatment. China’s rapid economic growth has led to widespread
environmental problems. Pollution problems are so severe in some areas
that the term ‘cancer villages’ has become commonplace. The Chinese
government admits that 300 million people drink polluted water.
Noise and light pollution
Noise and light pollution are increasing hazards in developed societies.
Noise pollution is disturbing or excessive noise that may harm the activity
or balance of human or animal life. Most outdoor noise is caused by
machines and modes of transport. The increase in air traffic is one of the
major contributors to noise pollution (and air pollution).
Sources of light pollution include the interior and external lighting of all
sorts of buildings, advertising and street lighting. It is most severe in highly
industrialised and densely populated areas. It can impact on human health,
causing fatigue, loss of sleep, headaches and loss of amenity.

The relative risks of incidental and

sustained pollution
It is important to consider the different impact between incidental pollution
(one-off pollution incidents) and sustained pollution (longer-term
pollution). The former is mainly linked to major accidents caused by
technological failures and human error. Causes of the latter include ozone
depletion and global warming. Two of the worst examples of incidental
pollution have been Bhopal and Chernobyl.

Acid deposition
Acid deposition is a result of the mix of air pollutants, and leads to the
acidification of freshwater bodies and soils. There are two forms:
• Dry deposition is in the form of particles, aerosols and gases, and occurs
in the absence of precipitation.
• Wet deposition involves acid rain, snow, fog and mist. Acid rain is
rainwater with a pH of less than 5.

190
Most pollutants causing acid rain result from human activity. This is mainly
a result of the conversion of sulfur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen (NOx),
produced when fossil fuels are burned, into the sulfates and nitrates of dry
deposition and the sulfuric and nitric acids of wet deposition. Dry
deposition usually occurs close to emission sources. Wet deposition can be
carried great distances. The environmental effects include:
• damage to forests
• depletion of essential nutrients in soils
• increase in acidity of freshwater bodies.
There are two strategies for managing acid deposition:
• preventing its occurrence
• repairing the damage.

Test yourself
1 Draw a labelled diagram showing an externality gradient and
field.
2 How much wastewater is discharged into water bodies each
year?
3 What are the two strategies used to manage acid deposition?
Answers on page 127

Enhanced global warming PAGES 248–

250

Economic activities generating

greenhouse gases
The Earth–atmosphere system has a natural greenhouse effect (Figure 3.21)
that is essential to all life on Earth. However, large-scale pollution of the
atmosphere by economic activities has created an enhanced greenhouse
effect. This is causing temperatures to increase beyond the limits of the
natural greenhouse effect. Many parts of the world are experiencing
changes in their weather that are unexpected. Some of these changes could
have disastrous consequences for the populations of the areas affected if
they continue to get more severe.
The present rate of change is greater than anything that has happened in the
past. In the twentieth century, average global temperatures rose by 0.6 °C.

191
The predictions are for a further global average temperature increase of
between 1.6 °C and 4.2 °C by 2100.
The main greenhouse gases being created by human activity are:
• carbon dioxide
• methane
• nitrous oxides
• chlorofluorocarbons
• ozone.

Figure 3.21 The greenhouse effect

The potential consequences of enhanced global warming include:
• greater global temperature variations and heatwaves

192
• rising sea levels
• increasing acidity in oceans
• melting of ice caps and glaciers
• disruption of the warm water currents of the Gulf Stream
• growth of the tropical belt
• changing patterns of rainfall
• declining crop yields.

Soil erosion and desertification

PAGES 250–253

The extent and causes of soil erosion

Soil degradation involves both the erosion and the reduction in quality of
topsoil. The loss of the upper soil horizons containing organic matter and
nutrients and the thinning of soil profiles reduce crop yields.
• Globally about 2 billion hectares of soil resources have been degraded.
This is equivalent to about 15 per cent of the Earth’s land area.
• During the past 40 years nearly one-third of the world’s cropland has
been abandoned because of soil erosion.
In temperate areas much soil degradation is a result of market forces and
the attitudes adopted by commercial farmers and governments. In contrast,
in the tropics much degradation results from high population pressure, land
shortages and lack of awareness. The greater climate extremes and poorer
soil structures in tropical areas also give greater potential for degradation.
The main cause of soil degradation is the removal of the natural vegetation
cover, leaving the surface exposed to the elements. Figure 3.22 shows the
human causes of degradation.

