RÉPUBLIQUE ALGÉRIENNE DÉMOCRATIQUE ET POPULAIRE

MINISTERE DE L’ENSEIGNEMENT SUPERIEUR

ET DE LA RECHERCHE SCIENTIFIQUE
UNIVERSITE KASDI MERBAH OUARGLA
Faculté des Nouvelles Technologies de
l'Information Et de La Communication
Département d'électronique et des télécommunications

Mémoire de fin d’étude

Pour l'obtention du diplôme de Master Académique
Domaine : Sciences et Technologie
Filière : Automatic
Spécialité : Automatic and system Présenté par :
BELAID ALI BETTAYEB CHAYMA
Thème

A comparative study between pid and lqr

controllers to control the speed of a dc
motor
Soutenu publiquement le :

Année Universitaire 2024/2025

 SOMMAIRE

Liste des figures

Liste des Tableaux

Tables des notations et symboles

Introduction générale ................................................................................................................

Chapitre 1 : DC MOTORS
I.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 1

I.2 Definition of Dc motor .......................................................................................................... 1

I.3 The history of Dc motors....................................................................................................... 2

I.4 Application of Dc motors and Generators............................................................................ 6

I.5 Working principle of Dc Generators and Motors.................................................................. 6

I.5.1 Principles of electromagnetism ………………………………………………………………7

I.5.2 Lorentz force ………………………………………………………………………………...7

I.5.3 Farady’s low ………………………………………………………………………………..8

I.5.4 Fleming left hand Rule ………………………………………………………………………8

I.5.5 Back of emf ………………………………………………………………………………….9

I.5.6 Electromagnetic Torque developed in Dc motor ……………………………………..……….9

I.5.7 Shaft Torque ………………………………………………………………………………10

I.6. Difference Between Generators And Motors .....................................................................10

I.7 Comparison of Generator and DC motor ............................................................................ 11

I.8 The different types of electric motors ................................................................................. 12

I.8.1 Ac motors(Alternating current motors) ..................................................................... 12

 I.8.2 Dc motors (Direct current motors) .......................................................................... 13

I.8.3 Special propose motors ............................................................................................13

a. Stepper motor…………………………………………………………..……13

b. Servo motors …………………………………………….……………..……13

c. Universal motors …………………...…………………………………..……14

d. Linear motors………………………….………………………………..……14

I.9 A typical electric DC Motor .............................................................................................. 14

I.9.1 Rotor......................................................................................................................... 14

I.9.2 Stator ........................................................................................................................ 15

I.9.3 commutator............................................................................................................... 15

I.10 Construction details of the DC Machine (DC Motor) .............................. 16

I.10.1 Yoke .......................................................................................................................16

I.10.2 Poles and pole shoes................................................................................................17

I.10.3 Field winding………………………………………………………………………….17

I.10.4 Armature winding ……………………………………………………………………17

I.10.5 Commutator and brushes………………………………………………………………17

I.10.6 Armature winding of a Dc machine ………………………………………………17

I.11 Different Types of DC Machines ......................................................................................17

