ATOMS AND MOLECULES

❖ Atoms are defined as “the basic building blocks of matter”.

➢ Maharishi Kanad postulated that if we go on dividing
matter (padarth), we shall get smaller and smaller particles.
➢ Pakudha Katyayama, elaborated this doctrine and said that
these particles normally exist in a combined form which
gives us various forms of matter
➢ Democritus and Leucippus suggested that if we go on
dividing matter, a stage will come when particles obtained
cannot be divided further.
• Democritus called these indivisible particles atoms
➢ Antoine L. Lavoisier laid the foundation of chemical
sciences by establishing two important laws of chemical
combination

Law Of Conservation Of Mass

➢ Law of conservation of mass – I simple terms, this law states that

matter can neither be created nor destroyed. In other words, the
total mass, that is, the sum of the mass of reacting mixture and
the products formed remains constant.
➢ Law of constant proportions – proportion of elements by weight
in a given compound will always remain exactly the same. In
simple terms, we can say that irrespective of its source, origin or
its quantity, the percent composition of elements by weight in a
given compound will always remain the same
 Postulates Dalton’s Atomic Theory

➢ According to Dalton’s atomic theory, all matter, whether an element, a

compound or a mixture is composed of small particles called atoms.
➢ A specific elements of all kinds of atoms is the same in mass, size and
other properties. However different atoms element exhibit different
properties and different masses and sizes
➢ Atoms are indivisible particles, which cannot be created or destroyed
in a chemical reaction
➢ Elements of different atoms can combine with each other in fixed
ratios (in whole – number ratio ) in order to form compounds
➢ In chemical reactions atoms can be combined, rearranged or separated

Dalton's atomic symbols MODERN SYMBOLS OF ELEMENTS

➢International union of pure and applied chemistry
(IUPAC)
➢A symbol’s initial later is always expressed in capital
letters (UPPERCASE) while its second letter is written in
smaller letter (lowercase)
➢For example :-
➢Hydrogen – has a symbol as H
➢Cobalt – has a symbol as Co, but not CO
➢Aluminium – has a symbol as Al but not AL
 ATOMIC MASS OF AN ELEMENT

▪ Atomic mass can be defined as the total mass of one

atom of any given element. The unit of atomic mass is
called the unified atomic mass unit (denoted by “u”)
▪ Mass of an atomic particle is called the atomic mass
▪ This is commonly expresses as per the international
agreement in terms of a unified atomic mass unit
(AMU)
▪ It can be best defined as 1/12 of the mass of a carbon-
12 atom in its ground state.

❖ Molecule of element :-
▪ A molecule is a collection of two or more chemically bound
atoms, whether they are from the same element

❖ Molecule of compound :-
▪ The atoms that join together must be distinct from one another
for the substance to qualify as a compound. O2, for instance, is a
molecule, not a compound. Due to its atomic connection with
another oxygen atom. NaCl, however, is a compound since it is
made up of two distinct atoms that are chemically bound
together
 Molar Mass
▪ In a substance, the amount of entities present for e.g. atoms,
molecules, ions, is defined as a mole. A mole of any substance is ▪ Molar mass of a substance is the mass in grams of one mole
6.022×1023 of the compound.
▪ Mole concept is one of the most convenient ways of expressing
the amount of reactants and product in the reaction ▪ In a substance, the amount of entities present e.g. atoms,
molecules, ions, is defined as a mole.
▪ The value of Avogadro’s number is approximately 6.022×1023 . The ▪ A mole of any substance is 6.022×1023 molecules. Just as we
definition of Avogadro’s number is that it tells us the number of take a standard value to calculate different things e.g. 1
particles in 1 mole (or mol) of a substance. These particles could dozen =12 items similarly we use the mole to calculate the
be electrons or molecules, or atoms. size of the smallest entities quantitatively.

Molar Mass Unit

▪ The standard unit for this is g mol−1.

However, the SI unit is kg mol−1, which is
very rare.

▪ The number of atoms present in 12g

(0.012 kg) of the 12C isotope is the number
of particles present in 1 mole of the
substance. One of the most important
facts that should be kept in mind is that
the mole of a substance always contains
the same number of entities whatever the
substance may be.
❖ J. J. Thomson's proposals
1. An atom is electrically neutral as charges of equal magnitude and
opposite charges are present in it.
2. An atom contains a charged sphere, positive in nature and electrons are
embedded within it.

