 1. UNIT-II D.C.

MOTORS by Kumar Saliganti Assistant Professor (C)

skjntum@gmail.com Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering
JNTUH College of Engineering Manthani
 2. TEXT BOOKS: 1. A. E. Fitzgerald and C. Kingsley, "Electric Machinery”,
New York, McGraw Hill Education, 2013. 2. A. E. Clayton and N. N. Hancock,
“Performance and design of DC machines”, CBS Publishers, 2004. REFERENCE
BOOKS: 1. M. G. Say, “Performanceand design of AC machines”, CBS
Publishers, 2002. 2. P. S. Bimbhra, “ElectricalMachinery”, Khanna Publishers,
2011. 3. I. J. Nagrath and D. P. Kothari, “Electric Machines”, McGraw Hill
Education, 2010.
 3. CONTENTS: ❑ Introduction ❑ Principle of operation – Back E.M.F ❑
Torque equation – characteristics ❑ Application of shunt, series and
compound motors ❑ Armature reaction and commutation ❑ Speed control of
D.C. Motors ❑ Armature voltage and field flux control methods ❑ Motor
starters (3-point and 4-point starters) ❑ Testing of D.C. machines ❑ Losses –
Constant & Variable losses ❑ Calculation of efficiency – condition for
maximum efficiency
 4. • A DC motor or Direct Current Motor converts electrical energy into
mechanical energy. • A direct current (DC) motor is a fairly simple electric
motor that uses electricity and a magnetic field to produce torque, which
turns the rotor and hence give mechanical work. INTRODUCTION
 5. PRINCIPLE OF DC MOTOR • In any electric motor, operation is based on
simple electromagnetism. • When a current-carrying conductor is placed in
an external magnetic field, it will experience a force i.e. Lorentz force. • Due
to this force torque is produced which rotates the rotor of motor and hence a
motor runs.
 6. CONSTRUCTION OF DC MOTOR
 7. CONSTRUCTION OF DC MOTOR
 8. Function of each part of DC Motor: Yoke: • It is outer coverof dc motor
also calledas frame. • It provides protectionto the rotatingand other part of
the machine from moisture,dustetc. • Yokeis an iron body which provides the
path for the flux to completethe magneticcircuit. • It provides the
mechanicalsupport for the poles. • MaterialUsed: low reluctancematerialsuch
as cast iron, siliconsteel,rolledsteel, caststeeletc.
 9. Poles and pole core: • Poles areelectromagnet,the field winding is wound
over it. • It produces the magneticflux when the field winding is excited. •
The constructionof pole is done using the laminationof particularshape to
reduce the power loss due to eddy current. pole shoe: • Pole shoe is an
extended part of a pole. Due to its typical shape, it enlarges the area of the
pole, so that more flux can pass through the air gapto armature. • Material
Used: low reluctance magnetic material such as cast steel or cast iron is used
for construction of pole and pole shoe.
 10. Field winding: fieldcoil woundonpole • The coil wound on the pole
corearecalledfield coils. • Field coils are connected in series to formfield
winding. • Currentis passed through the fieldwinding in a specific direction,to
magnetizethe poles and pole shoes. Thus magnetic flux is produce in the air
gap between the pole shoe and armature. • Field winding is also calledas
Excitingwinding. • Material Usedfor copper conductor is copper. • Due to the
currentflowing through the field winding alternateN and S poles areproduced.
 11. Armature core: • Armaturecoreis a cylindricaldrum mounted on the
shaft. • It is providedwith largenumber of slots all over its periphery and it is
parallelto the shaftaxis. • Armatureconductorsare placed in these slots. •
Armaturecoreprovides low reluctancepath to the flux produced by the
fieldwinding. • Material used:high permeability,low reluctancecast steel or
cast iron materialis used. • Laminatedconstructionof iron coreis used to
minimize the eddy currentlosses.
 12. Armature winding: • Armatureconductor is placedin a armature slots
presenton the periphery of armaturecore. • Armatureconductor are
interconnectedto form the armaturewinding. • When the armaturewinding is
rotatedusing a prime mover, it cuts the magnetic flux lines and voltagegets
induced in it. • Armaturewinding is connectedto the externalcircuit (load)
through the commutator andbrushes. • MaterialUsed: Armaturewinding is
suppose to carry the entireload currenthence it should be made up of
conducting materialsuch as copper.
 13. Commutator: • It is a cylindricaldrum mounted on the shaft along with
the armaturecore. • It is made up of largenumber of wedge shaped segments
of hard-drawncopper. • The segments are insulatedfromeach other by thin
layerof mica. • Armaturewinding are tapped at various points and these
tapping aresuccessivelyconnected to varioussegments of the commutator.
Function of commutator: • It converts the dc emf generatedinternallyintoac •
It helps to produce unidirectionaltorque. MaterialUsed: it is made up of copper
and insulating materialbetween the segments is mica.
 14. Brushes: • Currentareconducted from the armatureto the external
load by the carbonbrushes which are held againstthe surfaceof the
commutator bysprings. • Function of brushes: Tocollectthe current from the
commutatorand apply it to the externalload in generator,and vice versain
motor. • MaterialUsed: Brushes aremade of carbonand they arerectangular in
shape.
 15. Action of commutator: ▪ The commutator converts DC in the supply
terminals to the AC in the armature conductors. Therefore the commutator
behaves as mechanical rotating inverter and the frequency of armature
current, f=PN/120. ▪ This conversion of DC into AC is accomplished through
the use of a commutator (split rings). ▪ The conductors of the armature of a
DC motor are connected to commutator segments. 
 F = Frequency of the generated AC voltage (in Hz).
  P = Number of magnetic poles.
  N = Speed of the rotor (or armature) in RPM.
 16. WORKING PRINCIPLE OF DC MOTOR
 17. Back E.M.F: • When the armaturewinding of dc motor is start rotating in
the magnetic flux produced by the field winding,it cuts the lines of magnetic
flux and induces the emf in the armaturewinding. • Accordingto Lenz’s law
(The law that whenever there is an induced electromotive force (emf) in a
conductor,it is always in such a direction that the current it would produce
would oppose the change which causes the induced emf.), this induced emf