I.11.1 Separately excited motors………………………………………………………………18

I.11.2 Shunt Excitation ……………………………………………………………………….18

I.11.3 Series-wound motor……………………………………………………………………19

I.11.4 Compound motors ……………………………………………………………………..20

I.12 Losses Efficiency and armature reaction DC machine …………………………………….20

 I.12.1 Electrical or copper losses ………………………………………………………21

I.12.2 Iron losses ………………………………………………………………………21

I.12.3 Brush losses ……………………………………………………………………21

I.12.4 Stray losse ……………………………………………………………………….21

I.13 Motor characteristics ……………………………………………………………………….21

I.13.1 Speed of rotation ………………………………………………………………….21

I.13.2 The electromotive force ………………………………………………………….22

I.13.3 Power absorbed …………………………………………………….…………….22

I.13.4 Useful power ………………………………………………….………………….22

I.13.5 Motor efficiency …………..…………………………………………………….23

I.14 conclusion …………………………………………………………………………………23

 CHAPTER I
DC MOTORS
I.1. Introduction
An electric motor is an electromechanical apparatus that converts electrical energy
into mechanical energy via the interaction of magnetic fields and conductor-based
currents. It's based on the electromagnetic induction method, which uses
components like a stator, rotor, and commutator (in specific types) to produce
motion of rotation or translation.
Electric motors are categorized into AC and DC types, with multiple specific
subtypes intended for specific industrial, commercial, and consumer applications,
including automation, transportation, and power generation. The attention is on the
DC machine because it's more simple to obtain its model and because the flux that
affects the motion is consistent. In this chapter, we'll discuss the fundamental
principles of DC motors, including their composition, modeling, and operating
characteristics.
Then we'll talk about their various types and conclude with some of their attributes.

I.2. Definition of Dc motor

A direct current (DC) motor is an electromechanical device that transforms

electrical energy into mechanical energy (rotational motion) . It is perfect for
robotics, industrial machines, and electric vehicles because it generates torque
through the interplay of magnetic fields and electric currents . The rotor (the
revolving section containing windings), stator (which generates a magnetic
field), and commutator and brushes (which guarantee continuous rotation)
are important parts. DC motors are renowned for their accuracy,
dependability, and ease of use .

1
 Figure I.1: Energy conversion in a DC motor.

I.3. the history of Dc motors [2]

Electric motors are built to convert electrical power into mechanical power. This
conversion is facilitated by the interaction of two magnetic fields.
one that remains still and another that is connected to a mobile component.
DC motors ( Direct Current motors) are renowned for their capacity to produce
high torques, this is typically contingent on the motor's physical size.
They are also simple to reduce in size, and can have their speed limited, or
"throttled," by adjusting the voltage supply. Additionally, DC motors are not only
the most simple form of electric motors, but they are also the oldest.
The fundamental principles of electromagnetic induction were formulated in the
early 1800s by scientists like Oersted, Gauss, and Faraday .
The fact that an electric current produces a magnetic field was discovered in 1819
by Hans Christian Oersted and André-Marie Ampère.

The creation of a basic rotary DC motor was the result of a surge of exploration and
discovery that occurred across the Atlantic over the course of the following 15 years.

Three of the most prominent people who experimented with DC motors are included
here, while many others contributed to this work.
2
Michael Faraday (U.K)

Michael Faraday, a famous experimenter, tried to validate or refute a number of ideas

about Oersted and Ampère's results.
To find out if a wire carrying electricity produced a circular magnetic field around
it, he devised an experiment. He was successful in proving this occurrence in
October 1821.
Faraday used a mercury dish to set up an experiment. He positioned a fixed magnet
in the middle of the dish and, above it, hung a freely moving wire, its free end
submerged in the mercury. The current-carrying wire started to revolve around the
magnet when he added a battery to finish the circuit. After reversing the
arrangement, Faraday secured the wire and let the magnet travel freely. The free
component circled the fixed one once more.
The first successful demonstration of electrical energy being converted into
mechanical motion was this experiment. Because of this, Faraday is frequently given
credit for creating the electric motor, which set the stage for the creation of
contemporary electric motors.

Figure I.2: Faraday’s experiment on the conversion of electrical energy into motion.

3
Joseph Henry (U.S)

By the summer of 1831, Joseph Henry had significantly improved Faraday's

experimental motor after ten years of testing.
Henry built a basic machine that rocked on a horizontal axis and used a straight
electromagnet as its moving component. Due to pairs of wires that extended from its
ends and alternately linked to two electrochemical cells, the electromagnet's polarity
was automatically switched as it moved. The electromagnet rocked back and forth
at a pace of 75 cycles per minute as a result of the ends of the magnet being
alternately attracted and repelled by two vertical permanent magnets.
Despite calling his creation a "philosophical toy," Henry understood its importance
as the first example of continuous motion propelled by magnetic attraction and
repulsion.

His invention was the first to employ electromagnets in a motor and was more
physically feasible than Faraday's motor, although it was still primarily a lab
experiment.

However, Henry's research showed that it was possible to transform electrical energy
into continuous mechanical motion, which paved the way for the development of
electric generators and electric motors.

