Atoms, molecules and chemical arithmetic

Short summary What do we learn Quick Revision

 A basic introduction of  Law of chemical combination

chemistry ❶ Law of conservation of mass:
Chemistry is the study of matter and Mass can neither be created
the changes it undergoes. nor be destroyed, it only can be
transferred from one system to
Chemistry is often called the central another.
science, because a basic knowledge of
chemistry is essential for the study of ❷Law of constant proportions:
biology, physics, geology, ecology, A chemical compound always
and many other subjects. contains same elements in definite
proportion by mass and it does not
 Scope or importance of chemistry: depend on the source of compound.
Chemistry plays an important role in ❸Law of multiple proportions:
all aspects of our life. Name of Some When two elements combine
of these fields are as follows: to form two or more than two
different compounds then the
1. Health and medicine
different masses of one element B
2. Energy and environment
which combine with fixed mass of the
3. Materials and technology
other element bear a simple ratio to
4. Food and agriculture
one another.

❹Law of reciprocal proportion:

 In chemical reactions, atoms or If two elements B and C react
molecules combine with one with the same mass of a third
another in a definite number ratio. element (A), the ratio in which they
do so will be the same or simple
 In chemistry we use a number unit multiple if B and C reacts with each
called mole which is very large. other.

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 Dalton’s atomic theory  What is an Atom

British chemist John Dalton (1766– Atoms are defined as “the basic
1844) provided the basic theory; building blocks of matter”.

“All matter – whether element,  Neutrons, Protons, and Electrons

compound, or mixture – is composed are the basic particles making up
of small particles called atoms.” the atom.
 It is the smallest constituent unit
of matter that possess the
properties of the chemical
element.
 Atoms don’t exist independently,
instead, they form ions and
molecules which further combine
 Postulates of Dalton’s atomic
in large numbers to form matter
theory that we see, feel and touch.

1. Matter consists of indivisible

atoms.

2. All the atoms of a given chemical

element are identical in mass and
in all other properties.

3. Different chemical elements have  What is a molecule?

different kinds of atoms and in
 A molecule is a collection of two or
particular such atoms have
different masses. more atoms that are securely
bound together by attractive
4. Atoms are indestructible and forces or by chemical bonds.
retain their identity in chemical  It is smallest particle of matter
reactions. which can exist independently.

5. The formation of a compound

from its elements occurs through
the combination of atoms of unlike
elements in small whole number
ratio.

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  What is an element  Physical quantity
 Substances can be either elements
Some quantities are mostly used
or compounds.
which are called fundamental or basic
 An element is a substance that
quantities and their units are known
cannot be separated into simpler
as fundamental units.
substances by chemical means.
 To date, 118 elements have been  There are seven basic physical
positively identified. (Periodic quantities: length, mass, time,
table) temperature, amount of
 Eighty-three of them occur substance, electric current and
naturally on Earth. The others have luminous intensity.
been created by scientists via  There are different systems for
nuclear processes. measurement of these units.
 Ex. : Aluminum (Al), Cobalt (Co)

Heyyy, kya tum muje bata sakti

 SI system
hoo ki Element or compound dono
 This system is called the
same hote hai ya different?
‘International System of Units’
which is abbreviated as SI units.
Bro, tumhare confusion ko niche diye
 This system of measurement is the
gaye box me clear mention kiya hai
most common system employed
isliye notes ko dhyan se padhte raho
throughout the world.
 It has given units of all the seven
 Element VS Compound basic quantities listed above.

Elements are pure substances which

are composed of only one type of
atom.

Compounds are substances which are

formed by two or more different
types of elements that are united
chemically in fixed proportions.

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 Mole – a number unit  Molar mass

“The mole, symbol mol, is the SI unit When we say 1 mole of carbon-12, we
of amount of substance.” mean 6.022 × 1023 atoms of carbon –
12 whose mass is exactly 12 g.
 Mass of an atom or a molecule is
This mass is called the molar
an important property.
mass of carbon – 12.
 A mole is the amount of a
substance that contains as many “The molar mass is defined as the
elementary entities (atoms, mass (in g) of 1 mole of a substance.”
molecules or other particles) as
Number of elementary entities =
there are atoms in exactly 0.012 kg
number of moles × Avogadro’s
or 12 g of the carbon-12 isotope.
constant
 One mole always contains the
same number of entities, no For example,
matter what the substance is.
1 mole O2 = 1 × (6.022 × 1023)
= 6.022 × 1023 molecules of O2

 Avogadro number

Que. how many atoms are there in  Mole , mass and number
exactly 12 g of carbon-12?
relationship
This number is determined
1 mol = 6.022 × 1023 elementary
experimentally and its currently entities
accepted value is 6.022045 ×1023.
& Molar mass = Mass of 1 mole
 1 mol = 6.022 × 1023
 Molar mass = mass of 6.022 ×
The basic idea of such a number was 1023 elementary entities.
first conceived by an Italian scientist
“Amedeo Avogadro”. But, he never  Elementary entity can be an atom,
determined this number. a molecule, an ion or a formula
unit.
It was determined later and is known
as Avogadro’s constant (NA) in his  For obtaining the molar mass, i.e.,
honor. mole-mass relationship we have to
NA = 6.022 × 1023 mol–1
use atomic mass scale.

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 Atomic mass unit  Molecular mass
 Molecular mass is the sum of
One atomic mass unit (amu) is equal
atomic masses of the elements
to 1/12th of the mass of an atom of
present in a molecule.
carbon – 12 isotope. It is also known
 It is obtained by multiplying the
as unified mass.
atomic mass of each element by
𝐦𝐚𝐬𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐨𝐧𝐞 𝐂− 𝐚𝐭𝐨𝐦
1 amu = number of its atoms and adding
𝟏𝟐
them together.

Relative molecular mass =

𝐀𝐯𝐞𝐫𝐚𝐠𝐞 𝐦𝐚𝐬𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝟏 𝐦𝐨𝐥𝐞𝐜𝐮𝐥𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐞𝐥𝐞𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭
𝟏
 Atomic mass 𝟏𝟐
𝐭𝐡 𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐦𝐚𝐬𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐨𝐧𝐞 𝐂−𝟏𝟐 𝐚𝐭𝐨𝐦

 The atomic mass of an element is

the number of times an atom of
that element is heavier than an  Formula mass
atom of carbon taken as 12.
 Therefore, we prefer to use Ionic compounds such as NaCl, KNO3,
average masses of atoms and Na2C03 etc. do not consist of
molecules. molecules i.e., single entities

Thus, Atomic mass may be defined as In such cases, the formula is used to
“the average relative mass of an calculate the formula mass instead of
atom of an element as compared to molecular mass.
the mass of carbon atoms (C-12)”.  Example for better understanding:

Relative atomic mass = ❶ Atomic mass of O-16 =

𝐀𝐯𝐞𝐫𝐚𝐠𝐞 𝐦𝐚𝐬𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝟏 𝐚𝐭𝐨𝐦 𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐞𝐥𝐞𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭 16 amu
𝟏
𝐦𝐚𝐬𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐨𝐧𝐞 𝐨−𝟏𝟔 𝐚𝐭𝐨𝐦
= = 16 amu.
𝟏 𝐭𝐡 𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐦𝐚𝐬𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐨𝐧𝐞 𝐂−𝟏𝟐 𝐚𝐭𝐨𝐦 1
𝐭𝐡 𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐦𝐚𝐬𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐨𝐧𝐞 𝐂−𝟏𝟐 𝐚𝐭𝐨𝐦 𝟏𝟐
𝟏𝟐

❷ Molecular mass of NH3= (Atomic

mass of N) + 3 (Atomic mass of H)
Note: It may be noted that the atomic
= 14 + (3 × 1) = 17 amu
masses as obtained above are
the relative atomic masses and not ❸ Formula mass of NaCl = Atomic
the actual masses of the atoms. mass of sodium + atomic mass of chlo.
= 23.0 u + 35.5 u = 58.5 u

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 Mass, molar mass & number  Chemical reaction & chemical
of molar mass equation

Molar mass (M) = Mass of one mole Chemical reaction: A chemical

of the substance. reaction is the
process where reactants are
Number of moles (amount) of a
mass of the substance transformed into products.
substance =
molar mass of the substance
Chemical equation: A chemical
𝐦 reaction can be
 n=
𝐌
OR m=n×M
represented or written in the form of
chemical equation.

Ex. –: 4Fe (s) + 3O2 (g) → 2Fe2O3(s)

 Molar volume  Qualitative Information:

Qualitatively, iron reacts
“Molar volume is the volume of one with oxygen to form iron oxide.
mole of a substance”.  Quantitative Information:
Quantitatively, numerical
 It depends upon temperature and
relationship among the quantities of
pressure. its reactants and products.
 It is related to the density, by the
relation. a) Microscopic quantity:
Namely, atoms, molecules and
molar mass
Molar volume = formula units.
density
b) Macroscopic quantity:
Namely, moles, masses and
volumes of reactants and
 Empirical formula products.

Empirical formula of a compound,

gives only relative number of atoms  Limiting reagent
of different elements. Limiting reagent is the substance that
 Example: is totally consumed when the
Empirical formula of glucose which chemical reaction is complete.
consists of carbon, hydrogen and The amount of product formed is
oxygen in the ratio of 1:2:1 is CH2O. limited by this limiting reagent, so the
reaction cannot continue without it.
Molecular formula of glucose: C6H12O6

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 Question – Answer

① MCQs

1. The smallest particle of an element that retains all the chemical properties
of that element is:
(A) Molecule (B) Atom (C) Ion (D) Electron

Answer: (B) Atom

2. A pure substance which contains only one type of atom is called ……………..
(A) An element (B) a compound (C) a solid (D) a liquid

Answer: (A) An element

3. Who proposed the atomic theory that all matter is composed of

indivisible particles called atoms?
(A) J.J. Thomson (B) John Dalton
(C) Ernest Rutherford (D) Niels Bohr

Answer: (B) John Dalton

OR
John Dalton gave the theory related to which particle:
(A) Molecule (B) Atom (C) Ion (D) Matter

Answer: (B) Atom

4. The smallest particle that can take part in chemical reactions is ………………
(A) Atom (B) molecule (C) Both (a) and (b) (D) none of these

Answer: (C) Both (a) and (b)

5. Formation of CO and CO2 illustrates the law of ……………..
(A) Law of conservation of mass
(B) Law of Reciprocal proportion
(C) Law of Constant Proportion
(D) Law of Multiple Proportion

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Answer: (D) Law of Multiple Proportion
Or

Which pair of compounds illustrate the law of multiple proportions:

(A) H2S and SO2 (B) FeCl2 (C) CuO and Cu2 (D) NH3 and NCl3

Answer: (D) NH3 and NCl3

6. The mass of an atom of carbon is …………...

(A) 1g (B) 1.99 x 10 -23 g (C) 1/12 g (D) 1.99 x 1023 g

Answer: (B) 1.99 x 10 -23 g

7. …………. is the sum of atomic masses of the elements present in a
molecule:
(A) Average atomic mass (B) Atomic mass
(C) Gram formula mass (D) Molecular mass

Answer: (D) Molecular mass

8. What’s the formula mass of NaCl?

(A) 23 u (B) 35.5 u (C) 58 u (D) 58.5 u

Answer: (D) 58.5 u

OR

What’s the molecular mass of carbon dioxide?

(A) 43 (B) 28 (C) 44 (D) 40

Answer: (C) 44

9. Which of the following statements about a compound is incorrect?

(A) A molecule of a compound has atoms of different elements.
(B) A compound cannot be separated into its constituent elements by
physical methods of separation.
(C) A compound retains the physical properties of its constituent elements.
(D) The ratio of atoms of different elements in a compound is fixed

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Answer: (C) A compound retains the physical properties of its constituent
elements.

10. According to Avogadro’s law………

(A) V ∝ 1P (B) V ∝ n (C) V ∝ T (D) All the above

Answer: (B) V ∝ n

11. According to the Law of Conservation of Mass., Which of the Following

Reactions is not Correct?
(A) 2Mg(s) + O2 (g) → 2MgO(s)
(B) C3H8(g) + O2 (g) → CO2(g) + H2O(g)
(C) CH4(g) + 2O2(g) → CO2(g) + 2H2O(g)
(D) P4(s) + 5O2(g) → P4O10(s)

Answer: (B) C3H8(g) + O2 (g) → CO2(g) + H2O(g)

12. The percentage composition of carbon in methane (CH₄) is closest to:

(A) 25% (B) 50% (C) 75% (D) 90%

Answer: (C) 75%

13. Which of the following is the empirical formula of glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆)?

(A) CHO (B) CH₂O (C) C₂H₄O₂ (D) C₃H₆O₃

Answer: (B) CH₂O

14. What is the molecular mass of water (H₂O)?

(A) 16 amu (B) 18 amu (C) 34 amu (D) 2 amu

Answer: (B) 18 amu

15. The atomic mass of an element is the:

(A) Mass of a single atom in grams.
(B) Average mass of the isotopes of the element.
(C) Mass of the most abundant isotope of the element.
(D) Mass of the protons in the atom.

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Answer: (B) Average mass of the isotopes of the element.

16. 60 g of an organic compound on analysis gave the following results :

C = 24 g, H = 4 g and O = 32 g

The empirical formula of the compound may be:

(A) CH2O2 (B) C2H2O (C) C2H2O4 (D) CH2O

Answer: (D) CH2O [PYQ NIOS Oct 2016]

17. The chemical formula of baking powder is:

(A) NaHCO3 (B) Na2CO3 (C) Na2SO4 (D) NaCl

Answer: (A) NaHCO3 [Sample paper]

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② Complete the sentence using an appropriate word:

18. Chemical, atom, 44, molecular, 36, atomic, 2, physical, 12

NOTE: Some words are given only for making complexity and confusion

1. An atom is the smallest unit of an element that can participate in a

__________ reaction.
2. The theory that describes __________ as indivisible particles was proposed
by John dalton.
3. The mass of an atom relative to the mass of a carbon-12 atom is called the
__________ mass.
4. The number of moles in 36 grams of water (H₂O) is __________.
5. The sum of the atomic masses of all atoms in a molecule is called the
__________ mass.
6. The molecular mass of carbon dioxide (CO₂) is approximately __________
amu.

Answer: 1. Chemical, 2. Atom, 3. Atomic, 4. 2, 5. Molecular, 6. 44

19. Oxygen, molar, atomic, molecular, mole, atom, carbon dioxide

NOTE: Some words are given only for making complexity and confusion

1. Avogadro’s number, 6.02×1023, represents the number of particles in one

__________ of a substance.
2. A chemical formula shows the types and numbers of __________ in a
compound.
3. A balanced chemical equation has the same number of __________ of each
element on both sides of the equation.
4. In the chemical equation 2H2+ O2→ 2H2O , the reactants are hydrogen and
__________.
5. To calculate the number of moles from mass, divide the mass by the
__________ mass.
6. The __________ mass of a substance is measured in units of gram per mole.

Answer: 1. Mole, 2. Atom, 3. Atom, 4. Oxygen, 5. Molar, 6. Molecular

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③Fill in the blanks:

20.
1. The law of conservation of mass states that mass is neither __________ nor
__________ in a chemical reaction.
2. According to Dalton’s atomic theory, atoms of the same element are
__________ in all respects, including __________.
3. Atomic mass is measured in atomic mass units (amu), where 1 amu is
1
defined as th the mass of a __________-12 atom.
12
4. One mole of any substance contains __________ particles, which is
Avogadro’s number.
5. The molar mass of a substance is the mass of one __________ of that
substance expressed in grams.

Answer: 1. created, destroyed 2. identical, mass, 3. Carbon, 4. 6.02 × 1023,

5. Mole

21.
1. A chemical formula indicates the type and number of __________ in a
compound.
2. The theoretical yield is the amount of product that can be formed based on
the __________ reactant.
3. To find the molecular mass of water (H₂O), we sum the masses of
__________ hydrogen atoms and __________ oxygen atom.
4. The molecular mass of carbon dioxide (CO₂) is approximately ______ amu.

Answer: 1. Atoms, 2. Limiting, 3. Two, one, 4. 44

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④Match the following:

22. Match the statement of column I with the appropriate option given in
column II.

COLUMN I COLUMN II
1. Atomic mass unit a. Average mass of isotopes
2. Isotopes b. 1/12th mass of carbon – atom
3. Relative atomic mass c. Different number of neutron
4. Molecular mass d. Sum of atomic mass in a molecule
5. Gram molecular mass e. Molecular mass expressed in grams

Answer: 1. B, 2 – c, 3 – 1, 4 – 4 , 5 – e

23. Match the statement of column A with the appropriate option given in
column B.

Column A Column B
1. Avogadro’s number a. 22. 4 liters
2. Mole b. Mass of one mole of a substance
3. Molar mass c. 6.02 × 1023 molecules or atoms
4. Molar volume d. 6.02 × 1023 particle
Answer: 1 – d, 2 – c, 3 – b, 4 – a

24. Match the statement of column A with the appropriate option given in
column B.

COLUMN A COLUMN B
A. Empirical formula a. Actual number of atoms in molecule
B. Molecular formula b. Simplest ratio of atoms
C. Reactants c. Same number of each type of atom on
both sides
D. Products d. Substances on the left side of a chemical
equation
E. Balanced equation e. Substances on the right side of a chemical
equation

Answer: A – b, B – a , C – d , D – e , E – c

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⑤True or false:

25. As, per the current system, carbon-12 has been taken as the standard
for measuring atomic masses.

 True

26. The mass number of an atom is the sum of the number of protons and
electrons.

 False.

27. The relative atomic mass of an element is measured in atomic mass units
(amu).

 True.

28. One mole of any substance contains Avogadro's number (6.022 × 10²³)
of particles.

 True.

29. The molar mass of a compound is the mass of one mole of its molecules.
 True.
OR

The atomic mass of a compound is the mass of one mole of its molecules.

 False.

30. In a balanced chemical equation, the total mass of the reactants equals
the total mass of the products.

 True.

31. A mole of hydrogen gas (H₂) contains 6.022 × 10²³ hydrogen atoms.
 False.
OR

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A mole of hydrogen gas (H₂) contains 6.022 × 10²³ hydrogen molecules or 2 ×
6.022 × 10²³ hydrogen atoms.

 True.

32. Stoichiometry is the study of the relationships between the quantities of

reactants and products in a chemical reaction.

 True

33. The limiting reagent in a chemical reaction is the reactant that is present
in excess.

 False.

34. The atomic mass of carbon is 12 amu.

 False.

35. The formula mass of NaCl is calculated as the sum of the atomic masses
of sodium and chlorine.

 True

36. The molar mass of water (H₂O) is approximately 20 g/mol.

 False.

37. All molecules of a given compound have the same number and types of
atoms.

 True.

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⑥Very short type question [2 marks]:

38. What is the difference between an atom and a molecule?

Answer: An atom is a single particle of an element, while a molecule is a
group of two or more atoms bonded together, representing the
smallest unit of a compound that retains its chemical properties.

39. What will be the mass of one atom of C-12 in grams?

Answer: 1 mole of carbon atoms = 12 g = 6.022 x 1023 atoms. 6.022 x
1023 atoms of carbon – 12 have mass = 12 g
12
∴ 1 atom of carbon has mass = = 1.99 × 10-23 g
6.022 × 10 23

40. How is an element different from a compound?

Answer: Elements are pure substances which are composed only one type of
atom while compounds are substances which are formed by two or
more different types of elements that are united chemically in fixed
proportions.

41. What is ‘mole’ ? How many formula units are present in 1 mole of
KNO3? [PYQ NIOS Oct 2022]

Answer: One mole of a chemical compound always contains 6.022 × 1023

formula units.

Here, 6.022 × 1023 is always equivalent to the Avogadro's number (NA= 6.022 ×
1023).

Thus, the total formula units in the given moles of potassium nitrate are 2.55 ×
1025.

42. If one mL of water has 20 drops, calculate the number of water

molecules in 5 drops of water. (ρwater = 1 g mL−1) *Given: The Avogadro’s
constant NA is 6.022 × 1023 mol−1] [PYQ NIOS Oct 2022]

Answer: 1 ml of water = 1 g of water (ρwater = 1 g mL−1)

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∵ 20 drops of water = 1 g
1
‫ ؞‬1 drop of water = g = 0.05 g
20

 5 drops of water = 0.05 × 5 = 0.25 g

∵ 18 g of water contains = 6.022 × 1023 molecules

6.022 × 10 23
∴ 1 g of water contains = molecules
18

 Number of water molecules in in 5 drops of water

6.022 × 10 23
= 0.25 ×
18

= 8.36 × 1021 molecules.

43. What is molar mass of substance? How many elementary entities are
present in it? [PYQ NIOS April 2022]

Answer: The molar mass of a substance is the mass of one mole of that
substance.

One mole is defined as the amount of substance that contains the same
number of elementary entities as there are atoms in exactly 12 grams of
carbon-12. This number is known as Avogadro's number, which is
approximately 6.022 x 1023 elementary entities per mole.

44. Define empirical formula. Which type of compounds are represented

only by empirical formula as they do not exist in molecular form. Write
empirical formula of one such compound. [PYQ NIOS Oct 2017]

Answer:
Empirical formula: It is the simplest formula of a compound which gives a ratio
of different atoms present in one molecule of the compound.

The formula for ionic compounds is always an empirical formula because it

shows the smallest, whole-number ratio between the cations and anions. For
Example: NaCl is the empirical formula for sodium chloride.

45. Define empirical formula and molecular formula. [PYQ NIOS Oct 2016]

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Answer: Empirical formula: Empirical formula is the simplest formula for a
compound which is defined as the ratio of
subscripts of the smallest possible whole number of the elements present in
the formula. It is also known as the simplest formula.

Molecular formula: Molecular formula is the formula derived from molecules

and is representative of the total number of individual
atoms present in a molecule of a compound.

46. Determine the empirical formula of butyric acid. Its elemental

composition is

as follows: C = 542 %, H = 92 %, O = 366 %

If the molecular mass of butyric acid is 88 u, then find its molecular formula.

[Atomic mass: C = 12 u, H = 1 u, O = 16 u] [PYQ NIOS Oct 2016]

47. The reactant completely consumed in the reaction is called the limiting
reagent. In the reaction 2A + 4B → 3C + 4D, if 5 moles of A react with 6
moles of B, then

(i) Which is the limiting reagent?

(ii) Calculate the amount of C formed?

Answer:
(i) B would be the limiting reagent as it gives the lesser amount of product.

(ii) Let B completely consumed

4 mol of B gives 3 mol of C

6 mol of B will give 3/4 × 6 mol C = 4.5 mol C

48. Define the term ‘mole’. [PYQ NIOS Oct 2016]

Answer: Mole can be defined as the amount of substance that contains the
same number of entities (atoms, molecules, ions etc) as the number
of atoms present in 12g of the carbon−12 isotope.

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Mole represents 6.022 × 1023 particles = Avogadro number = NA

49. A sample contains 0.5 moles of oxygen and 1.5 moles of hydrogen.
What is the empirical formula of the compound?

Answer:
Calculate the mole ratio of hydrogen to oxygen:
1.5 moles H
=3
0.5 moles O

The empirical formula is H3O

50. What is the significance of the term 'stoichiometric coefficient' in a

balanced chemical equation?

Answer: Stoichiometric coefficients in a balanced chemical equation indicate

the proportions of reactants and products in a reaction. They show
the relative amounts of each substance needed to satisfy the law of
conservation of mass.

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⑦Short type question [3 marks]:

51. Who proposed the atomic theory, and what are its main postulates?
Answer: John Dalton proposed the atomic theory. Its main postulates are:
1. Matter is composed of small indivisible particles called atoms.
2. Atoms of the same element are identical in mass and properties.
3. Atoms of different elements differ in mass and properties.
52. How does Avogadro's hypothesis relate to the concept of the mole?
Answer: Avogadro's hypothesis states that equal volumes of gases at the
same temperature and pressure contain an equal number of
particles. This hypothesis leads to the concept of the mole, as it allows for a
standard quantity (Avogadro's number, 6.022 × 1023 of particles in a mole,
facilitating the comparison and calculation of different substances in chemical
reactions.

53. Define the law of multiple proportions. Explain it with the two
examples. How does this law point to the existence of atoms?

Answer:
Law of multiple proportion: If two elements combine to form two or more
chemical compounds, the masses of one of the
elements combine with the fixed mass of the other in a simple ratio.

For example, hydrogen reacts with oxygen to form two compounds: water and
hydrogen peroxide.

Hydrogen (2g) + Oxygen (16g) → H2O (18g)

Hydrogen (2g) + Oxygen (32g) →H2O2 (34g)

In this case, the masses of the oxygen (i.e. 16g and 32g) that combine with the
fixed mass of hydrogen (2g) have a simple ratio, i.e. 16:32 or 1:2.

As we all know, if compounds mix in different proportions, they form different

compounds. For example, if hydrogen mixes with a different proportion of
oxygen, it forms water or hydrogen peroxide.

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54. Calculate the number of Cl2 molecules and Cl atoms in 0.25 mol of Cl2
gas. [from Intext of textbook NIOS]
Answer: Nₐ = 6.022 × 10²³
Number of Cl₂ molecules = Number of moles of Cl₂ × Nₐ
= 0.25 × 6.022 × 10²³
= 1.5055 × 10²³ molecules
1 molecule of Cl₂ = 2 × Cl
1.5055 × 10²³ molecules of Cl₂ = 1.5055 × 10²³ × 2
= 3.011 × 10²³ molecules.
55. In a metallic piece of magnesium, 8.46 × 1024 atoms are present.
Calculate the amount of magnesium in moles.
[from Intext of textbook NIOS]
Answer: The moles of magnesium present in given metallic piece is 14.04
moles.
We are given:
Number of atoms of magnesium = 8.46 × 1024
According to the mole concept:
6.022 × 1023 molecules are present in 1 mole of an element.
1
So, 8.46 × 1024 number of molecules will be present in × 8.46 ×
6.022 × 10 23
1024 = 14.04 moles of a magnesium element.
Thus, the moles of magnesium present in given metallic piece is 14.04 moles.
56. Calculate the empirical formula of a compound containing 40% carbon,
6.7% hydrogen, and 53.3% oxygen by mass. [using proper step]

Answer:
1. Convert percentages to grams (assume 100 g of the compound):

Carbon: 40 g , Hydrogen: 6.7 g, Oxygen: 53.3 g

2. Convert grams to moles:

40g
Carbon: = 3.33 mol
120 g/ mol

6.7g
Hydrogen: = 6.7 mol
1g/mol

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 53.3g
Oxygen: = 3.33 mol
16 g/mol

3. Determine the simplest ratio:

C:H:O = 3.33:6.7:3.33 = 1:2:1

Empirical Formula: CH2O

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⑧Long type question [5 marks]:

57. Explain Dalton’s Atomic Theory and discuss its significance in the
development of modern chemistry.

Answer: Dalton's Atomic Theory, proposed in 1808, has several key

postulates:

 Atoms as Indivisible Particles: Atoms are indivisible and the smallest

particles of matter.
 Identical Atoms: All atoms of a given element are identical in mass and
properties.
 Atoms of Different Elements: Atoms of different elements have different
masses and properties.
 Compound Formation: Compounds are formed by the combination of
atoms of different elements in fixed ratios.
 Conservation of Atoms: Atoms are neither created nor destroyed in
chemical reactions; they only rearrange.

Significance:

 Dalton’s theory provided a framework for understanding chemical reactions

as interactions between atoms.
 It introduced the idea of atomic weights and the concept of chemical
formulas, laying the foundation for the development of modern atomic
theory.

58. How does Avogadro's law lead to the concept of the mole? Explain the
relationship between the mole, molar mass, and Avogadro's number.

Answer:
Avogadro's Law: States that equal volumes of gases at the same
temperature and pressure contain an equal number of
particles.

Concept of the Mole:

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Avogadro's law implies a standard number of particles i.e. Avogadro's number
= NA = 6.022 × 1023 for one mole of any substance.

Relationship:

 Mole: A measure of quantity, representing 6.022 × 1023 particles.

 Molar Mass: The mass of one mole of a substance (grams per mole, g/mol).
 Avogadro’s number: The number of particles in one mole of a substance.

Molar mass (g/mol) = Mass (g)/Number of moles

For example, 1 mole of H2O weighs 18 g, with 6.022 × 1023 molecules of water.

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 Atomic structure
2

Short summary What do we learn Quick Revision

 Introduction  Properties of cathode ray

1. It travels in a straight line.
Atoms are the fundamental
2. It consists of mass as pedal wheel
components of matter. The proton,
will rotate.
neutron, and electron are the three
3. An applying electromagnetic field,
subatomic particles that make up the
we observed that the cathode rays
smallest unit of matter.
are negatively charged.
4. It produced green glow in its
screen.
 Cathode rays 5. It affects the photographic plate.

Julius Qucker was working on

conduction through gases; on
discharge tube. At low temperature  Discovery of electron
and very high voltage, pressure was
The experiment demonstrated that
around [10-2, 10-4]atm, voltage was
the atom is not a simple, indivisible
around [103, 104]V .
entity, but rather contains at least
one subatomic particle, the electron.

J.J. Thomson calculated the e/m ratio,

i.e. specific charge (charge/mass) for
different gases and he observed that
 Observation: this ratio is a constant for all gases,
and he named it is as ‘electron’.
He observed that “a way coming
from cathode to anode, consisting of The gases ionized to give e-
some charge and mass. He named it H → H+ + e-
as cathode rays”.

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 Electron  Discovery of neutron

An atom’s electrons are negatively James Chadwick started experiment

charged subatomic particles. on beryllium particle on α –
Further experiments were carried out bombarding on the Beryllium particle.
in order to know the charge and mass He observed one particle which is
of electron. It was found to be: neutral called as ‘Neutron’.

Charge: 1.6 x 10-19C Neutron is defined as: “the

Mass: 9.1 x 10-31kg fundamental particle which carries
no charge and mass equal to that of
We can define electron as: “A
hydrogen atom.”
fundamental particle that is
negatively charge of magnitude 1.6 x
10-19 C and mass equal to 9.1 x 10-31
 Atomic model

 Discovery of proton We have to study two models for the

structure of atoms:
The discovery of protons was made
via a modified cathode ray tube 1. Thomson’s plum pudding model
experiment. 2. Rutherford’s scattering experiment
 Thomson’ Atomic model
Positively charged particles have the
following characteristics: In 1904, the attempt to explain
structure of Atom was done by J.J
 The charge to mass ratio of
Thomson.
particles is affected by the gas
from which they originate.  According to Thomson:
 The positively charged particles are
Atom is positively charged sphere in
affected by the gas present in the
which few negative charges are
cathode ray discharge tube.
scattered at certain places like plums
 Some positively charged particles
in pudding or cherries in ice creams.
have a charge that is a multiple of
the electrical charge fundamental.
 In an electrical or magnetic field,
positively charged particles behave
differently than cathode rays.

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 Limitations /drawback of  Observations and conclusion
Thomson’s atomic model  Following observations were made:
However, this model failed. The  Some rays passed straight.
reason about failure was as it wasn’t  Some rays were deflected through
possible that few negative charges small & large angles.
remain scattered in the positive  Some rays rebound back.
sphere. As we know, opposite charges
attract each other. So, these negative  Conclusion drawn:
charges would have been neutralized.
 Most of the space in atom is
They can’t remain scattered.
empty.
However, this couldn’t be explained
 There is something in center of an
by Thomson therefore the model
atom called Nucleus.
failed.
 Nucleus is positively charged.

So, According To Rutherford,

structure of an atom is
 Rutherford’s scattering similar to solar system.
experiment

In order to explain the

structure of atom,  Rutherford’s Nuclear Model of
Rutherford performed the an Atom
scattering experiment.  Atom is electrically neutral.
Rutherford in 1911, performed some  Nucleus is in center in which
scattering experiments in which he protons & neutrons are present.
bombarded thin foils of metals like  Outside nucleus electrons revolve
gold, silver, platinum or copper with a like planets revolve around sun.
beam of fast moving α -particles.  In Nucleus, positive charge is
present and in extra nuclear part
The thin gold foil had a circular
electrons are present.
fluorescent zinc sulphide screen
around it. Whenever α -particles Proton → (+) vely charged
struck the screen, a tiny flash of light Electron → (-) vely charged
was produced at that point. Neutron → No charge

Limitation: he failed to explain the

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“stability of an atom”. 8368259468 3
Atomic number: It is equal to number  Electromagnetic radiation
of protons in an
atom .It is represented by ‘Z’ and is Nature of Electromagnetic Radiation
written as subscript. (Electromagnetic Wave Theory)
This theory was put forward by James
Atomic Mass: It is equal to number of Clark Maxwell in 1864.
nucleons, or we can say
sum of protons and neutrons in  According to this theory
nucleus of an atom. It is represented
1. Energy is emitted or absorbed
as ‘A’ and is written as superscript.
continuously in the form of radiant
Isotopes: Are those elements which energy.
have same atomic number, 2. These radiations consist of electric
but different mass number. and magnetic field acting
perpendicular to the direction of
propagation of wave.
3. These waves can travel through
medium as well as through
Isobars: Are those elements which vacuum.
have same mass number, 4. The radiations travel with speed =
but different atomic number. 3 x 108m/sec.

 Characteristics perimeter
Isotones: Are those elements which
have same number of neutrons. ❶ Wavelength: It is the linear
distance between two consecutive
Example: C6N7O8 (all have 8 electrons) wave-crests or wave- troughs.
Isoelectronic: the species containing
same number of electrons.

Example: O7-, F-, Mg2+, Al3+ (all have 10

electrons)  It is represented by lambda ()
 It is expressed in terms of m, cm,
nm or Angstrom.
1Å = 10-10 m

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 Characteristics perimeter  Electromagnetic spectrum
❷ Amplitude: This refers to the When all the electromagnetic
maximum height to which the wave radiations are arranged in order of
oscillates. It equals the height of the increasing wavelengths, and
crests or depth of the troughs. decreasing frequencies the complete
❸ Frequency: It is defined as the spectrum is called electromagnetic
number of wave crests or wave spectrum as shown below:
troughs that pass through a given
point per second.

 It is represented nu (𝑣)
 It’ S.I. unit is s-1. It is also called as
Hz (Hertz).
𝟏
𝒗=
𝑻
 Limitations of this theory

❹Wave number: It equals the It failed to explain various

number of waves per unit length. phenomenon that are mentioned
below:
 It is denoted as nu bar (𝑣̅ )
 Black body radiations.
 It is equal to the reciprocal of the
wavelength.  Photoelectric effect.
 The SI unit of 𝑣̅ is m–1. However,  The variation of heat capacity of
sometimes it is also expressed as solids at different temperatures.
cm–1  The line spectra of atoms.
𝟏
𝒗̅=


 Continuous spectra
❺ Velocity: It is defined as the linear
distance travelled by the wave in one When we pass a beam of sunlight
second. through a prism we get a range of
𝑪 colours from violet to red (VIBGYOR)
C = V or V=
 in the form of spectrum. This is called
as continuous spectrum because the
wavelength of light varies
continuously.

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 Line spectrum  According to Bohr:

When atoms are excited they emit The electron in the atom moves
light of certain wavelengths which around the nucleus in a fixed circular
correspond to different colors. path called orbits. These orbits are
associated with definite energy, and
The emitted light can be observed that can be expressed in next section.
as a series of colored lines with dark
spaces in between; this series of
colored lines is called a line or atomic
spectra.
 Energy in Bohr’s model

The energy of shell is given by:

𝒛𝟐
E = −𝟏𝟑. 𝟔
𝒏𝟐
Energy calculation for same atom in
different energy level:

𝑬𝟏 𝒏𝟐𝟐
 Bohr’s model =
𝑬𝟐 𝒏𝟐𝟏

 Bohr’s postulates:
 Bohr’s radius (radii)
1. The electrons move in a definite
circular paths around the nucleus. The radii of stationary states are given
2. The electron can change its orbit by:
by absorbing or releasing energy.
rn = a0n2 [a0 = 52.9pm]
An electron at a lower (initial)
state of energy, Ei can go to a Radii calculation for same atom:
higher (final) state of energy, Ef by
absorbing a single photon of 𝒓𝟏 𝒏𝟐𝟐
energy as given by: E = h𝒗 = Ef – Ei =
𝒓𝟐 𝒏𝟐𝟏
3. The angular momentum of an
electron of mass me moving in a Radii calculation for different atom:
circular orbit of radius r and
velocity 𝑣 is an integral multiple of
𝒓𝟏 𝒏𝟐𝟐 𝒛𝟐
h/2π. = .
𝒏𝒉 𝒓𝟐 𝒏𝟐𝟏 𝒛𝟏
𝒎𝒆 𝒗𝒓 =
𝟐𝝅

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 Conclusion of Bohr’s model  Limitations of Bohr’s model
 The energy of electron is  Bohr model failed to explain the
quantized. line spectra of multi-electron
 Only those orbits are permitted in atoms.
which angular momentum of  He couldn’t explain splitting of line
electron is integral multiple of in the magnetic field (Zeeman
h/2π. effect) and in electric field (stark
 The electron in its ground state effect).
neither absorb or emit energy that  He failed to explain three-
is it keeps on revolving in orbit dimensional model of an atom.
without losing any energy.  He was unable to explain the
 Energy is emitted or absorbed only shapes of molecule.
when electron jumps from its  He couldn’t explain the dual nature
lower state to higher state called of matter and Heisenberg
as excited state. uncertainty principle.
 The excited state being unstable,
electron returns to its ground state
and in doing so it emit the
 Line spectrum of hydrogen
absorbed energy equal to:
E = E2 - E1 When electric discharge is passed
through hydrogen gas enclosed in
discharge tube under low pressure
 Success of Bohr’s model and the emitted light is analysed by a
1. It explained stability of an atom. spectroscope,
2. It explained the spectrum of the spectrum consists of a large
hydrogen: number of lines which are grouped
into different series. The complete
spectrum is known as hydrogen
spectrum.

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 Line spectrum of hydrogen  Dual nature : de – Broglie

On the basis of experimental wavelength

observations, Johannes Rydberg From this analogy, de Broglie gave the
noted that all series of lines in the following relation between
hydrogen spectrum could be wavelength (λ) and momentum (p) of
described by the following expression: a material particle.

𝒉 𝒉
= =
𝒎𝒗 𝑷

This equation is called de – Broglie

wavelength.

For any particular series, the value of

n1 is constant while that of n2  Heisenberg’s uncertainty
changes. For example, principle
For Lyman series, n1= 1, n2= 2, 3, 4, 5…
For Balmer series,n1=2, n2 = 3, 4, 5, 6… It states that, “It is impossible to
For Paschen series,n1=3, n2 =4, 5, 6, 7… determine simultaneously, the exact
For Brackett series,n1=4, n2=5, 6, 7, 8… position and exact momentum (or
For Pfund series,n1 =5, n2 = 6, 7, 8, 9… velocity) of an electron”.

 Wave – particle duality

De Broglie in 1924, proposed that

matter, like radiation, should also
exhibit dual behaviour i.e., both Where ∆x is the uncertainty in
particle like and wave like properties. position and ∆PX (or ∆VX) is the
This means that photons, electrons uncertainty in momentum (or
also have momentum as well as velocity) of the particle and h is
wavelength. Planck’s constant.

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 Wave mechanical model of  Electronic configuration
atom “It is the number of electrons in
Quantum mechanics: Quantum different orbitals.”
mechanics is a theoretical There are certain set of rules that are
science that deals with the study of followed:
the motions of the microscopic
objects that have both observable 1. Aufbau principle: It states that in
wave like and particle like properties. ground state of atom, the orbitals
are filled in order of their
 According to this theory: increasing energies. That is
electrons first occupy the lower
1. Energy emitted or absorbed is not
continuous, but is in the form of energy orbital then higher energy
packets called quanta .In terms of orbitals are filled.
light it is called as photon. The orbitals are filled in order:
2. Each photon carries an energy 1s,2s,2p,3s,3p,4s,3d,4p,5s,4d,5p,6s,4f
which is directly proportional to ,5d,6p,7s,5f,6d,7p…
the frequency of wavelength i.e. E
depends upon 𝑣 (nu). 2. Pauli’s principle: This principle
- Or E = hv (where v is frequency) concerns the spin of electrons
- Value of h = 6.634 x 10-34Jsec present in an orbital. According to
- Energy associated with no of the Pauli’s principle, no two
packets is given by: electrons can have all the four
E = n hv quantum numbers to be same.
𝑐
 E = nh {v = c/ λ} For example, if a given electron in an

atom has the set of four quantum
numbers as n = 2, 𝑙 = 1, 𝑚𝑙 = 1 and 𝑚𝑠
 Quantum number = + 1/2 then no other electron in the
atom can have the same set of
They are set of 4 numbers, which give
quantum numbers.
complete information about the
address of electron called quantum 3. Hund’s Rule: This rule concerns
number. the distribution of electrons in a
❶ Principal q.n. ❷ Azimuthal q.n. set of orbitals of the same energy,
❸ Magnetic q.n. ❹ Spin q.n. i.e. constituents of a subshell.

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 Question – Answer

① MCQs

1. Which of the following models are not the same as Thomson Model of
Atom?
(A) plum pudding model
(B) watermelon model
(C) raisin pudding model
(D) nuclear model

Answer: (D) nuclear model

2. Neutron was discovered by:

(A) J.J Thomson (B) Chadwick (C) Rutherford (D) Priestley

Answer: (B) Chadwick

Or

Who discovered the electron?

(A) Rutherford (B) Chadwick (C) Thomson (D) Goldstein

Answer: (C) Thomson

3. The nucleus of the atom consists of:

(A) Protons and neutrons
(B) Protons and electrons
(C) Neutrons and electrons
(D) Protons, neutrons and electrons

Answer: (A) Protons and neutrons

4. The radius of an atomic nucleus is of the order of :

(A) 10-10 cm (B) 10-13 cm (C)10-15 cm (D) 10-8 cm

Answer: (B) 10-13 cm

5. Isotopes of an element have :

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 (A) Different chemical and physical properties
(B) Similar chemical and physical properties
(C) Similar chemical but different physical properties
(D) Similar physical but different chemical properties

Answer: (C) Similar chemical but different physical properties

6. How many number of orbitals could be present in the following set of

quantum numbers, n = 3, l = 1, m1 = 0? [sample paper]
(A) 3 (B) 1 (C) 4 (D) 2

Answer: (B) 1

7. Which of the following pairs represents isobars?

(A) 3He2 and 4He2 (B) 24Mg12 and 25Mg12
(C) 40K19 and 40Ca20 (D) 40K19 and 39K19

Answer: (C) 40K19 and 40Ca20

Or

Which of the following pairs are isobars?

(A) 17Cl35 & 17Cl37 (B) 18Ar40 & 20Ca40
(C) 6C12 & 6C14 (D) None of these

Answer: (B) 18Ar40 & 20Ca40

8. Increasing order (lowest first) for the values of e/m (charge / mass) for
electron (e), proton (p), neutron (n) and α-particle (α) is: [sample paper]
(A) e, p, n, α (B) n, p, e, α (C) n, p, α, e (D) e, n, α, p

Answer: (C) n, p, α, e

9. Find out the number of neutrons, protons, and electrons of 17Cl37

respectively:
(A) 20, 20, 17 (B) 17, 17, 20 (C) 20, 17, 17 (D) 17, 17, 17

Answer: (C) 20, 17, 17

Or

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If the number of protons and neutrons of an element is 13 and 14
respectively, then what’s the atomic number (Z) and mass number (A)?
(A) 13, 13 (B) 13, 27 (C) 14, 13 (D) 27, 14

Answer: (B) 13, 27

10. The atomic orbital is _______

(A) The circular path of the electron
(B) Elliptical shaped Orbit
(C) Three-dimensional field around nucleus
(D) The region in which there is a maximum probability of finding an
electron

Answer: (D) The region in which there is a maximum probability of finding

an electron

11. The momentum of a particle associated with de – Broglie’s wavelength

of 6Å is: [PYQ NIOS April 2022]
(A) 1.1. × 10-24 Kgms-1 (B) 1.1 × 1034 Kgms-1
(C) 39.6 × 10-34 Kgms-1 (D) 39.6 × 10-24 Kgms-1

Answer: (A) 1.1. × 10-24 Kgms-1

12. What was the source of alpha particles in the Rutherford scattering
experiment?
(A) Hydrogen nucleus (B) Argon nucleus
(C) Helium nucleus (D) None of these

Answer: (C) Helium nucleus

13. Principal, Azimuthal and magnetic quantum numbers are respectively

related to:
(A) Size, shape and orientation (B) Shape, size and orientation
(C) Size, orientation and shape (D) None of the above

Answer: (A) Size, shape and orientation

14. In which of the following transitions the radiation with the longest
wavelength will be emitted? [PYQ NIOS Oct 2022]

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 (A) n = 5 → n = 4 (B) n = 4 → n = 3
(C) n = 3 → n = 2 (D) n = 2 → n = 1
Answer: (C) n = 3 → n = 2
Or
In which of the following transitions the radiation with the shortest
wavelength will be emitted? [PYQ NIOS Oct 2022]
(A) n = 5 → n = 4 (B) n = 4 → n = 3
(C) n = 3 → n = 2 (D) n = 2 → n = 1
Answer: (D) n = 2 → n = 1

15. The electronic configuration of chromium (Z = 24) is:

(A) [Ne] 3s2 3p6 3d4 4s2
(B) [Ne] 3s2 3p6 3d5 4s1
(C) [Ne] 3s2 3p6 3d1 4s2
(D) [Ne] 3s2 3p6 4s2 4p4

Answer: (B) [Ne] 3s2 3p6 3d5 4s1

16. The total number of electrons which can be accommodated in all

orbitals having principal quantum number 2 and azimuthul quantum
number 1 is: [PYQ NIOS Oct 2021]
(A) 2 (B) 4 (C) 6 (D) 8

Answer: (C) 6

17. According to Aufbau principle a new electron enters the orbitals when:
(A) (n + l) is minimum (B) (n + l) is maximum
(C) (n + m) is minimum (D) (n + m) is maximum

Answer: (A) (n + l) is minimum

18. How many quantum numbers are required to define the electron in
atom? [PYQ NIOS Oct 2021]
(A) Two (B) Three (C) One (D) Four

Answer: (D) Four

19. In the spectrum of hydrogen atoms, the series which falls in ultraviolet
region is: [PYQ NIOS Oct 2016]

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 (A) Lyman series (B) Balmer series
(C) Paschen series (D) Brackett series

Answer: (A) Lyman series

20. Which of the following is not permissible?

(A) n= 4, l = 3, m= 0 (B) n= 4, l = 2, m= 1
(C) n= 4, l = 4, m= 1 (D) n= 4, l = 0, m= 0

Answer: (C) n= 4, l = 4, m= 1
Or

Which of the following set of quantum number is not possible:

[PYQ NIOS Oct 2017]
(A) n= 3, l = 1, ml = 0 (B) n= 3, l = 1, ml = -1
(C) n= 2, l = 0, ml = -1 (D) n= 2, l = 1, ml = 0

Answer: (C) n= 2, l = 0, ml = -1

21. Which of the following is responsible for the mass of an atom?

[sample paper]
(A) Only protons (B) Only neutrons
(C) Neutrons and protons (D) Protons and electrons

Answer: (C) Neutrons and protons

22. The orientation of atomic orbitals is depending on their:[Sample paper]

(A) Spin quantum number
(B) Magnetic quantum number
(C) Azimuthal quantum number
(D) Principal quantum number

Answer: (D) Magnetic quantum number

Or

The magnetic quantum number specifies? [Sample paper]

(A) Size of orbitals

(B) Shape of orbitals

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 (C) Orientation of orbitals
(D) Nuclear Stability

Answer: (C) Orientation of orbitals

23. A body of mass 10 mg is moving with a velocity of 100 ms-1. The

wavelength of de – Broglie wave associated with it would be? (Note: h =
6.63 × 10-34 Js) [Sample paper]
-37
(A) 6.63 × 10 m
(B) 6.63 × 10-31 m
(C) 6.63 × 10-34 m
(D) 6.63 × 10-35 m

Answer: (C) 6.63 × 10-31 m

24. Nucleus contains…………. % of the mass of the atom. [Sample paper]

(A) 75 (B) 18.9 (C) 99.98 (D) 100

Answer: (C) 99.98

25. Which of the following is not an isotope of hydrogen?

(A) protium (B) deuterium (C) tritium (D)helium

Answer: (D)Helium

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❷ complete the sentence using an appropriate word:

26. Electrons, isotopes, protons, nucleus, isobars, shells

NOTE: Some words are given only for making complexity and confusion.