193
Figure 3.22 Causes of land degradation
Deforestation occurs for a number of reasons including the clearing of
land for agricultural use. Such activities tend to happen quickly whereas the
loss of vegetation for fuelwood, a massive problem in many developing
countries, is generally a more gradual process. Population pressure in many
areas and poor agricultural practices have resulted in serious overgrazing.
Figure 3.111 on page 251 of the textbook illustrates how a combination of
causes and processes can operate in an area to result in soil degradation.
The diagram shows a range of different economic activities which impact
on the soil.

Environmental and socio-economic

consequences of soil erosion
The environmental and socio-economic consequences of soil degradation
are considerable (see Table 3.14 on page 108). Desertification is arguably
the most serious environmental consequence of soil degradation.
Desertification is usually caused by climate change and/or by destructive
use of the land. Natural causes of desertification include temporary drought
periods of high magnitude and long-term climate change towards aridity.
The main human causes are overgrazing, overcultivation and deforestation.
Desertification occurs when already fragile land in arid and semi-arid areas
is over-exploited. It is a considerable problem in many parts of the world,
for example, on the margins of the Sahara desert in North Africa and the
Kalahari desert in southern Africa. Dust storms, which can seriously
damage crops, may also be a problem in such areas.
Table 3.14 The consequences of desertification

194
Environmental Economic Social and
cultural
• Loss of soil nutrients • Reduced income • Loss of
through wind and water from traditional traditional
erosion economy knowledge
• Changes in composition of (pastoralism and and skills
vegetation and loss of cultivation of food • Forced
biodiversity as vegetation crops) migration
is removed • Decreased availability due to
• Reduction in land of fuelwood, food
available for cropping and necessitating scarcity
pasture purchase of • Social
• Increased sedimentation oil/kerosene tensions in
of streams because of soil • Increased reception
erosion and sediment dependence on food areas for
accumulations in aid migrants
reservoirs • Increased rural
poverty
The increasing world population and the changing diets of hundreds of
millions of people as they become more affluent is placing more and more
pressure on land resources. Some soil and agricultural experts say that a
decline in long-term soil productivity is already seriously limiting food
production in the developing world.

Test yourself
4 List three consequences of enhanced global warming.
5 What are the two major causes of land degradation?
6 Define resource management.
Answers on page 127

Sustainable development and

management PAGES 254–256

Resource management and sustainable development are vital for the

future of the planet.

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Figure 3.23 shows what has happened in so many of the world’s fishing
grounds. Without careful resource management fish stocks could be totally
depleted in some areas. Yet, it is often difficult to get countries to agree on
what to do. The European Union’s Common Fisheries Policy is an
international attempt to manage the fishing grounds belonging to this group
of countries. The European Union also tries to manage agriculture in its
member countries through its Common Agricultural Policy (CAP).
Environmental impact statements and pollution
control
Most countries now require some form of environmental impact
statement for major projects such as a new road, an airport or a large
factory. The objective is to identify all the environmental consequences and
to try to minimise these as far as possible.
Industry has spent increasing amounts on research and development to
reduce pollution – the so-called ‘greening of industry’. In general, after a
certain stage of economic development the level of pollution will decline.
This is because countries have become more aware of their environmental
problems with higher levels of economic activity and they have also
created the wealth to invest in improving the environment. Increasingly,
successful policies developed in one country are being followed elsewhere.

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Figure 3.23 Fishing and resource management

The importance of resource

conservation PAGES 256–259

Conservation includes both the protection and rational use of natural

resources. Both the demand for, and supply of, resources need to be
planned and managed to achieve a sustainable system.
Conservation involves actions to use these resources most efficiently, thus
extending their life as long as possible. For example, by recycling
aluminium, the same piece of material is reused in a series of products,
reducing the amount of aluminium ore that must be freshly mined.
Conservation also involves the reuse of resources. Plastic bags are an
obvious example, but there are many others. In many developing countries
there has long been a culture of reuse and recycling because people cannot
afford to buy new replacements.
Recycling also involves the recovery of waste. New technology makes it
possible to recover mineral content from the waste of earlier mining
operations. However, the proportion of a material recycled is strongly
related to the cost in proportion to the price of the original raw material.