4
 Figure I.3: Joseph Henry experimental motor.

William Sturgeon (U.K)

William Sturgeon made a significant breakthrough by creating the commutator,

which resulted in the first rotary electric motor, just a year after Joseph Henry
displayed his oscillating motor.
Henry's oscillating invention was essentially a rotational version of Sturgeon's
motor. Sturgeon's motor was groundbreaking because it offered continuous
rotational motion for the first time, although still being very basic.
The commutator, which enabled the electromagnet's current to reverse direction at
the appropriate times to ensure smooth and continuous spinning, was one of the
invention's virtually all-important components of a contemporary DC motor.
Sturgeon's discovery paved the path for more sophisticated and useful uses of
electric motion and represented a major advancement in the development of electric
motors.

Figure I.4: First rotary electric motor invented by William Sturgeon.

DC machines are now one of the most used electromechanical energy conversion
technologies because of the groundbreaking work of people like Faraday, Henry,
and Sturgeon . By acting as a link between electrical and mechanical systems, these
gadgets—also referred to as electric machines—allow electrical energy to be
continuously transformed into mechanical energy or vice versa.
5
Reversible energy conversion is the basis for how electric machines work. A
machine is a generator when it transforms mechanical energy into electrical energy.
On the other hand, it functions as a motor when it transforms electrical energy into
mechanical energy.
Because of its dual purpose, an electric machine may be made to serve as a motor or
a generator, depending on the situation.
From small-scale electronics to massive industrial systems, DC machines are
essential in a variety of sectors due to their ease of use, adaptability, and efficiency.

Their position as a fundamental component of contemporary electromechanical

engineering has been cemented by their capacity to smoothly transform energy
between electrical and mechanical forms.

I.4. Application of Dc motors and Generators [3]

DC motors are used in :
✓ Industry: They are used in rolling mills, coil mills (steel mills, paper mills) and
wire drawing machines.
✓ Transport: Used in railway traction motors and ski lifts.
✓ Handling: Its use in this field is centered around gantry cranes, especially in
shipbuilding, aviation and cranes.
✓ It is also used in the domestic context on a daily basis, especially in household
appliances.
✓ We also find DC applications in low-power applications such as toys (radio-
controlled cars and typical electric trains).

I.5. Working Principle of DC Generators and Motors [7]

A motor is an electrical machine whose role is to convert electrical energy into
mechanical energy . The working principle of a DC motor is that "when a current-
carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, it experiences a mechanical
force".

6
 The principle of operation of a DC motor is to generate an electromagnetic torque
on a rotor that carries conductors through which a DC current flows in a magnetic
field .

Figure I.5.working principal of Motor

I.5.1. Principles of electromagnetism
When an electric current passes through a conductor in an external magnetic field,
a magnetic force acts on the conductor as a result of the interaction of the two fields,
causing the conductor to move in a certain direction.
In this way, electrical energy is converted into mechanical energy by the magnetic
force .
I.5.2. Lorentz force
The force that acts on a charged particle when it passes through an electric and
magnetic field .

Ϝ = 𝒒(𝜠 + 𝝊 × 𝜝) (I.1)

Where:
✓ F: is the Lorentz force (vector)
✓ q: is the charge of the particle
✓ E: is the electric field (vector)
7
 ✓ v: is the velocity of the particle
✓ B: is the magnetic field
Follows Lenz's Law, which states that the induced EMF opposes the change in
magnetic flux [7].
I.5.3. Farady's low
Faraday's law an explanation of how a magnetic field changes as it generates
an electromotive force inside a conductor, is one of the most fundamental principles
of electromagnetism .
(−𝒅𝝋)
𝜺= 𝑩 (I.2)
𝒅𝒕

✓ ε: induced electromotive force in volts (V)

✓ φ_B= Magnetic flux
✓ φ_B = B A cosθ
✓ B: Magnetic field strength
✓ A: Area of the loop
✓ θ: Angle θ between the magnetic field and the normal to the surface
I.5.4. Fleming left hand Rule
The right-hand rule states that when the right hand is arranged in a certain way,
a vector direction can be determined, resulting from some process such as a magnetic
force or a moment.
✓ The first finger (index finger): Indicates the direction of the magnetic field.
✓ Second finger (middle finger): points in the direction of the current.
✓ Third finger (thumb): Indicates the direction of the force to which the conductor
is subjected.