called as back emf. 60 𝐴 𝐸𝑏 = ∅𝑍N 𝑃 Volts + 𝑁= speed in rpm ∅= flux per

acts in the opposite directionto the armaturesupply voltage.Hence this emf is

pole armature supply voltage A1 𝑍= no of conductors 𝑃=no of pole pairs

𝐴=area ofcross section of conductor 𝐸𝑏= back emf 𝐸𝑏 A2 _
 18. Voltage Equation Eg = V + Ia Ra (Generator) V = Eb + Ia Ra (Motor)

19. Voltage and Power equation of DC Motor: 𝑉 = 𝐸𝑏 +𝐼𝑎𝑅𝑎 If we multiply

the above equation by 𝐼𝑎, we will get 𝑉𝐼𝑎 = 𝐸𝑏𝐼𝑎 +𝐼𝑎 2𝑅𝑎 𝑉𝐼𝑎 =


𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑𝑡𝑜 𝑡h𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝐸𝑏𝐼𝑎 = 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑜𝑓

𝑡he 𝑚𝑒𝑐h𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑𝑏𝑦 𝑡h𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝐼𝑎2𝑅𝑎 = 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 Thus, 𝐸𝑏𝐼𝑎 = 𝑉𝐼𝑎 −𝐼𝑎 2𝑅𝑎
=input power-powerloss thus, 𝐸𝑏𝐼𝑎= Gross mechanicalpower produce by the
motor = Pm

20. Torque equation of DC Motor: 𝐸𝑏𝐼𝑎 =

𝑇𝜔…………………………………………………… 3 𝑚𝑒𝑐h𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟


𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑𝑡𝑜 𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑡h𝑒𝑠h𝑎𝑓𝑡 𝑜𝑛 𝑚𝑒𝑐h𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 =

𝑇𝜔……………………………………………… 1 T =Torquein Newton-meter 𝜔=
angular velocity in radian/second 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑚𝑒𝑐h𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒 𝑏𝑦
𝑡h𝑒𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑛 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 =𝐸𝑏𝐼𝑎…………………………………………………2
Eb = back emf in volts Ia = armaturecurrentin ampere equating eqnuation 1
and 2 , we get