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Recycling not only conserves valuable resources, it is also fundamental in
the reduction of landfill.
Various other strategies can be used in the attempt to conserve resources.
• The agreement of quotas is an increasingly frequent resource
management technique, illustrated by the case study of the EU’s
Common Fisheries Policy.
• Much further along the line is rationing. This is very much a last-resort
management strategy.
• At various times the use of subsidies has been criticised by
environmentalists. It has been argued that reducing or abandoning some
subsidies would aid conservation.
• Product stewardship is an approach to environmental protection in which
manufacturers, retailers and consumers are encouraged or required to
assume responsibility for reducing a product’s impact on the
environment.
• Substitution is the use of common and thus less valuable resources in
place of rare, more expensive resources. An example is the replacement
of copper by aluminium in the manufacture of a variety of products.

Energy efficiency
Meeting future energy needs while avoiding serious environmental
degradation will require increased emphasis on approaches which include:
• much greater investment in renewable energy
• conservation
• recycling
• carbon credits
• ‘green’ taxation.
Managing energy supply is often about balancing socio-economic and
environmental needs. Carbon credits and carbon trading are an important
part of the EU’s environment and energy policies. Under the EU’s
emissions trading scheme, heavy industrial plants have to buy permits to
emit greenhouse gases over the limit they are allowed (carbon credits) by
government. However, this could be extended to other organisations such
as banks and supermarkets. Many countries are looking increasingly at the
concept of community energy. Much energy is lost in transmission if the
source of supply is a long way away. Energy produced locally is much
more efficient. This will invariably involve microgeneration.
Table 3.15 summarises some of the measures governments and individuals
can undertake to reduce the demand for energy and thus move towards a

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more sustainable situation.
Table 3.15 Examples of energy conservation measures
Government Individuals
• Improve public transport. • Walk rather than drive for
• Set a high level of tax on petrol. short local journeys.
• Set minimum fuel consumption • Buy low fuel
requirements for vehicles. consumption/low
• Congestion charging to deter non- emission cars.
essential car use in city centres. • Reduce car usage by
• Encourage business to monitor and planning more ‘multi-
reduce its energy usage. purpose’ trips.
• Promote investment in renewable • Use public rather than
forms of energy. private transport.
• Pass laws to compel manufacturers • Car pooling.
to produce more efficient electrical • Use low-energy light
products. bulbs.
• Install and improve home
insulation.
• Turn boiler and radiator
settings down.
• Wash clothes at lower
temperatures.
• Purchase energy efficient
appliances.

Case study: Environmental problems in the Pearl

River delta
• The Pearl River delta region in south-east China is the focal point
of a massive wave of foreign investment into China.
• The region’s manufacturing industries already employ 30 million
people. Major industrial centres include Shunde, Shenzhen and
Guangzhou.
• The three major environmental problems in the Pearl river delta
are air pollution, water pollution and deforestation.
• In 2007 eight out of every ten rainfalls in Guangzhou were
classified as acid rain. The high concentration of factories and
power stations is the source of this problem along with the
growing number of cars in the province.

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• Two-thirds of Guangdong’s 21 cities were affected by acid rain in
2007. Overall, 45 per cent of the province’s rainfall in 2007 was
classified as acid rain.
• Almost all the urban areas have overexploited their neighbouring
uplands, causing a considerable reduction in vegetation cover.
This has resulted in serious erosion.
• Half of the wastewater in Guangdong’s urban areas is not treated
before being dumped into rivers. Guangdong’s government is
working to reduce chemical oxygen demand (COD) and also to
cut sulfur dioxide emissions.
• The Environmental Protection Bureau classifies the
environmental situation as ‘severe’.
• Among the measures used to tackle the problems are (a) higher
sewage treatment charges, (b) stricter pollution regulations on
factories and (c) tougher national regulations on vehicle
emissions.