8
 Figure I.6: Fleming 's left hand Rule.
I.5.5. Back of emf [1]
When the rotor rotates in the motor and the magnetic flux lines are interrupted,
a driving force is generated according to Faraday's law of magnetic induction, and
its direction is opposite to the motor.
Its direction can be determined by the base of the right hand .

(𝛗𝐙𝐍𝐏)
𝐄𝐛 = 𝑽𝑶𝑳𝑻𝑺 (I.3)
𝟔𝟎×𝐀
Where:
✓ 𝑒𝑏 = Back E. M. F. in Volts
✓ φ = Magnetic flux per pole in Weber
✓ Z = Number of conductors
✓ P = Number of poles
✓ A = Number of parallel paths
I.5.6. Electromagnetic Torque developed in Dc motor [7]
The electromagnetic torque produced as a result of the interaction of the
magnetic field of the fixed member with the coils of the moving member, called the
driving force, which leads to the rotation of the motor is. given by the following
equation .
9
 𝚻𝐞 = 𝚱 + 𝚰𝛂 (I.4)

I.5.7. shaft Torque [7]

It is the received force that leads to useful work on the motor shaft, called mechanical
power .

I.6.Difference Between Generators And Motors

Generators and motors are both electromagnetic devices, yet they serve opposing
purposes. A generator uses the electromagnetic induction principle, which states
that an electric current is induced by a revolving armature in a magnetic field, to
transform mechanical energy into electrical energy . A motor, on the other hand,
uses the Lorentz force—which is created when current passes through a conductor
in a magnetic field—to transform electrical energy into mechanical energy.
Although the armatures, field windings, and commutators of both devices are
similar, their designs are tailored to their distinct uses . A motor needs an electrical
power source to create motion, while a generator is powered by an external
mechanical source (such as a turbine) to create electricity. Fascinatingly, in the
correct circumstances, Although a motor can function as a generator and vice
versa, design variances may result in suboptimal efficiency when operating in
reverse.

Feature DC Generator DC Motor

Function Produces electricity Produces mechanical motion

Energy Conversion Mechanical to Electrical Electrical to Mechanical

10
Principle Electromagnetic induction Lorentz force

input Mechanical energy Electrical energy

Output Electrical energy Mechanical energy

Reversibility Can act as a motor Can act as a generator

T.I.01: Difference Between Generators And Motors

I.7. Comparison of Generator and DC Motor [6]

Both the engine and the generator play an important role in converting various forms
of energy. Although both rely on electromagnetic principles in their work, their
functions are opposite, as the generator converts mechanical energy into electrical
energy while the engine converts electrical energy into mechanical energy.
In this comparison, we will explain the main differences between a generator and
an engine .

Standard Generator Motor

Basic Principle Converts mechanical energy Converts electrical energy
into electricity through into mechanical using Lorentz
induction. force.

Electromagnetic Effect Based on Faraday's law of Relies on Lorentz force to

electromagnetic induction. move the rotor.

11
 Energy Conversion Mechanical to Electrical. Electrical to Mechanical.

Type of Current Produces Direct Current (DC) Powered by Direct Current

or Alternating Current (AC) (DC) or Alternating Current
depending on the design. (AC) depending on the type

Components Consists of a rotating member Consists of a rotating member

and a fixed member with coils and a fixed member with coils
to generate electricity. to generate torque.

Application Used in automotive, power Used in electrical appliances,

plants, and emergency factories, and electric
systems. vehicles.

T.I.02: Comparison of Generator and Motor Action

I.8. The different types of electric motors [6]

l.8.1. Ac Motors (Alternating current motors)
Motors operate Applying Alternating current, used in industrial. Divided into two
types:
a. induction Motors (Asynchrony motors)
✓ single Phase induction motors
✓ Three phase induction motors
b. Synchronous motors
✓ functions fiche constant Speed synchronized and power supply frequency,
used in mixers machine toiles and printing presses.