21. 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑁 ……………………………… 60 And 𝐸𝑏 = 60 2𝜋𝑁 = Speed inrpm

∅𝑍𝑁𝑃 60𝐴 Thus, equation become ∅𝑍𝑁𝑃 𝐼𝑎 = 𝑇 2𝜋𝑁 60 𝐴 60 𝑇 =


∅𝐼𝑎𝑍𝑃 0.159𝑃∅𝑍𝐼𝑎 0.159𝑃𝑍 2𝜋𝐴 𝐴 𝐴 = = ∅𝐼𝑎 𝑃, 𝑍 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐴 are constant,

hence we cansay 𝑇 ∝ ∅ 𝐼𝑎 Thus, torqueproduce by the DC Motor is
proportionalto the main field flux ∅ and armaturecurrent𝐼𝑎 3
 23. Types of Self Excited DC Motors: • Classificationof the d.c. motor
depends on the way of connecting the armatureand fieldwinding of a d.c.
motor: 1. DC Shunt Motor 2. DC Series Motor 3. DC Compound Motor Short
shunt compound Long shunt compound Cumulative Differential Cumulative
Differential compound compound compound compound motor motor motor
motor
 24. 1. DC SHUNT MOTOR Armature • The parallel combination of two
windings is connected across a common dc power supply. • The resistance of
shunt field winding (Rsh) is always higher than that is armature winding. •
This is because the number of turns for the field winding is more than that of
armature winding. • The cross-sectional area of the wire used for field
winding is smaller than that of the wire used for armature winding.
 25. Shunt field current, Ish = V/Rsh Back emf, Eb= V-IaRa Gross
mechanical Power developed, Pm= Eb×Ia Net electrical power input Power,
Pnet = V×Ia IL=Ia + Ish Voltage and current relations:
 26. 2. DC SERIES MOTOR • The field winding is connected in series with the
armature. • The current passing through the series winding is same as the
armature current . • Therefore the series field winding has fewer turns of
thick wire than the shunt field winding. • Also therefore the field winding will
posses a low resistance then the armature winding.
 27. Back emf, Eb= V-IaRa-IaRse Net electrical power input Power, Pin =
V×Ia Ia= Ise = IL Voltage and current relations:
 28. I. LONG SHUNT COMPOUND MOTOR • In this the series winding is
connected in series with the armature winding and the shunt winding is
connected in parallel with the armature connection.
 29. Shunt field current, Ish = V/Rsh Back emf, Eb= V-IaRa-IaRse Net
electrical power input Power, Pin = V×Ia IL= Ia+Ish Voltage and current
relations:
 30. II. SHORT SHUNT COMPOUND MOTOR • In short shunt compound motor
the series winding is connected in series to the parallel combination of
armature and the shunt winding • This is done to get good starting torque
and constant speed characteristics.
 31. Shunt field current, Ish = V-ILRse/Rsh Back emf, Eb= V-IaRa-ILRse IL=
Ia+Ish Voltage and current relations: IL= Ise
 32. Armature T orque Equation Derivation
 33. Armature T orque of a D.C. Motor
 34. Shaft T orque Equation Derivation The difference (Ta − Tsh) is known
as lost torque and is due to iron and friction losses of the motor.
 35. Speed of a D.C. Motor Speed Regulation
 36. D.C. Motor Characteristics 1. Torque and armature current i.e. Ta/Ia
characteristics. It is known as electrical characteristics. 2. Speed and
armature current i.e. N/Ia characteristics. 3. Speed and torque i.e. N/Ta
characteristic. It is also known as mechanical characteristics.
 37. Characteristics of DC Shunt Motors 1. T orque and armature current i.e.
T a/Ia characteristics. It is known as electrical characteristics. Assuming
 (though somewhat reaction) Φ to be at heavy dueto practically loads, φ
increased constant decreases armature Hence, the electrical characteristic is
practicallya straight line through the origin. Shaft torque is shown dotted.
Since a heavy startingload will need a heavy starting current,shunt motor
should never be started on (heavy) load. As Φ is practically constant
 38. Characteristics of DC Shunt Motors 2. Speed and armature current i.e.
N/Ia characteristics. As Φ is practically constant As Eb is also
practicallyconstant,speed is, for most purposes,constant Here, both Eb and Φ
decrease with increasing load. However, Eb decreases slightly more than φ so
that on the whole, there is some decrease in speed. The drop varies from 5 to
15% of full-load speed, being dependent on saturation, armature reaction and
brush position. Hence, the actual speed curve is slightly droopingas shown by
the dotted line. But, for all practical purposes, shunt motor is taken as a
constant-speed motor.
 39. Characteristics of DC Shunt Motors 3. Speed and torque i.e. N/Ta
characteristic. It is also known as mechanical characteristics. When speed is
high, torque is almost constant. As Φ is practically constant
 40. Characteristics of DC Series Motors 1. T orque and armature current i.e.
T a/Ia characteristics. It is known as electrical characteristics. At light loads, Ia
and hence Φ is small. But as Ia increases,Ta increasesas the square ofthe