Exam-style questions
1 a Define pollution.
[2]
b What are the main greenhouse gases?
[2]
c Explain the enhanced greenhouse effect.
[4]
2 a Describe two possible consequences of enhanced global
warming.
[3]
b Explain the causes of land degradation.
[4]
Answers on pages 134–135

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4.1 Geographical skills
Key definitions
Term Definition
Northings The regular horizontal lines you can see on an Ordnance
Survey map.
Eastings The regular vertical lines you can see on an Ordnance
Survey map.
Contour A line that joins places of equal height.
line
Cross- A view of the landscape as it would appear if sliced open,
section or if you were to walk along it.

Scale PAGE 266

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Figure 4.1
Most Ordnance Survey maps that are used are either at a 1:50 000 or a 1:25
000 scale. On a 1:50 000 map, 1 cm on the map relates to 50 000 cm on the
ground. On a 1:25 000 map, every 1 cm on the map refers to 25 000 cm on
the ground. In every kilometre there are 100 000 cm (1000 m × 100 cm).
Hence:
• on a 1:50 000 map every 2 cm corresponds to a kilometre
• on a 1:25 000 map every 4 cm corresponds to a kilometre.
A 1:25 000 map is more detailed than a 1:50 000 map and is therefore an
excellent source for geographical enquiries. 1:50 000 maps provide a more

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general overview of a larger area. You may come across other scales, for
example, 1:10 000 and 1:2500.
Figure 4.1 shows a 1:25 000 map of the upper part of a river catchment.
Notice that each of the boxes is exactly 4 cm × 4 cm. Figure 4.2 shows a
1:50 000 map of the same area (but only the contours are shown).

Figure 4.2
Measurement on maps is made easier by grid lines. These are the regular
horizontal and vertical lines you can see on an Ordnance Survey map.
The horizontal lines are called northings and the vertical lines are called
eastings. They help to pinpoint the exact location of features on a map.

Grid and square references PAGE 266

Grid references are the six-figure references which locate precise positions
on a map. The first three figures are the eastings and these tell us how far a
position is across the map. The last three figures are the northings and these

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tell us how far up the map a position is. An easy way to remember which
way round the numbers go is ‘along the corridor and up the stairs’.
In Figure 4.1, the confluence of the West River and East River (where they
meet) is at 426080.
Sometimes a feature covers an area rather than a point, for example, all of
the villages and the areas of woodland in Figure 4.1. Here a grid reference is
inappropriate so we use four-figure square references.
• The first two numbers refer to the eastings.
• The last two numbers refer to the northings.
The point where the two grid lines meet is the bottom left-hand corner of the
square. Thus in Figure 4.1, Eastville is located in 4209. Most of the village
of Sutton is found in 4207. Some features may occur in two or more squares,
for example, Westville is found in squares 4109 and 4110.

Test yourself
1 State the difference between northings and eastings.
2 State the difference between a square reference and a grid
reference.
3 When would you use a square reference rather than a grid
reference?
Answers on page 127

Direction PAGE 266

Directions can be expressed in two ways:

• compass points, for example, south-west
• compass bearings or angular directions, for example, 45°.
Sixteen compass points are commonly used. Some of these are shown in
Figure 4.3.

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Figure 4.3 Compass points

Exam-style questions
Study Figure 4.1 on page 112.
1 State the grid reference for
a the source of West River and
b the school in Eastville.
2 State the square references for
a Eastville and
b the small area of woodland to the east of Eastville.
3 In which direction is
a Eastville from Sutton and
b Sutton from Westville?
4 What is the distance from the school at Eastville to
a the school at Westville and
b the school at 428074?
5 Complete Figure 4.2 by adding the woodland, rivers, main roads
and settlements.
Answers on page 135

Relief and gradient PAGES 267–269

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Contour lines
A contour line is a line that joins places of equal height.
• When the contour lines are spaced far apart the land is quite flat.
• When the contour lines are very close together the land is very steep (when
the land is too steep for contour lines a symbol for a cliff is used).
• When contour lines are close together at the top, and then get further apart,
it suggests a concave slope.
• When contour lines are close at the bottom and flat at the top, it suggests a
convex slope.