1. The atomic number of an element is equal to the number of _______ in its

nucleus.
2. _______ of an element have the same number of protons but different
numbers of neutrons.
3. The number of protons in a neutral atom is balanced by an equal number of
_______
4. Electrons in an _______ are arranged in energy levels or _______

Answer: (1) protons, (2) Isotopes, (3) electrons, (4) electrons, shells
27. Thomson, spectra, Bohr, protons, electrons, atomic mass, neutrons

NOTE: Some words are given only for making complexity and confusion.

1. The _______ of an element is a weighted average of the masses of its

isotopes.
2. The _______ of the atom describes electrons as orbiting the nucleus in
specific energy levels or shells.
3. The _______ model of the atom proposed that atoms are composed of a
positively charged sphere with electrons embedded in it.
4. The nucleus of an atom contains ________ and _______
5. The Bohr model helped to explain the _______ of elements in the periodic
table.

Answer: (1) atomic mass, (2) Bohr model, (3) Thomson, (4) protons,
neutrons, (5) spectra

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❸ fill in the blanks:

28. [Sample paper]

❶ The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom is called its _______

❷ The total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom is

called its _______

❸ An atom has atomic mass number 23 and atomic number 11. The atom has
_______ electrons.

❹ An atom of an element has 11 protons, 11 electrons and 12 neutrons. The

atomic mass of the atom is _______

Answer: 1. atomic number, 2. mass number, 3. 11, 4. 23

29.
1. The _______ experiment provided evidence for the existence of the atomic
nucleus.
2. The Bohr model was successful in explaining the spectral lines of _______.
3. Thomson's model of the atom is often referred to as the __________
model.
4. In the Rutherford experiment, most of the alpha particles passed through
the gold foil because atoms are mostly __________.

Answer: (1) Rutherford, (2) hydrogen, (3) plum pudding, (4) empty space

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❹Match the following:

30. Match the following statement of column 1 and column 2.

Column 1 Column 2
(i) Thomson model A. Proposed that atoms are mostly empty space
with a dense nucleus.
(ii) Bohr model B. Proposed a positively charged sphere with
electrons embedded like raisins in a pudding.
(iii) Rutherford C. Described electrons moving in fixed orbits
experiment around the nucleus.

Answer: (i) – B, (ii) – C, (iii) – A

31. Match the following statement of column 1 and column 2.
Column 1 Column 2
A. Electromagnetic spectra 1. Electromagnetic Wave Theory
B. Electromagnetic 2. Describes the emission or absorption of light by
radiation atoms.
C. Line spectra 3. Represents the discrete frequencies of light
emitted by excited atoms.

Answer: A – 2, B – 1, C – 3

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❺True or false:

32. Thomson's model proposed that electrons orbit the nucleus in fixed
energy levels.

 False.

33. Chemical properties of an atom are dependent on a number of electrons

in that particular atom.

 True

34. Electromagnetic radiation includes only visible light.

 False.

35. No two electrons have the same set of all four quantum numbers.
 True

36. Bohr's model successfully explains the emission spectrum of all

elements.

 False.

37. Line spectra are continuous spectra without any discrete lines.
 False.

38. Energy levels in an atom represent specific orbits where electrons can
reside without emitting radiation.

 True.

39. The characteristic perimeter of an electron in an atom is quantized

according to Bohr's model.

 True.

40. Bohr postulated that electrons exhibit both particle and wave-like
properties.

 False.

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41. Dual nature refers to the property of electrons behaving as both
particles and waves.

 True.

42. Dual nature applies only to electrons and not to other particles.
 False.

43. De Broglie's hypothesis explains the wave-like behavior of electrons in

terms of their momentum.

 True

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❻Very short type question [2 marks]:

44. State Thomson’s atomic model?

Answer: Thomson described the structure of an atom similar to a plum –

pudding or watermelon. According to Thomson, the atom was a
positively charged sphere with the electrons being embedded on the surface of
the positively charged sphere.

45. Write two postulates of Rutherford’s atomic model?

[PYQ NIOS April 2022]

Answer: The postulates of the Rutherford model of atom are:

 An atom has a center called the nucleus.
 Compared to the size of an atom the size of the nucleus is very small.
46. An atom having atomic mass number 13 has 7 neutrons. What is the
atomic number of the atom?

Answer:The atomic number can be calculated by

Atomic Number = Mass Number – Number of neutrons
Atomic Number = 13 – 7 = 6.

Hence, the atomic number will be 6.

47. Wavelengths of different radiations are given below:

λ(A) = 300 nm,, λ(B) = 300 μm, λ (C) = 3 nm, λ (D) = 30 Å

Arrange these radiations in the increasing order of their energies.

Answer: Since, E ∝ 1/ λ
Therefore, λ(B) < λ(A) < λ(C) = λ(D)

300μm < 300 nm < 3 nm = 30Å

48. What is the wavelength of light emitted when the electron in a

hydrogen atom undergo transition from an energy level n = 4 to an energy
level with n= 2. [PYQ NIOS April 2022]

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Answer:
1 1
E = 2.18 × 10−18 [ − ]
𝑛12 𝑛22

1 1
 E = 2.18 × 10−18 [ − ]
16 4

 E = − (4.0875 × 10−19 J)
ℎ𝑐
 =
𝐸

3×108
 λ = 6.625 × 10−34 × = 486nm
4.0875 × 10−19

49. What is the experimental evidence in support of the idea that

electronic energies in an atom are quantized?

Answer: The bright-line spectrum demonstrates that an atom’s energy levels

are quantized. Classical mechanics cannot explain the behaviour of
electrons, atoms, and molecules, among other things. This is due to the fact
that classical mechanics ignores the concept of matter’s dual nature. Quantum
mechanics takes these theories into account.

50. Calculate the De – Broglie wavelength of wave associated with a body

of mass 5000 g and moving with a velocity of 500 m/s. [h = 6.626×10−34
Js] [PYQ NIOS Oct 2022]
ℎ
Answer: According to de Broglie's equation  = 𝑚𝑣
Given: h = 6.626 × 10−34 Js, m = 5000 g = 5 kg , v = 500 m/s
6.626 × 10−34
 = = 2.65 × 10-31 m
5 × 500
51. Explain how the concept of quantization of angular momentum is
related to Bohr's model of the atom.
Answer: In Bohr's model, electrons are restricted to certain quantized orbits
around the nucleus. The quantization of angular momentum (L =
nh/2π) ensures that only specific orbits are allowed for electrons, where 'n' is
the principal quantum number. This concept explains why electrons do not
spiral into the nucleus, as classical electromagnetic theory would predict.

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52. Write down the names of three quantum numbers and write what they
represent. [PYQ NIOS Oct 2016]
Answer:
a. Principal quantum number (n): Energy level of an electron.
b. Azimuthal quantum number (l): Shape of an orbital.
c. Spin quantum number (s): Spin of an electron.

53. How does the Heisenberg uncertainty principle influence our

understanding of atomic structure?

Answer: The Heisenberg uncertainty principle states that it is impossible to

simultaneously determine the exact position and momentum of an
electron. This uncertainty affects our precise knowledge of electron orbits.

54. Calculate the wavelength of the spectral line in Lyman series

corresponding to n = 3. [PYQ NIOS Oct 2016]
Answer: For lyman series n1 = 1
Given that n2 = 3

According to Reydberg equation:

55. Write two important limitations of Rutherford nuclear model of the

atom.

Answer:  Important limitations of Rutherford Model:

1. According to Rutherford model, electron orbiting around the nucleus,
continuously radiates energy due to the acceleration; hence the atom will not
remain stable.

2. As electron spirals inwards; its angular velocity and frequency change

continuously; therefore it will emit a continuous spectrum.

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56. Compare and contrast continuous spectra and line spectra.
Answer: Continuous spectra are emitted by hot, dense objects and consist of
a continuous range of wavelengths. Line spectra are emitted by
atoms and consist of discrete lines corresponding to specific energy transitions.

57. State Heisenberg uncertainty principle. Write its mathematical

expression. [PYQ NIOS Oct 2021]

Answer: Heisenberg's uncertainty principle- It states that the position and

momentum of microscopic moving particles cannot be determined
simultaneously with accuracy or certainty.

Mathematical expression-
ℎ
Δx × ΔP > or =
4𝜋

Where, Δx = uncertainty in the position

ΔP = uncertainty in the momentum

h = Planck's constant.
58. Discuss the significance of the Balmer series in Bohr's model of
hydrogen.

Answer: The Balmer series consists of visible spectral lines emitted when
electrons transition from higher energy levels to the second energy
level in hydrogen. It validated Bohr's model by matching experimental
observations.

59. How does Bohr's model explain the emission spectrum of hydrogen?
Answer: Bohr's model explains the emission spectrum of hydrogen by stating
that electrons emit photons of specific energies when transitioning
from higher to lower energy levels, producing discrete spectral lines.

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❼ Short type question [3 marks]:

60. What are the Drawbacks of Bohr's atomic model.

Answer:
1. It is valid only for one electron atoms, eg: H, He+, Li+2, Na+1 etc.
2. Orbits were taken as circular but according to Sommerfiled these are
elliptical.
3. Intensity of spectral lies could not be explained.
4. Nucleus was taken as stationary but it also rotates on its own axis.
5. It could not be explained the minute structure in spectrum line.
6. This does not explain the Zeeman effect (splitting up of spectral lines in
magnetic filed) and Stark effect (splitting up in electric filed)
7. This does not explain the doublets in the spectrum of some of the atoms.

61. What is Rydberg's constant? what is its value?

Answer: For the calculation of wavelength of spectral lines Rydberg gave a
formula and use a constant called Rydberg's constant.
1 1 1
Formula: = RZ2 [ − ]
 𝑛22 𝑛12

Where,

λ = wavelength
R = Rydberg's constant
Z = atomic number of atom
n1 & n2 = Integers

The value of Rydberg's constant is 1.0973 × 107 m−1

62. State the number of protons, neutrons and electrons in (i) 12C6 (ii) 14C6
Answer:
(i) Number of electrons = 6
Number of protons = 6
Mass number = 12

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  Number of Neutrons = 12 – 6 = 6
(ii) Number of electrons = 6
Number Of protons = 6
Mass number = 14
 Number of Neutrons = 14 -6 =8

63. (i) In hydrogen atom, an electron undergoes transition from 2nd

excited state to the first excited state and then to the ground state.
Identify the spectral series to which these transitions belong.

(ii) Find out the ratio of the wavelengths of the emitted radiations in the two
cases. [Comptt. All India 2012]

Answer:

64. Calculate the Kinetic energy of a moving electron which has a

wavelength of 4.9 pm.
Mass of Electron = 9.11 × 10-31 kg
Plank's Constant (h) = 6.63 × 10-34 Js

Answer:

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 ℎ ℎ
Using  = or V =
𝑚𝑉 𝑚

6.63 × 10−34
V= = 0.1516 × 109 m/s
9.11 × 10−31 ×4.9 × 10−12

1
Kinetic energy = mV2
2

1
 K.E. = × 9.11 × 10-31 × 0.1516 × 109
2

 K.E. = 1.047 × 10-14 J

65. Calculate (a) wave number and (b) frequency of yellow radiation
having wave length of 5800 A?

Answer:
Wave number: wave number = 1/wave length

Frequency: frequency = velocity(C) /wave length

3 × 108
Frequency = = 5.172 × 1014 s-1
5800 × 1010

66. Calculate the energy of a mole of photons of radiation whose

frequency is 5 x 1014 Hz?

Answer: energy of one photon, E = h𝑣

 E = 6.626 × 10-34 × 5 x 1014

 E = 3.313 × 10-19 J

Energy of one mole of photons = 3.313 × 10-19 J × 6.626 × 10-34

 E = 19951 J mol-1 = 19.951 kJ mol-1

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❼ Long type question [5 marks]:

67. The longest wavelength doublet absorption transition is observed at

589 nm and 589.6 nm. Calculate the frequency of each transition and
energy difference between two excited states.

Answer:

68. The work function for cesium atom is 1.9 eV. Calculate
(a) the threshold wavelength and

(b) the threshold frequency of the radiation. If the cesium element is

irradiated with a wavelength 500 nm, calculate the kinetic energy and the
velocity of the ejected photoelectron.

Answer: E0 = 1.9eV = 1.9 × 1.602 × 10-19 J

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69. State the postulates of Bohr’s atomic model. Write the relation for the
energy of an electron in a given orbit in terms of its mass and the charge.
What is the significance of negative sign in it? Does energy of the electron
increase or decrease as the value of n increases? [PYQ NIOS Oct 2022]

Answer: The postulates of Bohr's model of an atom are:

1. Electrons revolve around the nucleus of an atom in a certain definite path
called the Orbit or stationary state of the shell.
2. The shells are having different energy levels denoted as K, L, M, N.
3. As long as the electron remains in an orbit, it neither absorbs nor emits
energy.
4. The electron can move only in that orbit in which angular momentum is
quantized, i.e., the angular momentum of the electron is an integral
ℎ
multiple of .
2𝜋

Or

(a) State the postulates of Bohr’s atomic model. How does the energy of a
Bohr orbit vary with principal quantum number ‘n’?

(b) Differentiate between a line spectrum and a continuous spectrum.

Answer:
(a) Postulates of Bohr's Atomic Model:
1. Electrons revolve around the nucleus in circular orbits without emitting
radiation.
2. Only certain orbits, corresponding to specific quantized values of angular
momentum (mvr = nh/2π, where m is the mass of the electron, v is its

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 velocity, r is the radius of the orbit, n is a positive integer called the
principal quantum number, and h is Planck's constant), are stable.
3. Electrons can jump from one allowed orbit to another by emitting or
absorbing energy in discrete packets (quanta) corresponding to the
difference in energy between the orbits.

Energy of a Bohr Orbit and Principal Quantum Number 'n':

According to Bohr's model, the energy En of an electron in the nth orbit is given
by:
𝑍 2 .𝑅𝐻
En = –
𝑛2

Where Z is the atomic number (number of protons in the nucleus) of the atom,
and RH is the Rydberg constant (RH = 2.18 × 10−18 J)

 The principal quantum number n determines the energy level of the orbit.
As n increases, the energy of the orbit becomes less negative, indicating
that electrons in higher orbits are farther from the nucleus and have higher
energy.
 Specifically, the energy of the electron in the ground state (n = 1) is most
negative (most stable), and as n increases (n = 2, 3, 4, ...), the energy levels
become less negative and approach zero.

Therefore, the energy of a Bohr orbit varies inversely with the square of the
principal quantum number n. This relationship reflects the quantization of
energy levels in Bohr's model, where only certain discrete orbits are allowed
for electrons in an atom.

(b) A line spectrum and a continuous spectrum are two different types of
electromagnetic spectra that are observed in the study of atomic and
molecular structure.

The key difference between the two is that line spectra are the result of
discrete energy transitions, while continuous spectra are the result of a broad
distribution of energy. Line spectra are commonly used in atomic and
molecular spectroscopy to identify the chemical composition of materials,
while continuous spectra are often used in the study of the properties of light
and the nature of electromagnetic radiation.

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70. Compare and contrast Thomson's model and Rutherford's model of the
atom. Highlight the key differences and similarities.

Answer: Thomson proposed that atoms could be described as negative

particles floating within a soup of diffused positive charges. This
model is often called the plum pudding model of the atom since its description
is very similar to plum pudding, a famous English dessert. Rutherford proposed
the nuclear model, in which an atom consists of a tiny, positively charged
nucleus surrounded by negatively charged electrons. Rutherford calculated
that the nucleus took up a tiny fraction of the atom’s volume based on the
number of alpha particles deflected in his experiment.

 Key differences between Thomson and Rutherford’s atomic model –:

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 Chemical Bonding
4

Short summary What do we learn Quick Revision

 Introduction  Lewis and Kossel theory

The combined state is formed by “Only outer electrons participate in

combination of elements that is a bond formation and inner electrons
chemical bond. remain protected. These valence
Like families, have connections electrons taking part in bond
in the same way the attraction of formation are represented by putting
chemical species is called chemical dots around symbol of element”.
bond.
The representation of valence
 Chemical bond electrons is shown as such –:

The force that holds different atoms

in a molecule is called chemical bond. The atom with one electron
Two atoms have combined or a bond is monovalent. The atom with two
is formed between the two. The bond electrons is divalent, with three
is called a chemical bond. is trivalent and so on.

 Kossel theory
 Valence electrons
According to it, highly electronegative
The electrons in the outer most shell
atoms like halogens are at extreme
take part in the bond formation and
right and electropositive atoms like
determine the combining capacity or
alkali metals are at extreme left.
the ‘valency’ of the atom.
The halogen, for completing orbit
Therefore, the outer most shell of any
gains 1 electron and alkali metals
atom is called its valence shell and the
looses 1 electron to attain stable
electrons present in the valence shell
configuration.
are called the valence electrons.

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 Types of chemical bond  General properties of ionic

The stable electronic configuration of compound

the noble gases can be achieved in a
number of ways; by losing, gaining or 1. Physical state: They form definite
sharing of electrons. pattern that is crystal lattice.
2. Melting and boiling point: They
Accordingly, there are three types of have high melting and
chemical bonds –: boiling points because of strong
 Ionic or electrovalent bond attraction between constituents.
 Covalent bond 3. Solubility: All ionic compounds are
 Co – ordinate covalent bond soluble in polar solvents
and insoluble in organic solvents.
NOTE: In addition to these we have a 4. Electrical conductivity: They are
special kind of bond called good conductor of electricity.
hydrogen bond. 5. Non directional in nature: There
direction is not fixed.
Therefore, they are non-directional
in nature.
 Ionic bond
NaCl, calcium fluoride, magnesium
“They are formed by transfer of oxide are examples of ionic
electrons or ions” compound
 It is formed between metal and no
metal.
 In it metal always loses electrons
 Ionization enthalpy
and non-metal always accepts
electron. Ionization enthalpy of any element is
“the amount of energy required to
 Factors affecting the formation of
remove an electron from outermost
ionic bond –:
shell of an isolated gaseous atom to
1. Low ionization energy convert it into cation”.
2. High electron affinity
Lower the ionization enthalpy, greater
3. High lattice enthalpy
the chances of ionic bond formation.

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 Electron affinity  Coordinate bond

The energy released when an isolated Coordinate bond is formed when

gaseous atom takes up an electron to shared pair of electrons comes only
form anion is called electron affinity from one atom. There is no mutual
or electron gain enthalpy. sharing of electrons. The one that
donates electron is called donor atom
The ionic bond should have high
and other is called acceptor. The bond
electron gain enthalpy because more
is also called dative bond.
it will have attraction, for upcoming
electron more readily the bond will be Example: In sulphate ion, hydronium
formed. ion etc.

 Lattice affinity NOTE: It gives info about most stable

structure of covalent compound.
It is defined as the amount of energy
required to separate 1 mole of ionic
compound into separate oppositely
charged ions.  Lewis dot structure

More is the lattice energy, more Lewis provided a very convenient way
stable is the bond formed. of representing bonding in simple
molecules.
The Lewis dot Structure can be
 Covalent bond written through the following steps:
When the bond is formed between (i) Calculate the total number of
two or more atoms by mutual valence electrons of the combining
contribution and sharing of electrons, atoms.
it is known as covalent bond.
(ii) Each anion means addition of one
 Examples: HCl, O2, N2 electron and each cation means
 Valence electrons: The electrons removal of one electron. This gives
present in valence shell. the total number of electrons to be
 Lone pair: The electrons that do distributed.
not participate in bond formation.
(iii) By knowing the chemical symbols
 Bond pair: The electrons that
of the combining atoms.
participate in bond formation.

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(iv) After placing shared pairs of  Bond angle
electrons for single bond, the
 It is defined as the angle between
remaining electrons may account for
the lines representing the orbitals
either multiple bonds or as lone pairs. containing the bonding –
electrons.
 It helps us in determining the
shape.
 It can be expressed in degree.
 Electrons shown to be involved in
Bond angle can be experimentally
the bond formation are called
determined by spectroscopic
bonding electrons.
methods.
 Pair of electrons is called ‘bond
pair’
 Pair of electrons not involved in
the bonding process are called  Bond enthalpy
‘lone pairs’. It is defined as the amount of energy
required to break one mole of bonds
of a particular type to separate them
 Octet rule
into gaseous atoms.
It may have noticed that in the
process of bond formation, the  Bond order
elements of second period acquire
According to Lewis, in a covalent
eight electrons in their valence shell.
bond, the bond order is given by the
This is called ‘Octet rule’.
number of bonds between two atoms
in a molecule. For example,
 Bond length Bond order of H2 (H —H) = 1
Bond order of 02 (O = O) = 2
It is defined as the equilibrium
distance between the centers of the
nuclei of the two bonded atoms. It is
expressed in terms of A.

Experimentally, it can be defined by X

– ray diffraction or electron
diffraction method.

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 Bond Polarity  Polarization

If two atoms have the same electro Ionic bond is formed by transfer of
negativity, such a bond is pure electrons. As a result, the cation and
covalent bond. It is non-polar in anion are formed. So, cation formed
nature. Ex. - H2, Cl2, O2, N2 etc distort the shape of electron cloud of
anion as shown in figure:
If two atoms have different electro
negativity, such a bond is polar
covalent bond. Ex. – HCl

“Distortion of electron cloud of the

negatively charged ion by the
 Dipole moment
positively charged ion is called
Electric dipole: Two equal but Polarization”.
opposite charges with
a small distance between them.

Dipole moment (μ): Charge separation

in a covalent bond  Valence shell electron pair
results in the formation of an repulsion theory (VSEPRT)
electrical dipole.
(i) The exact shape of molecule
𝝁=q×d depends upon the number of electron
pairs.
μ = dipole moment
(ii) The electron pairs have a tendency
q = magnitude of charge
to repel each other.
d = distance of separation
(iii) Electron pairs try to take such
position which can minimize the
rupulsion between them.
 Applications of dipole moment
(iv) The valence shell is taken as a
(i) For determining the polarity of the sphere with the electron pairs placed
molecules. at maximum distance.
(ii) In finding the shapes of the (v) A multiple bond is treated as if it is
molecules. a single electron pair and the electron
(iii) In calculating the percentage ionic pairs which constitute the bond as
character of polar bonds. single pairs.

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 Hybridisation (iii) sp3 hybridisation: In this type, one
s and three p –
Hybridisation is the process of orbitals in the valence shell of an
intermixing of the orbitals of slightly atom get hybridised to form four
different energies so as to redistribute equivalent hybrid orbitals.
their energies resulting in the
formation of new set of orbitals of
equivalent energies and shape.
 Valence bond theory
 Salient Features of Hybridisation: 1. According to this, the atom retains
their identity even after bonding.
1. Orbitals with almost equal energy
2. Bond is formed due to interaction
take part in the hybridisation.
of valence electrons only.
2. Number of hybrid orbitals
3. Only the valence electrons lose
produced is equal to the number
their identity whereas inner
of atomic orbitals mixed,
electrons do not participate.
3. Geometry of a covalent molecule
4. Stability of bond depends upon
can be indicated by the type of
amount of energy released
hybridisation.
5. The molecule has minimum energy
4. The hybrid orbitals are more
at a specific distance called inter-
effective in forming stable bonds
nuclear distance and at that the
than the pure atomic orbitals.
bond formation takes place.

 Types of hybridization
 Hydrogen bonding
(i) sp hybridisation: When one s and
one p – orbital hybridise Hydrogen bond is formed when
to form two equivalent orbitals, the hydrogen is attached to some
orbital is known as sp hybrid orbital, electronegative element like O, N and
and the type of hybridisation is called F. It forma a special bond with them
sp hybridisation. called as hydrogen bond.

(ii) sp2 hybridisation: In this type, one  Types of Hydrogen bond

s and two p – orbitals
1. Intermolecular H bond.
hybridise to form three equivalent
2. Intra – molecular H bond.
sp2 hybridised orbitals.

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 Intermolecular hydrogen  Resonance
bonding The concept of resonance was
It is a bond formed between two introduced to deal with the type of
different molecules. difficulty experienced in the depiction
of accurate structures of molecules of
Example: H-F-----H-F----H-F O3.

 Intra molecular hydrogen According to the concept of

resonance, whenever a single lewis
bonding
structure cannot describe a molecule
A bond that is formed within the accurately, a number of structures
molecule. with similar energy, positions of
nuclei , bonding and non – bonding
 Consequences of hydrogen pairs of electrons are taken as the
bonding canonical structures of the hybrid
 They exist as associated molecules. which describes the molecule
 Boiling points of compound having accurately.
H-bond are higher as they have
extra bonds in them.
 They generally exist as liquids.

 Resonance structure

Experimentally found that structure of

O3 cannot be represented by Lewis
structure.

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 Question – Answer

① MCQs

1. Which of the following molecules has a polar covalent bond?

(A) H₂ (B) O₂ (C) HF (D) N₂

Answer: (C) HF

2. Which type of bond is present in H3O+?

(A) Ionic bond (B) Covalent bond
(C) Coordinate (dative) bond (D) Hydrogen bond

Answer: (C) Coordinate (dative) bond

3. Which of the following compounds contains both ionic and covalent

bonds?
(A) CH4 (B) NaOH (C) CO2 (D) NH3

Answer: (B) NaOH

4. Which of the following statements is not correct?

(A) NaCl being an ionic compound is a good conductor of electricity in
the solid state.
(B) In canonical structures there is a difference in the arrangement of
atoms.
(C) Hybrid orbitals form stronger bonds than pure orbitals.
(D) VSEPR Theory can explain the square planar geometry of XeF4.

Answer: (A) NaCl being an ionic compound is a good conductor of electricity

in the solid state.

Or

Which of the following statements about covalent compounds is false?

(A) They have low melting and boiling points.

(B) They are usually soluble in non-polar solvents.
(C) They conduct electricity in aqueous solution.

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 (D) They often exist as gases, liquids, or low-melting solids.

Answer: (C) They conduct electricity in aqueous solution.

5. Which one of them is the weakest?

(A) Ionic bond (B) Covalent bond
(C) Metallic Bond (D) van der Waals force

Answer: (D) van der Waals force

6. The bond angle around atom which uses sp2 hybridization is ———–
(A) 1200 (B) 1800 (C) 1070 (D) 1090. 28’

Answer: (A) 1200

7. In which of the following molecules the bond angle is minimum?

[PYQ NIOS Oct 2022]
(A) CH4 (B) H2O (C) NH3 (D) NH4

Answer: (B) H2O

Or

Which of the following has the least ionic character?

(A) LiF (B) NaCl (C) KBr (D) CsI

Answer: (D) CsI

8. In the resonating structures of benzene, the number of sigma and pi

bonds are:
(A) 3π and 12σ (B) 3σ and 3π
(C) 6σ and 6π (D) 12σ and 12π

Answer: (A) 3π and 12σ

9. Which of the following substances has a dipole moment more than zero?
(A) Water (B) Methane (C) Carbon dioxide (D) Nitrogen

Answer: (A) Water

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10. The correct bond order in the following species is —————.
(A) O2+ < O2– < O22+ (B) O2– < O2+ < O22+
(C) O22+ < O2+ < O2– (D) O22+ < O2– < O2+

Answer: (B) O2– < O2+ < O22+

11. Temporary development of +ve and −ve charges on two atoms linked
by multiple covalent bonds in a molecule through complete transfer of
electrons is known as: [PYQ NIOS Oct 2022]
(A) hyper conjugation (B) resonance
(C) inductive effect (D) electrometric effect

Answer: (D) Electrometric effect

12. Which of the following molecules have trigonal planar geometry?

(A) BF3 (B) NH3 (C) PCl3 (D) IF3

Answer: (A) BF3

Or

Which compound does not follow the octet rule in its Lewis structure?
(A) BF3 (B) CH4 (C) H2O (D) CO2

Answer: (A) BF3

13. During change of O2 to O22- ion, the electron adds on which of the
following orbitals?
(A) σ orbital (B) π orbital (C) σ orbital (D) π orbital

Answer: (D) π orbital

14. All noble gas molecules are: [sample paper]

(A) Monoatomic (B) Diatomic (C) Triatomic (D) Both I and II

Answer: (A) Monoatomic

15. In which of the following pairs, the two molecules have identical bond
orders:
(A) N2 , O22+ (B) N2 , O2– (C) N2– , O2 (D) O22- , N2

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Answer: (A) N2, O22+

16. Ionic bonds will be formed more easily between elements with
comparatively:
(A) low ionization enthalpy and high electron affinity
(B) high ionization enthalpy and high electron affinity
(C) low ionization enthalpy and low electron affinity
(D) high ionization enthalpy and low electron affinity

Answer: (A) low ionization enthalpy and high electron affinity

17. Which of the following is true about coordinate (dative) covalent

bonds?
(A) Both atoms share electrons equally.
(B) One atom provides both electrons for the bond.
(C) Electrons are transferred from one atom to another.
(D) It occurs only between identical atoms.

Answer: (B) One atom provides both electrons for the bond.

18. The ionization enthalpy of hydrogen atom is 1.312×106 J mol-1. The

energy required to excite the electron in the atom from n = 1 to n = 2 is?
[sample paper]
5 -1
(A) 8.51 × 10 J mol
(B) 6.56 × 105 J mol-1
(C) 7.56 × 105 J mol-1
(D) 9.84 × 105 J mol-1

Answer: (D) 9.84 × 105 J mol-1

19. Which of the following compounds has the strongest hydrogen

bonding?
(A) CH3OH (B) H2O (C) NH3 (D) HF

Answer: (B) H2O

20. Which of the following molecules exhibits resonance?

(A) H2O (B) CO2 (C) O3 (D) CH4

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Answer: (C) O3

21. The hybridization of phosphorous in phosphorus pentachloride is:

[PYQ NIOS Oct 2017]
(A) sp3 (B) sp3d (C) sp3d2 (D) d2sp3

Answer: (B) sp3d

22. Which of the following statements is true about hybridization in BF3?

(A) The boron atom undergoes sp3 hybridization.
(B) The boron atom undergoes sp2hybridization.
(C) The boron atom undergoes sp hybridization.
(D) The boron atom remains unhybridized.

Answer: (B) The boron atom undergoes sp2 hybridization.

23. Which of the following statements about valence bond theory is false?
(A) It explains the formation of covalent bonds through orbital overlap.
(B) It accounts for the hybridization of atomic orbitals.
(C) It can predict the magnetic properties of molecules.
(D) It provides an accurate description of resonance structures.

Answer: (D) It provides an accurate description of resonance structures.

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② complete the sentence using an appropriate word:

24. Covalent, chemical bonding, lewis dot, valence electron, polar

covalent
1. The number of __________ in the outermost shell of an atom determines
its chemical properties and reactivity.
2. The representation of an atom’s valence electrons as dots around the
element symbol is known as the __________ structure.
3. A __________ bond is formed by the sharing of a pair of electrons between
two atoms.
4. __________ is the force that holds two atoms together in a molecule.
5. __________ A bond is formed when there is an unequal sharing of
electrons between two atoms.

Answer: (1) valence electron, (2) lewis dot, (3) covalent, (4) chemical
bonding, (5) polar covalent

25. Hybridization, resonance, Delocalization, sp2 hybridisation

1. __________ is the process of mixing atomic orbitals to form new hybrid
orbitals that are degenerate in energy.
2. The __________ of electrons in a molecule contributes to the resonance
stability.
3. In ethene (C2H4), each carbon atom undergoes __________.
4. The __________ effect can explain the stabilization of certain ions or
molecules that cannot be represented by a single Lewis structure.

Answer: (i) Hybridization, (ii) delocalization, (iii) sp2 hybridization, (iv)

resonance

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③Fill in the blanks:

26.
(a) The __________ of an atom is the ability to attract and hold onto electrons
in a chemical bond.
(b) In __________ a bond, both electrons in the shared pair come from the
same atom.
(c) __________ are used to represent the arrangement of electrons in
molecules and polyatomic ions.
(d) An __________ bond is characterized by the transfer of electrons from one
atom to another, resulting in the formation of oppositely charged ions.

Answer: (a) electronegativity, (b) coordinate covalent, (c) Lewis structures,

(d) ionic

27.
(1) In a covalent bond, the shared pair of electrons is contributed by
__________ atoms.
(2) The tendency of atoms to have eight electrons in their valence shell is called
the __________ rule.
(3) __________ structures are different Lewis structures for the same molecule
that cannot be represented accurately by a single Lewis structure.
(4) In water molecules, hydrogen bonding occurs between the hydrogen of one
water molecule and the __________ of another.
(5) According to valence bond theory, a covalent bond forms when the orbitals
of two atoms __________.

Answer: (1) both, (2) octet, (3) Resonance, (4) oxygen, (5) overlap

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④Match the following:

28. Match the statement of column A with the appropriate option given in
column B.

COLUMN A COLUMN B

1. Hydrogen bonding (a) Overlapping of atomic orbitals

2. Resonance (b) Involves delocalized electrons

3. Valence bond theory (c) Interaction between a hydrogen atom

and an electronegative atom

4. Hybridization (d) Mixing of atomic orbitals

(e) atoms to have eight electrons in their

valence shell

Answer: 1 – (c), 2 – (b), 3 – (a), 4 – (d)

29. Match the statement of column I with the appropriate option given in
column II.

COLUMN I COLUMN II
1. Ionic bond a. Representation of valence electrons using
dots
2. Covalent bond b. Involves the transfer of electrons from one
atom to another
3. Coordinate bond c. Involves the sharing of electron pairs
between atoms
4. Lewis dot structure d. Both electrons in the bond are donated by
the same atom
e. represent the arrangement of electrons in
molecules and polyatomic ions

Answer: 1 – b, 2 – c, 3 – d, 4 – a and e

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⑤True or false:

30. An ionic bond is formed by the sharing of electrons between atoms.

 False.

31. A covalent bond involves the transfer of electrons from one atom to
another.

 False.

32. In a coordinate bond, both electrons in the bond are provided by the
same atom.

 True.

33. Lewis dot structures represent the arrangement of valence electrons

around an atom using dots.

 True.

34. In a coordinate bond, both electrons in the bond are provided by the
same atom.

 True.

35. Ionic bonds typically form between atoms with similar

electronegativities.

 False.

36. Ionic compounds generally have high melting and boiling points.
 True.

37. Coordinate bonds are also known as dative bonds.

 True.

38. Write TRUE (T) for correct statement and FALSE (F) for incorrect
statements:

(Out of four attempt any two) [sample paper]

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(1) Ionic bond involves a transfer of electrons whereas covalent bond involves
sharing of electrons.

 True.

(2) Formation of dative bond involves only transfer of electrons from donor to
acceptor.

 True.

(3) The term chemical bond does not express the existence of strong forces of
attraction between the atoms.

 True.

(4) The formation of a chemical involves an increase in the potential energy of

the system.

 True.

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⑥Very short type question [2 marks each]:

39. Explain the concept of hybridization and describe the type of

hybridization in methane (CH₄).

Answer:Hybridization is the process of mixing atomic orbitals to form new

hybrid orbitals that are degenerate in energy. In methane (CH₄), the
carbon atom undergoes sp³ hybridization, where one s orbital and three p
orbitals mix to form four equivalent sp³ hybrid orbitals arranged in a
tetrahedral geometry.

40. What is the significance of the resonance structure in the stability of

molecules like benzene?

Answer: Resonance structures represent the delocalization of electrons

within a molecule, contributing to its stability. In benzene, the
electrons are delocalized over the entire ring, lowering the overall energy and
making the molecule more stable than any single Lewis structure would
suggest.

41. Differentiate between sigma (σ) and pi (π) bonds in terms of orbital
overlap.

Answer: Sigma (σ) bonds are formed by the head-on overlap of atomic
orbitals, resulting in a single covalent bond along the axis connecting
the two nuclei. Pi (π) bonds are formed by the side-by-side (lateral) overlap of
p orbitals, resulting in a bond above and below the plane of the nuclei. Sigma
bonds are generally stronger than pi bonds.

42. Describe the concept of a coordinate covalent bond and give an

example.

Answer: A coordinate covalent bond (or dative bond) is a type of covalent

bond where both electrons in the shared pair come from the same
atom. An example is the bond between the nitrogen atom and the hydrogen
ion in the ammonium ion (NH₄⁺), where nitrogen donates a lone pair of
electrons to form the bond.

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43. Define enthalpy of solution. Give one example. [PYQ NIOS Oct 2021]
Answer: It is defined as the enthalpy change in a process when one mole of a
substance is dissolved in specified amount of a solvent.

NaCl (s) + aq ⇌ NaCl(aq) ΔsolnH = 4 kJ mol-1

44. What is the bond order, and how is it calculated for the nitrate ion
(NO₃⁻)?

Answer: Bond order is the number of chemical bonds between a pair of

atoms. It can be calculated as the total number of bonding pairs
divided by the number of bond locations. In the nitrate ion (NO₃⁻), there are
three resonance structures with one double bond and two single bonds,
averaged over three bond locations.

Thus, the bond order is (1 + 1/3 + 1/3 + 1/3) /3 = 4/3 ≈ 1.33.

45. Why we usually study enthalpy change and not internal energy
change? [sample paper]

Answer: Most of the processes including reactions are carried out in open
vessels at constant pressure i.e., mostly chemical reaction occurs
under constant atmospheric pressure. In this situation, heat change occurs on
the system is different from the change under constant volume.

Hence heat energy change occurs under constant pressure but internal energy
does not change due to this heat energy change but enthalpy changes.

OR

46. Comment on the bond energies of four C-H bonds in CH4.

[Sample paper]

Answer: The bond energies of 1st, 2nd, 3rd and 4th C-H bonds are not equal and
so average values are taken.

47. Why do ionic compounds generally have high melting and boiling
points?

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Answer: Ionic compounds have high melting and boiling points due to the
strong electrostatic forces of attraction between the oppositely
charged ions in the crystal lattice. A large amount of energy is required to
overcome these forces and change the state of the substance.

48. Write electron dot structure (Lewis structure)

of Na, Ca, B, Br, Xe, As, Ge, N3-

Answer: Lewis symbols are simple notations that represent valence electrons
in an atom with the help of a dot so they are also known as electron
dot structure or lewis structure.

49. Give the octet rule in short.

Answer: Octet word corresponds to the number eight so it gives us
information about the atoms which tend to adjust the arrangement
of their electrons in such a way that they achieve eight electrons in their
outermost shell. Except hydrogen and helium as they will need only 2 electrons
to complete their octet.

50. Give the mathematical expression of the dipole moment.

Answer: Mathematically dipole moment is product of magnitude of charge
represented by the letter Q and distance represented by r whereas
dipole moment is represented by M. Dipole moment is usually expressed in
Debye units (D). Expression can be written as follows:

Dipole moment (M) = charge (Q) × distance of separation (r)

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⑦Short type question:

51. Explain the non linear shape of H2S and non planar shape of PCl3 using
valence shell electron pair repulsion theory.

Answer: The main atom in H2S is S, which has two lone pairs.
These lone pairs cause repulsion and displace the H-S bond, resulting in a non
linear shape.

PCl3 has a trigonal planar structure. P has three single bonds and one lone pair
(pair of unshared electrons). Each chlorine atom has a single 3p orbital that is
completely occupied. The overlap of a phosphorus sp3 hybrid orbital with a
singly occupied chlorine 3p orbital results in the formation of P–Cl bonds.
Three lone pairs are held by each Cl atom.

52. In both water and dimethyl ether (CH3–O–CH3), oxygen atom is central
atom, and has the same hybridization, yet they have different bond
angles. Which one has a greater bond angle? Give reason.

Answer: The bond angle of dimethyl ether will be greater. More repulsion will
exist between bond pairs of CH3 groups attached in ether than
between bond pairs of hydrogen atoms attached to oxygen in the water.

The carbon of CH3 in ether is attached to three hydrogen atoms via bonds, and
the electron pair of these bonds contribute to the electronic charge density on
the carbon atom. As a result, the repulsion between two CH3 groups will be
greater than that between two hydrogen atoms.

53. Calculate the enthalpy change in the reaction.

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 4NH3 (g) + 3O2 (g) →2N2 (g) + 6H2O (l) at 298 K.

Given that enthalpy of formation for NH3(g) and H2O(l) are −46.0 kJ mol−1 and
− 286.0 kJ mol−1 respectively. Also mention the standard enthalpy of
formation of an element. [PYQ NIOS Oct 2021]

Answer:
4NH3 (g) + 3O2 (g) →2N2 (g) + 6H2O (l)

ΔHr = ΣΔHf (product) – ΣΔHf (reactant)

ΔHr = 2 ΔHf(N2)+ 6ΔHf (H2O(𝑙)) − 4ΔHf(NH3(g))+3ΔHf(O2(g))

ΔHrex = [2 × 0 + 6 × (−286)] − [4 × (−46) + 3 × 0]= −1716 + 186

ΔHrex= −1532kJ/mol

54. Give the main feature of Kossel’s explanation of chemical bonding.

Answer: Kossel gives explanation towards the chemical bonding have gives us
the following features:

1. Highly electronegative halogens and highly electropositive alkali metals

present in the periodic table are separated by noble gases.

2. Formation of a negative ion from a halogen atom and a positive ion from an
alkali metal atom is generally associated with a gain and loss of an electron by
their respective atoms.

3. The negative and positive ions formed generally attain stable noble gas
electronic configurations. Noble gases are those gases which have eight
electrons in their outermost shell and have a general configuration of ns2np6.
The +ve and -ve ions are stabilized by electrostatic attraction.

55. Give reasons for the following:

(i) Covalent bonds are directional bonds while ionic bonds are nondirectional.

(ii) Water molecule has bent structure whereas carbon dioxide molecule is
linear.

(iii) Ethyne molecule is linear.

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Answer:
(i) A covalent bond is formed by the overlapping of half-filled atomic orbitals
with definite directions, i.e., shared electron pair/pairs are localised between
two atoms. As a result, a covalent bond is also known as a directional bond.
Since each ion in an ionic compound has an influence in all directions, it is
surrounded by a number of oppositely charged ions with no definite direction
and, therefore, is non-directional.

(ii) The central oxygen atom in water is sp3 hybridised, whereas the central
carbon atom in CO2 is sp-hybridised. The net dipole moment of CO2 is zero,
whereas H2O has a significant value. This demonstrates that CO2 has a linear
structure, whereas water has a bent structure.

(iii) Each carbon atom in ethyne is sp-hybridized, resulting in a linear structure.

56. Write the molecular orbital electronic configuration of the following

species. Calculate their bond order and predict their relative stability : O2;
O2+ [Atomic number of O = 8] [PYQ NIOS Oct 2016]

Answer:
Electronic configuration:

For O2 (16 electrons)

The electronic configuration of oxygen (O2) is:

(σ1s)2(σ∗1s)2(σ2s)2(σ∗2s)2(σ2pz)2(π2px)2(π2py)2(π∗2px)1(π∗2py)1

For O2+ (15 electrons)

When we remove one electron from O2, we get O2+. The electron is removed
from the highest occupied molecular orbital (HOMO), which is one of the π∗2p
orbitals:

(σ1s)2(σ∗1s)2(σ2s)2(σ∗2s)2(σ2pz)2(π2px)2(π2py)2(π∗2px)1
N b −N a
Bond order: B.O. =
2

10−6 10−5
 For O2 = = 2 and For O2– = = 2.5
2 2

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O2 has a bond order of 2.
O2+ has a bond order of 2.5.

Therefore, O2+ is predicted to be more stable than due to its higher bond order.

57. Draw the resonating structure of

(i) Ozone molecule
(ii) Nitrate ion

Answer:
(i) Ozone molecule

(ii) Nitrate ion

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⑧Long type question:

58.
(i) Discuss the significance/ applications of dipole moment.
(ii) Represent diagrammatically the bond moments and the resultant
dipole moment in CO2, NF3 and CHCI3.

Answer: (i) Dipole moment (μ) = charge (Q) ✕ separation distance (r). Debye
units are commonly used to express dipole moment (D).

(a) It aids in the prediction of the polar and non-polar nature of compounds.
Non-polar molecules have no dipole moment, whereas polar molecules have a
dipole moment.

(b) It is possible to predict the nature of a chemical bond formed by knowing

the electronegativities of the atoms involved in a molecule. The bond will be
highly polar if the difference in electronegativities between two atoms is large.
An ionic bond is formed when an electron is completely transferred from one
atom to another.

(c) It is beneficial to understand the symmetry of the molecule. Despite having

two or more polar bonds, symmetrical molecules have zero dipole moment.

In the case of BeF2, for example, the dipole moment is zero. This is due to the
fact that the two equal bond dipoles point in opposite directions and cancel
each other out.

(d) Dipole moment measurements aid in the differentiation of cis- and trans-
isomers because the ds-isomer has a higher dipole moment than the trans
isomer.

(e) Dipole moment measurements aid in the differentiation of o-, m-, and p-
isomers because the dipole moment of the p-isomer is zero and that of the o-
isomers is greater than that of the m-isomer.

(ii) The bond moments and the resultant dipole moment in CO2, NF3 and CHCI3.

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59.
(a) Which one in the pairs is more covalent and why?
(i) AgCl, AgI (ii) LiCl, KCl

(b) Predict the molecular geometrics of AX4 type molecules having :

(i) 4 bond pairs and no lone pairs, (ii) 2 bond pairs and 2 lone pairs
Justify your answer.

(c) Be2 molecule does not exist. Explain on the basis of molecular orbital
theory. [PYQ NIOS Oct 2021]

Answer:
(a) Applying Fajan's rules, the result can be obtained in each case, as follows:
(i) AgI is more covalent than AgCl. This is because I- ion is larger in size than Cl-
ion and hence is more polarized than Cl- ion.

(ii) Fajan’s rule states “Larger the cation size lesser is the covalent character”.
Ag+ cation is generally bigger and larger than K+ atoms. So, AgCl has less
covalent character than KCl. Hence KCl is more covalent than AgCl.

(b) If there is one lone pair of electrons and three bond pairs the resulting
molecular geometry is trigonal pyramidal (e.g. NH3). If there are two bond pairs
and two lone pairs of electrons the molecular geometry is angular or bent (e.g.
H2O)

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Lone pair is a concept used in valence shell electron pair repulsion theory
(VSEPR theory) which explains the shapes of molecules. They are also referred
to in the chemistry of Lewis acids and bases. However, not all non-bonding
pairs of electrons are considered by chemists to be lone pairs.

(c) The electronic configuration of Beryllium is 1s22s2.

The molecular orbital electronic configuration for Be2 molecule can be written
as:
1
Hence, the bond order for Be2 is 𝑁𝑏 − 𝑁𝑎
2

Where, Nb = Number of electrons in bonding orbitals

Na = Number of electrons in anti-bonding orbitals

‫ ؞‬Bond order of Be2 = 12 (4 – 4) = 0

A negative or zero bond order means that the molecule is unstable.
Hence, Be2 molecule does not exist.

60. Distinguish between sigma and a pi bond.

Answer:

Pi bond Sigma bond

The lateral overlapping of orbitals The end-to-end overlapping of

forms a pi bond. orbitals forms the Sigma bond.

It is a comparatively weak bond. It is a comparatively strong bond.

There is only one overlapping The overlapping orbitals are s-s, s-p,
orbital, p-p. and p-p.

Rotation around pi- the bond is Rotation is possible around the

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 restricted. sigma bond.

The electron cloud is not The electron cloud is symmetrical

symmetrical about the line about the line joining two nuclei.
joining two nuclei.

It has 2 electron clouds, one It has 1 electron cloud, and that is

above the plane of atomic nuclei symmetrical about the inter-nuclear
and one below the plane of axis.
atomic nuclei.

61.
(a) According to VSEPR model, what is the expected shape of molecules and
arrangement of electron pair of AX2, AX4 and AX6 types of molecules?

(b) State the postulates of VSEPR model which help in predicting the above
information. [PYQ NIOS Oct 2016]

Answer: (a) According to VSEPR model, the shape of these are given as:
Ax2 generally have linear shape. Example Bef2 , Co2

Ax4 generally have tetrahedral shape. Example Ch4 , Sicl4

Ax6 generally have octahedral shape. Example Sf4 , Sef6

(b) If all electron pair around the central tom are bond pair and there are no
lone pair then shape of the molecule depends upon nature of hybridization.

N = number of valence electron in central atom + number of univalent atom ±

charge / 2

 Main postulates of Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) Theory

are:
 The shape of a molecule depends upon the number of valence shell
electron pairs (bonded or non - bonded) around the central atom.

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 Pairs of electrons in the valence shell repel one another since electron
clouds are negatively charged.
 These pairs of electrons tend to occupy such positions in space that
minimise repulsion and thus maximise distance between them.
 The valence shell is taken as a sphere with the electron pairs localising on
the spherical surface at maximum distance from one another.
 A multiple bond is treated as if it is a single electron pair and the two or
three electron pairs of a multiple bond are treated as a single super pair.
 When two or more resonance structures can represent a molecule, the
VSEPR model is applicable to any such structure.
62. Describe the hybridisation in case of PCl5. Why are the axial bonds
longer as compared to equatorial bonds?