almost independent ofIa hence Ta ∝Ia only. So the characteristic becomes a

current.Hence, Ta/Ia curve is a parabola . After saturation/heavy Loads,Φ is

straight line. The shaft torque Tsh is less than armature torque due to
straylosses. As practically Φ is equals to Ia
 41. Characteristics of DC Series Motors 2. Speed and armature current i.e.
N/Ia characteristics. With increased Ia, Φ also increases. Hence, speed varies
inversely as armature current. When load is heavy, Ia is large. Hence, speed
is low (this decreases Eb and allows more armature current to flow). But when
load current and hence Ia falls to a small value, speed becomes
dangerouslyhigh. As practically Φ is equals to Ia Hence, a series motor should
never be started without some mechanical (not belt-driven) load on it
otherwise it may develop excessive speed and get damaged due to heavy
centrifugal forces so produced. It should be noted that series motor is a
variable speed motor.
 42. Characteristics of DC Series Motors 3. Speed and torque i.e. N/Ta
characteristic. It is also known as mechanical characteristics. When speed is
high, torque is low and vice-versa.
 43. Compound Motors These motors have both series and shunt
windings. If series excitation helps the shunt excitation i.e. series flux is in the
same direction (a) then the motor is said to be cumulative compound motor.
If on the other hand, series field opposes theshunt field (b), then the motor is
said to be differential compound motor.
 44. Characteristics of DC Compound Motors i). Speed versus armature
current characteristics
 45. Characteristics of DC Compound Motors ii). Torque versus armature
current characteristics
 46. iii) Speed - Torque characteristics Characteristics of DC Compound
Motors
 47. APPLICATIONS OF DC MOTORS MOTORS.. APPLICATIONS…
D.C.SHUNTMOTOR Lathe Machines, Centrifugal Pumps, Fans, Blowers,
Conveyors, Lifts and Spinning machines, etc. D.C.SERIESMOTOR Traction,
Hoists and Lifts, Cranes and Rollingmills, etc. D.C.COMPOUND MOTOR
(Cumulative) Elevators, Rolling mills, Punches, Shears and planers, etc.