Figure 4.4 Contour patterns

Gradients
The gradient of a slope is its steepness. We can get a rough idea of the
gradient by looking at the contour pattern. We have just seen that if the
contour lines are close together the slope is steep, and if they are far apart the
land is quite flat. However, these are not very accurate descriptions. To
measure gradient accurately we need two measurements:
• the vertical difference between two points (this can be worked out using
the contour lines or spot heights)
• the horizontal distance between two places – this may or may not be a
straight line (for example, a meandering stream would not be straight).

Test yourself
4 Explain what a contour line is.
5 Distinguish between a convex slope and a concave slope.
Answers on page 127

Exam-style questions

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Figure 4.5 Mount Kibo 1:50 000 extract
Study Figure 4.5.
6 What is the approximate height of:
a the Reusch Crater (1761) and
b Uhuru Peak (170598)?
7 How far is it, in a straight line, from Uhuru Peak to Karanga Camp
(171559)?
8 What is the approximate altitude of Karanga Camp?
9 Outline the map evidence to show that the gradient from Uhuru
Peak to Karanga Camp is not a steady one.
Answers on page 135

207
Cross-sections PAGE 270

A cross-section is a view of the landscape as it would appear if sliced open,

or if you were to walk along it. It shows variations in gradient and the
location of important physical and human features. To draw a cross-section:
1 Place the straight edge of a piece of paper between the two end points
(Figure 4.6).

Figure 4.6 Drawing a cross-section

a Mark off every contour line (in areas where the contours are very close
together you could measure every second contour or significant
contours, for example, every 100 m).
b Mark off important geographical features.

208
2 Align the straight edge of the piece of paper against a horizontal line on
graph paper, which is exactly the same length as the line of the section.
Use a vertical scale of 1 cm:50 m or 1 cm:100 m; if you use a smaller
scale (for example, 1 cm:5 m) you will end up with a slope that looks
Himalayan!
a Mark off with a small dot each of the contours and the geographic
features.
b Join up the dots with a freehand curve.
c Label the features.
d Remember to label the horizontal and vertical scales, the title and the
grid references for the starting and finishing points.

Figure 4.7 Cross-sections of Puy de Vichatel

Test yourself
6 Define the term cross-section.
Answer on page 127

Exam-style question

209
10 On Figure 4.8, draw a cross-section from 410090 to 440090
(from Figure 4.1) to show the rivers (drainage) and roads
(transport). The base has already been drawn for you.

Figure 4.8
Answer on page 135

Using mathematical skills in

geography PAGES 281–284

Mean, averages and range

The mean is a type of average. It is found by totalling (∑) the values for all
observations (∑x) and then dividing by the total number of observations (n):

For example, the number of services in eight villages was found to be

The range is the difference between the highest and lowest value. In this
example it is 8 – 1 = 7.

Decimals, fractions, percentages and

ratios

210
A decimal is a number between two whole numbers. For example, the
world’s population is around 7.5 billion, which means that it is more than 7
billion but less than 8 billion. A fraction is part of a whole – for example,
of Borneo’s rainforest has been deforested. A percentage is a number or
ratio expressed as a fraction of 100 (%). To convert a fraction to a
percentage, convert first to a decimal and multiply by 100. To convert a
fraction to a decimal, simply divide the number above the line (the
numerator) by the number below the line (the denominator). You can use a
calculator for this. Thus, in Borneo or (0.33 × 100%) or 33% of its forest
has been deforested. A ratio is a method of comparing relative sizes or
proportions. The area deforested in Borneo compared with forested is 1:2
(one-third has been deforested and there are two-thirds left).

Standard notation, indices and significant

figures
Standard notation is the number that we would normally write, for
example, 567. The expanded standard index notation shows that 567 is 5.67
× 102.
A positive index is a power value that is positive, for example, 22 = 2 × 2 =
4, or 33 = 3 × 3 × 3 = 27.
Negative indices are power values that have a minus sign, for example,
.