12
 Figure I.7: Ac motor.
I.8.2. Dc motors (Direct current motors)
Motors operate on direct current Achieved through providing precise Speed
control. And it is divided into two types:
a. Brshed Dc motors
✓ It uses brushes and a motor to convert energy, it is found in toys and power
tools.
b. Brushless Dc motors (BLDc)
✓ It is Considers More efficient and durable than motors with brushes, it is found
in drones, electronic vehicles and computer cooling fans.

Figure I.8: Dc motor.

I.8.3. Special propose motors
This motor has been designed for specific application with unique operational
characteristics. It is divided into:
a. Stepper motor
✓ Its circular movement in separate steps allows for precise positioning control,
and its most common use is in 3D printers.
b. Servo motors

13
 ✓ It gives us high torque, accuracy and precision, and its most common uses are
in robotics, automation and aerospace applications.
c. universal motors
✓ It works on both AC and DC and is found in vacuum cleaners, power tools
and household appliances.
d. Linear motors
✓ This type produces linear rather than rotational motion, and is used in
magnetic trains and automation systems.

I.8: A categorization of the different types of electric motors.

I.9. A typical electric DC Motor
It is the most common type in applications that require precise control of speed and
torque, such as electric vehicles and power tools.
It includes the following elements:
I.9.1. Rotor
It is the rotating part of a mechanical device used in many electrical systems,
and its role varies according to the function it performs in the system.

14
 Figure I .10: Composition of the Rotor.
I.9.2. Stator
The stator in electric motors and other electric power machines works in parallel
with the rotor and consists of a set of magnetic coils that generate a magnetic field
when an electric current passes through them.

Figure I .11: Composition of the Stator.

I.9.3. Commutator
It is an electrical component used in DC electric motors, consisting of a rotating
disc with several slots that allow the direction of the electric current to change
periodically as the motor rotates. This change helps to keep the movement in the
same direction . In other words, a commutator ensures that the current flows in the
correct direction to maintain the continuity of motion in an electric motor.
15
 Figure I.12: Commutator.

I.10. Construction details of the DC Machine (DC Motor) [8]

Figure I.13: constructional details of a simple 4 pole Dc machine.

16
l.10.1. Yoke
It is the outer frame that supports the overall structure of the device and is made of
iron or steel, its role is to support the poles and protect the internal parts of the motor
l.10.2. Poles and pole shoes
The pole core is a solid material and the pole shoe is usually laminated steel, whose
purpose is to provide flow and support the windings. The role of the pole shoe is to
provide a uniform distribution of flow in the air gap .
l.10.3. Field winding
Made of copper or aluminum, i.e. low resistance materials, they are connected in
series in the case of self-excited machines so that fewer windings are used .
I.10.4. Armature winding
It is the arrangement of conductors in an electric motor or generator ،that plays a
major role in the process of magnetic induction .
I.10.5. commutator and brushes
It is one of the essential parts of DC machines, it is several copper rods assembled
in the form of a cylinder at the end of the rotor, each rod is isolated from the other,
and they are connected to the motor connections .
✓ Ensure that the supply current is in the motor conductors.
✓ Switching conductors in the motor current.
Brushes are made of carbon or graphite and are secured by brush holders. They allow
the motor to be supplied by a sliding contact between the commutator rods, and are
designed to withstand harsh operating environment such as friction, bending, and
high temperature .
I.10.6. Armature winding of a Dc machine
These are called motor windings and are connected in two ways :
17
 a. Lap windings.
b. Wave windings.
I.11. Different Types of DC Machines [5]
Depending on the application and the various connection types between field
windings and motor windings, there are different types of DC machines .
I.11.1. Separately excited motors
The motor and field windings are supplied with different DC voltages, in the case
of a motor connected to a variable speed drive, we can also reverse the direction of
rotation by reversing the application of the motor or field supply .

Figure I.14: Electrical modeling of a separately excited motor.

• Characteristics
✓ Voltage-adjustable, load-independent speed
✓ provides adjustable voltage
✓ when paired with a static transformer.
✓ Provides great torque at low speed (machine tools, lifting), in low power
applications it is used as a motor with speed regulation.
✓ Costly maintenance (replacement of graphite brushes, commutator wear) .