Answer: The ground state and excited state outer electronic configurations of
phosphorus (Z = 15) are:

Phosphorus atom is sp3 d hybridized in the excited state. These orbitals are
filled by the electron pairs donated by five Cl atoms as:

The five sp3 d hybrid orbitals are directed towards the five comers of the
trigonal bipyramidal. Hence, the geometry of PCl5 can be represented as:
There are five P-Cl sigma bonds in PCl5. Three P-Cl bonds lie in one plane and
make an angle of 120° with each other.

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These bonds are called equatorial bonds. The remaining two P-Cl bonds lie
above and below the equatorial plane and make an angle of 90° with the
plane. These bonds are called axial bonds.
As the axial bond pairs suffer more repulsion front the equatorial bond pairs,
axial bonds are slightly longer than equatorial bonds.

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 7 Solution

Short summary What do we learn Quick Revision

 What is solution?  Components of solution

Solutions are homogeneous mixture There are two components which are
of two or more than two components used in any solution

Examples of solution are –: 1. Solvent: component that is

present in the largest quantity in
Air, sea water (salt + water), oil, tea,
the solution.
coffee, sugar solution, salt solution,
2. Solute: all the remaining
brass (Cu + Zn), bronze (Cu + Tn)
components except solvent are
called solute.

 Homogeneous mixture Solution = solute + solvent

The composition and the properties

of the components are same and
uniform in a mixture, that mixture is  Solute VS solvent
known as homogeneous mixture.
Lets we take a glass of water and
Example: salt solution is an example mixed one table spoon salt in it and
of homogeneous mixture and as well formed salt solution. So, the water s
as of solution. solvent and the salt is solute in it.

 Heterogeneous mixture  The physical state of solution is

determined by the state of solvent.
The composition and the properties  The solution which contains only
of the components are neither same two components i.e., one solvent
nor uniform in a mixture, that mixture and one solute is called Binary
is known as homogeneous mixture. solution.
Example: mixture of rice and wheat. Salt solution → salt + water
NOTE: it is not a solution (solute) (solvent)

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 Concentration of solution ❸Mass by volume percentage
Composition of a solution is described (W/V)
by expressing its concentration.
W/V is basically mass of solute
On the basis of concentration dissolved in 100 ml of the solution.
solution can be classified as –:
This terminology is used in medicine
(i) Dilute solution: if the quantity of industry.
solute is small, then the solution is 𝐌𝐚𝐬𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐜𝐨𝐦𝐩𝐨𝐧𝐞𝐧𝐭 (𝐬𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐞) 𝐠
W/V = ⨯ 𝟏𝟎𝟎
said to be a dilute solution. 𝐯𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐬𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐦𝐥

(ii) Concentrated solution: if the

quantity of solute is large then the If 1% (W/V) sugar solution in water
solution is said to be a
concentrated solution.  1 g of sugar have to dissolved in
water to give 100 ml of the solution.

There are seven ways to express the

concentration of solution ❹Parts per million (ppm)
quantitatively:
ppm =
❶Mass percentage (W/W) 𝐧𝐨.𝐨𝐟 𝐩𝐚𝐫𝐭𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐜𝐨𝐦𝐩𝐨𝐧𝐞𝐧𝐭
× 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝐭𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐧𝐨.𝐨𝐟 𝐩𝐚𝐫𝐭𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐚𝐥𝐥 𝐜𝐨𝐦𝐩𝐨𝐧𝐞𝐧𝐭 𝐨𝐟 𝐬𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧

𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒐𝒏𝒆𝒏𝒕

W/W = 𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
⨯ 100 It is used, there the quantity of solute
is very trace as compare to the
A 100 g solution contain 10 g of solution.
glucose dissolved in 90 g of water.
For example: the concentration of
10
Mass % of glucose = ⨯ 100 = 10 % pollutants in solution.
100

Mass % of water =
90
⨯ 100 = 90 % ❺Mole fraction ()
100

𝐧𝐨.𝐨𝐟 𝐦𝐨𝐥𝐞𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐜𝐨𝐦𝐩𝐨𝐧𝐞𝐧𝐭

❷Volume percentage (V/V) =
𝐭𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐧𝐨.𝐨𝐟 𝐦𝐨𝐥𝐞𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐚𝐥𝐥 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐜𝐨𝐦𝐩𝐨𝐧𝐞𝐧𝐭
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒐𝒏𝒆𝒏𝒕
V/V = ⨯ 100
𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 A solution contains A and B compo.
A 100 ml solution contain 20 ml of 𝐧𝐀 𝐧𝐁
𝐴 = 𝐵 =
𝐧𝐀 + 𝐍𝐁 𝐧𝐀 + 𝐍𝐁
ethanol dissolved in 80 ml of water.
20 n = number of moles
Vol % of ethanol =
100
⨯ 100 = 20 % 𝐴 +𝐵 = 1

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❻Molarity (M)  Types of solution

Molarity is defined as number of Solutions are categorized into three

moles of solute dissolved in one liter o types on the basis of their physical
solution. state as:

It is denoted as M. Unit of molarity is 1. Gaseous solution

𝐦𝐨𝐥𝐞𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐬𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐞 2. Liquid solution
molar (M). M =
𝐯𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐬𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐢𝐧 𝐥𝐢𝐭𝐫𝐞
3. Solid solution
𝐧
M=
𝐕

❼Molality (M)

Molality is defined as the number of

moles of the solute per kg of the
solvent.

It is denoted as m. Unit of molality is  Vapour pressure

𝐦𝐨𝐥𝐞𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐬𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐞
mol/kg (m). m =
𝐦𝐚𝐬𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐬𝐨𝐥𝐯𝐞𝐧𝐭 𝐢𝐧 𝐤𝐠 “The pressure exhibited by vapour
𝐖𝐁 /𝐌𝐁 present above the liquid surface is
m=
𝐖𝐀 /𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
known as vapor pressure.”

Volatile substances: The substances

which can be vapourised.
 Normality
Non – volatile substances: The
It is defined as the number of gram
substances which cannot
equivalent weights of solute dissolved
be vapourised.
per liter of the solution.
We will study about the vapour
 It is denoted as N.
pressure of volatile substances and in
 Unit of molality is g/lit.
only binary solution.
𝐍𝐨.𝐨𝐟 𝐠𝐫𝐚𝐦 𝐞𝐪𝐮𝐢𝐯𝐚𝐥𝐞𝐧𝐭 𝐰𝐞𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐬𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐞
N= 𝐯𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐬𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐢𝐧 𝐥𝐢𝐭𝐫𝐞𝐬 NOTE: vapour pressure can’t be
discussed in open container, so we
take solution in closed container

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 Vapour pressure of liquid in  Raoult’s law
liquid solution From equation 1 and 2
Both components are volatile liquid. PA = PA0 A & PB = PB0 B
Suppose a closed container contains PA0 = vapour pressure of pure
liquid components in a solution. component A at same temperature
When the container give heats, liquid
converted into vapour. Since, PB0 = Vapour pressure of pure
container is closed the vapour is also component B at same temperature
converted into liquid form. According to Dalton’s law:
Now the solution gets at a stage Ptotal = PA + PB
where the dynamic equilibrium  Ptotal = PA0 A + PB0 B
between liquid and vapour is set up.
On further solving,
Liquid ⇌ Vapour
 Ptotal = PA0+ B (PB0 – PA0)
“Total pressure of vapour in such a
solution is the sum of the partial
pressure of components 1 and 2.”
 Henry’s law

Henry’s law states that “the pressure

 Raoult’s law of gas (P) is directly proportional to
Raoult’s law states that “for a the mole fraction of the gas () in the
solution of volatile liquid, the partial solution”.
pressure of vapour of each P = KH
components of the solution is directly
proportional to its mole fraction”. Where, KH is the Henry’s constant.

PA ∝ A → Eq. 1 The value of Henry’s constant is

different for different nature of gases.
PB ∝ B → Eq. 2 Every gas has its characteristic Henry’s
P1 = Vapour pressure of 1 constant.
P2 = Vapour pressure of 2 In the case of constant pressure,
1 = moleNfraction of 1 23
A = 6.022 × 10 mol
–1 𝟏
KH ∝

2 = mole fraction of 2

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 Ideal and non – ideal solution  Positive deviation

Ideal solutions obey Raoults Law and In such a case, the A – B interactions
during their formation there is no are weaker than A – A or B – B
change in heat and volume. interactions. The observed vapour
pressure of each components and the
Non-ideal solutions are those
total vapor pressure are greater than
solutions which do not obey Raoult’s
that predicted vapour pressure
law and whose formation is
according to Raoult’s law.
accompanied by changes of heat and
volume.  Negative deviation

In such a case, the A – B interactions

 Ideal solution are stronger than A – A or B – B
interactions. The observed vapour
Those solutions in which solute – pressure of each components and the
solute (B – B) and solvent solvent (B – total vapor pressure are lesser than
A) interactions are almost similar to that predicted vapour pressure
the solvent solute (B – A ) interactions according to Raoult’s law.
are called ideal solutions.

 Non -Ideal solution

 Colligative property
Those solutions in which solute –
solute (B – B) and solvent – solvent (A The properties of solution that
– A) are not similar to the solvent – depends upon the ratio of the
solute (A – B) interactions are called number of solute particles to the
non – ideal solutions. number of solvent molecules in a
solution and not on the nature of
Most of the real solutions are non-
solute present are known as
ideal. They show considerable
Colligative properties.
deviation from the ideal behaviour.
Generally deviations are of two types; There are four colligative properties
Relative lowering of vapour pressure,
1. Positive deviation
Elevation in boiling point, depression
2. Negative deviation
in freezing point and osmotic
pressure.

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 Relative lowering of vapour  Elevation of boiling point
pressure of the solvent Change in boiling point = ∆Tb
Vapour pressure of a solvent present ∆Tb = Tb - Tb0
in a solution is less than the vapour
pressure of the pure solvent. Experimentally, ∆Tb∝ molarity

 According to Raoult’s law, lowering  ∆Tb = KBm

the vapour pressure of the KB = Boiling point elevation constant
solution depends only on the or molal constant.
solute particles and remains
W B /m B
independent of their identity. m=
W A /1000

Relative lowering vapour pressure  𝐊 𝐁 ×𝐖𝟐 ×𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎

∆Tb =
(∆PA ) is calculated as: 𝐌𝟐 × 𝐖𝟏

∆PA = PA0 B

∆P A P 0A B
= = B
P 0A P 0A
 Depression of freezing point
B is the mole fraction of the solute. Freezing point of a solution is always
nB
B = lesser than that of the freezing point
nA + nB
of the pure solvent in which the
 ∆𝐏𝐀
=
𝐧𝐁
𝐏𝐀𝟎 𝐧𝐀 + 𝐧𝐁
solution is prepared.

 Freezing point is defined as the

temperature at which the vapour
pressure of the substance in its
 Elevation of boiling point
liquid is equal to its vapour
Boiling point of a solution is always pressure in the solid phase.
higher than that of the boiling point of  If the vapour pressure of solution
the pure solvent in which the solution is equal to the vapour pressure of
is prepared. the pure solid solvent then the
solution freezes.
The elevation of boiling point
(increase of the boiling point) is also
depends on the number of solute.

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 Depression of freezing point  Osmotic pressure

Change in freezing point = ∆Tf The pressure that just stops the flow
of solvent is called osmotic pressure
∆Tf = Tf0 – Tf
of the solution.
Experimentally, ∆Tf ∝ molarity
 Osmotic pressure is depends upon
 ∆Tf = KBm the concentration of solvent.
 Osmotic pressure is denoted
KB = freezing point depression
mathematically by ‘’.
constant or molal constant.
 its expression is as:
m=
W B /m B
 Osmotic pressure is proportional
W A /1000
to the molarity (C) of the solution
 ∆T = 𝐊𝐟 × 𝐖𝟐 ×𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 at given temperature T.
f
𝐌𝟐 × 𝐖𝟏
=C

 = CRT
 Value of Kf and KB –:

𝐑 × 𝐌𝐀 × 𝐓𝐟𝟐 𝐖𝟐 𝐑𝐓
Kf = M2 =
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 × ∆𝐟𝐮𝐬 𝐇 𝛑𝐕

Thus we understand these four types

𝐑 × 𝐌𝐀 ×𝐓𝐁𝟐
KB = of Colligative properties in detail.
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 × ∆𝐕𝐚𝐩 𝐇

 Semi permeable membrane

 Osmosis and osmotic pressure
Small solvent molecules such as water
Movement of solvent molecules from are capable of passing through the
region of its higher concentration pores present in every cell. These
towards lower concentration through pores allows small solvents like water
a semipermeable membrane. this to pass through but hinders the
process is called osmosis. passing of larger molecules. This
This flow of solvent to the solution membrane possessing such pore is
continue until the stage of equilibrium known as semipermeable
is reached. membranes.

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 Osmosis  Abnormal Colligative properties

The molar mass calculated based on

this ΔTb or ΔTf will be twice the
expected molar mass. This molar
mass value is lower or higher than the
expected or normal value and is
known as abnormal molar mass.

 Van’t hoff factor

The van’t Hoff factor ‘i' can be defined

 Reverse osmosis as the ratio of Normal molar mass to
the abnormal molar mass.
When we will apply pressure more Mathematically,
than osmotic pressure, than the
osmosis will be reversed and the
process is called Reverse osmosis.

 This phenomenon makes the pure

solvent flow out of the solution
through the semi permeable.  In case of association, value of i is
 Reverse osmosis is extensively less than unity & In case of
used in desalination of sea. dissociation value of i is greater
than unity.

❶ Relative lowering of vapour

pressure of solvent =

❷ Elevation of Boiling point,

ΔTb = i Kb m
❸Depression of Freezing point,
ΔTf = i Kf m
❹Osmotic pressure of solution,
π = iCRT

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 Question – Answer

① MCQs

1. Which of the following is the component of a solution present in the

largest amount?
(A) Solute (B) Solvent (C) Solubility (D) Suspension

Answer: (B) Solvent

2. Which of the following is not a solid solution?

(A) Brass (B) Bronze (C) Hydrated salts (D) Aerated drinks

Answer: (D) Aerated drinks

OR

Which of the following is a true solution?

(A) Salt solution (B) Ink (C) Blood (D) Starch solution

Answer: (A) Salt solution

3. Following processes is used for getting drinking water from saline sea
water:
(A) Reverse osmosis (B) Osmosis
(C) Filtration (D) Distillation

Answer: (A) Reverse osmosis [PYQ NIOS Oct 2022]

4. __________ obeys Raoult’s law in all stages of concentration.

(A) Ideal Solution (B) Non-Ideal solution
(C) Real Solution (D) None of the mentioned

Answer: (A) Ideal Solution

5. What is an example of camphor in N2 gas?

(A) Solid in gas solution (B) Gas in gas solution
(C) Solid in liquid solution (D) Liquid in gas solution

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Answer: (A) Solid in gas solution

6. What makes a solution?

(A) Solute and solvent (B) Solute and solute
(C) Solvent and solvent (D) None of the above

Answer: (A) Solute and solvent

7. Which of the following expressions is correct for molarity (M)?

(A) M = moles of solute / volume of solvent in liters
(B) M = moles of solute / volume of solution in liters
(C) M = mass of solute / volume of solution in liters
(D) M = moles of solvent / volume of solute in liters

Answer: (B) M = moles of solute / volume of solution in liters

8. Which method is not used to express the concentration of a solution?

(A) Mass percent (B) Volume percent
(C) Density (D) Molality

Answer: (C) Density

9. What is the molarity of a solution prepared by dissolving 5 moles of solute

in 2 liters of solution?
(A) 2.5 M (B) 1 M (C) 5 M (D) 0.5 M

Answer: (A) 2.5 M

10. In comparison to a 0.01 M solution of glucose, the depression in

freezing point of a 0.01 M MgSO4 solution is:
(A) the same (B) about twice
(C) about three times (D) about six times

Answer: (B) about twice

11. The value of Henry’s Law constant is:

(A) larger for gases with higher solubility
(B) larger for gases with lower solubility
(C) constant for all gases

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 (D) not related to the solubility of gases

Answer: (B) larger for gases with lower solubility

12. Which is not a colligative property?

(A) Osmotic pressure (B) Lowering of vapour pressure
(C)Depression in freezing point (D) Molal elevation constant

Answer: (D) Molal elevation constant

13. Which of the following is dependent on temperature?

(A) Molality (B) Molarity
(C) Mole Fraction (D) Mass percentage

Answer: (B) Molarity

14. Which law explained solubility of gasses in a liquid?

(A) Charles law (B) Henry’s law
(C) Raoult’s law (D) Boyle’s law

Answer: (B) Henry’s law

15. What does Henry’s constant depend upon?

(A) Nature of gas (B) Nature of solvent
(C) Temperature (D) All of the above

Answer: (D) All of the above

16. Osmotic pressure of a solution is 0.0821 atm at a temperature of 300 K.

The concentration in moles/lit will be:
(A) 0.33 (B) 0.666 (C) 0.0033 (D) 3

Answer: (C) 0.0033

17. Which law explained solubility of gasses in a liquid?

(A) Charles law (B) Henry’s law
(C) Raoult’s law (D) Boyle’s law

Answer: (B) Henry’s law

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18. Which of the following factors affects the vapor pressure of a liquid?
(A) Temperature (B) Volume of the liquid
(C) Atmospheric pressure (D) Presence of a non-volatile solute

Answer: (A) Temperature

19. When a non-volatile solute is added to a solvent, the vapor pressure of

the solution:
(A) Increases (B) Decreases
(C) Remains the same (D) Becomes zero

Answer: (B) Decreases

20. The solubility of gases in liquids typically decreases with:

(A) Increasing pressure
(B) Increasing temperature
(C) Decreasing pressure
(D) Decreasing temperature

Answer: (B) Increasing temperature

OR

The solubility of a solid in a liquid depends on:

(A) Temperature (B) Nature of the solute and solvent
(C) Pressure (D) Both A and B

Answer: (D) Both A and B

21. What is the mole fraction of solute in a solution where the moles of
solute are 2 and the moles of solvent are 8?
(A) 0.1 (B) 0.2 (C) 0.25 (D) 0.5

Answer: (B) 0.2

OR

The sum of the mole fractions of all components in a solution is:

(A) 1 (B) 100 (C) 10 (D) 0

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Answer: (A) 1

22. What is the molarity of a solution containing 3 moles of solute in 1.5

liters of solution?
(A) 1 M (B) 2 M (C) 3 M (D) 4 M

Answer: (B) 2 M
OR

If 1 mole of solute is dissolved in 1 kilogram of solvent, the molality of the

solution is:

(A) 0.1 m (B) 1 m (C) 10 m (D) 100 m

Answer: (B) 1 m

23. In reverse osmosis, the solvent moves through a semipermeable

membrane:
(A) From higher solute concentration to lower solute concentration
(B) From lower solute concentration to higher solute concentration
(C) At random
(D) From lower temperature to higher temperature

Answer: (B) From lower solute concentration to higher solute concentration

24. The pressure that a single component in a gaseous mixture would exert
if it existed alone in the same volume as the mixture and at the same
temperature as the mixture is referred to as:
(A) Absolute pressure (B) Partial pressure
(C) Total pressure of a gas mixture (D) None of the mentioned

Answer: (B) Partial pressure

25. When two perfect solutions with volume V each are combined, what is
the volume of the solution as a result?
(A) V (B) 2V (C) Greater than 2V (D) Less than 2V

Answer: (B) 2V

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② complete the sentence by using an appropriate word:
NOTE: Some words are extra only for make complexity or confusion.

26. Liter, decrease, increase, one, mass, kilogram

1. The vapor pressure of a liquid __________ with an increase in temperature.
2. Adding a non-volatile solute to a solvent __________ the vapor pressure of
the solution.
3. The sum of the mole fractions of all components in a solution is always
__________.
4. Molarity (M) is defined as the number of moles of solute dissolved in one
__________ of solution.
5. Molality (m) is defined as the number of moles of solute per __________ of
solvent.

Answer: 1. increase, 2. decreases, 3. one, 4. liter, 5. kilogram

27. Solute, number, solvent, lowered, purify, nature, solution

1) Colligative properties depend on the __________ of solute particles in a
solution, not on their nature.
2) Reverse osmosis is a process used to __________ water by removing
dissolved impurities.
3) In a solution, the component present in a smaller amount is called the
__________.
4) The vapor pressure of a solvent in a solution is __________ by the addition
of a non-volatile solute.

Answer: 1) number, 2) purify, 3) solute, 4) Lowered

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③Fill in the blanks:

28.
(a) Camphor in N2 gas is an example of ……….. solution.
(b) ………..and ……….. are the two components of a solution.
(c) This flow of solvent to the solution continue until the stage of ……….. is
reached.
(d) Osmotic pressure depends upon the ……….. of solvent.

Answer: (a) solid in gas, (b) Solute, solvent, (c) Equilibrium, (d)
Concentration

29.
(i) If the quantity of solute is ……….., then the solution is said to be a dilute
solution.
(ii) If the quantity of ……….. is large, then the solution is said to be a
concentrated solution.
(iii) ……….. is defined as the number of gram equivalent weights of solute
dissolved per liter of the solution.
(iv) ……….. is dependent on temperature.

Answer: (i) Small, (ii) Solute, (iii) Normality, (iv) molarity

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④Match the following:

30. Match the suitable statements of column 1 and column 2.

Column 1 Column 2
a. solution i. The component of a solution that is present in a
smaller amount and is dissolved in the solvent.
b. solvent ii. A homogeneous mixture of two or more
substances.
c. solute iii. The component of a solution that is present in
the largest quantity.

Answer: a – ii, b – iii, c – ii

31. Match the suitable statements of column 1 and column 2.

Column 1 Column 2

1. Henry’s law a. The law stating that the partial pressure of a

gas in a solution is directly proportional to
its mole fraction.
2. Raoult’s law b. The law stating that the vapor pressure of a
solvent in a solution is proportional to the
mole fraction of the solvent.
3. Molarity c. The number of moles of solute per kilogram
of solvent.
4. Molality d. The number of moles of solute per liter of
solution.

Answer: 1 – a, 2 – b, 3 – d, 4 – c

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⑤True or false:

32. A solution is a heterogeneous mixture of two or more substances.

 False.

33. The component which presents in small amount in a solution is called

solute.

 True.

34. Molarity is defined as the number of moles of solute per kilogram of

solvent.

 False.

35. The mole fraction of a component in a solution is always less than 1.

 True.

36. Parts Per Million (ppm) is a unit of concentration that represents the
number of parts of solute per million parts of solution.

 True.

37. Normality (N) of a solution depends on the chemical reaction it is

involved in.

 True.

38. Raoult's Law states that the vapor pressure of a solvent in a solution is
directly proportional to the mole fraction of the solute.

 False.

39. The solubility of a gas in a liquid decreases with an increase in

temperature.

 True.

40. Henry's Law states that the partial pressure of a gas in a solution is
directly proportional to its mole fraction.

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 True.

41. Vapor pressure of a liquid decreases with an increase in temperature.

 False.

42. Molality is temperature-independent because it is based on the mass of

the solvent rather than its volume.

 True.

43. If the quantity of solute is large, then the solution is said to be a

concentrated solution.

 True.

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⑥Very short type question [2 marks]:

44. Why is molality preferred over molarity in expressing the

concentration of a solution in experiments involving temperature
changes?

Answer: Molality is preferred because it is temperature-independent. It is

based on the mass of the solvent, which remains constant with
temperature, whereas molarity depends on the volume of the solution, which
can change with temperature.

45. How does temperature affect the solubility of solids and gases in
liquids?

Answer: Solubility of solids in liquids: Generally increases with an increase in

temperature.

Solubility of gases in liquids: Decreases with an increase in temperature.

46. State Henry’s Law and give its mathematical expression.

Answer: Henry’s Law states that the partial pressure of a gas in a solution is
directly proportional to its mole fraction in the solution.
Mathematical Expression: P = kH  , where P is the partial pressure of the gas,
 is the mole fraction of the gas in the solution, and kH is Henry's law constant.

47. Why does Raoult's Law not hold true for strong electrolytes? Explain
with an example.

Answer: Raoult's Law assumes that the solute does not dissociate or
associate in the solvent. However, strong electrolytes dissociate
completely into ions in a solution, leading to a higher number of particles than
originally assumed. For example, NaCl dissociates into Na+ and Cl−, doubling
the number of particles and thus increasing the colligative properties. This
deviation means Raoult's Law does not hold true for such solutions.

48. A solution is made by mixing two volatile liquids A and B. Explain how
the total vapor pressure of the solution can be greater than or less than
the sum of the vapor pressures of pure components.

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Answer:
The total vapor pressure of the solution depends on the interaction between A
and B:

Positive deviation from Raoult’s Law: Occurs when A-B interactions are weaker
than A-A and B-B interactions. This leads to an increase in vapor pressure
above the sum of individual vapor pressures.

Negative deviation from Raoult’s Law: Occurs when A-B interactions are
stronger than A-A and B-B interactions. This leads to a decrease in vapor
pressure below the sum of individual vapor pressures.

49. Explain why the boiling point of a solvent increases when a non-
volatile solute is dissolved in it. Derive the expression relating the boiling
point elevation to molality.

Answer:
The addition of a non-volatile solute to a solvent lowers its vapor pressure. To
reach the boiling point (where vapor pressure equals external pressure), the
solution must be heated to a higher temperature, thus increasing the boiling
point.

Boiling point elevation ΔTb is directly proportional to the molality m of the

solute:
ΔTb = Kb × m
where Kb is the ebullioscopic constant, a property of the solvent.

50. Why is the vapour pressure of an aqueous solution of glucose lower

than that of water?

Answer: Evaporation of liquid is a surface phenomenon. The more the surface

area available, the more the evaporation of the liquid. Now glucose
is a non-volatile solute. It occupies a certain surface area of water. This means
evaporation of water from the surface gets reduced and its vapour presence
also gets lowered.

51. Calculate the osmotic pressure of a 0.2 M urea solution at 27°C. (R =

0.0821 L atm K⁻¹ mol⁻¹).

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Answer:
Osmotic pressure = π = MRT

Given: M = 0.2 M, T = 27° = 27 + 273 = 300 K, R = 0.0821 L atm K⁻¹ mol⁻¹

 π = 0.2 ⨯ 0.0821 ⨯ 300 = 4.926 atm

 π = 4.926 atm

52. What is a “semi-permeable membrane”?

Answer: The membranes which allow only the movement of the solvent
molecules through them is called semi-permeable membrane. The
membranes appear to be continuous sheets or films. here only the molecules
of the solvent can pass while those of the solute which are of bigger size, are
not in a position to pass through.

53. Calculate the mass of compound (molar mass = 256 g mol-1) to be

dissolved in 75 g of benzene to lower its freezing point by 0.48 K (Kf = 5.12
K kg mol-1).

Answer:
Given : ∆Tf = 0.48 K, W1 = 75g,
M2 = 256 g mol-1 W2 =?
M 2 ×W 1 ×∆T f
Using formula, W2 =
1000 × K f

256 ×75 0.48

 W2 = = 1.8 g
1000 ×5.12

54. Define an ideal solution and write one of its characteristics.

(Delhi 2014)

Answer: Those solutions which are obeying Raoult’s law are called ideal
solutions. An ideal solution is a solution in which no volume change
and no enthalpy change takes place on mixing the solute and the solvent in any
proportion.
Characteristic of an ideal solution:
There will be no change in enthalpy ∆Hmix = 0,
∆Vmix = 0, ∆Pmix = 0

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⑦Short type question [3 marks]:

55. Define the following terms:

(i) Mole fraction (x)
(ii) Molality of a solution (m) (Comptt. All India 2015)

Answer:
(i) Mole fraction : Mole fraction of a constituent is the fraction obtained by
dividing number of moles of that constituent by the total number of moles of
all the constituents present in the solution. It is denoted by ‘’.
Number of moles of 1 (n)1
Example: 1 = =
total number of moles n 1 + (n)2

(ii) Molality of a solution: Molality of a solution is defined as the number of

moles of the solute dissolved in 1000 grams (1 kg) of the solvent. It is denoted
by ’m’.
w ×1000
m=
M ×W
Where w = Weight of solute in grams
M = Molecular mass of solute
W = Weight of solvent in grams

56. What is the molality of a sulphuric acid solution of density 1.20 g/cm3
containing 50% sulphuric acid by mass. [NIOS Textbook]

Answer: Mass of 1cm3 of H2SO4 solution = 1.20 g

Mass of 1 litre (1000 cm3) of H2SO4 solution = 1.20 × 1000 = 1200 g

Mass of H2SO4 in 100 g solution of H2SO4 = 50 g

50
Mass of H2SO4 in 1200 g solution of H2SO4 = × 1200 = 600 g
100

∴ Mass of water in the solution = 1200 – 600 = 600 g

Molar mass of H2SO4 = 98 g mol–1

mass in grams 600 g
No. of moles of H2SO4 = =
molar mass 98 mol −1

number of moles of H 2 So 4
∴ Molarity = × 1000
mass of water in grams

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 600 1
 Molality = × × 1000 = 6.8
98 60

 Molality = 6.8 m

57. When kept in water, raisins swell in size. Name and explain the
phenomenon involved. Give three applications of the phenomenon.

Answer: This happens due to a phenomenon known as osmosis. When the

raisin is kept in water, it swells in size. Actually water is a hypotonic
solution while the liquid or fluid inside the raisin is of hypertonic nature. The
outer wall of the raisin acts as a semipermeable membrane. There is an
osmosis of water molecules inside the raisin through this membrane and the
raisin slowly swells in size.

Applications of osmosis:

1. In animals circulation of water to all parts of the body takes place due to
osmosis.
2. Osmosis helps in plant growth and germination of seeds.
3. When the dried fruits and vegetables are placed in water, they slowly swell
because of osmosis.
58. Why is the determination of osmotic pressure a better method as
compared to other colligative properties for determining the molar
masses of biomolecules. [NIOS Textbook]

Answer: Measurement of osmotic pressure method is preferred for the

determination of molar masses of macromolecules such as proteins
and polymers. This is due to the following two reasons:

1) Values given by the other colligative properties (elevation in the boiling

point, the depression in the freezing point and relative lowering of vapour
pressure) are so low that they cannot be measured accurately.
2) Measurement of osmotic pressure is carried out at room temperature
which does not require heating. Heating may change the nature of the
polymer.

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59. The observed and calculated molar mass of KCl is 38.75 g mol−1 and
75.5 g mol−1 respectively, calculate Vant – Hoff factor and degree of
dissociation of KCl. [PYQ NIOS Oct 2022]

Answer:
observed molar mass
We have vant – hoff factor (i) =
calculated molar mass

38.75
i= = 0.513
75.5
 i = 0.513
To calculate the degree of dissociation (α), we can use the formula:
i−1
α=
n−1
KCl dissociates into K+ and Cl- ions. So n = 2.
0.513−1
α= = - 0.487
2−1
 α = – 0.487
The calculated value of α is negative, which is not physically meaningful. This
could be due to experimental error or other factors. In any case, we cannot
determine the degree of dissociation of KCl from the given data.
60. Explain the concept of solubility and its factors.

Answer: Solubility is the ability of a substance (solute) to dissolve in a solvent,

forming a solution. It's the maximum amount of solute that can
dissolve in a given amount of solvent at a specific temperature and pressure.

 Factors affecting solubility:

1) Temperature: Generally, solubility increases with temperature.

2) Pressure: Increased pressure can increase solubility (e.g., carbon dioxide in
water).
3) Solvent properties: Polarity, dielectric constant, and surface tension
influence solubility.
4) Solute properties: Molecular size, shape, and polarity affect solubility.
5) Intermolecular forces: Hydrogen bonding, dipole-dipole, and ion-dipole
interactions impact solubility.

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⑧Long type question [5 marks]:

61. Define the following modes of expressing the concentration of a

solution. Which of these modes are independent of temperature and
why?

(i) w/w (mass percentage)

(ii) V/V (volume percentage)

(iii) w/V (mass by volume percentage)

(iv) ppm. (parts per million)

(v) x (mole fraction)

(vi) M (Molarity)

(vii) m (Molality)

Answer:
(i) w/w (mass percentage) : It is defined as the amount of solute in grams
present in 100 gram of the solution.
Mass of the compon ent
W/W = ⨯ 100
total mass of solution

Mass of the component

 W/W = ⨯ 100
mass of solute + mass of solvent

(ii) V/V (volume percentage): It is defined as the volume of solute in mL

present in 100 mL solution.
Volume of the component
V/V = ⨯ 100
total volume of solution

(iii) w/V (mass by volume percentage): It is defined as the mass of solute

present in 100 mL of solution.
Mass of the component (solute ) g
W/V = ⨯ 100
volume of solution ml

(iv) ppm. (parts per million): It is defined as the quantity of solute in grams
present in 106 grams of the solution.

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 Mass of the solute
ppm = ⨯106
total mass of solution

(v)  (mole fraction): It is defined as the ratio of the number of moles of one
component to the total number of moles of the solution.
no .of moles of the component
=
total no .of moles of all the component

(vi) M (Molarity): It is defined as the number of moles of the solute present per
litre or per dm3 of the solution.
moles of solute
M=
volume of solution in litre

(vii) m (Molality): It is defined as the number of moles of solute present in 1kg

of the solvent.
moles of solute
m=
mass of solvent in kg

The volume of the solution changes with change in temperature while the
mass of the solution is independent of temperature.

Hence mass percentage, parts per million, mole fraction and Molality are
independent of temperature as the mass does not depend on temperature.

62.
(a) Calculate the normality of a solution of NaOH, if 04 g of NaOH is dissolved
in 100 mL of the solution.
(b) The relative lowering of vapour pressure produced by dissolving 72 g of a
substance in 100 g of water is 000715. What is the molecular mass of the
substance? [PYQ NIOS Oct 2016]
No.of gram equivalent weights of the solute
Answer: (a) Normality = volume of solution in liter

Given: Volume of solution = 100 ml = 0.1 liter

No. of gram equivalent weights of the solute = Number of moles of solute
given mass
Number of moles =
mole cular weight

Molecular weight of NaOH = 22.99 + 16.00 + 1.01 = 40.00 g/mol

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 0.4
 Number of moles = = 0.01 moles
40

0.01
 Normality = = 0.1
0.1

 Normality = 0.1 N
∆P n2
(b) =
P0 n 1 +n 2

∆P
Given: = 000715
P0

Assuming that n2≪n1 (which is usually the case when the solute is a non-
volatile substance and is present in small amounts), the equation simplifies to:
∆P n2
≈
P0 n1

n2
 000715 =
n1

n1 = number of moles of water (solvent)

mass of water 100
n1 = = = 5.56 mol
molecular weight of water 18

n2
 000715 =
5.56

 n2 = 000715 × 5.56 moles = 0.0397 mol

mass of substanc e
We know that n2 =
molecular weight of substance

7.2
 0.0397 =
molecular weight of substance (M)

7.2
M= = 181.36 g/mol
0.0397

Hence, Molecular weight of substance = 181.36 g/mol

63. A 0.5 molal aqueous solution of a non-volatile solute exhibits a boiling

point elevation of 2.5°C and a freezing point depression of 1.5°C. Calculate
the molar mass of the solute. Additionally, determine the vapour pressure
of the solution at 25°C, given that the vapour pressure of pure water at
25°C is 23.8 mmHg.

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Answer:
(Part 1: Molar Mass of Solute)

ΔTb = Kb × m

2.5°C = 0.52 × m

m = 4.81 mol/kg (molality)

ΔTf = Kf × m

1.5°C = 1.86 × m

m = 0.81 mol/kg (molality)

Since molality is moles of solute per kg of solvent, we can set up the following
equation:

moles of solute / mass of solvent = 0.5 mol/kg

Let's assume the mass of solvent (water) is 1000 g (1 kg).

 moles of solute = 0.5 mol

Molar mass of solute = given mass of solute / moles of solute

= 1000 g / 0.5 mol

Hence, Molar mass of solute = 2000 g/mol

(Part 2: Vapour Pressure of Solution)

Using Raoult's Law: Psolution = solvent × P°solvent = (1 - solute) × P°solvent

Moles of solute = 0.5 mol & moles of solvent = 1000 g / 18 g/mol = 55.56 mol

 solute = moles of solute / (moles of solute + moles of solvent)

 solute = 0.5 / (0.5 + 55.56)

 solute = 0.0089

Now, we can calculate the vapour pressure of the solution:

Psolution = (1 - 0.0089) × 23.8 mmHg

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Psolution = 23.33 mmHg

64. Explain why reverse osmosis is used to purify seawater, and describe
the advantages of using this method over other desalination techniques.

Answer: Reverse osmosis is used to purify seawater because it is an effective

method for removing dissolved salts and other impurities from
water. The process involves applying pressure to force the water through a
semi-permeable membrane, which allows water molecules to pass through
while rejecting larger particles and ions.

 Advantages of reverse osmosis over other desalination techniques:

- Lower energy requirements compared to thermal desalination methods

- Higher water recovery rates compared to electrodialysis reversal

- Ability to remove a wide range of contaminants, including dissolved salts,

bacteria, and viruses

- Compact and modular design, making it suitable for large-scale and small-
scale applications.

65. Describe the process of reverse osmosis and its applications. How does it
differ from other desalination techniques?

Answer: Reverse Osmosis (RO) is a water purification process that uses

pressure to force water through a semi-permeable membrane,
removing impurities and contaminants. The process involves:

a. Pre-treatment: Water is treated to remove larger particles and debris.

b. Pressurization: Water is pressurized to overcome osmotic pressure.
c. Membrane filtration: Water passes through the semi-permeable
membrane, allowing water molecules to pass while rejecting impurities.
d. Post-treatment: Treated water is disinfected and remineralized (if
necessary).

 Applications:

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1. Desalination: Removing salt and minerals from seawater or brackish water
for drinking water, agriculture, and industry.
2. Wastewater treatment: Removing contaminants and pollutants from
industrial, municipal, and agricultural wastewater.
3. Water reuse: Treating water for non-potable purposes, such as irrigation,
toilet flushing, and cooling systems.

 RO differs from other desalination techniques in:

1. Energy efficiency: RO requires less energy compared to thermal

desalination methods like Multi-Stage Flash Distillation (MSF) and Multi-
Effect Distillation (MED).
2. Flexibility: RO can be used for various water sources, including seawater,
brackish water, and wastewater.
3. Scalability: RO systems can be designed for small-scale to large-scale
applications.
4. Cost-effectiveness: RO has lower capital and operating costs compared to
other desalination methods.
5. Water quality: RO produces high-quality water with low salt and
contaminant levels.

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 Chemical thermodynamics
9

Short summary What do we learn Quick Revision

 Thermodynamics  Types of systems

The study of the relationships  There are three types of system –:

between work, temperature, heat,
❶ Open System: In a system, when
energy, radiation, and the physical
there is exchange
characteristics of matter is known as
of energy and matter taking place
thermodynamics.
with the surroundings, then it is called
“Thermodynamics is the study of the an open system.
movement of mass, heat, and For Example: Presence of reactants in
energy”. an open beaker.

❷Closed System: A system is said to

be a closed system
 Thermodynamic terms when there is no exchange of matter
1.
 Universe: Entire part that but exchange of energy is possible.
surrounds us is called universe. For example: The presence of
It has two part: System and reactants in a closed vessel made of
Surrounding. conducting material.

 System: A part of universe that is ❸Isolated System: In a system,

under investigation. when no
exchange of energy or matter takes
 Surrounding: The part of universe
place with the surroundings, is called
other than system.
isolated system.
Universe = System + Surrounding For example: The presence of
reactants in a thermoflask, or
substance in an insulated closed
vessel.

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 Homogeneous system  Thermodynamic process
When all the constituents present is Let us first understand what do we
in the same phase and is uniform mean by a process. Suppose we want
throughout the system. to raise the temperature of the
system. We may do it by heating it.
 Heterogeneous system
Here, heating is the process.
When it consists of two or more
“The method of bringing about a
phases and the composition is not
change in state is called
uniform.
thermodynamic process.”
❶ Intensive Property: whose value
There are different types of process:
is not dependent on the mass but
depends on concentration. 1. Isothermal
Example: refractive index, density, 2. Adiabatic
concentration, etc. 3. Isochoric
4. Isobaric
❷ Extensive Property: Property
5. Cyclic
whose value depends on the mass
6. Reversible
and the total number of particles.
7. Irreversible
Example: volume, energy, etc.

 Isothermal process
 State of system
The process in which temperature will
The state of the system means the
be constant.
condition of the system which is
dT = 0
described in terms of certain
PV = Constant
observable properties such as 1
temperature, pressure, volume etc. P ∝ (Boyle’s law)
V

 State variables  Adiabatic process

The properties of the system such as The process in which heat (q) will be
Pressure (P), volume (V), constant.
temperature (T) etc are known as dq = 0
state variables. They are also known V = constant
as state functions.

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 Isochoric process  Exothermic & Endothermic

The process in which volume should reactions

be constant.  Exothermic reactions: the
reactions which proceed
V = Constant
with the evolution of heat.
dV = 0
 Endothermic reactions: heat is
 P ∝ T (Gay Lussac’s law) absorbed by the system
from the surroundings.
 Isobaric process

The process in which pressure will be

constant. P = Constant  Internal energy
dP = 0
 V ∝ T (Charles’s law) We know that every substance passes
some energy since its origin. Then the
sum total of all the energies
 Cyclic process possessed by the system is internal
energy.
The process in which we have same
initial and final state.  It is denoted by U.
∆H = 0  It is a state function.
Graphically it will represent a close  It is an extensive property.
curve. P We can change internal energy of
A system by 2 ways: 1. By heat 2. By
Y work

 Reversible process
 Heat (q)
The process in which all changes
If we supply heat to the system then q
occurring in it can be reversed.
= +ve (heat absorbed).
 Reversible process If we extract heat from the system
The process that occurs only in given then q = -ve (heat released).
direction under given set of condition.

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 Work  Specific heat capacity

We know that it is w = F × W It is the amount of heat required to

raise the temperature of substance
 It is Intensive property
(1g) through one degree Celsius.
 If work is done on the system:
w = + ve Q = m. C. ∆t
 If work is done by the system
w= -ve
 Molar heat capacity

 First law of thermodynamics It is the amount of heat required to

raise the temperature of 1 mole of
It is based on law of energy substance through one degree
conservation. Celsius.
“Energy can neither be converted nor Molar heat capacity = cm = heat
be destroyed in a chemical reaction, capacity for 1mole. cm = (c/n)
it is always conserved or the sum
total of energy of universe is Where cm is for one mole, n = total
conserved.” number of moles and c is heat
capacity
dQ = dU + dW
 Types of molar heat capacities –:
dQ = heat, dU = internal energy, dW =
work 1. Heat capacity at constant volume:
it is defined as rate of change of
internal energy with temperature
at constant volume.
 Enthalpy (H)
Cv = (dU/dt)
It is sum of internal energy and P-V
work. H = U + PV 2. Heat capacity at constant pressure:
It is defined as rate of change of
 Heat capacity (H) internal energy with temperature
It is defined as amount of heat at constant pressure.
required to raise the temperature of Cp= (dH/dt)
substance by one degree Celsius.
C = 𝐪/∆𝐓

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 Enthalpies of reaction ❸Enthalpies of neutralization

Enthalpies change in chemical Enthalpy of neutralization is the

reaction: enthalpy change (heat evolved) when
Amount of heat absorbed or evolved one mole of hydrogen ions (H+) is
in a reaction when number of moles neutralized by one mole of hydroxyl
of reactant react with specified moles ions (OH-) in dilute aqueous medium
of other reactant completely to forms to form water.
products.
H+ (aq) + OH– (aq) →H2O (l) ;

∆neut H0 = –57 kJ/mol

 Laws of thermochemistry
1. Lavoisier – Laplace Law: When a
chemical equation is reversed, the
❶Enthalpies of formation
sign of ΔrH is changed.
Enthalpy change when 1 mole of
For example,
substance is formed from its elements
when the elements are in their most N2 (g) + O2 (g) → 2NO (g);
stable states it is called standard ΔrH = 180.5 kJ
enthalpy of formation.
2N0 (g) → N2 (g) + O2 (g);
Example: C(Graphite) + O2(g) →CO2 (g) ΔrH = –180.5 kJ

∆f H0 = – 393.5 kJ mol–1 2. Hess’s Law of constant heat

summation: Hess’s law states that
❷Enthalpies of combustion the enthalpy of reaction is
independent of the number and
Energy changes when 1 mole of
the nature of the intermediate
substance is completely burnt in
steps.
presence of oxygen to give CO2 & H2O.
“According to this law, total energy
C2H5OH (l) + 3O2(g) →2CO2(g) + 3H2O(l)
change for a reaction is same,
∆comb H0 = – 1365.6 kJ whether reaction takes place in one
step or in many steps”.

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 Bond enthalpy  Second law of thermodynamics

It is the enthalpy change in breaking To determine spontaneous, total

one mole of bonds. entropy is needed.

Bond enthalpy = bond energy of ∆S > 0 = spontaneous

reactants – bond energy of products
∆S = 0 Equilibrium
For diatomic it is equal to enthalpies
∆S < 0 Non-Spontaneous
of atomisation.
Stotal = Ssystem + SSurroundings
For polyatomic ions: Bond energy of
particular bond is not the same when  Absolute entropy depends upon –:
present in different compounds in
1. Mass
them therefore, average is taken.
2. Molecular structure
Bond dissociation energy: Amount of 3. Temperature & pressure
energy required to break  Absolute entropy depends
one mole of bonds of particular type
upon
behind atoms in gaseous state.
It is the entropy for 1 mole of
substance at 298k & 1 atm.
 Limitations of first law It is represented as:
 It tells us about energy exchanges
between system & surroundings
but it does not tell us about the
direction of reaction.  Gibbs free energy

It is defined as the amount of energy

 There are certain reactions that for a system that can be converted
proceed on its own in given into useful work.
direction.
 It is denoted by G
Like: Cup of hot tea cools down itself
 It is given by G = H – TS
but never gets warm itself.
 It is state function
 Extensive property
∆G = ∆H – T∆S (at constant t)

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 Question – Answer

① MCQs

1. Which of the following statements correctly describes a closed system?

(A) Matter and energy can be exchanged with the surroundings.
(B) Only energy can be exchanged with the surroundings, but not matter.
(C) Neither energy nor matter can be exchanged with the surroundings.
(D) Only matter can be exchanged with the surroundings, but not energy.

Answer:(B) Only energy can be exchanged with the surroundings, but not
matter.

2. For the reaction C(s) + O2(g) → CO2(g):

(A) △H >△U (B) △H < △U
(C) △H = △U (D) None of these

Answer: (C) △H = △U

3. For an ideal gas, CV and CP are related as:

(A) CV – CP = R (B) CV + CP = R (C) CP – Cv = RT (D) CP – Cv = R

Answer: (D) CP – Cv = R

4. The least random state of the water system is:

(A) ice (B) liquid water (C) steam (D) randomness is same

Answer: (A) ice

5. Considering entropy(S) thermodynamic parameters the criteria for the

spontaneity of any process is:
(A) △S system + △S surroundings > 0
(B) △S system – △S surroundings < 0
(C) △S system > 0
(D) △S surroundings > 0

Answer: (A) △S system + △S surroundings > 0

6. The enthalpy change in a reaction does not depend upon:

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 (A) the state of reactions and products
(B) the nature of the reactants and products
(C) different intermediate steps in the reaction
(D) initial and final enthalpy of the reaction

Answer: (C) different intermediate steps in the reaction

7. If liquids A and B form an ideal solution:

(A) the entropy of mixing is zero
(B) the free energy of mixing is zero
(C) the free energy as well as the entropy of mixing are zero
(D) the enthalpy of mixing is zero

Answer: (D) the enthalpy of mixing is zero

8. When water is added to quick lime the reaction is:

(A) Explosive (B) endothermic (C) exothermic (D) photochemical

Answer: (C) exothermic

9. Which of the following property cannot be used to describe the state of a

system?
(A) pressure (B) volume
(C) temperature (D) universal gas constant

Answer: (D) universal gas constant

10. When work is done on system or by a system there is a change in:

(A) external energy (B) internal energy
(C) adiabatic energy (D) isothermal energy

Answer: (B) internal energy

11. In a cyclic process, the change in internal energy (ΔU) for the system is:
(A) Always positive (B) Always negative
(C) Zero (D) Depends on the work done

Answer: (C) Zero

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12. The system that does not allow the heat to pass through its boundary
between the system and surroundings is called as ______________
system.
(A) adiabatic (B) open (C) isothermal (D) close

Answer: (A) adiabatic

13. In an adiabatic process the work done is 50 KJ, what is its internal
energy?
(A) 50 KJ (B) 25 KJ (C) -50 KJ (D) -25 KJ

Answer: (C) -50 KJ

Or

In a thermodynamic process, the work done by the system is 50 J, and the

heat absorbed is 30 J. What is the change in internal energy?
(A) -20 J (B) 20 J (C) 80 J (D) -80 J

Answer: (A) -20 J

14. An adiabatic process pressure is related to volume as:

(A) PV = constant (B) PVγ constant
(C) PV3 constant (D) PV2 constant

Answer: (B) PVγ constant

15. If the work is done on an adiabatic wall, then which of the following is
true?
(A) ΔU = -W (B) ΔU = W (C) ΔU + W = 0 (D) ΔU = -W

Answer: (B) ΔU = W

16. The temperature of an object increases slowly, then the energy of that
object:
(A) increases slowly (B) decreases quickly
(C) increases quickly (D) decreases slowly

Answer: (A) Increases slowly

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17. Entropy is a measure of:
(A) The heat content of a system
(B) The randomness or disorder of a system
(C) The work done by a system
(D) The energy of a system

Answer: (B) The randomness or disorder of a system

18. The enthalpies of all elements in their standard states are:

(A) unity (B) zero (C) < 0 (D) different for each element

Answer: (B) zero

19. Bond dissociation enthalpy is applicable only for the:

(A) gaseous molecules
(B) molecules in liquid state
(C) molecules in solid state
(D) gaseous atoms

Answer: (A) gaseous molecules

20. Which of the following is false?

(A) The reaction H2 (g) + Cl2 (g) → 2HCI (g) + 185 kJ is endothermic.
(B) Enthalpy change is a state function.
(C) Standard state condition for a gaseous system is 1 bar pressure at
aspecified temperature.