Significant figures are the numbers that carry some meaning to the
measurement/size of a feature. Numbers are often rounded up or down to
make them easier to understand. The world’s population is said to be 7
billion – this is one significant figure, i.e. seven times a billion. The world’s
population was 7,503,875,592 at 20.30 hours, on 11 May 2017. This figure is
too detailed (and out of date). A value of 7 billion (one significant figure) or
7.5 billion (two significant figures) gives a better ‘feel’ for the size of the
world’s population.

Test yourself
7 The world’s population is approximately 7.5 billion and China’s
population is approximately 1.3 billion. Express China’s population
as a percentage of the world’s population.
8 Express 7,503,875,592 in terms of:

211
 a four significant figures
b seven significant figures
c nine significant figures
Answers on page 127

Graphical skills PAGES 284–289

Pie charts
Pie charts are subdivided circles. These are frequently used on maps to show
variations in composition of a geographic feature, for example, the
proportion of people living on less than $1.25/day in 1990 (Figure 4.9).

Figure 4.9
Plotting a pie chart
The following steps should be followed in the construction of a pie chart.
1 Convert the data into percentages.
2 Convert the percentages into degrees (by multiplying by 3.6 and rounding
up or down to the nearest whole number).
3 Subdivide the circles into sectors using the figures obtained in step 2.
4 Differentiate the sectors by means of different shadings or colours.
5 Draw a key explaining the scheme of shading and/or colours.
6 Title the chart.

Exam-style question
11 Draw a pie chart to show the proportion of people living on less
than $1.25/day in 2015.

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 Percentage on less than $1.25/day = 14%
Percentage on more than $1.25 = 86%
Answer on page 136

Bar charts
In a bar chart, the length of the bar represents the quantity of each
component (for example, places or time intervals). The vertical axis has a
scale that measures the total of each of these components. There are four
main types of bar chart:
• Simple bar charts – each bar indicates a single factor. If the difference in
length of bars is not great, then the difference can be emphasised by
leaving a space between them or breaking the vertical scale.
• Multiple or group bar chart – features are grouped together on one graph
to help comparison.
• Compound bar chart – various elements or factors are grouped together
on one bar (the most stable element or factor is placed at the bottom of the
bar to avoid confusion).
• Percentage compound bar chart – used to compare features by showing
the percentage contribution. These graphs do not give a total in each
category but compare relative changes in terms of percentages.

Exam-style question
Study Figure 4.10, which shows the populations of ten megacities in
2016.

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Figure 4.10 Populations of ten megacities, 2016 (millions)
12 Find the predicted population sizes for these ten megacities for
2030 from Table 1.21 (page 72) of the textbook, and illustrate
these in a graph alongside their current size.
Answer on page 136

Scatter graphs PAGES 4–5

Scatter graphs show how two sets of data are related to each other, for
example, population size and number of services, or distance from the source
of a river and average pebble size. To plot a scatter graph decide which
variable is independent (population size/distance from the source) and which
is dependent (number of services/average pebble size). The independent is
plotted on the horizontal or x axis (in Figure 4.11, GNI in $) and the
dependent on the vertical or y axis (in Figure 4.11, the IMR).

214
Figure 4.11 Scatter graph to show the relationship between GNI and
IMR
A positive relationship exists when both variables increase, for example, as
levels of atmospheric CO2 increase, mean global temperatures increase
(Figure 4.12a), whereas a negative relation exists when as one factor
increases, the other decreases, for example, as gross national income
increases, infant mortality decreases (Figure 4.12b).

Figure 4.12 Relationships on a scatter graph: (a) positive

relationship; (b) negative relationship

Exam-style question

215
13 Plot a scatter graph to show the relationship between GNI and
life expectancy for the following countries:
Country GNI ($) Life expectancy (years)
UK 37 700 80.42
USA 54 800 79.56
China 12 900 75.15
India 5 800 67.80
Qatar 92 400 78.38
South Africa 12 700 49.50
Brazil 16 100 73.28
Egypt 11 100 73.45
Argentina 22 100 77.51
Mexico 17 900 75.43

Answer on page 136

Sketch maps and annotated

photographs PAGE 280

You can label a photograph or diagram to make it very informative. It is

important that you label clearly all the important features.
The photograph (Figure 4.13) and sketch map (Figure 4.14) show part of a
city’s suburbs.