Rutherford’s model of an atom

Rutherford concluded the model of the atom from the α-particles
▪ In this experiment, fast – moving alpha (α) – particle were made to fall on a scattering experiment as :
thin gold foil. His observation were:
▪ A major fraction of the α-particles bombarded towards the gold sheet passed 1. There is a positively charged centre in an atom called the nucleus. Nearly
through it without any deflection and hence most of the space in an atom is all the mass of an atom resides in the nucleus.
empty 2. The electrons revolve around the nucleus in well-defined orbits.
▪ Some of the α-particles were deflection by the gold sheet by very small 3. The size of the nucleus is very small as compared to the size of the atom.
angles and hence the positive charge in an atom is not uniformly distributed.
▪ The positive charge in an atom is concentrated in a very small volume.
▪ Very few of the α-particle were deflected back, that is only a few α-particles
had nearly 180o angle of deflection. So the volume occupied by the positively
charged particles in an atom is very small as compared to the total volume of
an atom
 Bohr's model
❖ Drawbacks of Rutherford’s model

▪ He explained that the electrons in an

atom revolve around the nucleus in
well-defined orbits. Particles in a
circular orbit would experience
acceleration.
▪ Thus, the revolving electron would lose
energy and finally fall into the nucleus.
▪ But this cannot take place as the atom
would be unstable and matter would not
exist in the from we know.

❖Postulates of Bohr model of an atom

▪ In an atom, electrons (negatively charged ) revolve around the

positively charged nucleus in a definite circular path called orbits or
shells.
▪ Each orbit or shell has a fixed energy and these circular orbits are
known as orbital shells
▪ The energy levels are represented by an integer (n=1,2,3…) known as
the quantum number. This range of quantum number starts from
nucleus side with n=1 having the lowest energy level. The orbits n=1,
2,3.4… are assigned as K,L,M,N… shells and when an electron
attains the lowest energy level, it is said to be in the ground state
 ❖ The electrons in an atom move from a lower energy level to higher energy
level by gaining the required energy and an electron moves from a higher
❖ Electron distribution in different orbit
energy level to lower energy level by losing energy
▪ Maximum number of electrons in an orbit is given by formula =

❖ Valency :-
▪ The maximum number of electron that can be accommodated in
the outermost orbit is 8, even though it has more capacity. This is ▪ Valency is the number of atoms of a particular
called octet rule. element that is combined with one atom of another
element to form a molecule.
▪ The shells are always filled in a step-wise manner from the lower ▪ Valency is a measure of the combining power of an
to higher energy levels. Electrons are not filled in the next shell atom.
unless previous shells are filled ▪ The valency of an element is determined by the
number of electrons in its outermost shell. The
valency of an element can be increased either by
gaining or losing electrons
 ▪ The electrons present in the outermost shell of an atom are known as the
valence electrons.
▪ The combining capacity of the atoms or their tendency to react and from
molecules with atoms of the same or different elements is known as
valency of the atom.
▪ Atoms of elements, having a completely filled outermost shell show little
chemical activity.
▪ Their combining capacity or valency is zero.
▪ For example we know that the number of electrons in the outermost shell
of hydrogen is 1, and in magnesium, it is 2.
▪ Therefore the valency of hydrogen is 1 as it can easily lose 1 electron and
become stable.
▪ On the other hand, that of magnesium is 2 as it can lose 2 electrons easily
and also attain stability

ATOMIC NUMBER Mass number

Protons and neutrons are present in the nucleus, so the mass number is the
▪ The number of protons found in the nucleus of an atom is termed as the total of these protons and neutrons
atomic number. It is denoted by the “z”
❖ Isotopes
▪ Isotopes are defined as the atoms of the same element, having the ❖Isobars
same atomic number (number of protons) but different mass numbers ▪ Atoms of different elements with different atomic numbers,
(number of protons + neutrons) which have the same mass number are known as isobars

❖Allotropes

▪ Allotropy is a property by which an element can exist in more

than one from that is physically different and chemically similar.
▪ Carbon exists in different allotropic forms as follows.
1. Diamond
2. Graphite
3. Fullerene