Answer: (A) The reaction H2(g) + Cl2(g) → 2HCI (g) + 185 kJ is endothermic.

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❷ Complete the sentence by using an appropriate word:
NOTE: Some words are extra only for make complexity or confusion.

21. closed, open, state function, isothermal, isochoric, isolated, adiabatic

1. The property that depends only on the initial and final states of a system,
and not on the path taken, is called a __________.
2. A __________ system can exchange energy but not matter with its
surroundings.
3. In an __________ system, neither energy nor matter is exchanged with the
surroundings.
4. The type of process where the system undergoes no change in volume is
called a __________ process.
5. During an __________ expansion of an ideal gas, the product of pressure
and volume (PV) remains constant.

Answer: 1. State function, 2. Closed, 3. Isolated, 4. Isochoric, 5. Isothermal

22. Internal energy, temperature, increases, state function, work, heat

decreases
1. During an isochoric heating process, the heat added to the system is equal
to the change in __________ of the system.
2. For an adiabatic process, the change in internal energy is equal to the
__________ done by or on the system.
3. In an isochoric process, the pressure of an ideal gas is directly proportional
to its __________.
4. The area enclosed by the path on a P-V diagram for a cyclic process
represents the __________ done by the system.
5. In a thermodynamic process, if the system loses heat to the surroundings
and does no work, the internal energy of the system __________.

Answer: 1. Internal energy, 2. Work, 3. Temperature, 4. Work, 5. Decreases

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❸ Fill in the blanks:

23.
a. For a cyclic process, the net work done by the system is equal to the net
__________ exchanged with the surroundings.
b. According to the first law of thermodynamics, energy can neither be
created nor __________, only transformed from one form to another.
c. If a system absorbs 50 J of heat and performs 30 J of work, the change in
internal energy (ΔU) is __________ J.
d. The relationship between pressure and volume in an adiabatic process is
given by the equation __________, where γ is the heat capacity ratio.

Answer: a. heat, b. destroyed, c. 20, d. PV𝛄 = constant

24.
a. For an exothermic reaction, the change in enthalpy (ΔH) is __________
b. The second law of thermodynamics implies that the efficiency of a heat
engine is always __________ than 100%.
c. In any cyclic process, the entropy of the universe either __________ or
remains constant, but never decreases.
d. In an isothermal process, the temperature of the system remains
__________.

Answer: a. negative, b. less, c. increases, d. constant

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❹ Match the following:

25. Match the suitable statements of column A and column B.

Column A Column B
1. Isothermal process i. ∆U = 0
2. Adiabatic process ii. W=0
3. Isochoric process iii. q=0
4. Cyclic process iv. ∆S = 0

Answer: 1 – i, 2 – iii, 3 – ii, 4 – iv

26. Match the suitable statements of column A and column B.

Column A Column B
(Second Law of thermodynamics (Statements/Implications)
1. Entropy increases A. Spontaneous processes
2. Heat engine B. Cannot convert all heat into work
3. Carnot cycle C. Maximum efficiency
4. Reversible process D. ΔSuniverse = 0

Answer: 1 – A, 2 – B, 3 – C, 4 – D

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❺ True or false:

27. The internal energy of an isolated system can change over time.
 False

28. An open system can exchange both energy and matter with its
surroundings.

 True

29. The change in a state function depends on the path taken to go from the
initial to the final state.

 False

30. Work done on the system is considered positive in thermodynamics.

 True

31. In an isothermal process involving an ideal gas, the internal energy

remains constant.

 True

32. For an isothermal expansion of an ideal gas, the pressure of the gas
increases as the volume increases.

 False

33. During an adiabatic compression, the temperature of the gas decreases.

 False

34. The work done in an adiabatic process is equal to the change in internal
energy.

 True

35. Work done by a system during an isochoric process is zero.

 True

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36. In a cyclic process, the entropy of the system always increases.
 False

37. According to the first law of thermodynamics, the change in internal

energy of a system is equal to the work done by the system.

 False

38. Heat added to a system always increases its internal energy.

 False

39. The first law of thermodynamics states that the energy of an isolated
system is constant.

 True.

40. Both isolated and closed systems are the same.

 False.

41. The efficiency of a heat engine can be greater than 1 according to the
second law of thermodynamics.

 False.

42. In an isothermal process, the temperature of the system remains

constant

 True.

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❻ Very short type question [2 marks]:

43. Define:
(a) reaction enthalpy
(b) standard enthalpy

Answer: (a) The enthalpy change concerning a reaction is termed as reaction

enthalpy.

(b) The standard enthalpy of reaction is defined as the enthalpy change for a
reaction is the enthalpy change for a reaction when all the participating
substances are in their standard states.

44. The molar enthalpy of vaporization of acetone is less than that of

water. Why?

Answer: Acetone lacks a hydrogen bond, so intermolecular forces are

weaker, causing it to boil/evaporate quickly, lowering the molar
enthalpy of vaporisation. Furthermore, because acetone lacks a polar O-H
bond, it has a low enthalpy. Water has both a non-polar region and a strong
hydrogen bond.

45. Identify intensive properties among the following: Volume,

temperature, heat, surface tension, molar enthalpy, internal energy,
refractive index, weight. [NIOS PYQ Oct 2022]

Answer: Refractive index, temperature, heat, surface tension, molar enthalpy

46. Which of the following will increase the internal energy of a system?
why?
(a) Heat given to the system
(b) Work done by the system [Textbook intext question]

Answer: Heat given to the system will increase the internal energy of the
system.
When we will give heat to the system internal energy will
increase. The internal energy of the system cannot be increased, when work is
done by the system because the system will lose energy and internal energy

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will decrease, but when work is done on the system then we will have to
provide the heat energy and internal energy of the system will increase.

47. What is the basic difference between enthalpy of formation and

enthalpy of reaction? Illustrate with suitable examples?
[NIOS PYQ April 2022]

Answer:
Enthalpy of formation: Also known as heat of formation (ΔfH°), this is the
amount of energy absorbed or released when a
compound is formed from its elements. For example, the formation of
hydrogen bromide from hydrogen and bromine is an example of enthalpy of
formation.

Enthalpy of reaction: Also known as heat of reaction (ΔrH°), this is the amount
of energy absorbed or released during any chemical
reaction, such as combination, combustion, hydrogenation, or
neutralization. For example, the chemical reaction that occurs when you bend
a liquid hand warmer to produce heat is an example of enthalpy of reaction.

OR

Define the following:

(i) Enthalpy of formation

(ii) Hess’s law of constant heat summation [NIOS PYQ Oct 2017]

Answer: (i) enthalpy of formation: Also known as heat of formation (ΔfH°),

this is the amount of energy absorbed or released when a compound is
formed from its elements.

(ii) Hess's Law of Constant Heat Summation: it states that regardless of the
multiple stages or steps of a reaction, the total enthalpy change for the
reaction is the sum of all changes. This law is a manifestation that enthalpy is
a state function.

48. State the first law of thermodynamics. What is its limitation?

[NIOS PYQ Oct 2021]

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Answer: The first law of thermodynamics states that energy can't be created
or destroyed, but it can change or be converted from one form to
another. It also establishes a relationship between the work done by a system
and the heat absorbed while doing that work.

Limitation: It tells us about energy exchanges between system & surroundings

but it does not tell us about the direction of reaction.

49. Define enthalpy of solution. Give one example. [NIOS PYQ Oct 2021]

Answer: Enthalpy of solution, also known as enthalpy of dissolution or heat of

solution, is the amount of heat absorbed or released when a
substance dissolves in a solvent at a constant pressure, resulting in infinite
dilution. It's usually expressed in kilojoules per mole (kJ/mol) at a constant
temperature.

Example of enthalpy: Sodium chloride

When one mole of sodium chloride crystals is dissolved in an excess of water,

the enthalpy change of solution is + 3.9 kJ mol.

50. Define with example enthalpy of Neutralization. [NIOS PYQ Oct 2021]
Answer: Enthalpy of neutralization is the change in enthalpy that occurs
when an acid and a base react to form water and salt. It's a specific
type of enthalpy reaction, and is defined as the energy released when one
mole of water is formed.

For example: HCL (aq) + NaOH (aq) → NaCl (aq) + H2O, ∆H = -57.3 J

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❼Short type question [3 marks]:

51. Differentiate between an isolated system and a closed system.

[NIOS PYQ Oct 2016]

Answer:

Closed System Isolated System

Closed system can be defined as the

Isolated system is the form of the closed
system in which matter cannot pass
system.
through the boundary.

In the closed system, energy can pass In the Isolated system, energy can pass
through the boundary. through the boundary.

It exists only in theory and there is no

It exists in real practical life.
such evidence of existence in reality.

It enables the exchange of energy

It does not allow the transfer of either
which is usually in the form of the
mass or energy to or from the
heat but not mass with its
surroundings.
surroundings.

52. Show that for an ideal gas, the molar heat capacity under constant
𝟑
volume conditions is equal to R.
𝟐

Answer: For an ideal gas, the average kinetic energy per mole of the gas at
3
any temperature is given by EK = RT
2

Hence increase in average kinetic energy of gas for 1° C rise in temperature is

3 3
∆Ek = R (T+1) – RT
2 2

By definition, EK is the molar heat capacity of gas at constant volume CV

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 3
CV = R
2

53. What is Bond Enthalpy? Calculate ∆rH° for the reaction:

Cl2(g) + 2HF(g) →2HCl(g) + F2(g)

Given: B.E. (H-Cl) = 431 kJ mol−1, B.E. (H-F) = 563 kJ mol−1,

B.E. (F-F) = 155 kJ mol−1, B.E. (Cl-Cl) = 242 kJ mol−1
[NIOS PYQ Oct 2022]

Answer: Bond enthalpy also known as bond energy is defined as the amount
of energy required to break one mole of the stated bond.

Bond enthalpy = bond energy of reactants – bond energy of products

∆rH° = (242 + 2 × 563 ) – (2 × 431 + 155) = 351

∆rH° = 351 J

54. What is the relation between the enthalpy of reaction and bond
enthalpy?

Answer: In a chemical reaction the breaking of bonds and formation of new

bonds in products takes place. The heat of reaction is dependent on
the values needed to break the bond formation. Thus

Heat of reaction = Heat required for breaking of bonds in reactants  Heat

required for breaking of bonds in products

∆H° Bond energy is required to break the bonds - Bond energy required to
form the bonds = Bond energy of reactants – Bond energy of products.

55. Calculate the bond dissociation energy of HCl. Given, the bond
dissociation energies of H2 and Cl2 are 430 kJ mol1 and 242 kJ mol1
respectively and f H°for HCl is 91 kJ mol1.
[NIOS PYQ Oct 2016]

Answer: Bond dissociation energy (HCl) = [Bond dissociation energy (H2) +

Bond dissociation energy (Cl2)]/2 - ΔfH° (HCl)

Bond dissociation energy (HCl) = [430 kJ/mol + 242 kJ/mol]/2 - (-91 kJ/mol)

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= 336 kJ/mol + 91 kJ/mol

= 427 kJ/mol

Therefore, the bond dissociation energy of HCl is 427 kJ/mol.

56. Calculate the internal energy change in each of the following cases:
(a) A system absorbs 15 kJ of heat and does 5 kJ of work.
(b) 5 kJ of work is done on the system and 15 kJ of heat is given out bythe
system.

Answer:
(i) According to first law of thermodynamics:
∆U= q + w
(i) q = + 15kJ
w= -5 kJ
Using above equation:
∆U = 15 + (-5) = 10 kJ
Thus, internal energy of the system increases by 10 kJ.
(ii) Here, w = + 5 kJ
(work done on the system is positive)
q = -15 kJ ( heat is given out, so negative)
∆U = -15 + (+5) = -10 kJ
Thus, the internal energy of the system decreases by 10 kJ.

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❽ Long type question [5 marks]:

57. Derive the relationship between ΔH and ΔU for an ideal gas. Explain
each term Involved in the equation.

Answer:
When heated, the volume of solids and liquids does not change significantly.
As a result, if the volume changes, ∆V is insignificant.

∆H = ∆U + P∆V

∆H = ∆U + P(0)

∆H = ∆U

When gases are involved in the reaction, the difference between the change in
internal energy and the change in enthalpy becomes significant.

Consider a chemical reaction that takes place at a constant temperature, T,

and pressure, P. Let’s say the reactants’ volume is VA and the number of moles
in the reactants is nA. Similarly, the product volume is VB, and the number of
moles in the product is nB.

We know from the ideal gas equation that-

pV = nRT

pVA = nART

pVB = nBRT

Thus,

pVA – pVB = nART – nBRT

p(VA – VB) = RT(nA – nB)

p∆V = ∆ngRT

∆H = ∆U + p∆V

∆H = ∆U + ∆ngRT

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58. Define enthalpy of formation from the data given below, calculate the
standard enthalpy for the reaction.

2H2O (l) → 2H2 (g) + O2 (g)

Is it an exothermic or an endothermic reaction? [NIOS PYQ April 2022]

Answer: The enthalpy of formation (∆Hf°) is the heat change that results
when one mole of a compound is formed from its elements in their standard
states under standard conditions (298 K and 1 atm).

2H2O (l) → 2H2 (g) + O2 (g)

The formula to calculate the standard enthalpy of the reaction is:

° ° °
∆Hrxn = ∆Hf(product )− ∆Hf(reactant )

ΔHf°(H2O (l)) = −285.83kJ/mol

ΔHf° (H2 (g)) = 0 kJ/mol, (because it’s an element in its standard state)

ΔHf° (O2 (g)) = 0 kJ/mol, (because it’s an element in its standard state)

 ∆Hrxn
°
= (2 × 0 + 0) – (2 × -285.83)

 ∆Hrxn
°
= 0 – ( – 571.66)

 ∆Hrxn
°
= 571.66 J

Since the standard enthalpy of the reaction is positive (571.66 J/mol) , the
reaction is endothermic. This means that the reaction absorbs heat from the
surroundings.

59. Calculate the enthalpy change in the reaction.

4NH3 (g) + 3O2 (g) → 2N2 (g) + 6H2O (l) at 298 K.

Given that enthalpy of formation for NH3(g) and H2O(l) are −46.0 kJ mol−1 and
−286.0 kJ mol−1 respectively. Also mention the standard enthalpy of
formation of an element. [NIOS PYQ Oct 2021]

Answer: The standard enthalpy change of the reaction (∆Hf°) can be

calculated using the formula:

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 ° ° °
∆Hrxn = ∆Hf(product )− ∆Hf(reactant )

Given: ΔHf°(NH3 (g)) = − 46 kJ/mol

ΔHf°(H2O (l)) = −286 kJ/mol

The standard enthalpy of formation ΔHf° of any element in its most stable form
is defined as zero. This means:

ΔHf° (N2 (g)) = 0 kJ/mol, (because it’s an element in its standard state)

ΔHf° (O2 (g)) = 0 kJ/mol, (because it’s an element in its standard state)

 ∆Hrxn
°
= (2 × 0 + 6 × –286) – (4 × – 46 + 3 × 0)

 ∆Hrxn
°
= [0 + ( – 1716 ) ] – [ – 184 + 0]

 ∆Hrxn
°
= – 1716 + 184

 ∆Hrxn
°
= – 1532 KJ

60. When two moles of H2 and one mole of O2 react to produce two moles
of gaseous water at 373 K and 1 bar pressure, a total of 484 kJ are
evolved. What are (a) ∆H and (b) ∆U for the production of a single mole
of H2O (g). [Textbook terminal exercise]

Answer: Apply the first law of thermodynamics.

Given: 2H2 (g) + O2 (g) → 2H2O (g)

ΔE = -484 kJ (since energy is evolved), T = 373 K, P = 1 bar

(a) ΔH (enthalpy change) for the production of 2 moles of H2O (g):

ΔH = ΔE + Δ(PV)

ΔH = -484 kJ + Δ(PV)

Since the reaction occurs at constant pressure, Δ(PV) = PΔV. Assuming ideal gas
behavior, ΔV = nRT/P, where n is the number of moles of gas.

ΔV = (2 - 3) × 8.314 × 373 / 100000 (converting bar to Pa) = -0.062 m³

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Δ(PV) = -0.062 m³ × 100000 Pa = -6.2 kJ

 ΔH = -484 kJ - 6.2 kJ

 ΔH = -490.2 kJ

For the production of a single mole of H2O (g), ΔH would be half of this value:

ΔH = -490.2 kJ / 2
 ΔH = -245.1 kJ/mol

(b) ΔU (internal energy change) for the production of 2 moles of H2O (g):

ΔU = ΔE

 ΔU = -484 kJ

For the production of a single mole of H2O (g), ΔU would be half of this value:

ΔU = -484 kJ / 2

 ΔU = -242 kJ/mol

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 12
Ionic equilibrium

Quick Revision
Short summary What do we learn

 Equilibrium  Electrolyte

Equilibrium is actually a state, when We classify substances in to two

forces from both the side become types: Electrolytes & Non electrolytes
equal.
Electrolytes: The substances which
According to chemistry: dissociate into ions in
“It is a point in a chemical solution on passing current.
reaction, when rate of forward Example: AB → A+ + B-
reaction becomes equal to rate of
Non electrolytes: The substances that
backward reaction.”
do not
Simply it is the state when dissociate into ions, when current is
concentration of reactants becomes passed through them. That is AB on
equal to concentration of products. passing current, nothing happens.

Further we can classify electrolytes as:

 Ionic equilibrium
 Strong electrolyte
An equilibrium involving ions is called  Weak electrolyte
ionic equilibrium.
 Strong electrolyte
 This equilibrium between
The substances which completely
unionized molecules and the ions
dissociate into ions, when current is
is represented by ‘reversible
passed through them.
arrows’.
It means if take an example of AB
For example:
then on passing current it dissociate
CH3COOH(l) + H2O(l) ⇌ H3O+(aq) +
completely without leaving AB
CH3COO- (aq)
anywhere in solution. Example: HCl,
H2SO4 etc

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 Weak electrolytes  Arrhenius concept

The substances Acids: these are those substances

which do not completely dissociate which when dissolved in water
into ions, when current is passed produce hydrogen ions.
through them.
Example: HCl → H+ + Cl-
It means, if take an example of AB
Bases: these are those which when
then on passing current it dissociate
dissolved in water, release hydroxide
partially and we will find AB also in
ions.
solution.
Example: NaOH → Na+ + OH-
Example: Acetic acid CH3COOH etc
 Limitations

 It is limited to only aqueous

 Degree of ionization solutions and require dissociation
of the substance.
It is defined as the fraction or  It does not explain the acidic
percentage of the total amount (or behaviour of some substances
concentration) of the electrolyte that which do not contain hydrogen.
is present in the form of ions. for example, AlCl3 .
 Similarly it does not explain the
 It is represented by α
basic character of substances like
α= NH3 and Na2CO3 which do not have
𝐍𝐮𝐦𝐛𝐞𝐫 𝐨𝐟 𝐝𝐢𝐬𝐬𝐨𝐜𝐢𝐚𝐭𝐞𝐝 𝐦𝐨𝐥𝐞𝐜𝐮𝐥𝐞𝐬
a hydroxide groups.
𝐓𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐧𝐮𝐦𝐛𝐞𝐫 𝐨𝐟 𝐦𝐨𝐥𝐞𝐜𝐮𝐥𝐞𝐬 𝐩𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐞𝐧𝐭 𝐢𝐧𝐢𝐭𝐢𝐚𝐥𝐥𝐲

 Bronsted Lowry concept

 Acids, bases and salts Acids: Which give hydrogen ion in
solution (as they are proton donors).
We have three different concepts and
attempts in order to classify the Example: HCl → H+ + Cl-
substances: 1. Arrhenius concept Bases: Are those which are proton
2. Bronsted Lowry concept, acceptors.
3. Lewis concept Example: NH3 + H+ → NH4+

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 Bronsted Lowry concept  Lewis concept

According to Bronsted – theory an Acids: They are those which accept a

acid is a substance that can donate a pair of electron.
proton whereas a base is a substance
For example: substances that falls in
that can accept a proton.
this category:
It should be noted that in the
 Cations like ammonium ion etc
Brønsted- Lowry concept, acids and
 All neutral electron deficient
bases can be either ions or molecular
compounds like BF3, AlCl3 etc.
substances.
 All those which have empty d
orbital like SF4 etc.
 All those different elements with
 Conjugate acid – base pair different electro-negativities but
bonded with multiple bonds like
According to Bronsted – theory an
carbon dioxide etc.
acid is a substance that can donate a
proton whereas a base is a substance Bases: those that are electron donors.
that can accept a proton. They are of two types:

It should be noted that in the  Anions like chloride ions etc

Brønsted – Lowry concept, acids and  All neutral species having lone pair
bases can be either ions or molecular of electrons like water etc.
substances.
 Limitation of this concept
Conjugate acid – base concept:
There are many substances which are
If any strong acid dissociates, it will Lewis bases and acids, but they may
produce weak conjugate base that is: not be Arrhenius acid or base or
HCl → H+ + Cl- Lowry acid or base.

HCl is strong acid and Cl- is weak

conjugate base.

“There are certain substances that

behave as acids as well as bases,
they are called Amphoteric
substances.”
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 Ostwald dilution law  pH scale

A binary electrolyte AB dissociates To know nature of any substances, we

into A+ and B– ions. use pH scale.

AB ⇌ A+ + B– pH of solution: It is defined as
negative of logarithm of hydrogen ion
For this equilibrium, the law of
concentration.
equilibrium can be written as:
pH = - log[H3O]+
𝐀𝐧+
𝐚𝐪
𝐧−
𝐁𝐚𝐪
K=
𝐀𝐁(𝐚𝐪)
 pH is a measure of acidic or basic
K is called ionization constant or strength of any solution.
dissociation constant of the
pH scale is given below:
electrolyte. It is a characteristic
property of the electrolyte. It depends
upon temperature.

Ostwald’s dilution law is the

application of the law of mass action
to weak electrolytes in solution.  Scale is just like a number line on
which there is a reading ranging
(i) For very weak electrolytes, since α
from 0 to 14.
<<< 1, (1 – α) = 1

∴ K = Cα2
α = KV  Dissociation constant for acid
(ii) Concentration of any ion = Cα
= CK = K/V

The degree of ionization increases on

dilution. Thus, the degree of
dissociation of a weak electrolyte is
proportional to the square root of
dilution.

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 Dissociation constant for base  Common ion effect

Let us understand the Common ion

effect, by taking an example:

Suppose, We take weak acid say

acetic acid

Now, suppose we add substance

having acetate ions like sodium
 Protic and non – protic acids acetate that is:

Protic acids: these are those which

have Proton.
Due to increase in acetate ions, the
Example: HCl → H+ + Cl- reaction goes in backward direction.
That is, it suppress dissociation of
Non-Protic acid: A acid which has no acetic acid. This is called common ion
Proton. Example: carbon dioxide effect.

 Protic solvent: A solvent with So, we can define as “suppression of

ionization of acid on adding some
proton like water.
substance with a common ion in it”.
 Non- Protic solvent: A solvent with
no proton like carbon tetrachloride
etc.
 Di-Protic acid: Which has two  Hydrolysis of salt
protons like H2SO4 Reactions that form salts take place
 Tri-Protic acid: Which has three between acids and bases in redefined
protons like phosphoric acid proportions. These salts get ionised in
water, upon which the cations or anions
For the complete reaction for acid: formed exit as hydrated ions in aqueous
solutions. Upon reaction with water, these
Ka =Ka1 x Ka2
salts may form corresponding acids or bases.

Similarly, for bases we have: Eg. CH3COONa (Weak-acid and strong base), NH4Cl
(Strong acid and weak base), CH3COONH4 (Weak acid
Kb = Kb1 x Kb2 and weak base)

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 Question – Answer

❶ MCQs

1. Which of the following may not be a strong electrolyte?

(A) hydrochloric acid (B) sulfuric acid
(C) nitric acid (D) ammonia

Answer: (D) ammonia

2. Which of the following is in Ionic Equilibrium?

(A) 2AgI + Na2S ⇌Ag2S + 2NaI
(B) 4 NH3 + 5 O2 ⇌4 NO + 6 H2O
(C) TiCl4 + 2 H2O ⇌TiO2 + 4 HCl
(D) H2O + H2O ⇌H3O+ + OH–

Answer: (D) H2O + H2O ⇌H3O+ + OH–

3. Which of the following statements is true regarding the ionization of

strong and weak electrolytes?
(A) Strong electrolytes partially ionize in solution, while weak electrolytes
completely ionize.
(B) Strong electrolytes completely ionize in solution, while weak
electrolytes partially ionize.
(C) Both strong and weak electrolytes completely ionize in solution.
(D) Both strong and weak electrolytes partially ionize in solution.

Answer: (B) Strong electrolytes completely ionize in solution, while weak

electrolytes partially ionize.

4. If the degree of ionization (α) of a weak acid H A is 0.1 and the initial
concentration of the acid is 0.01 M, what is the concentration of H+ ions at
equilibrium?
(A) 1 × 10−4M (B) 1 × 10−3M (C) 1 × 10−2M (D) 1×10−1M

Answer: (A) 1 × 10−4M

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5. According to the Arrhenius concept, which of the following compounds
can act as an acid in aqueous solution?
(A) CH4 (B) NH3 (C) HCl (D) NaOH

Answer: (C) HCl

6. In the reaction NH3 + H2O → NH4++ OH− , identify the Bronsted-Lowry base.
(A) NH3 (B) H2O (C) NH4+ (D) OH−

Answer: (A) NH3

7. Calculate the pH of a 0.01 M solution of HCl. Assume complete

dissociation:
(A) 1 (B) 2 (C) 3 (D) 4

Answer: (B) 2
OR

8. Calculate the pH of a 0.1 M solution of NH4Cl (given Kb for NH3 = 1.8 × 10−5)
(A) 5.1 (B) 4.7 (C) 5.3 (D) 4.9

Answer: (A) 5.1

9. Which of the following statements is true regarding the dissociation of

polyprotic acids like H2SO4?
(A) The second dissociation occurs more readily than the first.
(B) The first dissociation is complete, but the second dissociation is
incomplete.
(C) Both dissociations occur with equal ease.
(D) Polyprotic acids dissociate in a single step.

Answer: (B) The first dissociation is complete, but the second dissociation is
incomplete.

10. Which combination of substances will create a buffer solution?

(A) HCl and NaCl (B) NH3 and NH4Cl
(C) NaOH and KCl (D) CH3COOHCH and HCl

Answer: (B) NH3 and NH4Cl

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11. Degree of ionization does not depends on:
(A) Nature o f solvent (B) Nature of electrolyte
(C) Dilution (D) Molecular weight of the electrolyte

Answer: (C) Dilution [NIOS PYQ April 2022]

12. Which of the following is correct regarding the relationship between

the dissociation constant Ka of an acid and the strength of the acid?
(A) A higher Ka value indicates a weaker acid.
(B) A lower Ka value indicates a stronger acid.
(C) A higher Ka value indicates a stronger acid.
(D) Ka value is independent of acid strength.

Answer: (C) A higher Ka value indicates a stronger acid.

13. Consider a buffer solution made by mixing 0.1 M CH3COOH and 0.1 M
CH3COONa. If a small amount of HCl is added to this buffer, the pH:
(A) Will increase slightly (B) Will decrease slightly
(C) Will remain constant (D) Will decrease significantly

Answer: (B) Will decrease slightly.

14. The acidity of the compound BF3 could be explained based on which
among the following concepts?
(A) Arrhenius’s concept (B) Bronsted Lowry’s concept
(C) Lewis’s concept (D) Bronsted Lowry as well as Lewis’s concept.

Answer: (C) Lewis’s concept

15. What is the degree of dissociation for strong electrolytes?

(A) 1 (B) 0 (C) less than 1 (D) greater than 1

Answer: (A) 1

16. K in K = Cα2/1 – ɑ represents ___________

(A) dissociation constant
(B) molar concentration
(C) degree of dissociation degree of ionization
(D) degree of ionization

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Answer: (A) dissociation constant

17. The solubility of a salt decreases when a common ion is added

because:
(A) Ionic product decreases
(B) Dissociation increases
(C) Ionic product increases
(D) Dissociation remains constant

Answer: (C) Ionic product increases

18. Which of the following acids is a protic acid?

(A) HCl (B) CH₄ (C) BF₃ (D) NH₃

Answer: (A) HCl

19. The Ostwald dilution law is applicable to which type of electrolyte?

(A) Strong electrolytes (B) Weak electrolytes
(C) Both strong and weak electrolytes (D) Non-electrolytes

Answer: (B) Weak electrolytes

20. Which of the following species is a Lewis acid?

(A) NH₃ (B) BF₃ (C) OH⁻ (D) H₂O

Answer: (B) BF₃

21. Which of the following pairs is a conjugate acid-base pair according to

the Bronsted-Lowry theory?
(A) HCl and Cl⁻ (B) H₃O⁺ and OH⁻
(C) NH₄⁺ and NH₃ (D) Both A and C

Answer: (D) Both A and C

22. The degree of ionization of a weak electrolyte depends on:

(A) Temperature (B) Nature of the solvent
(C) Concentration of the electrolyte (D) All of the above

Answer: (D) All of the above

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❷ Complete the sentence using an appropriate word:

23.
Hydrogen, increase, hydroxide, complete

1. The degree of ionization of a strong electrolyte is nearly ______ in dilute

solutions.
2. As the concentration of a weak electrolyte decreases, its degree of
ionization ______.
3. According to the Arrhenius concept, a base is a substance that releases
______ ions in aqueous solution.
4. A weak acid partially dissociates in water to produce ______ and conjugate
base ions.

Answer: 1. Complete, 2. Increases, 3. Hydroxide, 4. Hydrogen

24. Neutral, acid, base, dilution, coordinate

(a) When a salt formed from a strong acid and a strong base dissolves in water,
it produces a solution that is ______.
(b) The degree of ionization of a weak acid is directly proportional to the
______ of the solution.
(c) A Bronsted – Lowry base always has a conjugate ______ in an acid-base
reaction.
(d) Lewis acids accept electron pairs to form ______ bonds in a chemical
reaction.
(e) A salt formed from a weak acid and a strong ______ will result in a solution
that is basic in nature.

Answer: (a) neutral, (b) dilution, (c) acid, (d) coordinate, (e) base

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❸Fill in the blanks:

25.
(1) In the reaction NH3 + H2O → NH4++ OH− the conjugate acid of NH3 is ______.
(2) The degree of ionization of a weak acid increases with a ______ in
temperature.
(3) Strong electrolytes dissociate completely, so their degree of ionization
approaches ______ in solution.
(4) Strong Electrolytes dissociate ______ in aqueous solutions, while weak
electrolytes dissociate only ______.

Answer: (1) NH4+, (2) rise, (3) 100% (4) completely, partially

26.
(A) In the Bronsted-Lowry theory, water can act as both a(n) ______ and a(n)
______ depending on the reaction.
(B) The degree of ionization of a weak acid increases as its concentration
decreases, according to the principle of ______.
(C) The degree of ionization (α) of a weak electrolyte is defined as the ratio of
the number of ______ molecules to the total number of dissolved
molecules.
(D)For a weak acid, the dissociation constant Ka is directly proportional to the
square of the degree of ionization and ______ to the molar concentration.
(E) A Bronsted-Lowry acid is a proton ______ , while a Bronsted-Lowry base is a
proton ______.

Answer: (A) Acid, base, (B) Ostwald’s dilution law, (C) ionized, (D) inversely
proportional, (E) donor, acceptor

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❹Match the following:

27. Match the statement of column 1 with the appropriate option given in
column 2.

Column 1 Column 2
1. Strong electrolyte (a) Partial dissociation
2. Weak electrolyte (b) High conductivity in solution
3. Lewis acid (c) Electron pair acceptor
4. Lewis base (d) Electron pair donor

Answer: 1 – (b), 2 – (a), 3 – (c), 4 – (d)

28. Match the statement of column A with the appropriate option given in
column B.

Column A Column B
1. Neutralization reaction (a) OH- ions
2. Weak acid (b) H2O + NaCl
3. Conjugate acid of H2O (c) H3O+
4. Arrhenius base (d) H2O + CO2

Answer: 1 – (b), 2 – (d), 3 – (c), 4 – (a)

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❺True or false:

29. Electrolytes conduct electricity.

 True.

30. Strong electrolytes have a degree of ionization close to zero.

 False.

31. degree of ionization of a weak electrolyte increases with dilution.

 True.

32. According to Arrhenius, a base releases H+H^+H+ ions in solution.

 False.

33. A Bronsted-Lowry acid can act as a proton acceptor in some reactions.

 False.

34. Lewis bases donate electron pairs to form coordinate bonds.

 True.

35. The conjugate base of H2SO4 is HSO4−.

 True.

36. Weak acids completely dissociate in aqueous solutions.

 False.

37. A buffer solution consists of a strong acid and its conjugate base.
 False.

38. A Lewis acid is defined as a substance that accepts an electron pair.

 True.

39. A solution with a pH of 7 is considered neutral.

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 True.

40. The pH of a solution decreases as the concentration of hydrogen ions

increases.

 True.

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❻Very short questions [2 marks each]:

41. What happens after equilibrium is reached? [NIOS Textbook Example]

Answer: The process of chemical balance never stops. Even after the
equilibrium state has been achieved, the forward and reverse
reactions keep happening. Reactant and product ratios, however, remain
unchanged in this situation, meaning that during an equilibrium reaction, the
relative concentrations of the reactants and products remain unchanged.

42. Calculate the degree of ionization of NH4OH in 0.001 M solution at

25°C. The ionisation constant of NH4OH is 1.8 × 10–5 mol dm–3 at 25°C.

Answer: According to the Ostwald’s dilution law

K
α=
c

1.8 × 10 −5
α=
0.001

α = 0.134

43. What are the limitations of Arrhenius definition?

Answer: The Arrhenius theory is limited in that it can only describe acid-base
chemistry in aqueous solutions. Similar reactions can also occur in
non-aqueous solvents, however, as well as between molecules in the gas
phase.

44. The ionisation of hydrochloric in water is given below:

HCI (aq) + H2O (l) ⇋ H3O+ (aq) + CI– (aq)

Label two conjugate acid-base pairs in this ionisation.

Answer: Conjugate acid and conjugate base are marked as follows.

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45. What are buffer solutions? Out of the following substances, pick up
two pairs of substances such that one pair would make an acidic buffer
and the other one a basic buffer.
BaCl2, HF, HNO3, (NH4)2SO4, NaF, NH4OH, Na2SO4 and Al(OH)3
[NIOS PYQ April 2022]

Answer: A buffer solution is a water solvent-based solution which consists of

a mixture containing a weak acid and the conjugate base of the weak
acid or a weak base and the conjugate acid of the weak base. They resist a
change in pH upon dilution or upon the addition of small amounts of acid/alkali
to them

Acidic buffer – HF & NaF

Basic buffer - NH4OH & (NH4)2SO4

The degree of dissociation of two electrolytes X and Y are 1.0 × 10–4 and 0.96.
Comment on the nature of these electrolytes.

46. What does equilibrium mixture Kc tell us about the mixture?

Answer: The equilibrium mixture Kc tell us following things about the mixture
 When Kc >103 then the reaction will be dominated towards reactants and if
the value of Kc is quite large it means that the reaction is going to complete.
 When Kc<103 then reaction will be dominated towards the product and if
the value is very small then reaction rarely proceeds.
 When Kc is in between the range of 10−3 to 103 then the concentration of
both reactants as well as products are appreciated.
47. What distinguishes protic acids from non-protic acids? Give one
example of each.

Answer: Protic acids can donate protons (H⁺) in solution, such as HCl,
whereas non – protic acids, like BF3, cannot donate protons but may
act as Lewis acids by accepting electron pairs.

48. Define dissociation constant (Ka) for a weak acid. How does it relate to
acid strength?

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Answer: The dissociation constant (Ka) measures the degree to which a weak
acid dissociates in water. A higher Ka value indicates stronger acid
dissociation, meaning the acid donates more protons, making it stronger.

A reaction between ammonia and boron trifluoride is given below:

: NH3 + BF3 → H3N: BF3

49. Identify the acid and base in this reaction. Which theory explains it?
What is the hybridisation of B and N in the reactants?

Answer:NH3 is Lewis base, while BF3 is Lewis acid. Lewis’s electronic theory of
acids and bases explains it.

The hybridisation state of nitrogen in NH3 is sp3 hybridised, and boron in BF3 is
sp2 hybridised.

❼Short questions [3 marks each]:

50.
(a) Calculate the pH of 10-3 M aqueous solution of KOH.
(b) What are acidic buffers? Give an example of acidic buffer.
[NIOS PYQ April 2016]

Answer: Dissociation reaction of KOH is..

KOH ⇌ K⁺ + OH¯

We see, one mole of KOH forms 1 mole of OH¯ ions.

So, concentration of OH¯ = [OH¯] = 10¯³ M

We know, ionic product of water , kw = [H⁺+*OH¯+ = 10¯¹⁴

So, [H⁺+ × 10¯³ = 10¯¹⁴

⇒ [H⁺] = 10¯¹¹ M

From Arrhenius formula, pH = -log[H⁺]

 pH = -log(10¯¹¹) = 11

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(b) An acidic buffer is a solution that has a pH below 7 and resists changes in
pH when a small amount of acid, base, or water is added. Acidic buffers are
made by mixing a weak acid and one of its salts, often a sodium salt, with a
strong base.

For example, a mixture of acetic acid and sodium acetate has a pH of about
4.75 and acts as an acidic buffer.

51. Solubility product of silver iodide, Agl is 8.5 ×1017 at 25C. What is the
molar solubility of AgI in water at this temperature?
[NIOS Textbook Example]

Answer: Silver iodide dissolves according to the equation

Agl (s) → Ag+ (aq) + I- (aq)

Let the solubility of AgI be is ‘s’ mol dm-3 the concentrations of silver and
iodide ions would be is ‘s’ mol dm3 each.

At equilibrium, Ksp = [Ag+] [I]; Substituting the values, we get

*‘s’ mol dm-3+ *‘s’ mol dm3] = s2 mol2 dm6 = 8.5 ×1017 mol2 dm6

This gives, solubility (s) = [8.5 ×1017 mol2 dm6]1/2

= 9.2 109 mol dm3.

The solubility of AgI in water is therefore 9.2 × 10−9 mol dm−3 at 298 K.

52. What do you understand by the term ‘amphoteric’? Show with the
help of equations that water is amphoteric in nature.

Answer: Water (H₂O) is a classic example of an amphoteric substance

because it can either accept or donate a proton (H⁺), depending on
the reaction.

1. Water acting as a base:

When water reacts with a strong acid, it accepts a proton (H⁺), acting as a base.
For example, in the reaction with hydrochloric acid (HCl):

HCl + H₂O →H₃O⁺+ Cl⁻

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In this case, water accepts a proton from HCl to form the hydronium ion
(H₃O⁺), showing its basic nature.

2. Water acting as an acid:

When water reacts with a strong base, it donates a proton (H⁺), acting as an
acid. For example, in the reaction with ammonia (NH₃):

NH₃ + H₂O → NH₄⁺+ OH⁻

Here, water donates a proton to ammonia, forming the ammonium ion (NH₄⁺)
and hydroxide ion (OH⁻), showing its acidic nature.

53. Discuss how the strength of an acid and its conjugate base are related.
Answer: The strength of an acid and its conjugate base are inversely related.
A strong acid ionizes almost completely in water, meaning it
donates protons readily. As a result, its conjugate base is weak, as it has little
tendency to accept protons. For example, HCl (strong acid) has a weak
conjugate base, Cl⁻.

Conversely, a weak acid ionizes partially, meaning it has a stronger conjugate

base with a higher tendency to accept protons. For example, CH₃COOH (weak
acid) has a stronger conjugate base, CH₃COO⁻.

Mathematically, Ka × Kb= Kw , demonstrating their inverse relationship.

54. Define the ionic product of water and its temperature dependence.
Answer: The ionic product of water (Kw) is the equilibrium constant for the
self – ionization (autoprotolysis) of water. In pure water, a small
number of water molecules dissociate into hydrogen ions (H⁺ or H3O+) and
hydroxide ions (OH⁻):

H2O (l) ⇌ H+ (aq) + OH− (aq)

The ionic product of water is given by the expression:

Kw = [H+] [OH−]

Temperature Dependence:

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The ionic product of water (Kw) is highly dependent on temperature. As the
temperature increases, the dissociation of water molecules increases, leading
to a higher concentration of ions, and thus Kw increases.

Thus, Kw increases with temperature due to the endothermic nature of the

water dissociation process.

55. Define a Lewis acid and Lewis base with suitable examples.
Answer:
Lewis Acid: A Lewis acid is a substance that can accept a pair of electrons to
form a covalent bond. In other words, it is an electron-pair
acceptor. Lewis acids are often electron-deficient species, such as metal ions or
molecules with incomplete octets.

Example:

BF3 (Boron trifluoride) acts as a Lewis acid because boron has an incomplete
octet and can accept a pair of electrons.

BF3+ NH3→ BF3NH3

In this reaction, BF3 accepts an electron pair from NH3, forming a coordinate
bond.

2. Lewis Base:

A Lewis base is a substance that can donate a pair of electrons to form a

covalent bond. In other words, it is an electron-pair donor. Lewis bases
typically have lone pairs of electrons that can be donated to form bonds.

Example:

NH3 (Ammonia) acts as a Lewis base because nitrogen has a lone pair of
electrons that it can donate to form a bond with a Lewis acid, such as BF3 .

❽Long type questions [5 marks each]:

56. Derive the expression for the degree of dissociation of weak acid. What
is the effect of common ion on the degree of dissociation?
[NIOS PYQ April 2016]

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Answer: Let us consider a weak acid HX dissociate in aqueous solution and
attains equilibrium

Where α is the extent of ionisation.

where Kα is called dissociation constant of acid.

 Effect of common ion on the degree of dissociation

 Consider the dissociation or ionisation of a weak acid, CH3COOH in its

solution.

CH3COOH (aq) ⇌ CH3COO- (aq) + H+ (aq)

The dissociation constant Kα for CH3COOH will be,

Kα is constant for CH3COOH at constant temperature.

 If a strong electrolyte like salt CH3COONa is added to the solution of

CH3COOH, then on dissociation it gives a common ion CH3COO-.

CH3COONa → CH3COO- + Na+

 Due to common ion CH3COO-, overall concentration of CH3COO- in the

solution is increased, which increases the ratio,

In order to keep this ratio constant, the concentration of H+ is decreased, by

shifting the equilibrium to the left hand side according to Le Chatelier’s
principle.

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Thus the ionisation of a weak acid is suppressed by a common ion.

57. Calculate the hydrolysis constant and degree of hydrolysis and pH of

0.10 M KCN solution at 25°C. Ka for HCN = 6.2 × 10-10.

Answer: KCN is the salt of a weak acid HCN and strong base KOH
∴ Kh = Hydrolysis constant

Hydrolysis of KCN is

58. Explain the factors affecting the degree of ionization of an electrolyte

and how it can be calculated.

Answer:The degree of ionization of an electrolyte is affected by many factors,

1. Electrolyte nature: Strong electrolytes dissociate more than weak
electrolytes.
2. Solvent nature: The solvent's dielectric constant determines its ionizing
power, and the higher the dielectric constant, the greater the degree of

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 ionization. For example, water has a high dielectric constant and is often
used as a solvent.
3. Temperature: As temperature increases, solute molecules gain energy and
become ionized, which increases the degree of ionization.
4. Dilution: As dilution increases, so does the degree of ionization. Weak
electrolytes are only partially soluble in solution, so they don't ionize
completely, but dilution can increase their degree of ionization.
5. Presence of other solutes: The presence of one substance in a solution can
alter the dissociation of another. For example, the common ion effect rule
states that the degree of ionization of weak electrolytes is diminished or
suppressed.

The degree of ionization can be calculated using the formula:

𝐍𝐮𝐦𝐛𝐞𝐫 𝐨𝐟 𝐝𝐢𝐬𝐬𝐨𝐜𝐢𝐚𝐭𝐞𝐝 𝐦𝐨𝐥𝐞𝐜𝐮𝐥𝐞𝐬
α=
𝐓𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐧𝐮𝐦𝐛𝐞𝐫 𝐨𝐟 𝐦𝐨𝐥𝐞𝐜𝐮𝐥𝐞𝐬 𝐩𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐞𝐧𝐭 𝐢𝐧𝐢𝐭𝐢𝐚𝐥𝐥𝐲

59. Explain how the pH of a solution is affected when a salt of a weak acid
and strong base (e.g., sodium acetate) is dissolved in water.

Answer: When a salt of a weak acid and a strong base, such as sodium
acetate (CH₃COONa), is dissolved in water, the solution becomes
basic. This happens due to hydrolysis of the salt in water. Let's break it down:

1. Dissociation of Sodium Acetate: Sodium acetate dissociates completely in

water into its ions:

CH₃COONa → CH₃COO−+ Na+

The sodium ion (Na+) does not react with water and remains a spectator ion.

The acetate ion (CH₃COO−) reacts with water in a hydrolysis reaction.

2. Hydrolysis of Acetate Ion: The acetate ion (CH₃COO−) reacts with water to
form acetic acid (CH₃COOH) and hydroxide ions (OH⁻):

CH₃COO− + H₂O ⇌ CH₃COOH + OH−

This reaction produces hydroxide ions (OH⁻), which makes the solution basic.

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3. Effect on pH: Since the reaction generates hydroxide ions (OH⁻), the
concentration of OH⁻ in the solution increases, which causes the pH to rise.
As a result, the pH of the solution becomes greater than 7, indicating a basic
solution.

The overall increase in pH occurs because the strong base component (sodium
hydroxide in this case) predominates over the weak acid (acetic acid), leading
to a basic environment in the solution.

60. Define acids and bases according to the Arrhenius, Bronsted-Lowry,

and Lewis concepts.

Answer:  Arrhenius Concept:

 Arrhenius Acid: A substance that increases the concentration of hydrogen

ions (H⁺) or hydronium ions (H₃O⁺) when dissolved in water.

Example: HCl → H⁺+ Cl⁻

Hydrochloric acid (HCl) dissociates in water to release ions, making it an

Arrhenius acid.

 Arrhenius Base: A substance that increases the concentration of hydroxide

ions (OH⁻) when dissolved in water.

Example: NaOH → Na⁺+OH⁻

Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) dissociates in water to release OH−OH⁻OH− ions,

making it an Arrhenius base.

 Bronsted-Lowry Concept:

 Bronsted-Lowry Acid: A substance that donates a proton (H⁺) to another

species.

Example: HCl + H₂O → H₃O⁺+ Cl⁻

In this reaction, HCl donates an H+ (proton) to water, making it a Bronsted –

Lowry acid.

 Bronsted-Lowry Base: A substance that accepts a proton (H⁺) from another

species.

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Example: NH₃ + H₂O→NH₄⁺+ OH⁻

Ammonia (NH₃) accepts a proton from water to form ammonium (NH₄⁺),

making it a Bronsted-Lowry base.

 Lewis Concept:

 Lewis Acid: A substance that accepts an electron pair to form a covalent

bond.

Example: BF₃ + NH₃→ BF₃NH₃

In this reaction, boron trifluoride (BF₃) accepts an electron pair from ammonia
(NH₃), making BF₃ a Lewis acid.

 Lewis Base: A substance that donates an electron pair to form a covalent

bond.