48. Speed Control of DC Motor • The speed equation of dc motor is 𝑁𝛼 𝐸𝑏

∅ 𝛼 (𝑉 − 𝐼𝑎𝑅𝑎) ∅ • But the resistance of armature winding or series field


winding in dc series motor are small. • Therefore the voltage drop 𝐼𝑎𝑅𝑎 or
𝐼𝑎(𝑅𝑎 + 𝑅𝑠) across them will be negligible as compare to the external supply
voltage V in above equation. • Therefore 𝑁𝛼 𝑉 ∅ since V>>>> 𝐼𝑎𝑅𝑎 • Thus
we can say 1. Speed is inversely proportionalto flux ∅. 2. Speed is
directlyproportional to armature voltage. 3. Speed is directly proportionalto
applied voltageV. So by varying one of these parameters, it is possibleto
change the speed of a dc motor
 49. Factors Controlling Motor Speed  The speed can be controlled by
varying (i) Flux/pole, Φ (Flux Control) (ii) Resistance Ra of armature circuit
(Rheostatic Control) (iii)Applied voltage V (Voltage Control)
 50. 1. Flux Control Method  To control the flux, a rheostat is added in
series with the field winding, as shown in the circuit diagram. Adding more
resistance in series with the fieldwindingwill increase the speed as it
decreases the flux. armature constant, resistance speed Ra are kept is
directly proportional to the armature current Ia. Thus, if we add a resistance
in series with the armature, Ia decreases and, hence, the speed also
decreases. 2. Armature Control Method When the supply voltage V and the
Speed Control of DC Shunt Motor
 51. 3. Applied VoltageControl Method Multiple voltage control: In this
method, the shunt field is connectedto a fixed exciting voltage and armature
is supplied with differentvoltages.Voltageacross armature is changed with the
help of a suitableswitchgear.
 52. Speed Control Of Series Motor: 1. Flux Control Method:
 53. 2. Rheostatic Control Method:
 54. 3. Applied VoltageControl Method:

55. Need of Starter: We know that,V = 𝐸𝑏+ 𝐼𝑎𝑅𝑎.............for a dc shunt

motor and V = 𝐸𝑏 + 𝐼𝑎(𝑅𝑎 + 𝑅𝑠e)….for a dc series motor Hence, the

 expressionfor 𝐼𝑎 are as follows: 𝐼𝑎 = 𝑉−𝐸𝑏 …………………… for dc
shuntmotor 𝑅𝑎 𝑉−𝐸𝑏 𝐼𝑎 = (𝑅𝑎+𝑅𝑠e) ………………..for dc seriesmotor At the
time of startingthe motor speed N=0 and hencethe back emf 𝐸𝑏=0. Hence
the armaturecurrentat the time of startingis givenby, 𝑅𝑎 𝐼𝑎(𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔) = 𝑉
………….fordc shunt motor 𝐼𝑎(𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔) = 𝑉 (𝑅𝑎+𝑅𝑠e) ……for dc series
motor

 56. • Since the values of 𝑅𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅𝑠e are small, the starting currents will be
tremendously large, if the rated voltage is applied at the time of starting. •
The starting current of the motor can be 15 to 20 times higher than the full
load current. • Due to high starting current the supply voltagewill fluctuate. •
Due to excessive current, the insulation of the armature winding may burn. •