216
Figure 4.13 Aerial view of suburban development in Oxford

Figure 4.14 Sketch drawing of Figure 4.13

Exam-style question
14 Make a sketch of the photograph (Figure 4.15) to show the main
features of the meandering stream.

217
Figure 4.15
Answer on page 136

218
4.2 Geographical
investigations:
coursework and the
alternative to coursework
Sampling PAGES 294–295

The reasons for sampling

For many geographical investigations it is impossible to obtain ‘complete’
information. This is usually because it would just take too long in terms of
both time and cost. For example, if you wanted to study the shopping habits
of all the households in a suburban area by using a doorstep questionnaire,
it would be a huge task to visit every household.
However, it is valid to take a ‘sample’ or proportion of this total
‘population’ of households, providing you follow certain rules. The idea is
that you are selecting a group that will be representative of the total
population.

Sampling types
Before selecting the sampling method you need to consider how you are
going to take a sample at each location. There are three alternatives:
• Point sampling – making an observation or measurement at an exact
location.
• Line sampling – taking measurements along a carefully chosen line or
lines.
• Quadrat (or area) sampling – quadrats are mainly used for surveying
vegetation and beach deposits.

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Sampling methods
Random sampling
This method involves selecting sample points by using random numbers.
Tables of random numbers can be used or the numbers can be generated by
most calculators. The use of random numbers guarantees that there is no
human bias in the selection process.
Systematic sampling
With this method the sample is taken in a regular way. It might, for
example, involve every tenth house or person. When using an Ordnance
Survey map it might mean analysing grid squares at regular intervals.
Stratified sampling
Here the area under study divides into different natural areas. For example,
rock type A may make up 60 per cent of an area and rock type B the
remaining 40 per cent. If you were taking soil samples for each type, you
should ensure that 60 per cent of the samples were taken on rock type A
and 40 per cent on rock type B.

Questionnaires PAGE 296

Questionnaire surveys involve both setting questions and obtaining

answers. The questions are preplanned and set out on a specially prepared
form. This method of data collection is used to obtain opinions, ideas and
information from people in general or from different groups of people. The
questionnaire survey is probably the most widely used method to obtain
primary data in human geography. In the wider world, questionnaires are
used for a variety of purposes, including market research by manufacturing
and retail companies and to test public opinion prior to political elections.
One of the most important decisions you are going to have to make is how
many questionnaires you are going to complete. The general rules to follow
here are similar to those for sampling, set out in the previous section.
Remember, if you have too few questionnaire results, you will not be able
to draw valid conclusions. For most types of study, 25 questionnaires is
probably the minimum you would need to draw reasonable conclusions. On
the other hand it is unlikely you would have time for more than 100 unless
you were collecting data as part of a group.

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A good questionnaire:
• has a limited number of questions that take no more than a few minutes
to answer
• is clearly set out so that the questioner can move quickly from one
question to the next – people do not like to be kept waiting; the careful
use of tick boxes can help this objective
• is carefully worded so that the respondents are clear about the meaning of
each question
• follows a logical sequence so that respondents can see ‘where the
questionnaire is going’ – if a questionnaire is too complicated and long-
winded, people may decide to stop halfway through
• avoids questions that are too personal
• begins with the quickest questions to answer and leaves the longer/more
difficult questions to the end
• reminds the questioner to thank respondents for their cooperation.
The disadvantages of questionnaires are:
• Many people will not want to cooperate for a variety of reasons. Some
people will simply be too busy, others may be uneasy about talking to
strangers, while some people may be concerned about the possibility of
identity theft.
• Research has indicated that people do not always provide accurate
answers in surveys. Some people are tempted to give the answer that they
think the questioner wants to hear or the answer they think shows them in
the best light.

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