Example: NH₃ + BF₃ →BF₃NH₃

Ammonia (NH₃) donates an electron pair to BF₃, making NH₃ a Lewis base.

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 13
Electrochemistry
22

Quick Revision
Short summary What do we learn

 Electrochemistry  Redox reaction

It may be noted that oxidation and

Electro Chemistry
reduction processes do not take place
independently but occur
simultaneously and are thus called
Electric oxidation-reduction reaction or redox
Chemical
current reaction reactions.

“A redox reaction is a sum of

“Electrochemistry is the study of oxidation half and reduction half
production of electricity from reactions in a chemical reaction.”
chemical reaction and to transform
Zn + Cu+2 → Zn+2 + Cu
the chemicals or chemical reactions
from electrical energy.”

 Oxidation number
 Some basic terms
“Oxidation number is equal to the
1. Oxidation: loss of electron:
charge that element would carry”.
Zn → Zn2+ + 2e-
2. Reduction: gain of electron:  The sum of oxidation number of all
Cu2+ + 2e- → Cu the atoms in an uncharged
compound is Zero.
3. Electrolyte: A solution that  It is a number written with +ve or –
contains ions is called electrolyte. ve sign.
Electrolyte is an ionic conduction.  Example –: oxidation number of
oxygen is 2.
4. Electode: surface at which
oxidation or reduction takes place.

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 Balance redox reaction  Conductance and conductivity

The redox reaction can be balanced The conductance is reciprocal of

by any of the following methods: resistance and the conductivity is
reciprocal of specific resistance.
(a) Oxidation number method.
(b) Ion electron method.  Conductance is denoted by L and is
 Oxidation number method measured in the unit of ohm–1
which has now been named as
This method is based on the principle siemens, ‘S’.
that the number of electrons lost in  The conductivity is denoted by k
oxidation must be equal to the “kappa”.
number of electrons gained in
𝟏
reduction. Conductance = L =
𝐑

 Ion electron method

𝟏
Conductivity = k =
𝛒
This method is based on the principle
that electrons lost during oxidation K (conductivity) = conductance ×cell
half reaction is equal to the electrons constant
gained in the reduction half reaction.

Example: balance Cr2O-7 + Fe2+ → Cr3++

Fe3+ in acid medium
 Factors affecting conductivity
- 2+ + 3+
Answer: Cr2O 7 + 6fe + 14H → 2Cr 1. Nature of electrolyte
+ 6fe2+ + 7H2O (a) Weak or strong electrolyte
(b) Valency of ions
(c) Speed of ions
 Electrolytic conduction 2. Temperature
3. Concentration
The chemical substances whose aqueous (a) Variation of conductvity (k)
solutions conduct electricity are called
with concentration
electrolytes and those which do not conduct
current are called as non electrolytes.
(b) Variation of Molar and
This phenomenon of conduction of Equivalent conductivity with
current through a solution is called concentration
electrolytic conduction.

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 Kohlrausch’s Law  Galvanic cell

“At infinite dilution each ion of the In galvanic cells an emf is developed
electrolyte makes a definite as a result of redox reaction occurring
contribution towards conductivity of on the electrodes.
the electrolyte and it is independent
 These cells convert chemical
of the presence of other ions of the
energy into electrical energy.
electrolyte.” This is called
Kohlrausch’s Law of independent
migration of ions.
 Denial cell

The cell that converts the chemical

 Electrochemical cell
energy liberated as a result of redox
An electrochemical cell is a device reaction to electrical energy is called a
used for the interconversion of Daniel cell.
electrical and chemical energy.
 Denial cell is an example of
 An electrochemical cell contains electrochemical cell that consists
two electrodes (cathode and Zn and Cu.
anode) and an electrolyte.  It has anelectrical potential of 1.1
 These are of two types; based on V.
the nature of conversion of
energies
(a) Electrolytic cell (Faradaic cell)
(b) Galvanic cell (Voltaic cell)

 Electrolytic cell

In electrochemical cells, a battery is  Salt bridge

used to carry out redox reactions on
It is inverted U – tube glass consist
the electrodes of the cell.
inert electrolyte like HCL, KNO3,
 These cells convert electrical NH4Cl, K2SO4 etc in agar – agar
energy into chemical energy. powder in semi liquid state.

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 Functions of salt bridge  Faraday’s 2nd law
1. It maintain electrical neutrality.
“The amounts of different substances
2. It complete the circuit by allowing
liberated by the same quantity of
flow of e- .
electricity passing through the
 Electrolysis electrolytic solution are proportional
In an electrolytic cell electrical energy to their chemical equivalent
is converted into chemical energy. weights.”
The process of decomposition of an Equivalent mass =
electrolyte into its ions when an 𝐦𝐨𝐥𝐚𝐫 𝐦𝐚𝐬𝐬
𝐍𝐮𝐦𝐛𝐞𝐫 𝐨𝐟 𝐞𝐥𝐞𝐜𝐭𝐫𝐨𝐧𝐬 𝐥𝐚𝐬𝐭 𝐨𝐫 𝐠𝐚𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐝
electric current is passed through it, is
called electrolysis. Let wA and wB be the masses of two
substances liberated in two
 Conditions for electrolysis electrolytic cells connected in series,
1. Inert electrolyte: KCL → K+ + Cl- then:
Ions of K+ and Cl- should not react 𝐰𝐀 𝐄𝐪𝐮𝐢𝐯𝐚𝐥𝐞𝐧𝐭 𝐦𝐚𝐬𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐀
with each of other ions/ rods of half cell. =
𝐰𝐁 𝐄𝐪𝐮𝐢𝐯𝐚𝐥𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐧 𝐦𝐚𝐬𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐁
2. Good ionic mobility and equal mobility
of cation and anion results both half cells
are neutralized simultaneously.

 Cell representation

 Faraday’s 1st law Left hand cell: (LHC)

M/Mn+ Mn+ / M
“The amount of chemical reaction (s) (aq) (aq) (s)

which occurs at any electrode during Zn / Zn 2+ Cu 2+ / Cu

electrolysis by a current is (s) (aq) (aq) (s)
proportional to the quantity of
Zn / Zn2+ // Cu 2+/ Cu
electricity passed through the (s) (aq) (aq) (s)
electrolyte (solution or melt)”. LHC RHC
Mathematically: w ∝ Q
 Cell reaction
 w = ZQ or w = 𝐙𝐈𝐓
Zn → Zn2+ + 2e- (oxidation half cell)
Z = the constant of proportionality is Cu2+ + 2e- → Cu (reduction half cell)
called electrochemical equivalent of Cell reaction = number of e- should
the substance. get cancelled

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 Electrode potential  Electrode potential of zinc

The potential difference between Oxidation: Zn → Zn2+ + 2e-

(metal) electrode and its ions in °
EZn /Zn 2+ → 0.76V
electrolyte (under equilibrium) is
termed as electrode potential. Reduction: Zn2+ + 2e- → Zn
°
EZn 2+ /Zn → – 0.76V
1. If metal tendency → oxidation
M ⇌ Mn+ + ne- IUPAC: SRP → SEP & SRP = – SOP
RP → EP
Oxidation electrode potential = E𝐌/𝐌𝐧+

2. If metal tendency → reduction

Mn+ + ne- ⇌ M
 EMF of cell
Reduction electrode potential = E𝐌𝐧+/𝐌
The EMF of the cell is equal to the
sum of the potential on the two
electrodes. It is the sum of the
 Standard Electrode potential
oxidation potential of the anode and
In SEP, these three factors assumed to the reduction potential of the
be fixed. cathode.

(i) Concentration [Mn+] = 1M EMF of cell = EOP + ERP

anode cathode
(ii) Pgas = 1 atm or 1 bar
EMF of cell = - ERP + ERP {EOP = – ERP}
(iii) Temperature = 297 k [25°]
anode cathode
Electrode potential = E
Ecell = ERP – ERP {RP → EP, IUPAC}
Standard electrode potential = E° cathode anode
(already determined)
Ecell = Ecathode – Eanode
Oxidation: M ⇌ Mn+ + ne-
E𝐌/𝐌𝐧+ → Oxidation potential
°
Ecell = 𝐄𝐫𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭 – 𝐄𝐥𝐞𝐟𝐭
𝐄𝐌/𝐌 𝐧+ → standard oxidation potential
(RP) (RP)

Reduction: Mn+ + ne- ⇌ M

° ° °
E𝐌𝐧+ /𝐌 → reduction potential 𝐄𝐜𝐞𝐥𝐥 = 𝐄𝐫𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭 - 𝐄𝐥𝐞𝐟𝐭
°
𝐄𝐌 𝐧+ /𝐌 → standard reduction potential (RP) (RP)

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 Electrochemical series  Nernst equation

By measuring the potential of various 𝟐.𝟑𝟎𝟑 𝐑𝐓 𝐏

E = E° – log10
electrodes versus hydrogen 𝐧𝐅 𝐑

electrodes (SHE), a series of standard

electrode potentials has been Where, E = EMF at any concentration/
established. pressure /temperature
E° = Standard EMF at 1M, 1 atm, 25°
When the electrode is in contact with
R = Gas constant = 8.314 J/mol k
its ions, it is arranged on the basis of
T = temperature ,
the values of their standard reduction
F = Faraday’s constant = 96485 ≈
potentials or standard oxidation
96500 C (charge on 1 mole of e)
potentials. The resulting series is
n = number of e- lost/ gained/
called the electrochemical or
transferred
electromotive, or activity series of the
[P] = Concentration of product
elements.
[R] = Concentration of reactant
P
Reaction quotient =
R

 Applications of elect. series 𝟎.𝟎𝟓𝟗 𝐏

E = E° – log10
(i) It helps to predict a redox 𝐧𝐅 𝐑

reaction.
(ii) It helps to calculate the emf of a
galvanic cell.  Relation between gibb’s free
(iii) It helps to predict the feasibility of
a redox reaction energy and EMF
(iv) It helps to predict whether a The Gibbs free energy can be
metal can liberate hydrogen from calculated by multiplying the total
acids. charge driven through the cell and the
potential difference. Thus,
-ΔG = Total charge x EMF of the cell
 Nernst equation
-ΔG = nF x Ecell
Nernst equation is used to find the EMF or The -ve sign shows a decrease in free
electrode potential ‘E’ of the cell or energy. As the EMF of the cell becomes more
electrode at any concentration at any and more positive, the Gibbs free energy will
concentration & temperature. become more and more positive.

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 Question – Answer

❶ MCQs

1. A cathode and an anode are the most common components of an

electrochemical cell. Which of the following claims about the cathode is
correct?
(A) Oxidation occurs at the cathode
(B) Electrons move into the cathode
(C) Usually denoted by a negative sign
(D) Is usually made up of insulating material

Answer: (B) Electrons move into the cathode

2. Which of the following processes always involves the loss of electrons ?

[PYQ NIOS Oct. 2022]
(A) Oxidation (B) Reduction
(C) Hydrolysis (D) Decomposition

Answer: (A) Oxidation

3. The oxidation number of sulfur in H2SO4 is:

(A) +4 (B) +6 (C) -2 (D) 0

Answer: (B) +6
OR

What is the oxidation number of Mn in KMnO4 ?

(A) +7 (B) +5 (C) +3 (D) +2

Answer: (A) +7

4. Which of the following claims about electrochemical cells is true?

(A) Cell potential is an extensive property
(B) Cell potential is an intensive property
(C) The Gibbs free energy of an electrochemical cell is an intensive
property

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 (D) Gibbs free energy is undefined for an electrochemical cell

Answer: (B) Cell potential is an intensive property

5. Which of the following does not belong in the category of electrochemical

cells?
(A) Voltaic cell (B) Photovoltaic cell
(C) Electrolytic cell (D) Fuel Cell

Answer: (B) Photovoltaic cell

6. Which of the following assertions about the main cell is correct?

(A) An example of a primary cell is a mercury cell
(B) An example of a primary cell is a nickel-cadmium storage cell
(C) The electrode reactions can be reversed
(D) It can be recharged

Answer: (A) An example of a primary cell is a mercury cell

7. In a dry cell, which of the following is the electrolyte?

(A) Potassium hydroxide (B) Sulphuric acid
(C) Ammonium chloride (D) Manganese dioxide

Answer: (C) Ammonium chloride

8. Which of the following statements about a lead storage cell (or a lead-acid
battery) is false?
(A) It is a primary cell
(B) The cathode is made up of lead(IV) oxide
(C) The anode is made up of lead
(D) The electrolyte used is an aqueous solution of sulphuric acid

Answer: (A) It is a primary cell

9. The conductivity of electrolytic conductors is due to __________

(A) Flow of free mobile electrons
(B) Movement of ions
(C) Either movement of electrons or ions
(D) Cannot be said

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Answer: (B) Movement of ions

10. The process of transmitting electric current through an electrolyte’s

solution to decompose it is known as __________
(A) Electrolyte (B) Electrode
(C) Electrolysis (D) Electrochemical cell

Answer: (C) Electrolysis

11. Which of the following is given to a fuel cell’s cathode?

(A) Hydrogen (B) Nitrogen (C) Oxygen (D) Chlorine

Answer: (C) Oxygen

12. In an electrochemical cell [PYQ NIOS Oct. 2022]

(A) chemical energy changes into electrical energy
(B) kinetic energy changes into electrical energy
(C) potential energy changes into kinetic energy
(D) kinetic energy changes into chemical energy

Answer: (A) chemical energy changes into electrical energy

13. What is the function of the salt bridge in an electrochemical cell?

(A) It increases the potential difference between the electrodes
(B) It prevents the reaction between the two half-cells
(C) It maintains electrical neutrality in both compartments
(D) It connects the two half-cells for electron transfer

Answer: (C) It maintains electrical neutrality in both compartments

14. In a galvanic cell, electrons flow from:

(A) Cathode to anode (B) Anode to cathode
(C) Salt bridge to anode (D) Cathode to electrolyte

Answer: (B) Anode to cathode

15. If the standard Gibbs free energy change for a cell reaction is negative,
the cell reaction:

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 (A) Is non-spontaneous (B) Is spontaneous
(C) Is at equilibrium (D) Has no effect on the reaction

Answer: (B) Is spontaneous

16. Electrolytic conduction depends on:

(A) Concentration of the electrolyte (B) Temperature
(C) Nature of the electrolyte (D) All of the above

Answer: (D) All of the above

17. Which electrolyte is commonly used in a salt bridge?

(A) Sodium chloride (B) Potassium nitrate
(C) Calcium chloride (D) Potassium hydroxide

Answer: (B) Potassium nitrate

18. Which of the following statements is correct for a galvanic cell?

(A) Cathode is the negative electrode
(B) Anode is the positive electrode
(C) Cathode is the positive electrode
(D) Both electrodes have the same charge

Answer: (C) Cathode is the positive electrode

19. What is the function of the salt bridge in an electrochemical cell?

(A) It increases the potential difference between the electrodes
(B) It prevents the reaction between the two half-cells
(C) It maintains electrical neutrality in both compartments
(D) It connects the two half-cells for electron transfer

Answer: (C) It maintains electrical neutrality in both compartments

20. Faraday’s First Law of Electrolysis states that the amount of substance
deposited at an electrode is:
(A) Proportional to the time of electrolysis
(B) Proportional to the current passed
(C) Proportional to the quantity of electricity passed
(D) Proportional to the resistance of the solution

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Answer: (C) Proportional to the quantity of electricity passed
OR

Faraday’s Second Law of Electrolysis relates the amount of substance

deposited to:

(A) The equivalent weight of the substance

(B) The atomic weight of the substance
(C) The current passed
(D) The resistance of the electrolyte

Answer: (A) The equivalent weight of the substance

21. What is the standard electrode potential for the half-reaction:

Zn2++ 2e− → Zn ?
(A) +0.76 V (B) -0.76 V (C) +1.10 V (D) -1.66 V

Answer: (B) – 0.76 V

22. The EMF of a Daniell cell is 1.1 V. If the concentration of Zn2+ is

increased, what happens to the cell potential?
(A) Increases (B) Decreases
(C) Remains unchanged (D) Depends on the concentration of Cu2+

Answer: (B) Decreases

23. The Nernst equation can be used to determine:

(A) The standard electrode potential (B) The pH of a solution
(C) The concentration of ions in a solution (D) Both B and C

Answer: (D) Both B and C

24. A cell with Ecell= 0 is in:

(A) Non-equilibrium (B) Dynamic equilibrium
(C) Static equilibrium (D) A spontaneous reaction state

Answer: (B) Dynamic equilibrium

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25. For a reaction with E0 = 0.24 V and n = 2, what is the equilibrium
constant at 25°C?
(A) 104 (B) 1016 (C) 108 (D) 102

Answer: (C) 108

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❷Complete the sentence by using an appropriate word:
NOTE: Some words are extra only for make complexity or confusion.

26. Half cell reactions, oxidation, reduction, redox raction, +6, chemical
energy, +4, electrical energy
1. In a redox reaction, the substance that loses electrons is said to undergo
_________ , while the substance that gains electrons undergoes _________
2. The oxidation number of sulfur in SO42− is _________.
3. In a galvanic cell, the _________ is converted into _________ energy.
4. The overall cell reaction in a galvanic cell is the sum of the _________ at the
anode and cathode.

Answer: 1. oxidation, reduction, 2. +6, 3. chemical energy, Electrical energy,

4. Half cell

27. First law, second law, cathode, anode, depends, decreases, increases,
electrode
(i) During the electrolysis of water, hydrogen gas is evolved at the _________ .
(ii) During the electrolysis of water , oxygen gas is evolved at the _________.
(iii) According to the Nernst equation, as temperature increases, the cell
potential _________ if the reaction is endothermic.
(iv) Faraday’s _________ of electrolysis states that when the same quantity of
electricity is passed through different electrolytes, the mass of substances
deposited is proportional to their.
(v) According to Faraday’s _________ of electrolysis, the mass of a substance
deposited during electrolysis is directly proportional to the quantity of
electricity passed.

Answer: (i) cathode, (ii) anode, (iii) increases, (iv) Second Law, (v) First Law

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❸fill in the blanks:

28.
(a) The standard representation of a galvanic cell includes the anode on the
_________ (left/right) side and the cathode on the _________ (left/right)
side.
(b) In a Daniel cell, the anode is made of _________ (Zn/Cu), and the cathode is
made of _________ (Zn/Cu).
(c) For a galvanic cell, Cathode is _________ (positive, negative) the electrode
(d) _________ (Oxidation, Reduction) number is equal to the charge that
element would carry.

Answer: (a) left, right (b) Zn, Cu (c) positive, (d) oxidation

29.
(A) The electrode where oxidation occurs in an electrochemical cell is called the
_________ , while the electrode where reduction occurs is called the
_________.
(B) The primary purpose of the salt bridge in a galvanic cell is to maintain
_________ by allowing the flow of ions.
(C) The _________ of a half-cell is measured relative to the standard hydrogen
electrode (SHE).
(D)The process of transmitting electric current through an electrolyte’s
solution to decompose it is known as _________
(E) Cell potential is an _________ property

Answer: (A) Anode, cathode, (B) electrical neutrality, (C) electrode potential,
(D) electrolysis, (E) intensive

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❹Math the following:

30. Match the terms given in Column I with the units given in Column II.
Column I Column II

(a) Λm (i) S cm-1

(b) Ecell (ii) m-1

(c) k (iii) S cm2 mol-1

(d) G* (iv) V

Answer: (a) – (iii); (b) – (iv); (c) – (i); (d) – (ii)

31. Match the items of Column I and Column II.

Column I Column II

(a) Lechlanche cell (i) cell reaction 2H₂ + O₂ → 2H₂O

(b) Ni-Cd cell (ii) does not involve any iron in solution and is used
in hearing aids.
(c) Fuel cell (iii) rechargeable
(d) Mercury cell (iv) reaction at anode, Zn → Zn2+ + 2e–
(v) converts energy of combustion into electrical
energy.

Answer: (a) – (iv); (b) – (iii); (c) – (i),(v); (d) – (ii)

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❺True or false:

32. In a redox reaction, the substance that undergoes reduction acts as the
oxidizing agent.

 True

33. The oxidation number of hydrogen in metal hydrides is +1.

 False

34. In acidic medium, the balancing of oxygen atoms is done by adding

water molecules to the reaction.

 True

35. The conduction of electricity in electrolytes involves the movement of

both electrons and ions.

 False

36. In a Daniel cell, the anode is made of copper, and the cathode is made of
zinc.

 False

37. In a galvanic cell, the oxidation reaction occurs at the anode.

 True

38. The salt bridge is used to prevent the buildup of charge and maintain
electrical neutrality in a galvanic cell.

 True

39. According to Faraday’s First Law of Electrolysis, the amount of substance

deposited at an electrode is directly proportional to the square of the
current passed.

 False

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40. Faraday’s Second Law of Electrolysis states that when the same quantity
of electricity is passed through different electrolytes, the amount of
substance deposited is directly proportional to its equivalent weight.

 True

41. The standard electrode potential of a half-cell is measured under

standard conditions, which include a concentration = 1 M , pressure = 1 atm
and temperature = 298 K.

 True

42. The EMF of a cell depends on the concentration of the ions involved in
the electrochemical reaction.

 True

43. In the electrochemical series, elements with higher standard reduction

potentials are stronger reducing agents.

 False

44. The Nernst equation is used to calculate the cell potential under non-
standard conditions.

 True

45. If the EMF of a cell is positive, the Gibbs free energy change for the
reaction is positive.

 False

46. Write True (T) for correct statement and False (F) for incorrect
statement. [PYQ NIOS April 2024]
(a) In a galvanic cell, electrons always flow from cathode to anode.
(b) Salt bridge is a contact between two half-cells without any mixing of
electrolytes.
(c) Higher the valency of the ion, greater is its conducting power.
(d) Conductivity of a cell is the product of conductance and cell constant.

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Answer: (a) false, (b) true, (c) false, (d) false.

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❻Very short questions [2 marks]:

47.
(a) Can E0cell or ΔrG0 for a cell reaction ever be equal to zero?
(b) Under what conditions is E0cell = 0 and ΔrG0 = 0 ?

Answer: (a) No, it cannot be equal to zero for a cell reaction proceeding in a
particular direction (forward or backward direction)

(b) At the condition of equilibrium, E0cell = 0 and ΔrG0 = 0

48. Define the following terms :

(i) Rate constant (k)
(ii) Activation energy (Ea)

Answer:
(i) Rate constant (k): It is a proportionality constant and is equal to the rate of
reaction when the molar concentration of each of the reactants is unity.
(ii) Activation energy (Ea): The minimum extra amount of energy absorbed by
the reactant molecules to form the activated complex is called activation
energy.

49. What does the negative sign in the expression E0 Zn2+/Zn = – 0.76 V
means?

Answer: It implies that Zn is more reactive than hydrogen or it is a stronger

reducing agent. In a cell containing zinc electrode and standard
hydrogen electrode present in two half cells, zinc will be oxidised to Zn2+ ions
while H+ ions will get reduced to hydrogen.

50. What is the effect of adding a catalyst on

(a) Activation energy (Ea), and
(b) Gibbs energy (∆G) of a reaction? [Sample paper]

Answer: (a) On adding catalyst activation energy decreases if the added

catalyst is positive catalyst and if the added catalyst is negative
catalyst then the activation energy increases.

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(b) Gibbs energy is a state function which depends only upon the initial and
final states of the reaction hence, there will not be any effect on the presence
of catalyst on Gibbs energy.

51. Depict the galvanic cell in which the cell reaction is:
Cu + 2Ag+ → 2Ag + Cu2+.

Answer: In the cell reaction: Cu + 2Ag+ → 2Ag + Cu2+

At anode : Cu → Cu2+ + 2e
At Cathode : 2 Ag+ + 2e → 2Ag

The representation of cell = Cu(s) | Cu2+(aq) || Ag+(aq) | Ag (s)

52. By the electrolysis of H2SO4 (50% W/W) followed by distillation

compound (A) is obtained. Compound (A) reacts with MnCl2 in alkaline
medium to give a brown coloured compound (B). Identify (A) and (B) and
also write the chemical equation for the reaction of (A) with MnCl2.
[PYQ NIOS Oct. 2021]

Answer: Hydrogen peroxide can be produced by electrolysis of sulfuric acid.

At the anode the following reaction takes place:

H2SO4−→ S2O2− +
8 + 2H + 2e
−

The reaction of this ion with water serves as a commercial preparation of

hydrogen peroxide:
−
S2O2−
8 (aq.) + H2O → H2O2 (aq.) + 2HSO4 .

53. What is the relationship between Gibbs free energy change and the
EMF of a cell?

Answer: ΔG = −nFEcell
Where ΔG is Gibbs free energy, n is the number of moles of electrons, F is
Faraday's constant, and Ecell is the EMF of the cell.

54. Calculate the emf of the following cell at 298 K: Fe(s) | Fe2+ (0.001 M)
|| H+ (1M) | H2(g) (1 bar), Pt(s) (Given E°cell = + 0.44V) [Delhi 2013]

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Answer:
As Fe + 2H+ → Fe2+ + H2 (n = 2)
According to Nernst equation

55. Define electrochemical series.

Answer: The electrochemical series is a list of elements arranged according to
their standard electrode potentials. Elements with lower potentials
tend to get oxidized, while those with higher potentials tend to get reduced.

OR

What is the electrochemical series, and how is it useful in predicting the

spontaneity of redox reactions?

Answer: The electrochemical series arranges elements in order of their

standard electrode potentials. A species with a higher reduction
potential will tend to gain electrons (get reduced), while one with a lower
reduction potential will lose electrons (get oxidized). A redox reaction is
spontaneous if the cell EMF is positive.

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❼Short questions [3 marks]:

56. Why an electrochemical cell stop working after some time? The
reduction potential of an electrode depends upon the concentration of
solution with which it is in contact.

Answer: As the cell works, the concentration of reactants decrease. Then

according to Le chatelier’s principle it will shift the equilibrium in
backward direction.

On the other hand if the concentration is more on the reactant side

then it will shift the equilibrium in forward direction. When cell works
concentration in anodic compartment in cathodic compartment decreases and
hence E° cathode will decrease.

Now EMF of cell is E0cell = E0cathode – E0anode

A decrease in E°cathode and a corresponding increase in E°anode will mean that
EMF of the cell will decrease and will ultimately become zero i.e., cell slops
working after some time.

57. Determine the values of equilibrium constant (Kc) and ΔG° for the
following reaction :
Ni(s) + 2Ag+ (aq) → Ni2+ (aq) + 2Ag(s),
E° = 1.05 V & (1F = 96500 C mol-1)

Answer:
According to the formula
ΔG° = -nFE° = – 2 × 96500 × 1.05
or ΔG° = -202650 J mol-1 = -202.65 KJ mol-1
Now ΔG° ⇒ -202650 J Mol-1
R = 8.314 J/Mol/K, T = 298 K

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58. The electrical resistance of a column of 0.05 M NaOH solution of
diameter 1 cm and length 50 cm is 5.55 × 103 ohm. Calculate its resistivity,
conductivity and molar conductivity.

Answer:
A = πr2 = 3.14 × (0.5)2 = 0.785 cm2, l = 50 cm

59.
(a) Electrode potential of metals A, B,C and E are given below

Arrange the metals in increasing order of reducing power. Give reason of

your answer.

(b) What are amphiprotic speies? Name the amphiprotic species in the given
reactions.

[PYQ NIOS April 2022]

Answer:
(a) The increasing order of reducing power: B < C < E < D < A

Lower the reduction potential easily if gets oxidized hence greater is the
reducing power therefore the increasing order of reducing power is B < C < E <
D < A.

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(b) A species that has the potential to act both as an acid and as a base
according to Brønsted-Lowry Theory is said to be amphoteric.

An amphiprotic molecule (or ion) can either donate or accept a proton, thus
acting either as an acid or a base.

Water, amino acids, hydrogen carbonate ion (or bicarbonate ion) HCO3−, are
examples of amphiprotic species.

60. Write the cell reaction, Nernst equation and calculate the EMF of
following cell at 298 k. [PYQ NIOS Oct. 2017]

Answer:

61. Explain Faraday's second law of electrolysis. How is the mass of a

substance deposited related to its equivalent weight?

Answer: Faraday's second law of electrolysis states that when the same
amount of electricity is passed through different electrolytes, the
mass of the substances deposited is directly proportional to their chemical
equivalent weights.

 The equivalent weight of a substance is calculated using the formula E =

Atomic weight/valency.

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 The amount of electricity needed to release one gram-equivalent of any
material at any electrode is called a faraday. Faraday's constant is equal to
96485 C mol - 1.
62. What is meant by “electrolytic conductance”? Name the factors that
determine electrolytic conduction. What is the effect of temperature on
it?

Answer: The ability of the electrolytic solutions to let the electric current pass
through them is called electrolytic conductance.

 The factors on which electrolytic conductance depends are as follows:

1. Temperature
2. The concentration of ions in the solution
3. Nature of the electrolyte

The ability of electrolytes to get dissolved in a solution changes with the

change in temperature. When temperature increases, the solubility also
increases, and hence, the electrolytic conductance also increases.

63.
(a) What type of process – spontaneous or non – spontaneous occurs in the
following cell? (i) Electrolyte cell (ii) Galvanic cell
(b) Write the cell reaction and calculate EMF Of the following cell at 25°C:

Zn (s)  Zn2+ (0.001M)  H+ (O.01 M) H2 (g) (1 bar)  Pt (s)

° °
𝐄𝐙𝐧𝟐+ /𝐙𝐧 = – 0.76 V, 𝐄𝐇 𝟐+ /𝐇 = 0.00 V
𝟐
[PYQ NIOS April 2023]

Answer: (a) A spontaneous process occurs in a galvanic cell, while a non-

spontaneous process occurs in an electrolytic cell.

(b)

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❽Long questions [5 marks]:

64. Balance the following redox reactions by the ion-electron method in

acidic medium.

MnO−4 (aq) + SO2(g)→ Mn2+ (aq) + HSO−4(aq)

Answer: The unbalanced chemical equation is:

MnO−4 (aq) + SO2(g)→ Mn2+ (aq) + HSO−4(aq)

The oxidation half reaction is

SO2 (g)+ 2H2O (l) → HSO−4 (aq) + 3H+ (aq) + 2e−(aq).

The reduction half reaction is

MnO−4 (aq) → Mn2+ (aq)

In the reduction half reaction, the oxidation number of Mn changes from +7 to

+2. Hence, 5 electrons are added to LHS of the reaction.
MnO−4 (aq) + 5e− → Mn2+ (aq)

Charge is balanced in the reduction half reaction by adding 8 hydrogen ions to

LHS.
MnO−4 (aq) + 5e− + 8H+(aq) →Mn2+(aq)

To balance O atoms, 4 water molecules are added on RHS.

MnO −4 (aq) + 5e− + 8H+(aq) →Mn2+(aq) + 4H2O(l)

To equalize the number of electrons, the oxidation half reaction is multiplied

by 5 and the reduction half reaction is multiplied by 2.
5SO2 (g) + 10H2O (l) → 5HSO−4(aq) + 15H+ (aq) + 10e− (aq)
2MnO−4(aq) + 10e− + 16H+ (aq) → 2Mn2+(aq)

Two half cell reactions are added to obtain a balanced equation.

2MnO−4(aq) + 5SO2(g) 5SO2 (g) + 2H2O (l) → 2Mn2+(aq ) + 5HSO−4(aq)

65. A galvanic cell is made by combining zinc-zinc sulphate (E°= − 0.76 V)

and copper-copper sulphate (E°= + 0.34 V) electrodes.
(i) Write the cell notation of the cell.
(ii) Identify the cathode and the anode in this cell.

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(iii) Which electrode is the positive electrode and which one is the negative
electrode in this cell?
(iv) Write the anodic reaction, cathodic reaction and the cell reaction.
[PYQ NIOS Oct. 2022]

Answer:
(i) Cell Notation:

The cell notation represents the components of a galvanic cell, including the
anode, cathode, and the salt bridge or porous barrier. The general format is:
Anode | Anode Solution || Cathode Solution | Cathode

For the given cell with zinc and copper electrodes:

Zn(s) | ZnSO4 (aq) || CuSO4 (aq) | Cu (s)

(ii) Cathode and Anode:

In a galvanic cell, the oxidation half-reaction (loss of electrons) occurs at the

anode, while the reduction half-reaction (gain of electrons) occurs at the
cathode.

 Zinc electrode (Zn) is the anode because it has a lower reduction potential (-
0.76 V).
 Copper electrode (Cu) is the cathode because it has a higher reduction
potential (+0.34 V).

(iii) Positive and Negative Electrodes:

In a galvanic cell, the electrode where reduction occurs is the positive

electrode (cathode), and the electrode where oxidation occurs is the negative
electrode (anode). So, in this case:

 The zinc electrode (Zn) is the negative electrode.

 The copper electrode (Cu) is the positive electrode.

(iv) Anodic Reaction, Cathodic Reaction, and Cell Reaction:

Anodic Reaction (Oxidation) at the Negative Electrode (Zn electrode):

Zn(s) →

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Cathodic Reaction (Reduction) at the Positive Electrode (Cu electrode):

→ Cu(s)

Cell Reaction (Overall Reaction):

66. Calculate the emf and ∆G for the given cell at 25°C:
Cr(s) / Cr3+ (0.1 M) // Fe2+ (0.01 M)/ Fe(s)

Given: E0Cr3+/Cr = 0.74V, E0Fe2+/Fe = - 0.44 V

(1 F = 96500 C, R = 8.314 J K-1 mol-1) 40.95 S cm2 mot

Answer:

0.0591 (Fe 2+ )3
Ecell = E°cell + log
n (Cr 3+ )2

0.0591 (0.01)3
= ( – 0.44 + 0.74) + log
6 (0.1)2

0.0591
= ( 0.30) + log 10-4
6

0.0591
= 0.30 + (-4) × log 10
6

2
= 0.30 – × 0.0591 × 1
3

0.1182
= 0.31 –
3

= 0.31 – 0.0394

Ecell = 0.271

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67. Calculate the emf and ∆G0 for the cell reaction at 298 K
Mg(s) | Mg2+(0.1M) || Cu2+(0.01 M) |Cu(s)
Given E0cell = 2.71 V & 1 F = 96,500 C

Answer:

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 Hydrogen and s – block elements
17
22

Quick Revision
Short summary What do we learn

 Introduction to hydrogen  Chemical properties

On the earth Hydrogen exists as ❶ Combustion: Hydrogen is

H2 molecule (dihydrogen). It combustible and burns in air with pale
constitutes to 10 % mass of universe. blue flame.
2H2 + O2 →2H2O

❷Reducing property: Hydrogen

reduces heated metal oxides to
metals.
ZnO + H2 →Zn + H2O
Isotopes differ in number of neutrons. CuO + H2 →Cu + H2O
So, accordingly Protium has no ❸Reaction with metals: Hydrogen
neutron, Deuterium has 1 and Tritium reacts with highly electropositive
has 2 neutrons. It is 1st element in metals to from the corresponding
Periodic table. Its position is hydrides.
anomalous as it resembles alkali 2Na + H2 →2NaH
metal and halogen. 2Li + H→ →2LiH

❹Reaction with non-metals:

Hydrogen combines with nitrogen,
 Hydrogen -Physical properties carbon, oxygen and chlorine under
1. It is colourless. appropriate conditions to form
2. It is odourless. ammonia, methane, water and
3. It is tasteless. hydrogen chloride, respectively.
4. Its vapor density = 1 (lighter than
3H2 + N2 →2NH3
air).
2H2 + C →CH4
5. It is non – poisonous.
6. It is solubility in H2O is very low. 2H2 + O2 →2H2O
H2 + Cl2 →2HCl

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 Uses of hydrogen  Water (H2O)
1. It is used as rocket fuel because of
 Physical properties:
its high calorific value.
2. OxyHydrogen flame is used for 1. It is tasteless and odourless liquid.
welding. 2. It freezes to ice at 273K.
3. It helps in synthesis of NH3 3. Its boiling point is 373K.
(ammonia), HNO3 (niric acid), HCl 4. Its density is -- 1g / cc.
(hydrochloric acid) etc. 5. It has high freezing Point , high
4. It helps in the synthesis of vanspati boiling point and high Heat of
ghee. vaporization.
5. It is a reducing agent . 6. It has high thermal conductivity ,
6. As primary fuel for heavy rockets. dipole moment , dilectric constant
7. For filling balloons. and high specific heat value.
7. It is an excellent solvent.
8. Water is polar covalent molecule .
9. Its crystalline form is Ice.
 Compounds of hydrogen
 Structure:
Hydrogen forms a large number of
compounds: here we will consider
only two of them, namely: - Angle is 104.50
1. Water (H2O) - Bond Length = 97.7 pm
2. Hydrides

 Chemical properties of Water

 Water (H2O) 1. Reaction with metal: It reacts with
It covers 71% of earth surface but its metal to form hydroxides and
distribution is not uniform. hydrogen gas is released.
Na + H2O → NaOH + H2
That is –: 2. Water is amphoteric in nature, so
 97.33% Oceans reacts with acid as well as with
 2% Polar ice caps base.
3. Autopyrolysis: it can undergo self
 1% remaining H2O
decomposition

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 Hydrolysis  Hydrogen peroxide

“Hydrolysis is a chemical reaction Its formula is H2O2 and is important

that breaks down molecules using chemical used in population control
water.” treatment of domestic and industrial
effulents .
Water dissolves many Ionic
compounds and also help in  Methods of preparation:
dissociating the compounds .
1. By the action of dilute mineral
The salts in which H2O react with acids (H2SO4) on metallic peroxides
salts are called as “Hydrated salt”. (barium peroxide, sodium
peroxide).
Hydrated salts are of three types:
2. By the electrolysis of H2SO4 (50%
1. Water combined by coordinate W/W) followed by distillation.
bond
2. Water occupying interstitial spaces
3. Water bonded by H bond.
 Hydrogen peroxide

 Non polar Structure of H2O2:

 Heavy Water

Water containing deuterium in place

of ordinary hydrogen (protium) is
termed as heavy water.
 Physical properties:
 Its formula is D2O. In this the
1. It is pure state.
isotope of hydrogen deutrium is
2. It is colourless liquid.
being used.
3. It is miscible with water in all
H2O → H+ + OH– proportions and forms a hydrate
D2O → D+ + OD– H2H2O.

 Preparation: It is prepared by  Uses:

prolonged electrolysis of water.
It is used as bleaching hair, in
 Physical properties: It is colorless,
pollution control treatment and as a
odourless, tasteless liquid that is
bleaching agent in paper industries.
heavier than water.

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 Hydrogen peroxide  S – block elements

 Chemical properties: The elements in which the last

electron enters the outermost s-
It act as oxididing as well as reducing
orbital are called s-block elements. S –
agent in both acidic and alkaline
block has two groups (1 and 2).
media .

1. Oxidising action in acidic media:

a. PbS + 4H2O2 → PbSO4 + 4H2O
b. 2FeSO4 + H2SO4 + H2O2 →
Fe2(SO4)3 + 2H2O
2. Oxidising action in basic medium:
MnCl2 + H2O2 + 2KOH → 2KCl +  Group 1 elements are called alkali
2H2O + MnO2 metals. Lithium, sodium,
3. Reducing action in acidic medium: potassium, rubidium, ceisium,
2KMnO4 + 3H2SO4 + 5H2O2 → francium are the alkali metals.
2MnSO4 + K2SO4 + 8H2O + 5O2  Whereas Group 2 elements are
4. Reducing action in alkaline called alkaline earth metals. The
solution: oxides and hydroxides of these
a. 2KMnO4 + 3H2O2 → 2MnO2 + metals are alkaline in nature and
3O2 + 2H2O + 2KOH exist in earth crust and hence are
b. Cl2 + H2O2 + 2KOH → 2KCl + regarded as alkaline earth metals.
2H2O + O2

 Alkali metals
 Hydrides
1. Atomic and Ionic Radii of alkali
Hydrogen reacts with metals and metals
nonmetals to forms hydrides.  In Group 1 the atom of the atomic
Hydrides can be calssified as: and ionic radii increases down the
group.
1. Ionic = Salt Like Hydrides
 Increase in atomic number
2. Covalent = Molecular Hydrides
increases the size of the atom of
3. Metallic = Non – Stochiometric
the elements.
Hydrides

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 Alkali metals  Chemical properties of Alkali
2. Ionization enthalpy metals
Down the group ionization enthalpies 1. Reactivity towards air
of alkali metals decreases. 2. Reactivity towards water
3. Reactivity towards dihydrogen
3. Hydration enthalpy 4. Reactivity towards halogens
In alkali metals the hydration 5. Reducing nature
enthalpies decreases with the 6. Solutions in liquid ammonia
increase in ionic sizes.
Li+ > Na+ > K+ > Rb+ > Cs+
 Diagonal relationship

The similarity in the properties of

 Physical properties of Alkali definite pairs of diagonally adjacent
elements in the second and third
metals
periods of the periodic table is called
1. Alkali metals appears silvery white, diagonal relationship.
soft.
2. They have low density due to their Consequently lithium and magnesium
large size which goes on increasing have similar properties whereas
down the group. Beryllium and Aluminium exhibit
3. The melting and boiling point of similar properties.
the alkali metals are low.
4. This shows that they have weak
metallic bonding.
5. There is a weak bonding due to the
presence of only a single valence
electron.  Similarity of Li and Mg
6. These metals impart colour when
exposed to oxidizing flame due to Lithium and magnesium have similar
the excitation of the outermost atomic and ionic radii and hence
electron to a higher energy level exhibit similar properties.
and then return to their ground Atomic radii: Li = 152 pm, Mg = 160
state by emitting radiation. pm Ionic radii: Li+ = 76 pm, Mg2+= 72
pm.

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 Similarity of Be and Al  Sodium carbonate

The charge/radius ratio of Be2+ ion is Sodium carbonate = Washing soda =

nearly the same as that of the Al3+ ion Na2CO3
and hence exhibit similar properties.
 Properties

1. The aqueous solution absorbs

CO2 yielding sparingly soluble
sodium bicarbonate.
2. Dissolves in acids with an
effervescence of carbondioxide
and is causticised by lime to give
caustic soda.
 Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) 3. Fusion with silica, sodium
carbonate yields sodium silicate.
Sodium hydroxide is a white 4. Hydrolysis – being a salt of a strong
deliquescent solid which is caustic and base (NaOH) and weak acid
slimy to touch. it dissolves readily in (H2CO3), when dissolved in water
water with vigorous evolution of heat. sodium carbonate. Undergoes
 Properties hydrolysis to form an alkaline
solution
NaOH is stable towards heat but is
reduced to metal when heated with
carbon.
2NaOH + 2C → 2Na + 2CO + H2  Alkaline earth metals

 Uses Group II elements of modern

periodic table:
 It is used in the manufacture of
paper, soap and artificial silk. Beryllium (Be), Magnesium (Mg),
 It is used in petroleum refining. Calcium (Ca), Strontium (Sr), Barium
 It is used for mercerizing cotton. (Ba) and Radium (Ra) are earth
 It is used for the preparation of alkaline metals.
sodium metal and many salts of
sodium.

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 Alkaline earth metals  Physical properties of Alkaline
1. General electronic configuration earth metals
The general electron configuration 1. The alkaline earth metals are
ns2. These elements have two valence silvery white, soft and lustrous.
electrons in the outermost s sublevel. 2. But they are somewhat harder
than alkali metals.
2. Atomic and Ionic Radii of alkaline 3. Beryllium and magnesium are
earth metal greyish in colour.
 The atomic and ionic radii of the 4. Melting and boiling points of these
alkaline earth metals are smaller metals are higher than
than alkali metals due to the corresponding alkali metal.
increased nuclear charge in these 5. They have low ionization enthalpy
elements. which makes them strongly
 The atomic and ionic radii increase electropositive that increases
with increase in atomic number down the group from Be to Ba.
within a group. 6. When exposed to flame calcium,
3. Ionization enthalpy strontium and barium imparts
Ionization enthalpy decreases with brick red, crimson and apple green
the increase in atomic size down the colours.
group.

4. Hydration enthalpy
 Hydration enthalpies of alkaline  Chemical properties of Alkaline
earth metal ions decrease with the earth metals
increasing ionic size down the 1. Reactivity and E° values:
group. 2. Oxides
 Hydration enthalpies of alkaline 3. Hydrides
earth metal ions are larger than 4. Reaction with water:
those of alkali metal 5. Halides
6. Solubility and stability of
carbonates and sulphates
7. Complex compounds.

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 Anamalous behavior of Be  Calcium carbonate

Anomalous behaviour of an element It is a white fluffy powder that is

refers to the deviation of the insoluble in water and gets
properties and behaviour of an decomposed followed by the release
element from its usual or normal of CO2 on heating to 1200 K.
behaviour.
- CaCO3 + 1200k → CaO + CO2
 Beryllium has small atomic and - CaCO3 + 2HCl → CaCl2 + H2O + CO2
ionic size. - CaCO3 + H2SO4 → CaSO4 + H2O +
 The coordination number of CO2
beryllium is not greater than 4 due
 Uses of calcium carbonate
to the presence of four electrons
in the valence shell. 1. It is used to manufacture of quick
 The oxide and hydroxide of lime.
beryllium are amphoteric in 2. It is used as a flux in combination
nature. with magnesium carbonate in the
extraction of metals such as iron.
3. It is also used as an antacid, mild
abrasive in tooth paste and
 Calcium oxide
chewing gum.
 The chemical name of Quick Lime
is Calcium Oxide (CaO).
 It is a white amorphous solid.
 It is prepared by heating limestone  Biological role of Mg2+ and Ca2+
(CaCO3) in a kiln at a temperature Mg2+ ions are concentrated in animal
of 1070 – 1270 K. cells, and Ca2+ are concentrated in the
CaCO3 → CaO + CO2 body fluids outside the cell. They are
CaO reacts exothermally with water, also essential for the transmission of
forming hydroxide impulses along nerve fibres.
CaO + H2O → Ca(OH)2 Mg2+ is important in chlorophyll, in
Ca(OH)2 is called slaked lime the green parts of plants. Ca2+ is
Ca(OH)2 + CO2 → CaCO3 important in bones and teeth as
apatite Ca3(PO4)2

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 Question – Answer

❶ MCQs

1. Which of the following statements is correct about hydrogen?

a) It has a larger atomic size than Helium.
b) It is placed with alkali metals in the periodic table.
c) It can act as both a reducing and oxidizing agent.
d) Its isotope deuterium has no neutrons.

Answer: c) It can act as both a reducing and oxidizing agent.

2. Which of the following is not a property of water due to hydrogen

bonding?
a) High boiling point b) High surface tension
c) High vapor pressure d) High heat of vaporization

Answer: c) High vapor pressure

3. Which of the following statements about hydrogen bonding is incorrect?

a) It occurs between molecules where hydrogen is covalently bonded to
an electronegative atom.
b) Hydrogen bonds are weaker than covalent bonds but stronger than
van der Waals forces.
c) Water molecules can form up to four hydrogen bonds.
d) Hydrogen bonding decreases the solubility of compounds in water.

Answer: d) Hydrogen bonding decreases the solubility of compounds in

water.

4. Which of the following compounds does not exhibit hydrogen bonding?

a) HF b) H₂O c) NH₃ d) H₂S

Answer: d) H₂S

5. Which of the following statements is incorrect about heavy water (D₂O)?

a) It has a higher boiling point than H₂O.
b) It is used as a moderator in nuclear reactors.

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 c) It reacts more slowly than normal water in chemical reactions.
d) It is used as a solvent in industrial alkali manufacture.

Answer: d) It is used as a solvent in industrial alkali manufacture.

6. Hydrogen peroxide is used as: [PYQ NIOS Oct 2017]

a) oxidizing agent b) reducing agent
c) both oxidizing and reducing agent d) drying agent

Answer: c) Both oxidizing and reducing agent

OR

In which of the following processes is hydrogen peroxide not used?

a) Bleaching of cotton
b) Antiseptic applications
c) As a reducing agent in photography
d) Oxidizing agent in rocket propellants

Answer: c) As a reducing agent in photography

7. Which of the following gives H2O2 on treatment with dilute mineral acid?
a) MnO2 b) PbO2 c) Na2O2 d) BaO2

[PYQ NIOS Oct 2017]

Answer: c) Na2O2

8. Which of the following is the correct order of stability for the hydrides of
Group 1 and 2 elements?
a) LiH > NaH > KH > RbH
b) MgH₂ > BeH₂ > CaH₂ > SrH₂
c) BeH₂ > MgH₂ > CaH₂ > SrH₂
d) NaH > LiH > KH > RbH

Answer: c) BeH₂ > MgH₂ > CaH₂ > SrH₂

9. Which of the following is true for hydrides of alkali metals?

a) They are covalent in nature.
b) They are highly soluble in water.