torque T ∝ 𝐼𝑎 2 . So an excessive large starting torque is produced. This can

The fuses will blow and circuit breakers will trip. • For dc series motors the

put a heavy mechanical stress on the winding and shaft of the motor
resulting in the mechanical damage to the motor. • So to avoid all these
effects we have to keep the starting current of motor below safe limit. This is
achieved by using starter.
 57. Principle of starter: • Starter is basically a resistance which is
connected in series with the armature winding only at the time of startingthe
motor to limit the startingcurrent. • The starterof starting resistancewill
remainin the circuit only at the time of startingand will go out of the circuit or
become ineffectivewhen the motor speed upto a desirespeed.
 58. • At the time of starting,the starteris in the startposition as shown in
fig.so the full starterresistanceappears in series with the armature.This will
reduce the starting current. • The starterresistanceis then gradually cutoff.
The motor will speed up, back emf will be developed and it will regulatethe
armaturecurrent.The starteris not necessarythen. • Thus starteris pushed to
the Run position as shown in fig under the normal operatingcondition. The
valueof starterresistanceis zero in this position and it does not affectthe
normal operation. Typesof starters: 1. Three point starter 2. Four point starter
 59. Three-point Starter:
 60. Three-point Starter Animation:
 61. Four-point Starter:
 62. Q: Why testing is required ? Ans: Machines are tested for finding out
losses, efficiency and temperature rise. For small machines we used DIRECT
METHOD of testing and for large machines, INDIRECT METHOD of testing are
used. Testing of D.C. machines
 63. Power Stages in DC Motor
 64. Losses in a D.C. Motor ▪ 1- COPPER LOSSES ➢ ARMATURE Cu LOSS ➢
SHUNT FIELD Cu LOSS ➢ SERIES FIELD Cu LOSS ▪ 2- IRON LOSSES ❖
 HYSTERESIS LOSS ❖ EDDY CURRENT LOSS ▪ 3- MECHANICAL LOSSES ❑
FRICTION LOSS ❑ WINDAGE LOSS ▪ 4- STRAY LOAD LOSSES
 65. Copper losses Cupper losses are mainly due to the current passing
through the winding. Thus copper losses consists of 1. Armature copper loss,
2. Field copper loss and 3. Loss due to brush contact resistance.
 66. Copper losses-Armature Cu Loss Armature copper loss = Ia 2Ra
(Where Ia is Armature current and Ra is Armature resistance) This loss is
about 30 to 40% of full load losses.
 67. Copper losses-Field Cu Loss Field copper loss = If 2Rf (where If is field
current and Rf is field resistance) In case of shunt wounded field, this loss is
practically constant. Field copper loss is about 20 to 30% of full load losses.
Shunt field copper loss = Ish 2Rsh Series field copper loss = Ise 2Rse
 68. Copper losses - Loss due to Brush Contact Resistance There is also
brush contact loss due to brush contact resistance (i.e., resistance between
the surface of brush and surface of commutator). Generally this loss is
included into armature copper loss.
 69. Iron losses (Magnetic losses) As iron core of the armature is
continuously rotating in a magnetic field, there are some losses taking place
in the core. Therefore iron losses are also known as Core losses. This loss
consists of Hysteresis loss and Eddy current loss.
 70. Hysteresis loss (Wh): ▪ The loss is due to the reversal of magnetization
of the armature core. ▪ Every portion of the rating core passes under N and S
poles alternately. ▪ The core undergoes one complete cycle of magnetic
reversal after passing under one pair of poles. P = No. of poles N = Armature
speed in rpm frequency of magnetic reversals f = PN 120 ▪ The loss depends
upon the volume and Bmax and frequency of reversals. Hysteresis loss is
given by steinmetz formula Wh=η B1.6 maxf V watts V=Volume of the core in
m3 η= Steinmetz hysteresis coefficient
 71. Hysteresis loss
 72. Eddy current loss (We): When the armature core rotates in the
magnetic field, an emf is also induced in the core, according to the Faraday's
law of electromagnetic induction. Though this induced emf is small, it causes
a large current to flow in the body due to its small resistance of the core. This
current is known as “Eddy Current”. The power loss due to this current is
known as “Eddy current loss”. Eddy current loss We is given as: We = k B2
maxf2t2v2 watts Bmax= Maximum flux density F = Frequency of the
magnetic reversals v = Volume of the armature core t = Thickness of
lamination
 73. Eddy current loss
 74. Stray Losses Iron losses and mechanical losses together are called
stray losses. Mechanical Losses Mechanical losses consists of the losses due
 to friction in bearings and commutator. Air friction loss of rotating armature
also contributes. These losses are about 10 to 20% of full load losses.
 75. Stray Load Loss The stray load losses are produced as a result of the
distortion of the magnetic field by the armature and the interpoles. The
distortion causes the flux in the field poles to be unevenly distributed and
thereby produces a hysteresis loss. It is generally neglected in motors of 200
hp or less. In larger rated dynamos the stray load loss is assumed to be 1% of
the output.
 76. Constant and Variable Losses The losses in a d.c. motor may be sub-
divided into (i) Constant losses, (ii) Variable losses. (i) Constant losses: Those
losses in a d.c. motor which remain constant at all loads are known as
constant losses. The constant losses in a d.c. motorare: (a) iron losses (b)
mechanical losses (c) shunt field losses
 77. Constant and Variable Losses (ii) Variable losses: Those losses in a d.c.
motor which vary with load are called variable losses. The variable losses in a
d.c. motor are: (a) Copper loss in armature winding ( Ia 2Ra) (b) Copper loss
in series field winding ( Ise 2Rse) Total losses = Constantlosses + Variable
losses Note: Field Cu loss is constant for shunt and compound motors.
 78. Condition for Maximum Efficiency Generator efficiency is maximum
when, The load current corresponding to maximum efficiency is given by the
relation a R c W L I / = Variable loss = Constant Loss