I.11.2. Shunt Excitation

18
In this case, the field windings and the motor windings are connected in parallel.
This means that there is no connection between the field current and the motor
current. This type of motor operates at a constant speed and is characterized by high
efficiency .

Figure I.15: Electrical modeling of a shunt-wound motor.

• Characteristics
✓ Characterized by high starting torque but risks running away when there is
no load
✓ suitable for the high-power range for satisfactory operation
✓ of the series motor does not depend on the supply voltage
✓ It is used as a starter for internal combustion engines at low power .
I.11.3. Series-wound motor
This type of motor is characterized by the series connection of the motor and field
windings. The direction of rotation can be reversed by reversing the polarity of the
motor and inductor supply.

19
 Figure I.16: Electrical modeling of a series excitation motor.
• Characteristics
✓ This type of motor has high torque during the start-up process
✓ Good speed regulation at high speeds
✓ unstable at low speeds
I.11.4. compound motors
This motor is characterized by two field circuits and the connection of the two
field circuits combines the structure of a shunt excitation motor and a series
excitation motor in order to retain the advantages of both motor technologies .

Figure I.17: electrical modeling of a compound-wound motor.

20
• characteristics
✓ The agitator is divided into two parts, one connected in series and the other in
parallel
✓ Highly inertial motors
✓ Highly variable torque with speed
✓ Used for small direct-drive motors .

I.12. Losses, Efficiency and armature reaction DC machine [4]

It is recognized that we cannot fully convert input energy into output energy, as
some energy is lost during this conversion process and this causes the efficiency of
the machine to decrease.
Efficiency is the ratio of output power to input power, so we must study the losses
that occur in a DC machine in order to design it well .
I.12.1. Electrical or copper losses
a) These losses are lost in the copper windings in the motor and field.
b) These losses account for 30 to 40 % of the total motor losses, while copper is
variable and depends more on the machine load .
I.12.2. Iron losses
Because the motor core is made of iron material and moves in a magnetic field, a
small current is induced in the core itself. This causes eddy current loss and
deceleration loss; these losses contribute 10 to 20 % of full load losses .
I.12.3. Brush losses
Brush contact in a DC motor also causes copper loss, so we can say that this loss is
included in the copper loss in the motor .
I.12.4. Stray Losse
Largely proportional to the current, this type of loss is unimportant in small DC
machines, but in large machines it is very important in this case, and its value is
estimated by experimentation .
21
I.13. Motor characteristics [9]
I.13.1. Speed of rotation

The rotational speed of a DC motor is directly proportional to the motor voltage and
inversely proportional to the current .
We can express this mathematically as follows:

𝑼 = 𝑬 +𝑰 (I.5)

𝑬 = 𝑲𝒏∅ (I.6)
𝑵
𝒘𝒊𝒕𝒉 ∶ 𝒌 = 𝒑 (I.7)
𝒂

I.13.2. The electromotive force

The energy converted per unit time by a non-electrostatic source of electrical energy,
like voltage produced by a source of electrical energy .

𝚸𝒆𝒎 = 𝚬 ∙ 𝚰 (I.8)

I.13.3. Power absorbed

For the field winding :

𝚸 = 𝒖. 𝒊 (I.9)

And for the armature:

𝐏 =𝐔∙𝐈 (I.10)

The total power absorbed by the motor in watts:

22
 𝐏𝐚 = 𝐏 + 𝐩 = 𝐔𝐈 + 𝒖𝒊 (I.11)

Where:
✓ I, U: Armature voltage and current
✓ u, i: Inductor voltage and current
I.13.4. Useful power
Mechanical power is the rate of work done by a real mechanical device. It is
symbolized by 𝑃𝑢 and is measured in watts (W) :

𝐓𝐮
𝐏𝐮 = (I.12)
𝛑

I.13.5. Motor efficiency

Efficiency is referred to as:
𝐏𝐮
𝓷= (I.13)
𝐏𝐚
η is expressed as a percentage.

I.14. Conclusion
This chapter allowed us to review the main components of the DC electrical machine, its
operating principle, and its different types according to the method of excitation.

In the next chapter, we will discuss two control techniques: the first is the PID controller,
and the second is the LQR control technique for regulating the speed of the DC electric motor.

23
24