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 c) They are highly stable at room temperature.
d) They act as reducing agents.

Answer: d) They act as reducing agents.

10. The hydride of an element of Group 1 in the periodic table is likely to

have:
a) Ionic bonding b) Covalent bonding
c) Hydrogen bonding d) Metallic bonding

Answer: a) Ionic bonding

11. The highest hydration energy among the alkali metal ions is exhibited
by:
a) Li⁺ b) Na⁺ c) K⁺ d) Cs⁺

Answer: a) Li⁺
OR

12. Which of the following ions is responsible for the alkalinity of water?
a) OH⁻ b) H₃O⁺ c) CO₃²⁻ d) HSO₄⁻

Answer: a) OH⁻

13. Which of the following alkali metals has the highest ionization energy?
a) Li b) Na c) K d) Cs

Answer: a) Li

14. Which of the following properties of alkali metals increases as you

move down the group?
a) Melting point b) Ionization energy
c) Atomic radius d) Electronegativity

Answer: c) Atomic radius

15. The anomalous behavior of lithium compared to other alkali metals is

due to:

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 a) Its large size b) Its high polarizability
c) Its high ionization enthalpy d) Its weak metallic character

Answer: c) Its high ionization enthalpy

16. Lithium resembles magnesium due to diagonal relationship. Which of

the following is not a similarity between lithium and magnesium?
a) Both form nitrides on reaction with nitrogen.
b) Both form stable carbonates.
c) Both form soluble hydroxides.
d) Both form covalent compounds.

Answer: b) Both form stable carbonates.

17. Which of the following alkali metal salts is least soluble in water?
a) Li₂CO₃ b) Na₂CO₃ c) K₂CO₃ d) Cs₂CO₃

Answer: a) Li₂CO₃
OR

Which of the following alkaline earth metal sulphate is least soluble in

water?
a) BaSO4 b) SrSO4 c) BeSO4 d) MgSO4

Answer: a) BaSO4 [PYQ NIOS April 2023]

18. What happens when sodium reacts with water?

a) Sodium dissolves without reaction.
b) Sodium sinks in water and forms sodium hydroxide.
c) Sodium floats and produces sodium hydroxide and hydrogen gas.
d) Sodium reacts violently and forms sodium peroxide.

Answer: c) Sodium floats and produces sodium hydroxide and hydrogen gas.

19. The basic nature of sodium carbonate (Na₂CO₃) in aqueous solution is

due to:
a) The presence of CO₃²⁻ ions.
b) The reaction of Na⁺ ions with water.

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 c) The decomposition of Na₂CO₃ to NaOH.
d) The dissolution of CO₂ in water.

Answer: a) The presence of CO₃²⁻ ions.

20. Some unusual properties of water, such as its solid form (ice) being
lighter the liquid form (water) is due to the presence of which type of
intermolecular forces: [PYQ Jan feb 2016]
a) London forces b) Dipole - dipole forces
c) Dipole-induced dipole forces d) Hydrogen bonding
Answer: d) Hydrogen bonding

21. Which of the following properties increases as we move down the

alkali metal group from Li to Cs?
a) Reactivity with water b) Ionization energy
c) Electronegativity d) Hardness

Answer: a) Reactivity with water

22. Sodium hydroxide is prepared by electrolysis of concentrated NaCl

solution. The chemical name of this process is:
a) Solvay process b) Chlor-alkali process
c) Haber process d) Contact process

Answer: b) Chlor-alkali process

23. Which of the following statements is correct about the electron

configuration of alkaline earth metals?
a) They have two electrons in the s-orbital of their valence shell.
b) They have one electron in the p-orbital of their valence shell
c) They have fully filled d-orbitals.
d) They have half-filled p-orbitals in their ground state.

Answer: a) They have two electrons in the s-orbital of their valence shell.

24. Which of the following is true about the reaction of alkaline earth
metals with oxygen?
a) Be does not react with oxygen b) Mg forms a basic oxide
c) Ba forms a peroxide d) Ca forms a superoxide

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Answer: c) Ba forms a peroxide.

25. Which of the following compounds is least thermally stable?

a) MgCO₃ b) CaCO₃ c) SrCO₃ d) BaCO₃

Answer: a) MgCO₃

26. Beryllium shows amphoteric behavior. Which of the following

reactions correctly represents this behavior?
a) Be + HCl → BeCl₂ + H₂
b) Be(OH)₂ + NaOH → Na₂*Be(OH)₄+
c) BeO + O₂ → BeO₂
d) BeSO₄ + H₂O → Be(OH)₂ + H₂SO₄

Answer: b) Be(OH)₂ + NaOH → Na₂*Be(OH)₄+

27. When CaCO₃ is heated strongly, it decomposes into:

a) CaO and H₂O b) CaO and CO₂
c) Ca(OH)₂ and CO₂ d) CaCl₂ and CO₂

Answer: b) CaO and CO₂

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❷ Complete the sentence using an appropriate words:
NOTE: Some words are extra only for make complexity or confusion.

28. Oxide, halide, ionic, peroxide, decreases, lime water, covalent, slaked
lime
1. The most stable form of hydride formed by alkali metals is _______ hydride.
2. Calcium hydroxide, commonly known as _______ is sparingly soluble in
water and forms a solution called _______.
3. The solubility of alkaline earth metal hydroxides _______ down the group.
4. Barium forms a _______ when it reacts with oxygen, while calcium forms a
_______.

Answer: 1. Ionic, 2. Slaked lime, lime water, 3. Increases, 4. Peroxide, Oxide

❸ Fill in the blanks:

29.
a. Beryllium hydroxide, Be(OH)₂, exhibits _______ behavior, meaning it can
react with both acids and bases.
b. Sodium metal is stored in _______ to prevent it from reacting with
moisture and air.
c. The chemical formula for heavy water is _______.
d. Hydrogen bonding occurs when a hydrogen atom is bonded to highly
electronegative elements like _______ and _______.

Answer: a. amphoteric, b. kerosene, c. D2O, d. fluorine, oxygen

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❹ match the following:

30. Match the terms given in Column I with the suitable statements given
in Column II.

Column A Column B
1) Beryllium a. Used as a moderator in nuclear reactors
2) Heavy water b. Exhibit diagonal relationship with Aluminum
3) Calcium oxide c. Also known as slaked lime
d. Also known as quicklime

Answer: 1) – b, 2) – a, 3) – d

31. Match the terms given in Column A with the suitable statements given
in Column B.

Column A Column B
A. Hydration enthalpy 1. Beryllium hydroxide
B. Ionization enthalpy 2. Decreases down the group in alkaline earth
metals
C. Hydrogen bonding 3. Strongest in H₂O, NH₃, and HF
D. Amphoteric hydroxide 4. Higher for alkaline earth metals than for alkali
metals

Answer: A – 2, B – 4, C – 3, 4 – 1

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❺True or False:

32. Beryllium forms predominantly ionic compounds like other members of

group 2.

 False.

33. Hydrogen peroxide can act both as an oxidizing and reducing agent.
 True.

34. The solubility of alkaline earth metal sulfates increases down the group.
 False.

35. Magnesium hydroxide is more soluble in water than calcium hydroxide.

 False.

36. In alkali metals, the melting point decreases down the group.
 True.

37. Calcium oxide is amphoteric and reacts with both acids and bases.
 False.

38. Heavy water (D₂O) is less dense than ordinary water (H₂O) because of
the presence of deuterium.

 False.

39. Calcium carbonate (CaCO₃) is used in the Solvay process for the
manufacture of sodium carbonate.

 True.

40. Alkaline earth metals generally have higher densities than alkali metals.
 True.

41. In water, magnesium hydroxide is more soluble than barium hydroxide.

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 False.

42. Hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) decomposes to form water and hydrogen gas.
 False.

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❻Very short type questions [2 marks]:

43. What is hydrogen bonding, and how does it affect the boiling points of
compounds like water and ammonia?

Answer: Hydrogen bonding is a type of dipole-dipole interaction between a

hydrogen atom covalently bonded to a highly electronegative atom
(like F, O, or N) and another electronegative atom. It increases the boiling
points of compounds like water and ammonia by creating strong
intermolecular forces that require more energy to break.

44. Explain the diagonal relationship between lithium and magnesium.

Answer: The diagonal relationship between lithium and magnesium arises
because of their similar ionic radii, electronegativities, and polarizing
power. Both elements form covalent compounds, have similar reactivity, and
show comparable solubility trends, despite being in different groups.

45. Why is beryllium chloride covalent, while other group 2 metal chlorides
are ionic?

Answer: Beryllium chloride is covalent due to beryllium’s small atomic size

and high charge density, which leads to high polarization of the
chloride ions. This results in covalent bonding, unlike other group 2 chlorides
that are larger and form ionic bonds.

46. Why does the solubility of alkaline earth metal hydroxides increase
down the group?

Answer: The solubility of alkaline earth metal hydroxides increases down the
group because the lattice enthalpy decreases more rapidly than the
hydration enthalpy, making the dissolution process easier for heavier elements
like barium compared to lighter ones like magnesium.

47. What is the significance of heavy water (D₂O) in nuclear reactors?

Answer: Heavy water (D₂O) is used as a neutron moderator in nuclear
reactors. It slows down neutrons without capturing them, allowing

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for efficient nuclear fission in reactors using uranium-235 or plutonium-239 as
fuel.

48. Explain the difference in reactivity of sodium and potassium with

water.

Answer:Potassium reacts more vigorously with water than sodium because

potassium has a larger atomic radius and lower ionization enthalpy.
This makes it easier to lose its outer electron, leading to a more explosive
reaction with water.

49. What are the chemical reactions involved in the Solvay process for the
manufacture of sodium carbonate?

Answer: The key reactions in the Solvay process are:

CO₂ + NH₃ + H₂O → NH₄HCO₃
NH₄HCO₃ + NaCl → NaHCO₃ + NH₄Cl
2 NaHCO₃ → Na₂CO₃ + H₂O + CO₂ (on heating)

50. Give two uses of hydrogen peroxide. [Textbook Intext question]

Answer:
1. It is used as a hair bleach and as a mild disinfectant in daily life.
2. It is used to manufacture chemical like sodium perborate and per carbonate
which are used in high quality detergents.

OR

Give one method of preparation of hydrogen peroxide.

[Textbook Intext question]

Answer: Hydrogen peroxide can be prepared by Laboratory Methods as

follows:

By the action of dilute mineral acids (H2SO4) on metallic peroxides (barium

peroxide, sodium peroxide). When barium peroxide is acidified and the excess
water is removed by the process of evaporation under reduced pressure, we
obtain hydrogen peroxide.

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 BaO2.8H2O (s) + H2SO4 (aq) → BaSO4 (s) + H2O2 (aq) + 8H2O (l)

51. Why is LiF almost insoluble in water whereas LiCl soluble not only in
water but also in acetone?

Answer: The low solubility of LiF in water is due to its very high lattice
enthalpy (F– ion is very small in size). On the other hand, in lithium
chloride (LiCl) the lattice enthalpy is comparatively very small. This means that
the magnitude of hydration enthalpy is quite large. Therefore lithium chloride
dissolves in water. It is also soluble in acetone due to dipolar attraction.
(Acetone is polar in nature).

52.
a) Arrange the alkaline earth metals in order of increasing reactivity.
b) Arrange the carbonates of alkaline earth metals in order of thermal
stability. [Textbook Intext question]

Answer:
a) order of increasing reactivity of alkaline earth metals: Be < Mg < Ca < Sr <Ba
b) The order of thermal stability of alkaline earth metal carbonates from most
to least stable is: BaCO3, SrCO3, CaCO3, MgCO3, and BeCO3.

53. Explain why HCI is a gas and HF is a liquid.

Answer: Intermolecular hydrogen bonding binds HF molecules together. As a
result, at room temperature, HF is a liquid. It exists as a gas at room
temperature since intermolecular hydrogen bonding is not present in the HCl
molecules.

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❼Short type questions [3 marks]:

54. Dihydrogen reacts with dioxygen (O₂) to form water. Write the name
and formula of the product when the isotope of hydrogen which has one
proton and one neutron in its nucleus is treated with oxygen. Will the
reactivity of both the isotopes be the same towards oxygen? Justify your
answer.

Answer: Deuterium (D) is a hydrogen isotope that has one proton and one
neutron. Deuterium oxide, or heavy water, is generated when
dideuterium combines with dioxygen.

H2 and D2 will have distinct reactions with oxygen. Because the D–D bond is
stronger than the H–H bond, H2 is more reactive than D2 when it comes to
oxygen reactions.

55. Give reasons why hydrogen resembles alkali metals?

Answer: In the following ways, hydrogen resembles alkali metals from group I
of the periodic table, such as Li, Na, K, Rb, and Cs.

i) Hydrogen, like alkali metals, has one electron in its outermost (valence) shell
and has an oxidation state of +1.

ii) Hydrogen, like alkali metals, loses its single electron to produce hydrogen
ion, or H+ (proton).

iii) Hydrogen, like alkali metals, reacts with electronegative non-metals like
oxygen, halogens, and sulphur to generate oxides, halides, and sulphides,
respectively.

iv) Hydrogen, like alkali metals, is a powerful reducing agent.

56. Write two reactions to explain the amphoteric nature of water.

Answer: Water has the ability to act as both a base and an acid, making it an
amphoteric material. According to the Bronsted lowry theory, it
functions as an acid with NH3 and a base with H2S.

H2O(l) + NH3(aq) → OH−(aq) + 4F−(aq)

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H2O(l) + H2S(aq) → H3O+(aq) + HS−(aq)

Water undergoes auto-protolysis (self-ionisation) and the reaction is as

follows:

H2O(l) + H2O(l) → H3O+(aq) + OH−(aq)

Formation of conjugate acid and conjugate base takes place.

57. Write four general characteristics of the s-block elements which

distinguish them from the elements of other blocks.
[Textbook terminal exercise]

Answer: General characteristics of the s-block elements which distinguish

them from the elements of other blocks are:

1. The s-block elements have an outer electronic configuration ns1 or ns2

2. Alkali metal is weak in its metallic bonding and so they are having low
boiling and melting points.
3. They have low values of ionisation energies and are hence highly
electropositive.
4. They have the largest atomic radii in their corresponding periods.
58. The stability of peroxide and superoxide of alkali metals increase as we
go down the group. Explain giving reason.

Answer: As the size of the metal ion rises, the stability of peroxide or
superoxide increases, i.e. KO2 < RbO2 < CsO2. Because of the strong
positive charge around each alkali metal cation, alkali metals react with oxygen
to generate various oxides. The smallest ion is Li+, which prevents the O2- ion
from reacting with O2. Although Na+ has a greater positive field than Li, its
positive field is weaker. It will not stop the conversion of O2- to O22-.

The largest ions, K+, Rb+, and Cs+, allow O22- to combine with O2 and generate
the superoxide ion O2–.

Furthermore, increased peroxide or superoxide stability with increasing metal

ion size is due to the stabilisation of large anions by larger cations via the
lattice energy effect.

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59. Describe the importance for the following: (i) limestone, (ii) cement,
and (iii) plaster of Paris.

Answer:
(i) Uses of the cement:
 Construction of the bridge
 Plastering
 An essential ingredient in the concrete
(ii) Uses of the Plaster of Paris:
 Used to make the casts and the moulds
 Used to make the surgical bandages
(iii) Uses of the limestone:
 Preparation of the cement and the lime
 As a flux in the iron ore smelting
60. Compare the properties of alkali metals and alkaline earth metals with
respect to:
(a) atomic radii
(b) ionization energy
(c) melting points
(d) reducing behavior [Textbook terminal exercise]

Answer: Alkali metals and alkaline earth metals differ in the following
properties:

(a) Atomic radii: Alkaline earth metals have smaller atomic radii than alkali
metals. This is due to their increased nuclear charge.
(b) Ionization energy: Alkaline earth metals have higher first ionization
enthalpies than alkali metals, but lower second ionization enthalpies.
(c) Melting point: Alkali metals have low melting points, ranging from 179 °C
(354 °F) for lithium to 28.5 °C (83.3 °F) for cesium.
(d) Reducing behavior: The ionisation enthalpies of alkaline earth metals are
higher and their electrode potentials are less negative than the
corresponding alkali metals, therefore alkaline earth metals are weaker
reducing agents than alkali metals.

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❽Long type questions [5 marks]:

61. What are the common physical and chemical characteristics of the
alkali metals?

Answer:  Physical properties of the alkali metals:

(1) The alkali metal is soft. Hence, we can cut them easily. We can cut the
sodium metal even when using the knife.
(2) Generally, the alkali metal is lightly coloured as well, as mostly they are
seen as silvery white.
(3) Its atomic size is larger. Therefore, their density is low. The density of the
alkali metal increases as we move down in the group from the Li to Cs,
except for the K, which has lower density than the sodium.
(4) Alkali metal has weak metallic bonding. Thus, they have low boiling and
melting points.
(5) The salts present in the alkali metals expose colour to the flames as the
heat of the flame excites the electrons, which are located on the outer
orbital, to the higher energy level. For the excited state, electrons get
reversed back to the ground level, and thus the emission of excess energy
in the form of the radiation falls in the visible region.
(6) The metals like K and Cs lose electrons if they get irradiated with the light
and also display the photoelectric effect.

 Chemical properties of the alkali metals:

(1) Alkali metal reacts with the water and forms the oxides and hydroxides.
Thus, the reaction will be more spontaneous when moving down the group.

(2) Alkali metal reacts with water as well as forms the dihydrogen and
hydroxides.

General reaction: 2M + 2H20 → 2M+ + 2OH– + H2

(3) Dihydrogen reacts with the alkali metals and forms the metal hydrides. The
hydrides formed have the higher melting points, and they are solids that are
ionic. 2M + H2 → 2M+ H–

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(4) Alkali metals directly react with the halogens and form the ionic halides
except Li. 2M + CL2 → 2MCI (M = Li ,K, Rb, Cs)

It has the ability to easily distort the cloud, having the electrons that are
around the –ve halide ion as the lithium-ion is smaller in size. So, the Lithium
halide is naturally covalent.

(5) The alkali metals have strong reducing agents. This increases as we go down
the group exception lithium. Due to the high hydration energy, it results in the
strong reducing agent for all the alkali metals.

(6) For the blue-coloured solution (deep blue) that is naturally conducting, it
gets dissolved in the liquid ammonia.
M +(x + y) NH3 → [ M ( NH3 )x ]+ + [ e ( NH3)y ]–

62.

[PYQ NIOS Oct 2017]

Answer: A = manganese dioxide (MnO₂), B = potassium manganate (K₂MnO₄),

C = potassium permanganate (KMnO₄)

The blackish-brown colored solid is manganese dioxide (MnO₂). When MnO₂ is

fused with alkali metal hydroxides (e.g., NaOH or KOH) in the presence of air
(or an oxidizing agent like O₂), it forms a dark green-colored compound, which
is potassium manganate (K₂MnO₄). On electrolytic oxidation in alkaline
medium, potassium manganate (K₂MnO₄) gets converted to potassium
permanganate (KMnO₄), a dark purple-colored compound.

The reactions involved are:

1) Formation of potassium manganate (K₂MnO₄):

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 2MnO₂ + 4KOH + O2→ 2K2MnO4 + 2H2O

(MnO₂ oxidizes in the presence of KOH and oxygen to form K₂MnO₄)

2) Electrolytic oxidation of potassium manganate to potassium permanganate

(KMnO₄):

2K2MnO4 + H2O electrolysis 2KMnO4 + 2KOH

When an acidic solution of the green compound potassium manganate

(K₂MnO₄) is allowed to stand for some time, it undergoes disproportionation.
In this reaction, potassium manganate (K₂MnO₄) is converted to potassium
permanganate (KMnO₄) and manganese dioxide (MnO₂).

63. The s-block elements are characterised by their larger atomic sizes,
lower ionisation Enthalpies, invariable +1 oxidation state and solubilities
of their oxo salts. While focusing upon these features, describe the nature
of their oxides, halides and oxo salts.

Answer: Alkali metals form cations due to their low ionisation energy and
large atomic size. Therefore the compounds are ionic.

Alkali metals produce normal oxides with the general formula M2O. Li produces
the typical oxide Li2O when heated in air. Two further types of oxygen are
peroxide and superoxide. The alkali metal oxides are very basic and soluble in
water and due to the increased ionic character, the basic character of oxide
gradually increases from Li2O to Cs2O.

All alkali metal halides are ionic except lithium halides. Lithium halides are
covalent in nature because of the polarising power of Li+. Alkali metal halides
have a general formula of MX due to +1 oxidation. Due to low ionisation
energy, ionic halides are formed. Solid carbonates have the general formula
M2CO3 which is formed by all alkali metals.

All the carbonates are stable except Li2CO3, which is unstable

and decomposes due to the strong polarising capacity of Li+. With the
exception of Li+, all alkali metals create solid bicarbonates, MHCO3. All alkali
metals form nitrates with the formula MNO3. They are electrovalent chemicals,
colourless and water-soluble.

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64. Present a comparative account of the alkali and alkaline earth metals
with respect to the following characteristics.
1. Tendency to form ionic/covalent compounds
2. Nature of oxides and their solubility in water
3. Formation of oxo salts
4. Solubility of oxo salts
5. Thermal stability of oxo salts

Answer: (A) Alkali Methods

- All alkalis produce ionic compounds with the exception of lithium.
- As one moves down from the group, the solubility of the alkali metal oxides
increases.
- Oxosalts like carbonates, sulphates, and nitrates, are formed by all alkali
metals.
- Carbonates and sulphates have increasing solubility as they progress down
the group.
- Li carbonates and sulphates disintegrate when they are heated. But
carbonates and sulphates of other metals become more stable as one
progresses down the group.

(B) Alkaline Earth Metals

- All alkaline earth metals form ionic compounds with the exception of Be.
- The solubility of oxides of Mg, Ca, Sr, and Ba increases from Mg to Ba.
However, BeO is covalent and water-insoluble.
- Oxosalts like carbonates, sulphates, and nitrates, are formed by all alkaline
earth metals
- Carbonates and sulphates become less soluble as they move through the
group
- Alkaline earth carbonates and sulphates disintegrate when heated but their
thermal stability increases.

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 General characteristics of p – block elements
18
22

Quick Revision
Short summary What do we learn

 Introduction of p block  Atomic size

Metals, metalloids and non-metals, “It is the distance between the center
belonging to groups 13 to 18 of the of an atom's nucleus and its
periodic table come under p-block outermost shell.”
elements.
 decreases on moving across a
 These elements are characterised period from left to right.
by the filling up of electrons in the  On moving down a group, It
outermost p-orbitals of their increases as the atomic number
atoms. increases.
 Electronic configuration: ns2np1-6.
 Some of these elements and their
compounds play an important role
in our daily life.  Ionization enthalpy

“It is the amount of energy required

to remove the most loosely bound
 Electronic configuration electron from the outermost shell of
a neutral gaseous atom”.
In the p-orbitals are successively
filled in a systematic manner in each  On moving down the group, it
row. decreases.
Corresponding to the filling up  On moving left to right across a
of 2p, 3p, 4p, 5p and 6p orbitals five period, it increases because the
rows of p-block elements are there. atomic size decreases.

The outer electronic configuration of NOTE: Group 15 elements have higher

the atoms of these elements is ionization energy than group
ns2np1-6. 14 elements because of their smaller
size.

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 Electron gain enthalpy  Metallic and non – metallic

Simply “a measure of how easily an character

element accepts an electron is  Along the period the metallic
termed as electron gain enthalpy”. character decreases, whereas non-
metallic character increases.
 The electron gain enthalpy
becomes more negative as we Reason: It is because on moving
move from left to right across a across the period, the atomic size
period. decreases due to the increased
 The electron gain enthalpy nuclear charge and hence, ionization
becomes less negative as you energy increases.
move down a group in the periodic  On moving down the group the
table. metallic character increases,
whereas non-metallic character,
decreases.

Reason: It is because on moving down

 Electronegativity
a group, the atomic size increases.
It is defined as “a measure of the
ability of an atom to attract the
shared electron pair in a covalent
 Inert pair effect
bond to itself”.
The inert pair effect refers to the
 Electronegativity decreases from
tendency of the s-electrons in the
top to bottom down a group. This
outermost electron shell of heavier
is because the nuclear charge
elements to remain non-bonding or
increases faster than the electron
‘inert’.
shielding, which increases the
attracting power of the atoms for  The inert pair effect increases
the valence electrons. down a group.
 It leads to the stability of lower
oxidation states.
 Electronegativity increases along
 It is particularly significant in
the period and decreases down
heavier p-block elements (like Tl,
the group.
Pb, and Bi).

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 Chemical trends  Anomalous behavior of first

❶ Hydrides: element in each group of p -

block
 Covalent and volatile in nature.
 Their bond angles are consistent In the p-block of the periodic table,
with VSEPR theory. The angles the first element of each group (such
decrease from 109.5° in CH4 to as Boron in Group 13, Carbon in
107° in NH3 and 104° in H2O. Group 14, Nitrogen in Group 15,
 Generally their acid strength Oxygen in Group 16, and Fluorine in
increases from left to right and Group 17) often shows anomalous
from top to bottom. behavior compared to the rest of the
elements in the group.
❷ Oxides:
The first elements in each p-block
 In any particular group, the basic
group exhibit unique properties such
nature of the oxides (oxidation
as high ionization energies, high
state of the element remaining
electronegativity, the inability to
same) increases with increase in
expand their octet, and a greater
atomic number.
tendency for forming multiple bonds.
 In a particular period the acidity
increases with increase in the
oxidation state of the element.

❸Halides:

 Most of them are covalent halides.

In a group the covalent character
of halides decreases down the
group.
 Covalent halides are generally
gases, liquids or solids with low
melting points.
 These halides usually hydrolyse to
give the oxoacid of the element.

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 Question – Answer

❶ MCQs

1. Which of the following is the correct electronic configuration of the group

15 element, Nitrogen (N)?
a) 1s22s22p3 b) 1s22s22p23s1 c) 1s22s22p4 d) 1s22s23p3

Answer: a) 1s22s22p3

2. Which of the following elements has the smallest atomic size?

a) Boron (B) b) Carbon (C) c) Nitrogen (N) d) Oxygen (O)

Answer: d) Oxygen (O)

3. What is the trend of ionization enthalpy in p-block elements across the

period?
a) It increases across the period
b) It decreases across the period
c) It first decreases, then increases
d) It remains constant across the period

Answer: a) It increases across the period

4. The electron gain enthalpy becomes more negative across the period due
to:
a) Decrease in atomic size and increase in nuclear charge
b) Increase in atomic size and decrease in nuclear charge
c) Decrease in Electronegativity
d) Increase in metallic character

Answer: a) Decrease in atomic size and increase in nuclear charge

5. Which element shows the highest electronegativity in the p-block?

a) Fluorine (F) b) Oxygen (O)
c) Nitrogen (N) d) Phosphorus (P)

Answer: a) Fluorine (F)

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6. The decreasing order of metallic character in Group 13 is:
a) Al > Ga > In > Tl
b) Tl > In > Ga > Al
c) B > Al > Ga > In
d) B > Al > Tl > In

Answer: b) Tl > In > Ga > Al

7. Which of the following elements shows inert pair effect most

prominently?
a) Carbon (C) b) Tin (Sn) c) Lead (Pb) d) Silicon (Si)

Answer: c) Lead (Pb)

8. Inert pair effect is most commonly observed in which groups of p-block

elements?
a) Group 13 and 14 b) Group 14 and 15
c) Group 15 and 16 d) Group 16 and 17

Answer: a) Group 13 and 14

9. Which element shows anomalous behavior in Group 14?

a) Carbon (C) b) Silicon (Si)
c) Germanium (Ge) d) Tin (Sn)

Answer: a) Carbon (C)

10. The increase in size down the group in p-block elements is mainly due
to:
a) Increase in nuclear charge
b) Addition of a new electron shell
c) Decrease in Electronegativity
d) Increase in shielding effect

Answer: b) Addition of a new electron shell

11. Which of the following has the most negative electron gain enthalpy in
Group 17?
a) Fluorine (F) b) Chlorine (Cl) c) Bromine (Br) d) Iodine (I)

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Answer: b) Chlorine (Cl)

12. In Group 16, the first ionization enthalpy of Oxygen is lower than that
of Sulfur due to:
a) Smaller atomic size of Oxygen
b) Higher electronegativity of Oxygen
c) Higher nuclear charge of Sulfur
d) Greater electron-electron repulsion in Oxygen's compact p-orbitals

Answer: d) Greater electron-electron repulsion in Oxygen's compact p -

orbitals

13. Which of the following elements shows the highest metallic character?
a) Boron (B) b) Aluminum (Al)
c) Gallium (Ga) d) Thallium (Tl)

Answer: d) Thallium (Tl)

14. In Group 15, which element shows the maximum tendency for
catenation?
a) Nitrogen (N) b) Phosphorus (P)
c) Arsenic (As) d) Antimony (Sb)

Answer: b) Phosphorus (P)

15. The anomalous behavior of Fluorine in Group 17 is due to:

a) Its smaller size, high electronegativity, and lack of d-orbitals
b) Its larger size and low electron gain enthalpy
c) Presence of d-orbitals and weak Electronegativity
d) Smaller size and high ionization energy

Answer: a) Its smaller size, high electronegativity, and lack of d-orbitals

16. The ionization enthalpy decreases down the group in the p-block
because of:
a) Decreasing shielding effect
b) Increasing shielding effect and atomic size
c) Increasing nuclear charge

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 d) Decreasing atomic size

Answer: b) Increasing shielding effect and atomic size

17. Which of the following Group 14 elements has the highest melting
point?
a) Carbon (C) b) Silicon (Si) c) Germanium (Ge) d) Tin (Sn)

Answer: a) Carbon (C)

18. The reason for Boron's anomalous behavior in Group 13 is:

a) Its small atomic size, high ionization enthalpy, and absence of d-orbitals
b) Its larger atomic size and high Electronegativity
c) Presence of d-orbitals
d) Lack of inert pair effect

Answer: a) Its small atomic size, high ionization enthalpy, and absence of
d -orbitals

19. In Group 13, the most stable oxidation state for Thallium (Tl) is:
a) +1 b) +2 c) +3 d) 0

Answer: a) +1

20. Which of the following Group 15 elements forms pentahalides?

a) Nitrogen (N) b) Phosphorus (P)
c) Arsenic (As) d) Bismuth (Bi)

Answer: b) Phosphorus (P)

21. Which of the following hydrides of main group elements is the most
acidic? [Textbook intext question]
(a) H2Se (b) H2O (c) HCI (d) HI

Answer: (c) HCI

OR

22. Which of the following hydrides is most acidic?

(a) H2Te (b) H2Se (c) H2O (d) H2S

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Answer: (a) H2Te [PYQ NIOS Oct 2021]

23. What happens to the size of atoms of elements of p-block as we move

from left to right in the same period?
a) Size increases b) Size decreases
c) Size does not change d) Size increases then decrease

Answer: b) Size decreases

24. What is the maximum covalency of the nitrogen atom?

a) One b) Two c) Three d) Four

Answer: d) Four

25. The lowest boiling point is found in which of these two substances.
(a) NH3 (b) PH3 (c) AsH3 (d) SbH3

Answer: (b) PH3

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❷ Complete the sentence using an appropriate word:

26. Increases, decreases

1. Across a period, the atomic size ______ due to increasing nuclear charge.
2. Ionization energy ____ across a period due to the increasing nuclear charge.
3. Ionization enthalpy __________ down a group in the p-block.
4. The electronegativity of p-block elements generally _______ down a group.
5. Metallic character __________ down the group in the p-block.

Answer: 1. Decreases, 2. Increases, 3. Decreases, 4. Decreases, 5. Increases

NOTE: Some words are extra only for make complexity or confusion.

27. Heavier, ionic, anomalous, covalent, less, lower, higher

a) The inert pair effect is more pronounced in _______ p-block elements, such
as lead or thallium.
b) Oxygen, the first element in group 16, exhibits _______ behavior compared
to sulfur.
c) Iodine has _______ electronegativity than fluorine.
d) Fluorine has a _______ negative electron gain enthalpy than chlorine due to
strong electron-electron repulsion in its small 2p orbital.
e) Halogens form _______ hydrides due to their high electronegativity.

Answer: a. heavier, b) anomalous, c) lower, d) less, e) covalent

❸ Fill in the blanks:

28.
i. Oxygen has a __________ electron gain enthalpy than nitrogen.
ii.Elements of group 14 exhibit both +4 and +2 oxidation states due to the
________.
iii. _______ shows anomalous behavior compared to aluminum due to its
small size and high ionization energy.
iv. The p-block contains all types of elements, including non-metals, _______,
and metals.

Answer: i. more negative, ii. inert pair effect, iii. Boron, iv. metalloids

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❹ Match the following:

29. Match the statements given in COLUMN I with the suitable statements
given in COLUMN II.

COLUMN I COLUMN II
A. General electronic configuration of a) Ionization enthalpy decreases
p-block elements
B. Fluorine vs. Chlorine electron gain b) ns²np¹-⁶
enthalpy
C. Trend of atomic size across a period c) Less negative in fluorine due to
electron-electron repulsion
D. Ionization enthalpy down a group d) Decreases due to increasing
nuclear charge

Answer: A. – b), B. – c), C. – d), D. – a)

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❺ True or false:

30. The general electronic configuration of p-block elements is ns²np1-5.

 False.

31. Ionization enthalpy decreases down a group in p-block elements.

 True.

32. Across a period, atomic size increases due to increasing nuclear charge.
 False.

33. Boron, the first element of group 13, shows anomalous behavior
compared to aluminum due to its small size and high ionization energy.

 True.

34. The electron gain enthalpy of nitrogen is more negative than that of
oxygen.

 False.

35. The electronegativity of p-block elements generally increases down a

group.

 False.

36. The basicity of the oxides of p-block elements increases as you move
down the group.

 True.

37. All p-block elements are non-metals.

 False.

38. The halogens (group 17) form covalent hydrides due to their high
electronegativity.

 True.

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39. Elements of group 14 can exhibit both +4 and +2 oxidation states due to
the inert pair effect.

 True.

40. Inert pair effect is more pronounced in lighter p-block elements like
boron and carbon.

 False.

41. The electron gain enthalpy of noble gases is positive.

 True.

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❻Very short type questions:

42. Explain why elements in the same group of the p-block have similar
chemical properties.

Answer: Elements in the same group of the p-block have similar chemical
properties because they have the same valence electron
configuration. The outermost electron configuration dictates their chemical
reactivity. As a result, elements in the same group exhibit analogous chemical
behavior, though the intensity of properties may vary due to factors like
atomic size and ionization energy.

43. Why does the atomic size increase down a group in the p-block
elements?

Answer: Atomic size increases down a group in the p-block due to the
addition of new electron shells (principal energy levels) as we move
from one element to the next. Despite an increase in nuclear charge, the
shielding effect caused by inner electrons reduces the effective nuclear
attraction on the outermost electrons, resulting in an increase in atomic size.

44. What is the trend of ionization enthalpy in p-block elements across a

period?

Answer: Ionization enthalpy generally increases across a period in the p-block

due to an increase in nuclear charge and a decrease in atomic size.
As the atomic radius decreases, the outermost electrons are held more tightly
by the nucleus, requiring more energy to remove an electron.

45. Why does fluorine have a less negative electron gain enthalpy than
chlorine, despite being more electronegative?

Answer: Fluorine has a smaller atomic size, which leads to greater electron-
electron repulsion in its compact 2p orbital. This repulsion slightly
counteracts its high nuclear attraction, making its electron gain enthalpy less
negative than chlorine. Chlorine's larger size allows for easier accommodation
of an extra electron, giving it a more negative electron gain enthalpy.

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46. Why does the first element in each group of the p-block show
anomalous behavior?

Answer: The first element in each p-block group shows anomalous behavior
due to its small atomic size, high electronegativity, lack of d-orbitals,
and the ability to form multiple bonds (catenation). These factors make the
chemical properties of the first element distinct from the other elements in the
group.

47. Why does carbon show the ability for catenation, while silicon does
not to the same extent?

Answer: Carbon shows a strong tendency for catenation due to its small size
and the ability to form strong C-C bonds. In contrast, silicon atoms
are larger, and Si-Si bonds are weaker and less stable, making silicon less
capable of catenation compared to carbon.

48. What causes the trend of decreasing electronegativity down the group
in p-block elements?

Answer: Electronegativity decreases down the group in p-block elements due

to an increase in atomic size and the shielding effect. As the atomic
radius increases, the ability of the nucleus to attract bonding electrons
decreases, resulting in a lower electronegativity for heavier elements.

49. Why CCI4 is immiscible in water, whereas SiCl4 is easily hydrolysed?

Answer: CCl4 is insoluble in water because water is polar and CCl4 is non -
polar. The carbon atom has no vacant orbitals to absorb the electrons
given off by oxygen in the water. SiCl4 is easily hydrolysed because Si has an
empty d orbital to accommodate the electrons from the oxygen atom in water.

50. Comment on the nature (ionic/covalent) of the hydrides of the p-block

Elements. [Textbook exercise question]

Answer: Hydrides formed by p-block elements are generally covalent.

Covalent hydrides: These hydrides are formed when hydrogen reacts with p-
block elements, which are more electronegative than

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hydrogen. The general formula for covalent hydrides is XH(8-n), where "n" is
the number of electrons in the outermost shell of the element. Covalent
hydrides have weak bonds, low melting and boiling points, and are bad
conductors of electricity.

OR

51. How does the covalent character of halides of an element change with
oxidation state of the element? [Textbook exercise question]

Answer: As the oxidation state increases, size of the ion of transition element
decreases. As per Fajan's rule, as the size of metal ion decreases,
covalent character of the bond formed increases. Therefore, the halide of
transition elements become more covalent with increasing oxidation state of
the metal.

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❼Short type questions:

52. What is the inert pair effect, and how does it influence the chemical
behavior of group 13 and group 14 elements?

Answer: The inert pair effect is a chemical phenomenon that describes the
tendency of the two electrons in the outermost s-orbital of post-
transition metals to remain unshared in compounds. This effect influences the
chemical behavior of group 13 and group 14 elements in the following ways:

The inert pair effect is due to the poor shielding of the s-electrons by the
intervening d-orbitals. This causes the s-orbital to be pulled closer to the
nucleus, making it less likely to bond. As a result, only the p-electrons
participate in bonding.

Effect on oxidation states: The inert pair effect is often associated with the
increasing stability of oxidation states that are two less than the group
valency.

Effect on periodic trends: The inert pair effect can affect periodic trends.

53. Compare the electronegativities of nitrogen, phosphorus, and arsenic.

How does this trend affect their bonding and chemical reactivity?

Answer: Nitrogen is more electronegative than phosphorus and arsenic,

which affects their bonding and chemical reactivity in the following ways:

 Electronegativity

Nitrogen is the most electronegative of the three elements, with an

electronegativity (EN) of 3.04, while phosphorus has an EN of 2.19.

 Bonding

Electronegativity is a measure of how strongly an atom attracts electrons

when forming a chemical bond. The higher the electronegativity, the more
strongly the atom attracts electrons.

 Chemical reactivity

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Nitrogen's higher electronegativity means it has a higher tendency to attract
shared electrons than phosphorus and arsenic.

 Chemical behavior

Nitrogen and phosphorus behave chemically like nonmetals, while arsenic

behaves like a semimetal.

54. Compare the electron gain enthalpy of chlorine and fluorine. Why is
chlorine’s electron gain enthalpy more negative than fluorine’s despite
fluorine being more electronegative?

Answer:  Comparison of Electron Gain Enthalpy of Chlorine and Fluorine:

Fluorine has a higher electronegativity than chlorine, meaning it has a stronger
tendency to attract electrons in a bond. However, fluorine's electron gain
enthalpy is less negative than chlorine’s.

The reason is that fluorine is very small in size, leading to significant electron-
electron repulsion in its compact 2p orbital when an additional electron is
added. This repulsion makes it less favorable for fluorine to gain an electron.

In contrast, chlorine, being larger, has more space in its 3p orbital, which
reduces electron-electron repulsion when an extra electron is added. As a
result, the process of gaining an electron is more energetically favorable for
chlorine, giving it a more negative electron gain enthalpy.

Thus, despite fluorine being more electronegative, chlorine has a more

negative electron gain enthalpy due to its larger size and lower electron-
electron repulsion.

55.
1) Explain the anomalous behaviour of nitrogen?
2) Discuss the trend of chemical reactivity of group 15 elements with oxygen,
halogens, and metals.
3) H3PO3 is a dibasic. Why?

Answer:

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1) Nitrogen shows anomalous behaviour because the distance between the
lone pair to lone pair electron is minimised.
2) Trends of the chemical reactivity of group 15 elements with oxygen,
halogens and metals are discussed below:
 Reactivity towards oxygen: group 15 elements form oxides E2O3 & E2O5. In
these types of oxides, the higher oxidation state is more acidic than the
lower oxidation state. Moving down the group, acidic character of the
elements decreases.
 Reactivity towards halogens: these group elements form salts of the form
EX3 and EX5. Except N, all elements in this group form EX5. Due to lack of d-
orbital in nitrogen it is not able to form these types of oxides. All trihalides
formed by these group elements are stable except nitrogen trihalide.
 Reactivity towards metals: these group elements form binary compounds
with metals with oxidation state of -3
3) The ionised bond of P-H in H3PO3 causes the dibasic character. It has two P-
OH bonds.

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❽Long type questions:

56. What are p-block elements ? How many groups in the modern periodic
table constitute p-block ? Give two important roles that the elements
nitrogen, oxygen and carbon play in our daily lives. [PYQ NIOS Oct 2022]

Answer: P-block elements are a group of elements in the periodic table that
belong to groups 13 to 18. They are located on the right-hand side
of the periodic table between the s-block (groups 1 and 2) and the d-block
(transition metals). The p-block elements consist of nonmetals, metalloids, and
some metals.

In the modern periodic table, there are six groups that constitute the p-block
(groups 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, and 18).

Two important roles of the elements nitrogen, oxygen, and carbon in our daily
lives are:

1. Nitrogen:

a) Nitrogen is essential for living organisms as it is a crucial component of

proteins, nucleic acids (DNA and RNA), and many other organic compounds.

b) Nitrogen is used in the production of fertilizers which are important in

agriculture to enhance plant growth and crop yield.

2. Oxygen:

a) Oxygen is vital for respiration as it is a key component in the process of

cellular respiration, where it is used by living organisms to generate energy.

b) Oxygen is also used in the medical field as a therapeutic gas for patients
with respiratory or cardiovascular conditions.

3. Carbon:

a) Carbon is the foundation of organic chemistry and forms the basis of all life
on Earth. It is present in almost all biological molecules, including
carbohydrates, proteins, fats, and nucleic acids.

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b) Carbon compounds have numerous industrial applications, including in the
production of plastics, fibers, dyes, and solvents.

These elements play essential roles in various aspects of our daily lives,
including biology, agriculture, energy production, medicine, and industry.

57. Describe the general trends in the following properties of the elements
in Groups 13 and 14.
(i) Atomic size
(ii) Ionisation enthalpy
(iii) Metallic character
(iv) Oxidation states
(v) Nature of halides

Answer:
(i) Group 13 has a larger atomic size because the atomic size grows as you go
down a group, therefore an extra shell with electrons is added, resulting in a
poor shielding effect.

The presence of the shielding effect is high because the d and f orbitals are
completely occupied in Group14, which has a covalent radius and a small
radius.

(ii) The group has no effect on the ionisation enthalpy, which decreases as the
size of the group grows. Because the nuclear charge is complemented by the
screening effect, Group 13 has unpredictable ionisation enthalpy.

Because of the low shielding effect, Group 14 has a high ionisation enthalpy,
which then decreases.

(iii) Except for Boron, all elements in group 13 are non-metallic, and the low
metallic character is due to the shielding effect.

Sn and Pb are metals in Group 14, and the metallic nature grows as the group
progresses, therefore carbon is categorised as a non-metal and the rest are
metalloids.

(iv) Group 13: has +3 and +1 oxidation states. The stability of +1 increases
while that of +3 decreases down the group.

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Group 14: has +4 and +2 oxidation states. The stability of +2 increases while
that of +4 decreases down the group.

(v) Group 13 : All form trihalides of type MX3(Write ”3” as subscript) . The
stability decreases from Boron to thallium .
Group 14: All form tetrahalides of type MX4 (Write ”4” as subscript). The
stability decreases down the group. Ge, Sn and Pb also form dihalides of type
MX2 ( write ”2” as subscript). The stability increases down the group.

58. How do the following properties of p-block elements vary across a

period from left to right and down a group ?
(i) Atomic size,
(ii) First ionization enthalpy,
(iii) Electronegativity and
(iv) Metallic character [PYQ NIOS Oct 2022]

Answer: (i) Atomic Size:

 Across a period (left to right): Atomic size decreases as the effective

nuclear charge increases, pulling the electrons closer to the nucleus.
 Down a group: Atomic size increases as additional electron shells are
added, increasing the distance between the outermost electrons and the
nucleus.

(ii) First Ionization Enthalpy:

 Across a period (left to right): First ionization enthalpy increases as the

atomic size decreases and the effective nuclear charge increases, making it
harder to remove an electron.
 Down a group: First ionization enthalpy decreases due to the increase in
atomic size and the greater distance of the outermost electrons from the
nucleus, making them easier to remove.

(iii) Electronegativity:

 Across a period (left to right): Electronegativity increases as the effective

nuclear charge increases, making atoms more likely to attract electrons.
 Down a group: Electronegativity decreases because atomic size increases
and the attraction between the nucleus and bonding electrons weakens.

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(iv) Metallic Character:

 Across a period (left to right): Metallic character decreases as elements

become more non-metallic in nature, with increased electronegativity and
ionization enthalpy.
 Down a group: Metallic character increases as atomic size increases,
ionization enthalpy decreases, and elements tend to lose electrons more
easily.

59.
(i) How does the magnitude of ionization energy of an atom vary along the
period in the periodic table? Explain.

(ii) Discuss the trends in the chemistry of p-block elements with respect to
the following:

1. Acidic and basic nature of the oxides

2. Ionic and covalent nature of the hydrides

(iii) Arrange the following atoms in the order of their increasing ionization
enthalpy: 2He, 4Be, 7N, 11Na [PYQ NIOS April 2024]

Answer:
(i) Variation of Ionization Energy Along a Period:

As we move from left to right across a period in the periodic table, the
ionization energy increases. This is because:

1. The atomic radius decreases across a period due to the increasing effective
nuclear charge (Z_eff), which pulls the electrons closer to the nucleus.
2. As the outermost electrons are held more tightly by the nucleus, it requires
more energy to remove an electron.
3. The number of protons increases, but the electrons are added to the same
energy level, causing a stronger attraction between the nucleus and the
electrons.
(ii) The trends in the chemistry of p-block elements with respect to the
following:
1. Acidic and Basic Nature of the Oxides:

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The acidic character of oxides increases as we move from left to right across a
period in the p-block. The basic character increases down a group in the p-
block.

2. Ionic and Covalent Nature of Hydrides:

The covalent character of hydrides increases across a period. The ionic

character of hydrides increases down a group as the elements become larger
and less electronegative.

(iii) Order of Increasing Ionization Enthalpy: Na < Be < N < He

60. Discuss the anomalous behavior of the first element in each group of
the p-block. Why do these elements differ from their heavier congeners?

Answer: The first element in each group of p-block elements exhibits

anomalous behavior compared to the other elements in the
group. This is due to several reasons, including:

 Small size: The first element in each group is smaller than the other
elements in the group.
 Large charge/radius ratio: The first element in each group has a large
charge/radius ratio.
 High electronegativity: The first element in each group has a high
electronegativity.
 Absence of d-orbitals: The first element in each group lacks d-orbitals in its
valence shell.
 Ability to form multiple bonds: The first element in each group has a greater
ability to form multiple bonds to itself and to other elements in the second
period.

For example, lithium is an alkali metal that exhibits anomalous

behavior compared to other alkali metals. Lithium compounds have a
significant covalent character, while other alkali metal compounds are mostly
ionic. Lithium also reacts with nitrogen to form lithium nitride, while other
alkali metals do not form nitrides.

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 d – block and f – block elements
21
2222

Short summary What do we learn Quick Revision

 d – block elements (iii) Third transition series: It involves

filling of 5d-orbitals. The first element
The elements lying in the middle of of this series is lanthanum (Z = 57). It
Periodic Table between s-block and p- is followed by 14 elements called
block elements (i.e between group 2 lanthanides which involve the filling of
and 13) are known as d-block or 4f-orbitals. The next nine elements
transition elements. from hafnium (Z = 72) to mercury (Z =
80) belong to third transition series.

 General properties
 Except copper, all the elements of
the 3d series are good reducing
agents.
 Transition series
 Due to the shielding effect, the
There are three transition series each ionisation potential of transition
of 10 elements: elements increases by negligible
amounts.
(i) First transition series: It involves
 The reactivity of transition
filling of 3d-orbitals. It starts from
elements is less. The reactivity
scandium (Z = 21) and goes upto zinc
decreases with increasing atomic
(Z = 30).
number.
 The atomic radii of transition
(ii) Second transition series: It elements decrease by negligible
involves filling of 4d-orbitals. It starts amounts due to the shielding of
from yittrium (Z = 39) to cadmium (Z = valence shell electrons, provided
48). by the electrons of d orbitals of the
penultimate shell.

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 Metallic character  Lanthanoid contraction

Transition elements are inherently Lanthanoid contraction refers to the

metallic, characterized by strong progressive decrease in atomic and
metallic bonds due to the presence of ionic radii of transition metals as the
unpaired electrons. This results in atomic number increases, caused by
properties such as high density, the filling of 4f orbitals before 5d
significant enthalpies of atomization, orbitals.
and elevated melting and boiling
This contraction results in the atomic
points.
radii of the second-row transition
elements being similar to those of the
third-row elements.
 Atomic radii
 The atomic radii of transition
elements generally decrease from
Scandium (Sc) to Chromium (Cr)  Ionization enthalpy
due to the increase in effective The ionization enthalpies of transition
nuclear charge. metals show slight and irregular
 However, elements like Iron (Fe), variations due to fluctuating atomic
Cobalt (Co), and Nickel (Ni) have sizes. The ionization enthalpy of the
similar atomic sizes as the 5d series is higher compared to the 3d
increased nuclear charge is offset and 4d series, attributed to the
by the increased shielding effect. lanthanoid contraction.
 Copper (Cu) and Zinc (Zn) exhibit
larger atomic sizes due to
increased shielding and electron-
electron repulsions.  Magnetic properties

Most transition metals are

 Oxidation state paramagnetic due to unpaired
electrons. Magnetic properties
Transition metals exhibit a range of increase from Scandium (Sc) to
oxidation states because both (n-1)d Chromium (Cr) and then decrease as
and ns electrons can participate in the number of unpaired electrons
bond formation, leading to their changes. They are rarely diamagnetic.
variable oxidation states.

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 Catalytic properties  Interstitial compounds

Transition metals are effective Transition metals can form interstitial

catalysts because of several factors: compounds by accommodating small
the presence of incomplete or empty atoms like Carbon (C), Hydrogen (H),
d-orbitals, large surface areas, Nitrogen (N), and Boron (B) in the
variable oxidation states, and their interstitial spaces of their crystal
ability to form complexes. Examples lattices. These compounds are non-
include Iron (Fe), Nickel (Ni), stoichiometric, meaning their
Vanadium (V2O3), Platinum (Pt), composition can vary, and they tend
Molybdenum (Mo), and Cobalt (Co). to be harder and less malleable and
ductile. Examples include steel.

 Formation of coloured
 Alloy formation
compounds
Transition metals readily form alloys
The transition metals form colored
due to their similar ionic sizes, which
compounds due to the presence of
allow metals to replace each other in
incompletely filled d-orbitals and
the crystal lattice. Common examples
unpaired electrons, which enable d-d
of alloys include brass, bronze.
transitions. These elements absorb
specific wavelengths of visible light
and reflect complementary colors,
resulting in their characteristic colors.  Physical properties
 The transition metals are hard and
tough. They have low volatility but
Zn, Cd and Hg are an exception.
 Formation of complex
 They have high melting and boiling
compounds points due to the greater quantity
Transition metals are known for forming of electrons from (n-1) d along
complexes because of their vacant d-orbitals with the ns electrons metallic
of suitable energy, small ionic sizes, and high  The metals belonging to second
cationic charges. This property is crucial in and third series have greater
various chemical reactions and processes.
enthalpies of atomisation than the
elements belonging to first series.

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 Important compounds  f – block elements
1. Potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O7)
The elements with gradually filled f
2. Pottassium Permanganate
orbitals are called f-block elements.
(KMnO4)
 Potassium dichromate The elements of 4f series of the inner
transition metals are called
Potassium dichromate, (K2Cr2O7) is an lanthanoids whereas the elements of
orange-ish inorganic chemical 5f series are called actinoids.
reagent. In different laboratory or
industry it is basically used as an
oxidizing agent usually for alcohols.

 Preparations

- 4FeCr2O4 + 8Na2CO3 + 7O2  8Na2CrO4 +

2FeO3 + 8CO2  Lanthanoids
- 2Na2CrO4 + 2H+  Na2Cr2O7 + 2Na+ +
The lanthanoids consist of 14
H2O
- Na2Cr2O7 + 2KCl  K2Cr2O7 + 2NaCl elements from Cerium (58) to
Lutetium (71), following lanthanum
 Potassium permagnet
(57).
Pottassium Permanganate (KMnO4) is
These elements are part of the first
a dark purple solid consisting of two
inner transition series and exhibit
ions: a potassium ion (K⁺) and a
similar properties.
permanganate ion (MnO− 4). It is a
strong oxidizing agent. Properties of Lanthanoids:

 Preparations 1. +3 oxidation state is most common

along with +2 and +4.
2 MnO2 + 4 KOH + O2  2K2MnO4 + 2H2O
2. Except Promethium, they are non
3 MnO42- + 4H+  2MnO4- + MnO2 + 2H2O
– radioactive.
It is commercially prepared by an 3. The magnetic properties of
alkaline oxidative fusion of Pyrolusite lanthanoids are less complex than
ore (MnO2) and again by the actinoids.
electrolytic oxidation of manganate
(4) ion.

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 Lanthanoid contraction  General Characteristics and

Lanthanoid contraction refers to the Comparison of Actinoids with

progressive decrease in atomic and Lanthanoids
ionic radii of the lanthanide series
elements as the atomic number (i) Electronic configuration
increases from Lanthanum (La) to The general electronic configuration
Lutetium (Lu). for:
This contraction is due to the Actinoids: [Rn]86 5f1-14 6d0-1 7s2
ineffective shielding of the increasing Lanthanoids: [Xe]54 4f0-14 5d0-1 6s2.
nuclear charge by the 4f electrons.
(ii) Atomic and lonic sizes

Like lanthanoids the ionic radii of

actinoids gradually decrease across
the series due to the poor screening
effect of nuclear charge exerted by
 Actinoide the f electrons.
The actinoids include 14 elements (iii) Oxidation states
ranging from Thorium (90) to
Lawrencium (103), following actinium The lanthanoids exhibit +3 oxidation
(89). states. Some elements may exhibit + 2
and + 4 oxidation states due to extra
These elements make up the second stability of fully-filled and half-filled
inner transition series and display orbitals.
similar chemical properties.
On the other hand Actinoids also
 Properties of Actinoids: exhibit + 3 oxidation state. They also
 Actinoids also show higher exhibit varying oxidation states due to
oxidation states such as +4, +5, +6 the comparable energies of 5f, 6d,
and +7. and 7s.
 They are radioactive.
 The magnetic properties of the
actinoids are more complex than
those of the lanthanoids.

They are more reactive.

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(iv) Chemical reactivity  Difference between Actinoids
 Earlier members of the lanthanide with Lanthanoids
series are more reactive. They 1. There is large energy gap between
resemble Al with increasing atomic 4f and 5d sub-shells, the energy
number. gap between 5f and 6d is small so
 Finely divided Actinoids are highly the chemistry of actionoids is not
reactive metals and when added to similar to that of lanthanoids.
boiling water gives a mixture of 2. Pm is the only radioactive
oxide and hydride. elements among the lanthanoids,
 At moderate temperatures whereas almost all the actinoids
Actinoids combine with most of are radioactive elements.
the non-metallic elements. 3. The maximum oxidation shown by
 Actinoids remain unaffected by the the lanthanoids +IV, whereas
action of alkalies but gets slightly antioids show upto +VII oxidation
affected by nitric acid due to the state.
formation of a protective oxide 4. Lathanoids do not form complexes
layer. easily but actinoids form
complexes.
5. 4f electrons have greater screening
 Similarity between Actinoids effect as compared to 5f electrons.
6. Lanthanoids do not from
with Lanthanoids
oxocations but auinoids form
1. Orbitals are filled progressively in
oxocations such as UO2+, UO2+,
both the series.
NPO2+ and PuO2+.
2. +III is the prominent oxidation 7. The compounds of lanthanoids are
state for both the series. less basic as compared to the
3. In both the series, 4f and 5f compounds of actinoids.
electrons imperfectly shield,
therefore both show contraction.
4. They show line like spectra.
5. Both 4f and 5f block elements
show ion exchange behavior.

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 Question – Answer

❶ MCQs

1. Which group of elements do transition elements belong to?

(a) p-block (b) s-block (c) d-block (d) f-block

Answer: (c) d-block

2. What is the correct order of EM2+/M° values with a negative sign for the
four elements Cr, Mn, Fe, and Co?
(a) Fe > Mn > Cr > Co (b) Cr > Mn > Fe > Co
(c) Mn > Cr > Fe > Co (d) Cr > Fe > Mn > Co

Answer: (c) Mn > Cr > Fe > Co

3. Why is Fe3+ ion more stable than Fe2+ ion?

(a) more the charge on the atom, more is its stability
(b) configuration of Fe2+ is 3d5while Fe3+ is 3d5
(c) Fe2+ has a larger size than Fe3+
(d) Fe3+ ions are coloured hence more stable

Answer: (b) configuration of Fe2+ is 3d5 while Fe3+is 3d5

4. The colour of transition metal ions is caused by absorption of a specific

wavelength. This results in
(a) d-s transition (b) s-s transition
(c) s-t/transition (d) d-d transition

Answer: (d) d-d transition

5. Which of the following reasons is responsible for the formation of alloys

by transition elements?
(a) They have same atomic number
(b) They have same electronic configuration
(c) They have nearly same atomic size
(d) None of the above

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Answer: (c) They have nearly same atomic size:

6. The property which is not characteristic of transition metals is:

(a) variable oxidation states (b) tendency to form complexes
(c) formation of coloured compounds (d) natural radioactivity

Answer: (d) natural radioactivity.

7. The pair in which both the elements generally show only one oxidation
state is -
(a) Sc and Zn (b) Zn and Cu (c) Cu and Ag (d) Zn and Au

Answer: (a) Sc and Zn

8. Lanthanoid contraction is due to an increase in:

(a) atomic number (b) effective nuclear charge
(c) atomic radius (d) valence electrons

Answer: (b) effective nuclear charge

9. What happens to the atomic size of lanthanides as the atomic number

increases?
(a) The radius remains unchanged
(b) The radius first increases and then decreases
(c) The radius increases
(d) d) The radius decreases

Answer: (d) The radius decreases

10. Which of the following is not a lanthanide property?

(a) They are soft metals with a white silvery colour
(b) They tarnish rapidly by air
(c) The hardness of the metals increases with increase in the atomic
number
(d) The melting point of the metal ranges from 500-1000K

Answer: (d) The melting point of the metal ranges from 500-1000K

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11. What is the lanthanide’s final element?
(a) Ytterbium (b) Erbium (c) Thulium (d) Lutetium

Answer: (d) Lutetium

12. Baeyer’s reagent is which of the following?

(a) Acidified KMnO4 (b) Aqueous KMnO4
(c) Acidified K2Cr2O7 (d) Alkaline KMnO4

Answer: (d) Alkaline KMnO4

13. In KMnO4, oxidation number of Mn is:

(a) +2 (b) + 4 (c) + 6 (d) + 7

Answer: (d) + 7

14. Transition elements show variable oxidation states due to the loss of
electrons from which of the following orbitals?
(a) ns and np (b) (n – 1) d and ns
(c) (n – 1) d (d) ns

Answer: (b) (n – 1) d and ns

15. Which metal has the lowest melting point?

(a) Cs (b) Na (c) Hg (d) Sn

Answer: (c) Hg

16. Transistion metals, despite high E° oxidation, are poor reducing agents.
The incorrect reason is:
(a) high heat of vaporization (b) high ionization energies
(c) low heats of hydration (d) complex forming nature.

Answer: (d) complex forming nature

17. Anomalous electronic configuration in the 3d series are of:

(a) Cr and Fe (b) Cu and Zn (c) Fe and Cu (d) Cr and Cu

Answer: (d) Cr and Cu

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18. What is the end product formed when KMnO4 reacts with HCl?
(a) Brown fumes (b) Dark green gas
(c) Greenish yellow gas (d) Dense white fumes

Answer: (c) Greenish yellow gas

19. Select the appropriate statement:

(a) Both actinoids and lanthanoids are less basic
(b) Both actinoids and lanthanoids are electropositive
(c) Both actinoids and lanthanoids do not exhibit magnetic and spectral
properties
(d) Both actinoids and lanthanoids do not show same oxidation of +3

Answer: (a) Both actinoids and lanthanoids are electropositive

20. Zr and Hf have almost equal atomic and ionic radii because of:
(a) Diagonal relationship (b) Lanthanoid contraction
(c) Actinoid contraction (d) Belonging to the same group

Answer: (b) Lanthanoid contraction

21. Lanthanoids and actinoids resemble in their: [PYQ NIOS April 2024]
(A) electronic configuration (B) prominent oxidation
state (C) ionization energy (D) formation of
complexes
Answer: (A) electronic configuration

22. The aqueous solution of which of the following ions will be colourless?
(A) Fe2+ (B) Mn3+ (C) Ti3+ (D) Sc3+
[Atomic number : Sc = 21, Fe = 26, Ti = 22, Mn = 25]

Answer: (D) Sc3+ [PYQ NIOS April 2024]

23. Lanthanoid contraction is due to increase in: [PYQ NIOS Oct 2022]
(A) atomic numbers (B) size of 4f orbital
(C) shielding by f electrons (D) effective nuclear charge

Answer: (D) effective nuclear charge

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[Sample paper – (passage)]

24. The atomic number of three lanthanides elements X, Y and Z are 65, 68
and 70 respectively, their Ln3+ electronic configuration is:
(a) 4f8, 4f11, 4f13 (b) 4f11, 4f8, 4f13 (c) 4f0, 4f2, 4f11 (d) 4f3, 4f7, 4f9

Answer: (a) 4f8, 4f11, 4f13

25. Lanthanide contraction is observed in........

(a) Gd (b) At (c) Xe (d) Te

Answer: (a) Gd

26. Identify the incorrect statement among the following:

(a) Lanthanide contraction is the accumulation of successive shrinkages.
(b) As a result of lanthanide contraction, the properties of 4d series of the
transition elements have no similarities with the 5d series of elements.
(c) Shielding power of 4f electrons is quite weak.
(d) There is a decrease in the radii of the atoms or ions proceeds from La to
Lu.

Answer: (b) As a result of lanthanide contraction, the properties of 4d series

of the transition elements have no similarities with the 5d series of
elements.

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❷ complete the sentence using an appropriate word:
NOTE: Some words are extra only for make complexity or confusion.

27. Inert pair, +3, d-block elements, lanthanides, f-block elements, +5,
crystal field, actinides, +4
(a) __________ is the most common oxidation state for actinides.
(b) __________ are elements where the last electron enters the f-orbital.
(c) The f-block elements are divided into two series: __________ and
__________ .
(d) The __________ effect is responsible for the splitting of d-orbitals in a
transition metal complex.

Answer: (a) +3, (b) f-block elements, (c) lanthanides, actinides, (d) crystal
field

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❸fill in the blanks:

28.
A. The ________ energy is required to remove an electron from a gaseous
atom or ion.
B. ________ is the only lanthanide that exhibits a +4 oxidation state under
normal conditions.
C. The magnetic property of a transition metal complex is influenced by the
number of ________ electrons.
D. The ________ state of transition metals varies due to the similar energy
levels of 3d, 4s, and 4p orbitals.

Answer: A. ionization, B. Cerium, C. unpaired, D. Oxidation

29.
(1) The ________ contraction causes a decrease in the size of 5d elements,
making them similar to 4d elements.
(2) The lanthanaide series includes elements from atomic number ________.
(3) The oxidation state of ________ varies due to the similar energy levels of
3d, 4s, and 4p orbitals.
(4) The presence of unpaired ________ in transition metals is responsible for
their paramagnetic behavior.

Answer: (1) lanthanaide, (2) 57 to 71, (3) transition metals, (4) electrons

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❹ Match the following:

30. Match the statement given in column A with the suitable statement in
column B.

Column A Column B
1. Lanthanide Contraction A. +3 oxidation state
2. Actinides B. Color due to d-d transitions
3. Transition Metals C. Radioactive nature
4. Crystal Field Splitting D. Decrease in atomic and ionic radii

Answer: 1 – D, 2 – C, 3 – B, 4 – A

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❺ True or false:

31. All transition metals exhibit only one stable oxidation state.
 False.

32. Lanthanide contraction results in a decrease in the atomic radii of 4d and

5d elements.

 True.

33. Actinides are typically more radioactive than lanthanides.

 True.

34. The most common oxidation state of lanthanides is +4.

 False.

35. Actinides are known for forming stable complexes with ligands due to
the involvement of 5f orbitals.

 True.

36. All f-block elements are non-magnetic.

 False.

37. The f-block elements are typically referred to as inner transition metals.
 True.

38. The actinide series includes elements from atomic number 57 to 71.
 False.
39. The +2 oxidation state of transition metals is less stable than the +3
oxidation state.
 False.
40. The stability of a transition metal complex is independent of the ligand
type.

 False.

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❻Very short type questions [2 marks]:

41. Why are transition metals typically hard and have high melting points?
Answer: Transition metals are hard and have high melting points due to the
strong metallic bonding involving delocalized d-electrons that create
a tight lattice structure, requiring significant energy to break.

OR

42. Transition elements show high melting points. Why?

Answer: The high melting points of transition metals are due to the
involvement of a greater number of electrons of (n-1)d in addition
to the ns electrons in the interatomic metallic bonding.

43. Out of Cu2Cl2 and CuCl2, which is more stable and why?
Answer: CuCl2 is more stable than Cu2Cl2. The stability of Cu2+ (aq) is more
than Cu+ (aq) due to the much more negative ΔhydH∘ of Cu2+ (aq) than
Cu+ (aq).

44. Actinoid contraction is greater from element to element than

lanthanoid contraction. Why?

Answer: In actinoids, 5f orbitals are filled having poorer shielding effect than
4f orbitals (in lanthanoids) due to which the effective nuclear charge
experienced by the electrons in valence shells of actinoids is more than what is
experienced by lanthanoids. Therefore, the size of contraction in actinoids is
greater as compared to that in lanthanoids. They are termed as inner transition
elements due to their occurence inside the series of transition elements.

45. Explain the role of f-orbitals in the chemical bonding of lanthanides.

Answer: The f-orbitals in lanthanides are less involved in chemical bonding
because they are deeply buried within the atom, leading to similar
chemical properties across the lanthanide series despite differences in atomic
number.

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46. Explain the following observations :
(i) Transition elements generally form coloured compounds.
(ii) Zinc is not regarded as a transition element.

Answer: (i) Because of presence of unpaired d electrons, which undergoes

d-d transition by absorption of energy from visible region and then
the emitted light shows complementary colours. This is how transition
elements form coloured compounds.

(ii) Zinc in its common oxidation state of +2 has completely filled d-orbitals.
Hence considered as non-transition element.

47. Complete the following chemical equations: [All India 2011]

(i) MnO4 (aq) + S2O32-
(aq) + H2O (1) 
2-
(ii) Cr2O7 (aq) + Fe2+ (aq) + H+ (aq) 

Answer:

48. What are the transition elements? Write two characteristics of the
transition elements. [Delhi 2015]

Answer:
Elements which have partially filled d-orbital in its ground states or any one of
its oxidation states are called transition elements.

- They show variable oxidation states.

- They form coloured ions.
- They form complex compounds.
49. How does the oxidation state of transition metals affect the nature of
their complexes?

Answer: The oxidation state of transition metals influences the nature of their
complexes by determining the charge density on the metal ion,

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which in turn affects the type of ligands that can coordinate, the geometry of
the complex, and its reactivity.

OR

50. Why is the +3 oxidation state most common for lanthanides?

Answer: The +3 oxidation state is most common for lanthanides because it
results in a stable configuration with the removal of three electrons
(two from 6s and one from 5d or 4f), leading to a relatively stable half-filled or
fully filled f-orbital configuration.

51. What is the significance of coordination number in transition metal

complexes?

Answer: The coordination number indicates the number of ligand atoms

directly bonded to a transition metal ion, influencing the geometry,
stability, and reactivity of the complex.

52. Write one similarity and one difference between the chemistry of
lanthanoids and that of actinoids. [All India 2015]

Answer:
Similarity : Both lanthanoids and actinoids show contraction in size and
irregularity in their electronic configuration.

Difference: Actinoids show wide range of oxidation states but lanthanoids do

not.

53. What is meant by ‘disproportionation’? Give an example of a

disproportionation reaction in aqueous solution.

Answer:
Disproportionation: In a disproportionation reaction an element undergoes
self-oxidation as well as self-reduction forming two different compounds.

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54. The second and third rows of transition elements resemble each other
much more than they resemble the first row. Explain why?

Answer: Due to lanthanoid contraction, the atomic radii of the second and
third-row transition elements are almost identical. So, they resemble
each other much more than first-row elements.

55. The halides of transition elements become more covalent with

increasing oxidation state of the metal. Why?

Answer: As the oxidation state increases, the size of the ion of the transition
element decreases. As per Fajan’s rule, as the size of metal ions
decreases, the covalent character of the bond formed increases. Therefore, the
halides of transition elements become more covalent with the increasing
oxidation state of the metal.

56. How does electronic configuration affect the stability of transition

metal ions?

Answer: The stability of transition metal ions is influenced by their electronic

configuration, with ions having half-filled or fully filled d-orbitals
being more stable due to lower energy and symmetrical arrangements.

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❼Short type questions [3 marks]:

57.
(a) Which metal in the first transition series (3d series) exhibits +1 oxidation
state most frequency and why?
(b) Which of the following cations are coloured in aqueous solutions and
why?
SC3+, V3+, Ti4+, Mn2+.
(At. nos. Sc = 21, V = 23, Ti = 22, Mn = 25) [Delhi 2013]
Answer: (a) Copper exhibits + 1 oxidation state more frequently i.e.,
Cu+1 because of its electronic configuration 3d104s1. It can easily lose
4s1 electron to give stable 3d10 configuration.

(b) SC3+ = 4S0 3d3+ = no unpaired electron

V3+ = 3d2 4s0 = 2 unpaired electron
Ti4+ = 3d0 4s0 = no unpaired electron
Mn2+ = 3d5 4s0 = 5 unpaired electron
Thus V3+ and Mn2+ are coloured in their aqueous solution due to presence of
unpaired electron.

58. What is Lanthanoid contraction? What are its two consequences?

Answer:
Lanthanoid contraction: The overall decrease in atomic and ionic radii with
increasing atomic number is known as lanthanoid contraction. In going from
La+3 to Lu+3 in lanthanoid series, the size of ion decreases. This decrease in size
in the lanthanoid series is known as lanthanoid contraction. The lanthanoid
contraction arises due to imperfect shielding of one 4f electron by another
present in the same subshell.

Consequences :
(i) Similarity in properties: Due to lanthanoid contraction, the size of elements
which follow (Hf – Hg) are almost similar to the size of the elements , of
previous row (Zr – Cd) and hence these are difficult to separate. Due to small
change in atomic radii, the chemical properties of lanthanoids are very similar
due to which separation of lanthanoid becomes very difficult.

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(ii) Basicity difference : Due to lanthanoid contraction, the size decreases from
La+3 to Lu+3. Thus covalent character increases. Hence basic character of
hydroxides also decreases i.e. why La(OH)3 is most basic while Lu(OH)3 is least
basic.

59. Describe the preparation of potassium permanganate. How does the

acidified permanganate solution react with oxalic acid? Write the ionic
equations for the reactions. [Comptt. All India 2015]

Answer: Potassium Permangante (KMnO4) is prepared from pyrolusite ore

(MnO2). The ore (MnO2) is fused with an alkali metal hydroxide like
KOH in the presence of air or an oxidising agent like KNO3 to give dark green
potassium manganate (K2MnO4). K2MnO4 disproportionates in a neutral or
acidic solution to give potassium permanganate.

60. Explain the following observations giving an appropriate reason for

each.
(i) The enthalpies of atomization of transition elements are quite high.
(ii) There occurs much more frequent metal- metal bonding in compounds
of heavy transition metals (i.e. 3rd series).
(iii) Mn2+ is much more resistant than Fe2+ towards oxidation. [Delhi 2012]

Answer:
(i) In transition elements, there are large number of unpaired electrons in their
atoms, thus they have a stronger inter atomic interaction and thereby stronger
bonding between the atoms. Due to this they have high enthalpies of
atomization.
(ii) Because of high enthalpy of atomisation of 3rd series, there occurs much
more frequent metal-metal bonding in compounds of heavy transition metals.
(iii) The 3d orbital in Mn2+ is half-filled and is more stable compared to Fe2+ has
6 electrons in the 3d orbital. Mn2+ prefer to lose an electron or get oxidised

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whereas Fe2+ will readily loose one electron or get oxidised. Therefore, Mn2+ is
much more resistant than Fe2+ towards oxidation.

61. When a brown compound of manganese (A) is treated with HCl it gives
a gas (B). The gas taken in excess, reacts with NH to give an explosive
compound (C). Identify compounds A, B and C.

Answer:
When brown compound Mn3O4 is treated with HCl, it gives chlorine gas.
Mn3O4 + 8HCl  3MnCl2 + 4H2O + Cl2↑

Chlorine gas taken in excess reacts with ammonia to give an explosive

compound NCl3.
NH3 + 3Cl2 (excess) → NCl3 + 3HCl

The compounds A, B and C are A = Mn3O4 , B = Cl2 gas , C = NCl3 .

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❽Long type questions [5 marks]:
(a) What is lanthanoid contraction? How does it affect the chemistry of post
lanthanoid elements?
(b) Give the type of hybridization and magnetic behaviour of [NiCl4]2- and
[Ni(CO)4] complexes. [At. No. of Ni = 28] [PYQ NIOS Oct 2016]

Answer:
(a) Lanthanide contraction is the decrease in atomic and ionic radii of
lanthanide elements as their atomic number increases. This effect is caused
by the poor shielding of the 4f electrons from the nuclear charge. The
contraction affects the chemistry of post-lanthanide elements in a number
of ways, including:
 Smaller atomic radii: The atomic radii of the d-block elements following the
lanthanides are smaller than expected.
 Similar transition metal radii: The radii of transition metals in groups 5 and
6 become unusually similar.
 Properties of lanthanoids: The contraction affects the properties of
lanthanoids, including a decrease in basicity, increased polarizability, and
decreased ionic character.
(b)
 NiCO4: The outermost electronic configuration will be 3d8 4s2. CO is the
strong ligand causes pairing up of the 4s electrons into the 3d electrons.
Thus the hybridization will be sp3 tetrahedral NiCO4 will be diamagnetic in
nature.
 [NiCl4]2- is a tetrahedral complex with sp3 hybridization. According to vbt,
however, [NiCl4]2- is paramagnetic with two unpaired electrons. It is an
inner sphere high spin complex. Valence bond theory is employed instead
of crystal field theory.
62. On the basis of Lanthanoid contraction, explain the following
(i) Nature of bonding in Lu2O3 and La2O3
(ii) Trends in the stability of oxo salts of lanthanides from La to Lu.
(iii) Stability of the complexes of lanthanides.
(iv) Radii of 4d and 5d block elements
(v) Trends in acidic character of lanthanide oxides.

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Answer:
(i) Due to lanthanide contraction, size reduces. With the size reduction, the
covalent character increases. Therefore, Lu2O3 is more covalent than La2O3 .

(ii) Oxosalts contain oxygen as an anion. As the size of the cation reduces from
La to Lu, according to Fajan’s rules, the polarising power of the cation will
increase, and it will distort the cloud of oxygen(anion) significantly. Thus the
bond weakens, and the stability also reduces.

(iii)As the size of the central atom reduces, the stability of the complex
increases. A small metal ion with a greater charge attracts the ligands better.

(iv) In 5d block elements, the effective nuclear charge increases due to poor
shielding of f orbitals, thereby reducing the size. This is called lanthanide
contraction. So, the radii of 4d and 5d block elements end up being very
similar.

(v) From La to Lu, the acidic character increases. As the size reduces from La to
Lu, the ability to lose electrons(Lewis base character) reduces, so the acidity
increases.

63. Mention the type of compounds formed when small atoms like H, C
and N get trapped inside the crystal lattice of transition metals. Also give
physical and Chemical characteristics of these compounds.

Answer:
The compounds formed when tiny atoms of H, C or N get trapped inside the
crystal lattice of metals are known as interstitial compounds. The transition
metals form several interstitial compounds. Transition metals react with
hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen, boron etc., to form interstitial compounds.

 Physical and Chemical properties of Interstitial Compounds

- These compounds have very high melting points, higher than the parent
transition metals.
- These compounds are very hard. The hardness of some borides is
comparable to that of a diamond.
- The conductivity exhibited by them is similar to their parent metal.

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- These compounds are chemically inert.

64. Assign reasons for the following:

(a) There are no regular trends in E° values of M 2+/M systems in 3d series.
(b) There is a gradual decrease in the ionic radii of M2+ ion in the 3d series.
(c) The majority of transition metals form complexes.
(d) Ce3+ can be easily oxidised to Ce4+
(e) Tantalum and palladium metals are used to electroplate coinage metals.

Answer:
(a) Due to uneven electronic configurations from left to right, irregular change
in ionisation enthalpies (sum of 1st and 2nd ionisation enthalpies), heat of
sublimation, and enthalpy of hydration from left to right in the period. As a
result, irregular variations in Eo(M2+ /M) values for ionisation metals are
caused by irregular variations in ionisation enthalpies, and heat of
sublimation and hydration enthalpy.
(b) The ionic radii get smaller as the nuclear charge gets higher. Because
incoming electrons enter the inner (n−1)d’orbitals as nuclear charge rises,
this reduction occurs. When the oxidation state goes from +2 to +3 , the
ionic radii gradually decrease.
(c) Transition metals are the d-block elements having the outer shell electronic
configuration as ns2(n−1)d1 – 10 . These metal ions can easily form
complexes with a group of negative ions or neutral molecules that have
lone pairs of electrons. This is due to: the metals’ small size and strong
nuclear charge. Availability of empty d-orbitals with sufficient energy to
accept ligand-donated lone pairs of electrons.
(d) The outer shell electronic configuration of Ce3+ is 4f1 5d0 6s0 . Ce3+ can
easily lose one electron from the 4f-orbital and forms Ce4+ with an outer
shell electronic configuration of 4f0 5d0 6s0. Thus, Ce3+ gets easily oxidised to
Ce4+ .
(e) At a bare minimum, the coinage metals are those metallic chemical
elements that have historically been utilised as components in coin alloys.
Tantalum and palladium are valuable materials for electroplating coinage
because of their chemical inertness.

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 Coordination compounds
22
2222

Quick Revision
Short summary What do we learn

 Coordination compounds  Werner's theory of

Coordination compounds are coordination compounds

chemical compounds that consist of  Primary valency
an array of anions or neutral
This valency is equal to the oxidation
molecules that are bound to a central
number of the metal cation, is
atom via coordinate covalent bonds. ionizable, and can be satisfied by
Examples of coordinate compounds: negative charges.

 Hemoglobin – coordination  Secondary valency

compound of iron (Fe) This valency is equal to the
 Chlorophyll – coordination coordination number, is non-
compound of magnesium (Mg) ionizable, and can be satisfied by
 Vitamin B12- coordination negative charges or neutral
compound of cobalt (Co) atoms. The secondary valency is also
directional, which determines the
geometry of the molecule's final
structure.
 Werner's theory of Some examples of how the secondary
coordination compounds valency determines the geometry of
the final structure:
It is a chemical bonding theory that
explains how transition metal cations 1. If a metal ion has 6 secondary valencies,
they are grouped octahedrally around
form coordination compounds.
the central metal ion.
The theory states that transition 2. If a metal ion has four secondary
metal cations have two types of valencies, they are organized in a
tetrahedral or square planar pattern
valencies, primary and secondary.
around the center metal ion

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 Some important terms  Coordination number
 Coordination entity
The coordination number of the
A chemical compound in which the central atom in the coordination
central ion or atom (or the compound refers to the total number
coordination centre) is bound to a set of sigma bonds through which the
number of atoms, molecules, or ions ligands are bound to the coordination
is called a coordination entity. centre.

Examples –: [CoCl3(NH3)3] and For example, in the coordination

[Fe(CN)6]4-. complex given by [Ni(NH3)4]2+,
Coordination number of nickel is 4.
 Central atoms and central ions
 Coordination sphere
the atoms and ions to which a set
number of atoms, molecules, or ions The central metal atom and the
are bound are referred to as ligands which are directly attached to
the central atoms and the central it are enclosed in a square bracket
ions. and are collectively termed as
coordination sphere.
In coordination compounds, the
central atoms or ions are The ligands and the metal atom inside
typically Lewis Acids and can, the square brackets behave as single
therefore, act as electron-pair constituent unit
acceptors.

 Ligands
 Oxidation number
The atoms, molecules, or ions that are
The oxidation number of the central
bound to the coordination centre or
atom can be calculated by finding the
the central atom/ion are referred to
charge associated with it when all the
as ligands.
electron pairs that are donated by the
These ligands can either be a simple ligands are removed from it.
ion or molecule, such as Cl– or NH3 or
For example, the oxidation number of
in the form of relatively large
the platinum atom in the complex
molecules, such as ethane-1,2-
[PtCl6]2- is +4.
diamine (NH2-CH2-CH2-NH2).

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 Rule of nomenclature of  Rule of nomenclature of
coordination compounds coordination compounds
6. The following neutral ligands are
The standard rules that must be
assigned specific names in
followed in the nomenclature of
coordination compounds: NH3
coordination compounds are as –:
(ammine), H2O (aqua or aquo), CO
1. The ligands are always written (carbonyl), and NO (nitrosyl).
before the central metal ion in the 7. After the ligands are named, the
name of complex coordination name of the central metal atom is
complexes. written. If the complex has an
2. When the coordination centre is anionic charge associated with it,
bound to more than one ligand, the suffix ‘-ate’ is applied.
the names of the ligands are 8. When writing the name of the
written in an alphabetical order central metallic atom in an anionic
which is not affected by the complex, priority is given to the
numerical prefixes that must be Latin name of the metal if it exists
applied to the ligands. (with the exception of mercury).
3. When there are many 9. The oxidation state of the central
monodentate ligands present in metal atom/ion must be specified
the coordination compound, the with the help of Roman numerals
prefixes that give insight into the that are enclosed in a set of
number of ligands are of the type: parentheses.
di-, tri-, tetra-, and so on. 10.If the coordination compound is
4. When there are many polydentate accompanied by a counter ion, the
ligands attached to the central cationic entity must be written
metal ion, the prefixes are of the before the anionic entity.
form bis-, tris-, and so on.  Examples of Naming Coordination
5. The names of the anions present Compounds
must end with the letter ‘o’, which
generally replaces the letter ‘e’.  K4[Fe(CN)6]: Potassium hexa
cyanide ferrate (II)
Therefore, the sulfate anion must −2
 [Ni(CN)4] : Tetra cyano nickelate
be written as ‘sulfato’, and the
(II) ion.
chloride anion must be written as −2
 [Zn(OH)4] : Tetra hydroxide
‘chlorido’.
zincate (II) ion.
 [Ni(CO)4]: Tetra carbonyl Nickel(O).

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 Valence bond theory  Valence bond theory

It was given by Pauling in 1931. For any coordination compound: To

find the shape using valence bond
- He proposed the idea of donating
theory following steps to be followed
lone pair to central metal atom.
- Bonding in coordination  Remove the electrons from the
compound occur due to overlap of metal and form it the ion
orbital of ligand with vacant orbital  Rearrange metal electrons if
of central metal atom necessary
- All the vacant d orbitals have same  Hybridization
energy. but the degeneracy of d  Overlapping of hybrid orbitals of
orbital breaks when ligand metal with ligand
approaches
- Hybridization is considered while Example [Fe(Co)5]: inner orbital
drawing polyhedral complex and diamagnetic
- Metal ions in presence of ligands
can use their (n-1)d ns np or ns np
Nd.

If the inner d orbital is used than the

complex is regarded as inner orbital
complex and if outer d orbital is used  Limitations of VBT
than the complex is outer orbital 1. This theory couldn’t have valid
complex. reason behind that why some
complexes of metal oxidation state
- The ligands decide which orbitals is inner orbital while in some other
out of these to be used and complexes the same metal atom
accordingly the geometry is
ion in same state form outer
decided. orbital complex.
If hybridization 2. The magnetic behavior explained
wasn’t satisfactory
1. sp3- tetrahedral 3. This theory couldn’t give the
2. dsp2-square planar information about color of
3. Sp3d-trigonal bipyramidal compounds
4. Sp3d2- octahedral 4. This theory failed to distinguish
5. d2sp3-octahedral between strong and weak ligand.

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 Crystal field theory  Magnetic properties

It was given by Hans Bethe Ans John The magnetic properties of

van vleck. coordination compounds
are determined by the number of
 Postulates:
unpaired electrons in the d orbital of
- It assumes the central metal atom
the compound:
and ligands as point charges
- When a complex is formed: central Paramagnetism
metal atom positive charge & A compound is paramagnetic if
Ligands have negative charge it has unpaired electrons in its d
- This theory considers the orbital. Paramagnetic substances are
interaction between central metal attracted to magnetic fields.
atom and ligand is purely
Diamagnetism
electrostatic
if all of its electrons in the d
- When a complex is formed the
orbital are paired. Diamagnetic
central metal atom is surrounded
substances are repelled by magnetic
by oppositely charged ligands
fields.
- No hybridization takes place
- To form a bond the ligand Ferromagnetism
molecule must approach towards If it can retain its magnetism
central metal atom for a long time after being
- In absence of external magnetic magnetized.
field, the d orbital of central metal
 The magnetic properties of a
atom is degenerate but this
compound can be determined by
degeneracy breaks when ligand
examining its electron
approaches.
configuration.
- The d orbital splits into two sets:
 The number of unpaired electrons
Axial set non-axial set in a compound indicates how
magnetic it is.
dxy,dyz, dzx dx2-y2,dz2
 The size of the magnetic moment
of a system with unpaired
electrons is directly related to the
number of unpaired electrons.

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 Isomerism  Applications of coordination

Isomerism is the phenomenon in compounds

which compounds have same 1. They are used in estimation of
molecular formula but different hardness of water as calcium and,
structures and these different magnesium ions form complexes
structures are called as isomers. with EDTA.
Isomers are those that have different 2. It is used in estimation and
physical and chemical properties. detection of metal ions. for
example: Ni2+ions is estimated
There are two types of isomers: using dimethyl glyoxime
1. Structural isomerism 3. It is used in Extraction of metals
2. Stereoisomerism 4. It is used in medicines like cis
 Structural isomerism: Different platin is used in treatment of
types are as follows:- cancer
- ionization isomerism 5. It is used in animal and in plant
- Hydrate isomerism world like hemoglobin is a complex
- Coordination isomerism of iron, chlorophyll is a complex of
- Linkage isomerism magnesium and so on
 Stereoisomerism: Different types
are as follows:-
- geometrical isomerism
- Optical isomerism

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 Question – Answer

❶ MCQs

1. A coordination complex’s core atom/ion is also known as ________

(a) Bronsted-Lowry acid (b) Lewis base
(c) Lewis acid (d) Bronsted-Lowry base

Answer: (c) Lewis acid

2. Which of the following has a coordination number as a feature?

(a) Coordination entity (b) Ligand
(c) Central atom (d) Coordination compound

Answer: (c) Central atom

3. Which of the following statements about coordination compounds’

bonding is incorrect?
(a) Crystal Field Theory (b) VSEPR Theory
(c) Valence Bond Theory (d) Molecular Orbital Theory

Answer: (b) VSEPR Theory

4. More than one sort of hybridization can occur in a complex with

geometry.
(a) tetrahedral (b) octahedral
(c) trigonal bipyramidal (d) square planar

Answer: (b) octahedral

5. Determine which of the following statements about VBT is inaccurate.

a) It does not explain the colour of coordination compounds
b) It can distinguish between strong and weak ligands
c) It does not explain the kinetic stabilities of coordination compounds
d) It is unreliable in the prediction of geometries of 4-coordinate complexes

Answer: (b) It can distinguish between strong and weak ligands

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6. Which of the following determines the position of ligands in a
mononuclear coordination entity’s formula?
a) Atomicity of the ligand b) Charge on the ligand
c) The first letter in the name of the ligand d) Denticity of the ligand

Answer: c) The first letter in the name of the ligand

7. Which of the following statements about a charged coordinating entity is

correct?
a) The sign of the charge is written after the number
b) The charge of the complex ion is written in parenthesis while naming
the entity
c) The charge is indicated as a subscript outside the square bracket on
the right
d) The charge on the complex ion is depicted along with the counter ion

Answer: (a) The sign of the charge is written after the number

8. Determine the proper name for K2[PdCl4].

a) Potassium tetrachlorinepalladium(II)
b) Potassium tetrachloridopalladate(II)Potassium
c) Potassium tetrachloridopalladium(II)
d) tetrachlorinepalladate(II)

Answer: (b) Potassium tetrachloridopalladate(II) Potassium

9. Which substance is used to determine the hardness of water using a

simple titration?
a) Mg (EDTA) b) Fe (EDTA) c) Na2 (EDTA) d) Co(EDTA)

Answer: c) Na2 (EDTA)

10. The core atom of which of the following biologically significant

coordination molecules is magnesium?
(a) Vitamin B12 b) Haemoglobin
(c) Chlorophyll (d) Carboxypeptidase-A

Answer: (c) Chlorophyll

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11. EDTA is used for the estimation of:
(a) Na+ and K+ ions (b) Cl– and Br– ions
(c) Cu2+ and Cs+ ions (d) Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions

Answer: (d) Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions

12. Primary and secondary valence of Pt in [Pt(en)2Cl2] are:

(a) 4, 4 (b) 4, 6 (c) 6, 4 (d) 2, 6

Answer: (d) 2, 6

13. According to Werner’s theory of coordination compounds:

(a) Primary valence is ionisable
(b) Secondary valence is ionisable
(c) Primary and secondary valencies are lonisable
(d) Neither primary nor secondary valence is ionisable

Answer: (a) Primary valence is ionisable

14. Among the following which are ambidentate ligands?

(i) SCN- (ii) NO3- (iii) NO2- (iv) C2O42-
a) (i) and (iii)
b) and (iv)
c) and (iii)
d) and (iv)

Answer: (i) and (iii) both are correct.

15. What is the sum of the oxidation number of cobalt in

[Co(H2O)(CN)(en)2]2+ and [CoBr2(en)2]+?
(a) +3 (b) +5 (c) +4 (d) +6

Answer: (d) +6

16. The correct IUPAC name of *Co(NH₃)₄Cl₂+Cl is:

a) Tetraamminedichlorocobalt(III) chloride
b) Dichlorotetraamminecobalt(III) chloride
c) Tetraamminedichlorocobalt(II) chloride
d) Dichlorotetraamminecobalt(II) chloride

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Answer: a) Tetraamminedichlorocobalt(III) chloride

17. The stability of a coordination compound increases with:

a) Number of monodentate ligands
b) Number of chelate rings
c) Decrease in ligand size
d) Increase in central metal ion size

Answer: b) Number of chelate rings

18. In an octahedral crystal field, the splitting of d-orbitals leads to:

a) Three orbitals at higher energy and two at lower energy
b) Two orbitals at higher energy and three at lower energy
c) Equal energy of all five d-orbitals
d) No splitting of d-orbitals

Answer: b) Two orbitals at higher energy and three at lower energy

19. Which type of isomerism is observed in *Co(NH₃)₄Cl₂+⁺?

a) Geometrical b) Optical c) Linkage d) Ionization

Answer: a) Geometrical

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❷ complete the sentence using an appropriate word:
NOTE: Some words are extra only for make complexity or confusion.

20. Octahedral, secondary, primary, smaller, tetrahedral, larger,

bidendate, negative
i) Werner’s theory introduced the concept of ________ valencies.
ii) The splitting of d-orbitals in a tetrahedral field is ________ compared to
an octahedral field.
iii) A ligand that forms two coordinate bonds with a metal ion is called
________.
iv) The geometry of a complex with sp3 hybridization is ________.
v) A complex with a coordination number of 4 and dsp2 hybridization has
________ geometry.

Answer: i) secondary, ii) smaller, iii) bidentate, iv) tetrahedral, v) square

planer

21. Primary, octahederal, +3, polydentate, tetrahedral, sp3d2, +5,

monodendate, sp3d
(1) A ________ ligand can form multiple bonds with the central metal atom,
whereas a ________ ligand forms only a single coordinate bond.
(2) According to Werner’s theory, the ________ valency is ionizable, while the
secondary valency is non-ionizable.
(3) The geometry of [CoF6+³⁻ is ________ due to ________ hybridization.
(4) In the complex [Fe(CN)6+³⁻, the charge on the central metal ion is ________.

Answer: (1) polydentate, monodentate (2) primary, (3) octahedral; sp3d2 (4)
+3,

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❸fill in the blanks:

22.
(A) The chelate effect increases the ________ of a coordination compound.
(B) In Werner's theory, primary valencies are satisfied by ________ bonds.
(C) The ability of a ligand to donate electron pairs depends on its ________
atom.
(D)Ionization isomerism arises when a ________ ion exchanges with a counter
ion.
(E) Ligands like CN⁻ and CO are considered ________ field ligands.

Answer: (A) Stability, (B) ionic, (C) donor, (D) ligand, (E) strong

❹ Match the following:

23. Match the statement given in column A with the suitable statement in
column B.

Column A Column B
1. octahedral cystal field A. High spin complex
2. square planer geometry B. Octahedral geometry
3. Strong field ligand C. Low spin complex
4. Weak field ligand D. dsp2 hybridization

Answer: 1 – B, 2 – D, 3 – C, 4 – A

24. Match the statement given in column A with the suitable statement in
column B.

Column A Column B
1. Ligands A. Primary and secondary valency
2. Werner’s theory B. Stability increase
3. Linkage isomerism C. Donate lone pairs
4. Chelate effect D. Different donor atoms

Answer: 1 – C, 2 – A, 3 – D, 4 – B

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❺ True or false:

25. Werner’s theory states that primary valencies correspond to the

coordination number of the central metal ion.

 False

26. The complex [Fe(CN)6+⁴⁻ is diamagnetic due to the strong field ligand
CN⁻.

 True

27. The hybridization of Ni in [Ni(CO)4] is dsp3.

 False

28. Monodentate ligands can donate multiple lone pairs to a metal ion.
 False

29. The splitting energy in a tetrahedral crystal field is larger than in an

octahedral crystal field.

 False

30. Ligands like NH3 and H2O are classified as neutral ligands.
 True

31. The geometry of [Co(NH3)6+³⁺ is square planar.

 False

32. In linkage isomerism, a ligand can bond through different donor atoms.
 True

33. EDTA is a bidentate ligand.

 False

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❻ Passage:

34. Read the passage given below and answer the following questions (out
of four attempt any two): 1×2=2 [PYQ NIOS April 2024]

Coordination compounds are the compounds in which a central metal ion is

attached to a group of surrounding ligands by coordinate covalent bond.
Ligands can be monodentate or polydentate. Polydentate ligands are also
called chelating ligands. The geometries of coordination compounds are
linear, tetrahedral, square planar and octahedral.

(a) [Co(CN)6]3- and 3 [CoF6] 3- both are octahedral complexes. Then what is the
difference between the two?

(b) Give a chemical test to distinguish between [Co(NH3)5 Br]SO4 and

[Co(NH3)5 SO4]Br.

(c) Name any one chelating agent.

(d) Identify and name the bidentate ligand in [Co(en)2(H2O)(CN)]– complex

ion.

Answer:
(a) The difference between [Co(CN)6+³⁻ and *CoF6+³⁻ lies in the nature of their
ligands:

[Co(CN)6+³⁻: Strong field ligand (CN⁻), leading to a low-spin complex.

[CoF6+³⁻: Weak field ligand (F⁻), leading to a high-spin complex.

(b) following chemical test:

- Dissolve each compound in water and add BaCl2 solution.
- [Co(NH3)5Br]SO4 will form a white precipitate of BaSO4, indicating the
presence of sulfate ions in the coordination sphere.
- [Co(NH3)5SO4]Br will not form a precipitate with BaCl2.
(c) One example of a chelating agent is EDTA (ethylenediaminetetraacetic
acid).
(d) The bidentate ligand in [Co(en)2(H2O)(CN)+⁻ is en (ethylenediamine).

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❼Very short type questions [2 marks]:

35. State the postulates of Werner’s coordination theory.

Answer:
- Metals exhibit primary valency (ionic, oxidation state) and secondary
valency (coordination number).
- Secondary valencies are directed in space, determining the geometry of the
complex.
36. What is meant by a coordinate covalent bond? Give an example.
[PYQ NIOS April 2024]

Answer: Metal ions are always positive, so they are quite attractive to lone
pairs of electrons. The resulting bond between the metal ion and the
ligands are known as coordinate covalent bonds. Coordinate covalent bond
(shown in red) between the platinum metal ion and the lone pair on nitrogen
in NH3.

37. Name the following coordination compounds according to IUPAC

system of nomenclature :

(i) [Co(NH3)4 (H2O)Cl]Cl2 (ii) [Cr Cl2(en)2]Cl,

(en = ethane – 1, 2 – diamine)

Answer:
(i) [CO(NH3)4 (H2O)Cl]Cl2: Tetraammine aquachlorido cobalt (III) chloride
(ii) [CrCl2(en)2]Cl: Dichlorobis (ethane-1, 2-diamine) chromium (III) chloride

38. Why are strong field ligands associated with low-spin complexes?
Answer: Strong field ligands, like CN⁻, cause a large crystal field splitting (Δ₀ ),
pairing up electrons in lower energy t2g orbitals, reducing unpaired
electrons (low spin).

39. What is the difference between primary and secondary valencies in

coordination compounds?

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Answer: Primary valency: Oxidation state of the metal ion, satisfied by anions
(ionic).

Secondary valency: Coordination number, satisfied by ligands.

40. Give two factors which affecting the stability of a complex ion.
Answer: Factors affecting the stability of a complex ion are as follows –:
(i) Nature of metal ion : Greater the charge and smaller the size of
the ion, more is its charge density and greater will be stability of the complex.
(ii) Nature of ligand : More the basicity of ligand, more is its
tendency to donate electron pair and therefore, more is the stability of the
complex.

41. When a coordination compound CoCl3.6NH3 is mixed with AgNO3, 3

moles of AgCl are precipitated per mole of the compound. Write
(i) Structural formula of the complex
(ii) IUPAC name of the complex

Answer:
(i) Complex so formed is:
CoCl3.6NH3 + AgNO3 → [Co(NH3)6]Cl3
(ii) IUPAC name of complex is:
Hexaamminecobalt (III) chloride

42. Define a bond angle. What is the bond angle in the following?
(i) N—H bonds in NH3
(ii) C—H bonds in CH4

Answer: It is defined as the "angle between the orbitals

containing bonding electron pairs around the central atom in a molecule or in a
complex ion".

(i) N—H bonds in NH₃ (Ammonia): The bond angle in ammonia is

approximately 107°.
(ii) C—H bonds in CH₄ (Methane): The bond angle in methane is exactly
109.5°.

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43.
(i) Give two examples of coordination isomerism.
(ii) Give an example of ionization isomerism.

Answer:
(i) [Co(NH3)6] [Cr(CN)6] & [Cr(NH3)6] [CO(CN)6]
(ii) [Pt (NH3)5 (Br)3] SO4 & [Co (NH3)5 (SO4)] Br

44. What is meant by chelate effect?

Answer: When a bidentate or a polydentate ligand contains donor atoms
positioned in such a way that when they coordinate with the
central metal ion, a five or a six membered ring is formed. This effect is called
Chelate effect. As a result, the stability of the complex increases.
Example: the complex of Ni2+ with ‘+ion’ is more stable than NH3.

45. Explain why [Co(NH3)6]3+ is an inner orbital complex whereas

[Ni(NH3)6]2+ is an outer orbital complex. (At. no. Co = 27, Ni = 28)

Answer: In [Co(NH3)6]3+, the d-electrons of Co3+ ([Ar]3d6 45°) get paired

leaving behind two empty d-orbital and undergo d2sp3 hybridization
and hence inner orbital complex, while in [Ni(NH3)6]2+ the d-electrons of
Ni2+ ([Ar]3d8 45°) do not pair up and use outer 4d subshell hence outer orbital
complex.

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❽Short type questions [3 marks]:

46. Explain the following terms giving a suitable example in each case :
(i) Ambident ligand
(ii) Denticity of a ligand

Answer:
(i) Ambidentate ligand: The monodentate ligands with more than one
coordinating atoms is known as ambidentate ligand.
Monodentate ligands have only one atom capable of binding to a central metal
atom or ion. For example, the nitrate ion NO2– can bind to the central metal
atom/ion at either the nitrogen atom or one of the oxygen atoms.
Example : — SCN thiocyanate, — NCS isothiocyanate

(ii) Denticity of a ligand: The number of donor atoms in a ligand which forms
coordinate bond with the central metal atom are
called denticity of a ligand.

Example : If donor atom is one then it is called Monodentate ligand, if it is two,

then it is called Bidendentate and so on.

47. With the help of an example, write two differences between a double
salt and a coordination compound.

Answer: The distinction between a double salt and a coordination compound

is as follows:

A double salt is a compound that consists of two distinct salt components. In

water, they completely dissociate into their ions. Potash Alum K2 SO4.Al2
(SO4)3.24H2O is an example.

A complex salt is a chemical composed of a core metal atom and ligands that
form coordination bonds with it. Coordination compounds do not completely
dissociate into their ions in water. Potassium ferrocyanide, K Fe(CN)4 .

48. How does EDTA aid in the treatment of lead poisoning?

Answer: To remove lead from our bodies, we use a ligand that can form
metal complexes with lead. The chemical EDTA is used to treat lead

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poisoning. The abbreviation for ethylene diamine tetraacetic acid (EDTA) is
ethylene diamine tetraacetic acid.

It contains two nitrogen atoms and four oxygen atoms, all of which can
donate electrons to metals. In the body, lead replaces calcium in the Ca-EDTA
complex. Urine excretes lead-EDTA, a more soluble complex.

49. Answer the following: [Sample paper]

(A) Write the IUPAC name of the complex [Cr(NH3)4Cl2] Cl.
(B) What type of Isomerism is exhibited by the complex [Co(en)3]3+? (en =
ethane-1, 2-diamine)

(C) Why is [Ni(Cl)4]2- paramagnetic but [Ni(CO)4] is diamagnetic?

(At. No.: Cr = 24, Co = 27, Ni = 28)

Answer:
(A) The IUPAC name of the complex [Cr(NH3)4Cl2]Cl is
tetraamminedichlorochromium(III) chloride.
(B) The complex [Co(en)3]3+ exhibits optical isomerism.
(C) In [NiCl4]2-, Ni is in +2 oxidation state with the configuration 3d8 4s0. Cl- ion
being weak ligand it cannot pair up the electrons in 3d orbitals. Hence it is
paramagnetic. In [Ni CO4] Ni is in zero oxidation with the configuration 3d8
4s2. In the presence of CO ligand the 4s electrons shift to 3d to pair up 3d
electrons.
50. Compare the following complexes with respect to their shape,
magnetic behavior, hybrid orbitalsn involved and coordinatuion number:
(i) [CoF4]2- (ii) [Ni(CO)4] (iii) [Cr(H2O) 2 (C2O4)2]-

[Atomic number: Cr = 24, Co = 27, Ni = 28] [PYQ NIOS April 2023]

Answer:
(i) [CoF4]2-: light yellow powder, The magnetic behavior of a complex is
affected by its shape, with sp3d2 hybrid orbitals, coordination number = 4
(ii) [Ni(CO)4]: This complex has a tetrahedral shape, is diamagnetic, and uses
sp3 hybrid orbitals, coordination number = 4

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(iii) [Cr(H2O) 2 (C2O4)2]- : This complex has a octahedral shape, is
paramagnetic, and uses d2sp3 hybrid orbitals, coordination number = 6.

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❾Long type questions [5 marks]:

51. What is a ligand ? Why is the interaction between the metal ion and
the ligand considered as Lewis acid-base reaction? Identify.
a. the entities present in its coordination sphere of the complex
[Co(en)2Cl2]Cl,
b. the types of ligands present and
c. the chelating agent present in it [PYQ NIOS Oct 2022]

Answer: A ligand is a molecule or ion that can donate a pair of electrons to a

metal ion to form a coordinate bond. The interaction between the
metal ion and the ligand is considered a Lewis acid-base reaction because the
metal ion acts as a Lewis acid, accepting a pair of electrons from the ligand,
which acts as the Lewis base.

a. In the coordination sphere of the complex [Co(en)2Cl2]Cl, the entities

present are the central cobalt ion (Co), two ethylenediamine (en) ligands,
and two chloride (Cl) ligands.
b. The types of ligands present are ethylenediamine and chloride.
c. The chelating agent present in the complex is ethylenediamine. Chelating
ligands are capable of forming multiple coordinate bonds with a metal ion.
52.
(a) [Fe(H2O)6]2+ complex is paramagnetic whereas [Fe(CN)6]4− is diamagnetic.
Explain on the basis of crystal field theory.
(b) Write the IUPAC name, coordination number and oxidation state of
cobalt in [Co(en)2 (H2O) CN]2+.
(c) What is linkage isomerism ? Give one example.

[Atomic number : Fe = 26, Co = 27] [PYQ NIOS Oct 2021]

Answer:
(a) The paramagnetic behavior of [Fe(H2O)6]2+ arises due to the weak field
splitting caused by H2O, leading to unpaired electrons.

The diamagnetic behavior of [Fe(CN)6]4− is due to the strong field splitting

caused by CN− resulting in complete pairing of electrons.

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(b) [Co(en)2 (H2O) CN]2+

IUPAC name: Aquacyanobis (ethylenediamine) cobalt(III)

Coordination number: 6
Oxidation state: +3

(c) Linkage isomerism is a type of isomerism where coordination compounds

have the same chemical composition but differ in their properties. This
occurs when the ligand attaches to the central atom in different ways.

Example →

[Co(NH3)5(ONO)Cl2]: A red-colored complex that is linked via an oxygen atom.

53. Explain the types of hybridization and magnetic behaviour of the

following complexes on the basis of VB theory:
[Sample paper]
(a) [Fe(CN)6]4–
(b) [Cr(NH3)6]2+
(a) [Fe(CN)6]3–
(b) [NiCl4]2–
(c) Ni(CO)4

Answer:
(a) [Fe(CN)6]4– : This complex has d2sp3 hybridization and is diamagnetic. The
complex has no unpaired electrons.
(b) [Cr(NH3)6]2+: This is a coordination compound.
(c) [Fe(CN)6]3–: This complex has d2sp3 hybridization and is paramagnetic. The
complex has one unpaired electron.
(d) [NiCl4]2–: This is a coordination compound.
(e) Ni(CO)4: This is a coordination compound.

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 Nomenclature and general principles
23
2222

Short summary What do we learn Quick Revision

 Hydrocarbons  Homologous series

“The organic chemistry is the branch Homologous Series: A series of

of chemistry which deals with the compounds in which the
study of compounds of carbon.” molecular formula of a compound
differs from those of its neighbouring
Compounds which we can derive from
compounds by the CH2 group, is
living organisms (Plants & Animals)
known as a homologous series.
are called organic compounds.
Homologous series of open chain
The basic organic compounds are
saturated hydrocarbons is known as
hydrocarbons (compounds of carbon
alkanes and open chain unsaturated
and hydrogen) which can be
hydrocarbons form two series of
converted to different types of
compounds namely alkenes and
organic compounds by performing
alkynes.
different reactions.

 Classification of hydrocarbons  IUPAC Nomenclature of

Acyclic Hydrocarbons

Acyclic hydrocarbons or open chair

compounds also kbnown as aliphatic
compounds include straight chain as
well as branched chain compounds.

 Straight chain hydrocarbon

The names of these hydrocarbons

consist of two parts: word root (alk)
and suffix.

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 Some Word Roots and  Branched chain hydrocarbon
corresponding number of In branched chain hydrocarbons, one
carbon atoms or more alkyl groups are present as
side chain attached to the main
Number of C- Atoms Word root
straight chain of carbon atoms.
1 Meth
2 Eth - The carbon atoms of the side chain
3 Prop constitute alkyl groups.
4 But - the general formula of alkyl group
5 Pant
is CnH2n+1. The alkyl groups are
6 Hex
7 Hect generally represented by R– and
8 Oct the suffix is yl.
9 Non
10 Dec
 IUPAC Rule (Branched)
Types of hydrocarbons and suffixes 1. Longest chain Rule: Identify the
in their name: longest continuous chain of
carbon atoms and name it. This
Class of Suffix General chain is the parent name of the
compounds name alkane.
Saturated -ane Alkane
2. Number the chain: Number the
Unsaturated -ene alkene
carbon atoms in the chain from
(>C=C<)
Unsaturated -yne Alkyne the end closest to a substituent
(–C≡C–) group. The carbon atom with the
first substituent should have the
lowest number.
Examples:
3. Name the branches: Count the
1. CH3CH2CH3 →propane number of carbon atoms in each
2. CH3CH2CH2CH2CH3 → Pentane branch and name them.
3. CH2 = CH2 → Ethene 4. Name the alkane: Combine the
4. CH3– C ≡ CH → Propyne name of the substituent with the
- General formula of alkane is parent name of the hydrocarbon.
CnH2n+2. If there are two or more side chains in
equivalent positions, the one cited first in the
name should be assigned the lower number.

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 IUPAC Rule : Examples  Alicyclic compounds : Examples

1.

2.

3.

b) Aromatic Compounds:

The most important members of this

 Nomenclature of Cyclic class are benzene and its derivatives.
Hydrocarbons
1. The carbon atoms of benzene are
Cyclic hydrocarbons can be divided numbered from 1 to 6 by giving
into alicyclic and aromatic the lowest possible number to the
compounds: position of the side chain or
substituent.
a) Alicyclic Compounds:

Alicyclic compounds have closed chain  Aromatic compounds :

i.e. cyclic structures.
Examples
1. Their names are derived by putting
prefix ‘cyclo’ before the word root.
2. The suffix ane, ene or yne are
written according to the saturation
or unsaturation in the ring
structure.
3. If an alkyl substituent is present, it
is indicated by the appropriate
prefix and its position is indicated
by numbering the carbon atoms of
the ring in such a way so as to
assign the least possible number to
the substituent.

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 Writing Structure of  IUPAC Nomenclature of
Hydrocarbons from their Aliphatic Organic Compounds

IUPAC Names Containing Functional Groups

Writing the structure of 4-Ethyl-5- A functional group is an atom or

methylhex-2-ene group of atoms which is responsible
for characteristic properties of a
Step 1 The skeleton of parent
compound.
hydrocarbon chain of six carbon
atoms with C=C at C2 is drawn. For example:

–Cl, –Br, –I, –COOH, –OH, –NH2 etc.

Step 2 Attach ethyl group at C4 and 1. Identify the functional group: The
methyl group at C5. functional group is usually the
most reactive part of the organic
Step 3 Attach H-atoms to the C-atoms
molecule.
of main chain to satisfy tetravalency
2. Find the longest carbon chain: The
of all the carbon atoms.
longest carbon chain that contains
Thus, the correct structure of the the functional group with the
compound is as given below: highest priority is the parent name
of the compound.
3. Change the ending of the parent
chain: Change the ending of the
parent alkane, alkene, or alkyne to
the suffix of the highest priority
group.
4. Number the chain: Number the
chain from the end closest to the
highest functional group.
5. Name other groups as
substituents: Use the appropriate
prefixes to name other groups as
substituents.

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Here are some examples of functional  Type of reaction in organic
groups and their IUPAC
compounds
nomenclature: A reaction mechanism is defined as
 Carboxylic acid: Prefix is carboxy-, the detailed knowledge of the steps
suffix is -carboxylic acid or -oic acid involved in a process in which the
 Sulfonic acid: Prefix is sulfo-, suffix reactant molecules change into
is -sulfonic acid products.
 Ester: Prefix is alkoxycarbonyl-,  Important terms:
suffix is -oate
 Acid halide: Prefix is halo carbonyl- ❶The fission of a covalent bond with
, suffix is -oyl halide equal sharing of bonding electrons is
 Amide: Prefix is carbamoyl-, suffix known as homolytic fission.
is -carboxamide or -amide ❷The fission of a covalent bond
 Nitrile: Prefix is cyano-, suffix is - involving unequal sharing of bonding
nitrile electrons is known as heterolytic
 Aldehyde: Prefix is formyl-, suffix is fission.
-al or carbaldehyde
❸The ion which has a positive
 Ketone: Prefix is oxo-, suffix is -one
charge on the carbon atom, is known
 Alcohol: Prefix is hydroxy-, suffix is
as the carbonium ion or a
-ol
carbocation.
 Thiol: Prefix is mercapto-, suffix is -
thiol ❹An ion with a negative charge on
 Amine: Prefix is amino-, suffix is – the carbon atom is known as the
amine. carbanion.

Certain derivatives have some specific ❺An electrophile is an electron

general names e.g. deficient species and it may be
monohydroxybenzene is called phenol positively charged or neutral.
and monoaminobenzene as aniline.
❻A nucleophile is negatively
charged or electron rich neutral
species.

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 Type of reaction in organic  Type of reaction in organic
compounds compounds
The different types of reactions in 4. Rearrangement reaction:
organic compounds are:
It is the type of reaction in which the
(i)Substitution (ii) Elimination (iii)
molecule is rearranged to give a
Addition and (iv)Molecular
structural isomer of the original
Rearrangements.
molecule.
1. Substitution reaction:
Example:
It is the type of reaction in which one
atom/group of atoms is substituted
by another atom/group of atoms.

Example:  Isomerism
The simple alkanes containing upto
three carbon atoms, i.e. methane,
2. Elimination reaction: ethane and propane have only one
possible structure.
The reaction that involves the
elimination/removal of adjacent There is only one way in which the
atoms is known as the Elimination carbon atoms can be linked together
reaction. as shown below:

Example:

3. Addition reaction:

It is a type of reaction in which more The isomerism can be of various types

than one molecules combine to form as shown below:
a new larger product.

Example:

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 Assignment of configuration  Qualitative analysis of organic
“A molecule's permanent geometry compounds
that results from its bonds' spatial 1. Test for Phosphorous
arrangement is called configuration.”
The organic compound is heated with
Stereoisomers have different an oxidising agent to oxidise
configurations for the same set of phosphorous to phosphate. The
atoms and the same group of bonds. solution is then boiled with
For example, cis-but-2-ene has concentrated HNO3 and treated with
a different configuration than its ammonium molybdate. Yellow
stereoisomer trans-2-butene. precipitate confirms the presence of
phosphorous.

The reaction is given below:

 Qualitative analysis of organic
compounds - Na3PO4 + 3HNO3 → H3PO4 +
Organic compounds contain C and H; 3NaNO3
in addition to these, they may also - H3PO4 + 12(NH4)2MoO4 +
contain O, N, S, halogens, and 21HNO3 → (NH4)3PO4.12MoO3 +
phosphorous. 21NH4NO3 + 12H2O
3. Test for halogens
1. Detection of C and H
L.E. is acidified with HNO3 and then
C and H are detected by heating the treated with AgNO3. A white
compound with CuO in a dry test precipitate soluble in NH4OH indicates
tube. They are oxidised to CO2 and the presence of Cl, a pale yellow
H2O, respectively. If the CO2 turns precipitate partiatly soluble in NH4OH
lime water milky, and H2O turns indicates the presence of Br, and a
anhydrous CuSO4 blue, then the yellow precipitate insoluble in NH4OH
presence of C and H is confirmed. shows the presence of I.

 Beilstein test: The organic

compound is heated on a clean
copper wire in Bunsen flame. A green
or blue colour due to the formation of
volatile copper halides confirms the
Detection of Carbon and Hydrogen presence of halogens.

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 Qualitative analysis of organic  Quantitative analysis of
compounds organic compounds
4. Test for nitrogen  Kjeldahl’s Method
The sodium fusion extract or L.E. is This method is commonly employed
boiled with FeSO4 and then acidified for estimating nitrogen in food
with conc. H2SO4. The appearance of materials and fertilisers. it is not
Prussian blue colour confirms the applicable to all nitrogenous organic
presence of N. The following reactions compounds.
occur:
3. Estimation of Halogen

 Carius Method

A known mass of the organic

5. Test for sulphur substance containing halogen is
heated with fuming nitric acid along
The sodium fusion extract or L.E: is
with few crystals of silver nitrate in a
treated with sodium nitroprusside.
sealed tube. The silver halide is
The appearance of violet colour
formed which is separated, washed
indicates the presence of S.
dried and weighed.

% Halogen = Atomic mass of halogen x

 Quantitative analysis of Mass of silver halide obtained x 100 /
organic compounds Molar mass of silver halide x Mass of
1. Estimation of C and H compound taken.

% C = 12/44 x Mass of CO2 formed/ 4. Estimation of Sulphur

Mass of the substance x 100 % S = 32/233 x Mass of BaSO4/ Mass
% H = 1/18 x Mass of H2O formed / of the compound x 100
Mass of the substance x 100 5. Estimation of Phosphorus
2. Estimation of Nitrogen 2MgNH4PO4 (Magnesium ammonium
% N = 28/22400 x Volume of nitrogen phosphate) → Mg2P2O7 + 2NH3 + H2O
at NTP/ Mass of compound x 100 %P = 62/222 x Mass of Mg2P2O7/Mass
of the compound x 100

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 Electron displacement in a  Electron displacement in a
covalent bond covalent bond
(a) Inductive effect: it is an electronic (d) Hyperconjuction effect: when alkyl
effect induced by the polarization groups are attatched to an
of σ- bonds in a molecule or ion. unsaturated system like double
bond or a benzene ring. The +I
effect is reversed. This effect is
Group with –I effect (electron called hyperconjuction effect.
withdrawing groups):

Group with +I effect (electron

releasing groups): (e) Steric hinderence: sites that are
sterically hindered are be blocked
and may undergo very little
(b) Electromeric effect: it involves the substitution. These include:
complete transfer of electrons of a - a site that has two ortho
multiple bond to one of the substituents.
bonded atom in presence of an - A site that is orth to one very bulky
electron attacking reagent. It is group
called the E effect. Example: ortho to a bulky group (such
as isopropyl or t – butyl)

(c) Resonance: this phenomemna is

exhibited by a number of organic
molecules, which can be
represented by two or more
structures which are called
resonating or canonical structures.

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 Question – Answer

❶ MCQs

1. Which of the following is an example of an aromatic compound?

a) Cyclohexane b) Benzene c) Propene d) Ethane

Answer: b) Benzene

2. The general formula CnH2n represents which class of hydrocarbons?

a) Alkanes b) Alkenes c) Alkynes d) Arenes

Answer: b) Alkenes
OR

3. What type of hydrocarbon is C6H6?

a) Alkane b) Alkene c) Aromatic d) Alkyne

Answer: c) Aromatic

4. The IUPAC name of CH3CHO is:

(A) Ethanal (B) Ethanol (C) Acetaldehyde (D) Acetone

Answer: (a) Ethanal

5. Identify the smallest alkane which can form a ring structure:

(A) Ethane (B) Cyclo ethane (C) Propane (D) Cyclopropane

Answer: (D) cyclopropane

6. Which of the following molecular formulae belongs to the alkyne series?

(A) C7H14 (B) C10H22 (C) C9H16 (D) C16H32

Answer: (C) C9H16

7. The addition of carbonyl compound to HCN is an example of:

(A) Nucleophilic substitution
(B) Electrophilic addition
(C) Nucleophilic addition

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 (D) Electrophilic substitution

Answer: (C) Nucleophilic addition

8. The temporary electron displacement which takes place in compounds

containing multiple covalent bonds developing +ve and –ve charges within
the molecule is known as:
(A) resonance (B) electromeric effect
(C) inductive effect (D) hyperconjugation

Answer: (B) electromeric effect [PYQ NIOS April 2024]

9. Which of the following reactions is specific to unsaturated hydrocarbons?

a) Combustion b) Addition c) Substitution d) Neutralization

Answer: b) Addition

10. Which functional group does -CHO represent?

a) Carboxylic acid b) Alcohol c) Aldehyde d) Ketone

Answer: c) Aldehyde

11. Which of the following compounds exhibits positional isomerism?

a) CH3-CH2-CH3 b) CH3-CH=CH2 and CH2=CH-CH3
c) C6H6 d) CH3-CH2-OH

Answer: b) CH3-CH=CH2 and CH2=CH-CH3

12. The phenomenon in which compounds have the same molecular

formula but different structures is called:
a) Homologous series b) Isomerism
c) Hybridization d) Functional group

Answer: b) Isomerism

13. [PYQ NIOS April 2023]

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Answer: (A) Nucleophilic addition

14. Which of the following is an example of a nucleophilic substitution

reaction?
a) CH3Cl + OH⁻ → CH3OH + Cl⁻
b) CH2=CH2 + H2 → C2H6
c) C6H6 + Cl2 → C6H5Cl + HCl
d) CH4 + Cl2 → CH3Cl + HCl

Answer: a) CH3Cl + OH⁻ → CH3OH + Cl⁻

15. What does the prefix "cyclo-" represent?

a) Straight chain b) Double bond
c) Closed ring structure d) Triple bond

Answer: c) Closed ring structure

16. Which of the following hydrocarbons belongs to the homologous series

of alkenes?
a) C₂H₆ b) C₃H₈ c) C₄H₈ d) C₄H₁₀

Answer: c) C₄H₈

17. Aromatic hydrocarbons contain:

a) Single bonds only
b) A ring structure with alternating single and double bonds
c) No carbon-carbon double bonds
d) Straight-chain structures

Answer: b) A ring structure with alternating single and double bonds

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18. What type of isomerism is shown by CH₃-CH₂-O-CH₃ and CH₃-CH₂-CH₂-
OH?
a) Functional group isomerism b) Chain isomerism
c) Position isomerism d) Geometrical isomerism

Answer: a) Functional group isomerism

19. What is the correct IUPAC name for CH₃-CH=CH-CH₂OH?

a) But-1-en-4-ol b) But-2-en-1-ol
c) But-1-en-3-ol d) But-2-en-4-ol

Answer: b) But-2-en-1-ol

20. The correct IUPAC name of is CH3 – OCOCH3 is:

(A) Methyl ethanoate (B) Aceto ethanoate
(C) Ethanoic anhydride (D) Ethanoyl ethanoate

Answer: (C) Ethanoic anhydride [PYQ NIOS Oct 2021]

21. The inductive effect is caused by:

a) Delocalization of electrons b) Polarization of sigma bonds
c) Formation of radicals d) Rearrangement of atoms

Answer: b) Polarization of sigma bonds

22. In quantitative analysis of organic compounds, nitrogen is estimated

using:
a) Kjeldahl’s method b) Dumas method
c) Lassaigne’s test d) Chromatography

Answer: a) Kjeldahl’s method

23. The group which shows +I effect is:

(A) (CH3)3C– (B) (CH3)3 N+ (C) –OH (D) –NO2

Answer: (A) (CH3)3C– [PYQ NIOS Jan – feb 2021]

24. Dehydration of alcohol is an example of:

(A) addition reaction (B) elimination reaction
(C) substitution reaction (D) redox reaction

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Answer: B) elimination reaction [Sample paper]

25. The functional group which is found in amino acids is:

(A) COOH (B) -NH2 (C) -CH3 (D) Both (A) and (B).

Answer: (i) D) Both (A) and (B). [sample paper]

26. A compound contains both –CHO and –OH groups. Its suffix is:
a) –al b) –ol c) –alol d) –alcohol

Answer: c) –alol

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❷ Complete the sentence by using an appropriate word:
NOTE: Some words are extra only for make complexity or confusion.

27. CnHn, substitution, CnH2n, addition, CH2, CH4

1. The general formula for alkenes is ________.
2. A homologous series is a group of compounds that differ by a ________
group.
3. Alkanes undergo ________ reactions where one hydrogen atom is replaced
by another atom.
4. The molecular formula of benzene is ________.

Answer: 1. CnH2n , 2. CH2 , 3. Substitution, 4. C6H6

28. Nitrogen, isomerism, propane, methane, isomerism, propyne, ankyne

(a) In qualitative analysis, the element ________ is detected using the
Lassaigne's test.
(b) The IUPAC name of CH3-C≡CH is ________.
(c) The phenomenon of compounds having the same molecular formula but
different arrangements of atoms is called ________.
(d) The hydrocarbon with the formula C3H8 is called ________.

Answer: (a) nitrogen, (b) propyne, (c) isomerism, (d) propane

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❸Fill in the blanks:

29.
(i) The IUPAC name for CH3-CH2-OH is ________.
(ii) The functional group -COOH is known as ________.
(iii) The group of hydrocarbons with alternating double bonds in a ring is
classified as ________ hydrocarbons.
(iv) A compound with the molecular formula C4H10 exhibits ________
isomerism.

Answer: (i) ethanol, (ii) carboxylic acid, (iii) aromatic, (iv) chain

30.
(i) The process of analyzing the percentage composition of elements in an
organic compound is called ________.
(ii) The suffix used for a hydrocarbon containing a triple bond is ________.
(iii) The reaction in which unsaturated hydrocarbons add hydrogen in the
presence of a catalyst is called ________.
(iv) A reaction where a single reactant breaks down into two or more products
is called a ________ reaction.
(v) The IUPAC name for CH3-CH=CH-CH3 is ________.

Answer: (i) quantitative analyse, (ii) – yne, (iii) hydrogenation, (iv)

decomposition, (v) But – 2 – ene

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❹ Match the following:

31. Match the item in column I with Column II

Identify the right option given below:

1. a-ii; b-iv; c-i, d-iii

2. a-iii; b-iv; c-ii, d-i
3. a-iv; b-iii; c-i, d-ii
4. a-i; b-iv; c-ii, d-iii

Answer: a-iv; b-iii; c-i, d-ii

32. Match the terms mentioned in Column I with the terms in Column II.

Column I Column II
(a) Carbocation (1) Cyclohexane and 1-hexene
(b) Nucleophile (2) Conjugation of electrons of C – H σbond
with empty p-orbital present at adjacent
positively charged carbon.
(c) Hyperconjugation (3) sp2 hybridised carbon with empty p-
orbital
(d) Isomers (4) Ethyne
(e) sp hybridization (5) Species that can receive a pair of
electrons
(f) Electrophile (6) Species that can supply a pair of
electrons
Answer: (a) → 3, (b) → 6, (c) → 2, (d) → 1, (e) → 4, (f) → 5

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❺ True or false:

33. In IUPAC nomenclature, the parent chain is always selected based on the
highest number of carbon atoms.

 True.

34. Alkenes are saturated hydrocarbons.

 False.

35. The IUPAC name for CH3-CH=CH-CH3 is But-1-ene.

 False.

36. The functional group -OH is called a hydroxyl group.

 True.

37. Propane and cyclopropane are chain isomers.

 True.

38. The word root for a four-carbon chain in IUPAC nomenclature is "but-".
True.

39. The functional group -COOH represents an aldehyde.

 False.

40. The functional group -CHO is known as a carboxylic group.

 False.

41. The molecular formula C2H6 represents an alkyne.

 False.
42. A homologous series is a group of compounds differing by a CH3 group.
 False.
43. A substitution reaction involves the addition of atoms to a molecule.
 False.

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❻Very short type questions [2 marks]:

44. Differentiate between saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons.

Answer: Saturated hydrocarbons (alkanes) contain only single bonds, while
unsaturated hydrocarbons (alkenes and alkynes) contain double or
triple bonds.

45. What is the role of mesomeric effect in organic chemistry?

Answer: The mesomeric effect describes the delocalization of electrons in
conjugated systems, influencing the reactivity and stability of
molecules. Electron-donating groups (+M effect) and withdrawing groups (-M
effect) affect the electron density.

46. Explain the difference between inductive effect and resonance effect.
Answer: The inductive effect involves electron displacement through sigma
bonds due to electronegativity differences, while resonance effect
involves delocalization of π-electrons in conjugated systems. Inductive effects
are localized, whereas resonance effects are delocalized.

47. What is the order of priority of functional groups?

Answer: The order of importance of the functional groups in the IUPAC
system of nomenclature is Carboxylic Acid > Sulfonic Acid > Esters >
Acid Halides > Amides > Cyanides > Aldehyde > Ketones > Alcohols > Amines >
Alkynes > Alkenes > Alkanes.

48. Give examples of a few functional groups along with their formula.
Answer: Examples of a few functional groups and their formula are
mentioned below.

Carboxylic Acid ( -COOH), Alcohol ( -OH), Aldehyde ( -CHO), Ketone (-CO-), Ester
(-COOR), Cyanide ( -CN), Amide ( -CONH2), Acid Halide ( -COOCl), Sulfonic Acid
(-SO3H)

49. What is Markovnikov's rule, and where is it applicable?

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Answer: Markovnikov's rule states that in the addition of HX to an
unsymmetrical alkene, the hydrogen atom attaches to the carbon
with more hydrogen atoms. It is applicable in electrophilic addition reactions.

50. Make a brief note on key steps for witing the IUPAC name not more
than 30 words.

Answer: Select the longest carbon chain, number it to give substituents the
lowest locants, identify substituents and functional groups, arrange
substituents alphabetically with prefixes, and finally add the suffix for the
functional group.

51. Identify the most stable species in the following set of ions giving
reasons:

Answer:
(i) CH3+ is the most stable species because replacing H atom by Br (-Inductive
effect) increases +ve charge on carbon atom and destabilised the species.

(ii) –CCI3 is most stable because the -ve charge on the carbon atom is dispersed
due to the -I effect of Cl. More Cl atoms correspond to more dispersal of-ve
charge and thus more stabilisation.

52. Define: (i) Homologous Series (ii) Hetrolytic Cleavage

Answer: (i) Homologous Series: This is the series in which a group or series of
organic compounds each have a characteristic functional group. The
members of this series are called homologous.

(ii) Hetrolytic Cleavage: When a bond breaks and the shared pair of electrons
remain with one of the fragments it is known as heterolytic cleavage

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❼Short type questions [3 marks]:

53. 0.40g of an organic compound gave 0.3g of AgBr by Carius method.

Find the percentage of bromine in the compound.

Answer: Mass of the compound = 0.40g

Now 188g of AgBr will contain Br = 80g
80
Therefore, 0.3g of AgBr will contain Br = × 0.3 = 0.127g
188

0.127
The percentage of Br in organic compound = × 100 = 31.75%
0.40

54.

Answer:
A: Methylmagnesium bromide (Grignard reagent) = CH3MgBr.
B: Acetic acid (ethanoic acid) = CH3COOH
C: Acetamide = CH3CONH2
D: Methyl cyanide (acetonitrile) = CH3CN

(b)

– I effect + I effect
C₆H₅ (CH₃)₃C–
–NO₂ –C₂H₅

55. Write a short note on the Electromeric effect (E Effect).

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Answer: The electromeric effect or the E Effect can be described as the
polarity which is produced in a multiple bonded compound when it
gets attacked by a reagent. When a double or a triple bond gets exposed to an
attack by any electrophile E+ (a reagent), the two π electrons that formed the
π bond get completely transferred to either one atom or the other.

This effect is temporary which means that it remains as long as the attacking
reagent is present and exposed to the organic compound. The molecule that
was polarized goes back to its original state, once this attacking reagent is
removed from the system.

56. [PYQ NIOS April 2023]

Answer:
(a)

– I effect + I effect
C₆H₅ (CH₃)₃C–
–NO₂ –C₂H₅

(b) Order of reactivity:

CH₃COOH > RCH₂COOH > R₂CHCOOH > R₃CCOOH

57. Give three points of differences between inductive effect and

resonance effect.

Answer:

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 S.No Inductive effect Resonance effect
1. Inductive Effect involves the Resonance Effect involves displacing
displacement of electrons in % electrons or lone pairs of
saturated compounds. electrons in unsaturated and
conjugated compounds.
2. In the inductive Effect, a slight In the resonance effect, there is a
displacement of σ electrons complete transfer of π electrons,
and partial +ve or-ve charge and as a result, a complete +ve or -
develops. ve charge develops.
3. The Inductive Effect can move In the resonance effect, the
only up to 3 to 4 carbons. movement of electrons all along the
length of the conjugated system
takes place.

❽Long type questions [5 marks]:

58. [PYQ NIOS April 2022]

(a) Write down the names of the following organic compounds :

(b) How will you confirm the presence of nitrogen in an organic compound?

(c) What is Lucas test? What is its use?

Answer: (a) (i) 4-ethyl-5-methyl-oct-2-ene, (ii) 1,3-dimethylbenzene or

m-xylene.

(b) You can confirm the presence of nitrogen in an organic compound using
Lassaigne's test:

- Fuse the organic compound with sodium metal to convert it into an ionic
form.

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- Make the sodium fusion extract alkaline by adding NaOH.
- Add a freshly prepared FeSO4 solution to the mixture and boil for some
time.
- Cool the mixture and add a few drops of FeCl3.
- If a Prussian blue color forms, the compound contains nitrogen

(c) The Lucas test is a chemical test that distinguishes between primary,
secondary, and tertiary alcohols

The Lucas test can also determine which alcohol produces the fastest alkyl
halide.

59. Explain the IUPAC rules for naming acyclic hydrocarbons. Provide
examples.

Answer: The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) has
established systematic rules for naming acyclic hydrocarbons:

1. Identify the Parent Chain: The longest continuous chain of carbon atoms is
selected as the parent chain. For example, in CH3CH2CH(CH3)CH2CH3 , the
parent chain has five carbons, so it is named pentane.
2. Number the Parent Chain: Number the carbon atoms in the chain, starting
from the end nearest to a substituent.
3. Name Substituents: Name and position all substituent groups attached to
the parent chain. For example, in 2-methylpentane, a methyl group is on
the second carbon.
4. Multiple Substituents: Use prefixes (di-, tri-, tetra-) for identical
substituents. Example: 2,2-dimethylpropane.
5. Functional Groups: Assign priority to functional groups and include their
suffixes in the name. Example: CH3CH2OHCH_3CH_2OHCH3CH2OH is
ethanol.
6. Alphabetical Order: Arrange substituents alphabetically, disregarding
prefixes.

These rules standardize naming, facilitating clear communication among

chemists. For example, CH3CH2CH2CH3 is butane, and CH3CH=CH2 is propene.

60. What is isomerism? Explain structural isomerism with examples.

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Answer: Isomerism occurs when compounds have the same molecular
formula but different structures or arrangements of atoms. Isomers
are classified into structural and stereoisomers.
Structural Isomerism: This occurs due to differences in the connectivity of
atoms. Types include:

1. Chain Isomerism: Different arrangements of the carbon skeleton. Example:

C5H12 has n-pentane, isopentane, and neopentane.
2. Position Isomerism: Functional groups are in different positions on the
carbon chain. Example: C3H8O can be 1-propanol or 2-propanol.
3. Functional Group Isomerism: Compounds have different functional groups.
Example: C2H6O can be ethanol (alcohol) or dimethyl ether (ether).
4. Metamerism: Caused by unequal distribution of alkyl groups around a
functional group. Example: Ethyl methyl ether and diethyl ether.
5. Tautomerism: Rapid equilibrium between isomers, usually involving proton
transfer. Example: Keto-enol tautomerism in acetone.

Structural isomerism explains the diversity of organic compounds, highlighting

the importance of connectivity in determining chemical and physical
properties.

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 Hydrocarbons
24
2222

Short summary What do we learn Quick Revision

 Hydrocarbons – Introduction  Methods of preparation

We have studied in the previous ❶ From Haloalkanes (Alkyl Halides):

lesson that hydrocarbons are the Monohaloalkanes can be converted to
compounds containing carbon and alkanes by following three methods:
hydrogen.
a) By reduction of haloalkanes: The
 They are classified as aliphatic, replacement of halogen atom of
alicyclic and aromatic haloalkanes with hydrogen is called
hydrocarbons. the reduction and can be carried out
 They constitute a very important by the following reagents :
class of organic compounds and
are widely used as fuels, lubricants (i)
and dry cleaning agents.
 They are considered to be the (ii)
parent organic compounds, from
which other organic compounds (iii)
can be derived by replacing one or
more hydrogen atoms with b) By using Grignard reagent:
different functional groups. A Grignard reagent is a compund of
the type RMgX which is prepared by
reacting a haloalkane with
 Alkanes
magnesium metal in the presence of
“Alkanes are saturated dry ether.
hydrocarbons. They are very less
reactive towards various reagents.”
Hence, they are also referred to as
paraffins (parum means little, affins
means affinity).

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 Methods of preparation  Physical properties of alkanes

c) by wurtz reaction: ❶Density: The density of alkanes

increases with the increase in
molecular mass which increases with
the increase in the number of carbon
❷ From unsaturated Hydrocarbons:
atoms.

- Their density is less than 1.0

g/cm3(lighter than water).

This reaction is also called ❷Boiling Point: The boiling points of

‘hydrogenation’ and is used to alkanes also increase with the
prepare vegetable ghee from edible increase in the molecular mass.
oils (by converting unsaturated fats to
❸Melting Point: Similar to the
saturated ones.)
boiling points, the melting points of
❸ From Alcohols, Aldehydes and alkanes also increase with the
Ketones : increase in their molecular mass, but
there is no regular variation in melting
point.

- The alkanes with odd number of

carbon atoms have lower melting
point than those having even
❹ From Carboxylic Acids: Carboxylic number of carbon atoms.
acids can produce alkanes in a
number of ways as shown below: ❹ Physical state: The physical state
i) Heating with soda lime: of alkanes changes from gaseous to
liquid, and then to solid.

ii) By Reduction of carboxylic acid: - The alkanes containing 1 to 4

carbon atoms are gases, whereas
those containing 5 to 17 carbon
iii) Kolbe’s Electrolysis: atoms are liquids, and the still
higher ones are solids.

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 Physical properties of alkanes  Chemical properties of alkanes

❶Density: The density of alkanes 1. Halogenation reactions: The

increases with the increase in chemical reactions in which a
molecular mass which increases with hydrogen atom of
an alkane is replaced by a halogen
the increase in the number of carbon
atom are known as halogenation.
atoms.
The free radical mechanism
- Their density is less than 1.0 g/cm3
involves the following three steps:
(lighter than water).
(i) Chain initiation step
❷Boiling Point: The boiling points of
(ii) Chain propagation step
alkanes also increase with the
(iii) Chain termination step
increase in the molecular mass.
2. Oxidation: Alkanes undergo
❸Melting Point: Similar to the
oxidation (combustion) in excess of
boiling points, the melting points of
oxygen and produce carbon dioxide
alkanes also increase with the
and water. This reaction is highly
increase in their molecular mass, but
exothermic in nature.For example :
there is no regular variation in melting
point.

- The alkanes with odd number of 3. Cracking or Pyrolysis: At very high

carbon atoms have lower melting temperature and in the absence of
point than those having even air, the alkanes break apart into
number of carbon atoms. smaller fragments. For example,
❹ Physical state: The physical state
of alkanes changes from gaseous to
liquid, and then to solid.
4. Isomerisation: n-Alkanes, in the
- The alkanes containing 1 to 4 presence of aluminium halide and
carbon atoms are gases, whereas HCl, are converted to their branched
those containing 5 to 17 carbon isomers.
atoms are liquids, and the still
higher ones are solids.

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 Uses of alkanes  Methods of preparation

Alkanes are single-bonded carbon 1. From Haloalkanes: The process of

compounds. removal of halogen acid like HCl, HBr
or HI from the adjacent carbon atoms
- Alkanes are used in cooking and
of alkyl halides, when reacted with
heating as they are combustible
alcoholic solution of potassium
substances.
hydroxide, is called
- Natural gas is composed of
‘dehydrohalogenation’ .
methane and ethane which are
used as fuel.
- Alkanes are used as lubricating oils
in chemical factories. Saytzeff’s Rule: It states that when
- Alkanes are used for the electricity an alkyl halide reacts with alcoholic
generation processes. solution of potassium hydroxide and
- Fertilizers are manufactured with if two alkenes are possible, then the
the help of Alkanes. one which is more substituted, will be
- Alkanes are used as solvents. the major product.

2. From Alcohols: Alkenes can be

prepared from alcohols by
 Alkenes dehydration in the presence of a
suitable dehydrating agent such as (i)
“These are unsaturated
Al2O3 or (ii) concentrated H2SO4.
hydrocarbons containing at least one
double bond between two carbon
atoms.”

The hydrocarbons of this class are

also called ‘olefines’ (olefiant = oil In the dehydration of higher alcohols,
forming). the major product obtained is
according to the Saytzeff’s Rule.
The structure of alkene is:

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 Physical properties of Alkenes  Chemical properties of Alkenes

Some important physical properties of (iii) Addition of Halogen Acids (HX):

alkanes are as follows:

❶ Physical State: Unbranched

alkenes containing upto four carbon (iv) Addition of Water:
atoms are gases and containing five to
sixteen carbon atoms are liquids while
those with more than 16 carbon
(v) Addition of H2SO4:
atoms are solids.

❷Boiling Points: The boiling points

increase with molecular mass.
(vi) Addition Polymerization:
❸Melting Point: In alkenes, there is
increase in the melting point with the
increase in molecular mass. In the
case of isomeric alkenes, the cis and 2. Oxidation: The oxidation of alkenes
trans isomers have different melting can be done by using different
points. oxidizing agents like KMnO4, oxygen
and ozone.

(i) Oxidation with KMnO4

 Chemical properties of Alkenes

1. Addition Reactions: The chemical

reactions in which a molecule adds to
another molecule are called an (ii) Oxidation with Oxygen:
addition reaction.

(i) Addition of Hydrogen:

(iii) Combustion:

(ii) Addition of Halogens: (iv) Oxidation with Ozone:

This process of addition

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8368259468 5
an unsaturated hydrocarbon followed
by hydrolysis is called ozonolysis.
 Electrophillic addition reaction  Alkynes

The basic mechanism involved in it is These are also unsaturated

shown below: hydrocarbons which contain atleast
one triple bond between two carbon
atoms.

The more the ease of reaction, more  Preparation of Alkynes

stable is the intermediates i.e. 1. Preparation of ethyne
carbocation. (Acettylene)
(i) From calcium oxide:

 Uses of Alkenes
(ii) From dihalolkanes:
- Ethene is used for making mustard
gas, which is a poisonous gas used
in warfare.
- It is also used for artificial ripening
of fruits, as a general anaesthetic
and for producing other useful
materials such as polythene, (iii) From higher alkynes:
ethanal, ethylene glycol
(antifreeze), ethylene oxide
(fumigant) etc.

 Physical properties of Alkynes

1. First three members of alkynes are gases, the next eight members are liquids
and members having more than twelve carbon atoms are solids.
2. They are colourless and odourless, except ethyne which has a garlic odour.

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 Chemical properties of alkynes  Acidic nature of ethyne
1. Addition reactions:
The acidic nature of hydrocarbon can
- Addition of hydrogen:
be determined with the help of the
percentage (%) of s – character of the
- Addition of halogens: hydrocarbon.

- Addition of halogen acids (HX):

- Addition of water:

- Addition of H2SO4:

 Uses of alkynes
- Ethyne (acetylene) is used for
2. Oxidation: producing oxyacetylene flame
(i) Oxidation with KMnO4: (2800°C) which is used for welding
and cutting of iron and steel.
- It is used for artificial ripening of
fruits and vegetables.
Combustion:

 Aromatic compounds
Ozolysis:
Aromatic compounds are chemical
compounds that consists of
conjugated planer ring system
3. Formation of Acetylides: accompanied by delocalized pi –
electron clouds in place of individual
alternating double and single bond.

Examples –: benzene, toluene etc.

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 Structure of benzene  Physical properties of

The molecular formula of benzene is aromatic hydrocarbon

C6H6 which indicates that benzene is 1. Benzene and its homologues are
an unsaturated hydrocarbon. colourless liquids having a
The unsaturation in benzene can be characteristic odour.
verified by the following reactions. 2. They are immiscible in water but
(i) Benzene undergoes the addition of are miscible in all proportions with
H2 in the presence of Ni or Pt as organic solvents such as alcohol,
catalyst. ether, petrol, etc. They dissolve fats
and many other organic substances.

3. Most of the aromatic hydrocarbons

are lighter than water.
(ii) Benzene undergoes the addition of
4. Their boiling points show a gradual
chlorine in the presence of sunlight.
increase with increasing molecular
mass e.g. benzene (b.p. 353 K),
toluene (b.p. 383 K) and ethylbenzene
(b.p. 409 K) and so on.
Alkaline solution of potassium
permanganate (Bayer’s Reagent).

 Chemical properties of
aromatic hydrocarbon
However, benzene undergoes
Aromatic hydrocarbons generally
substitution reactions.
undergo electrophillic substitutions
Kekule Structure:
1. Halogenation:

2. Nitration:

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 Chemical properties of  Aromaticity
aromatic hydrocarbon Aromaticity is a chemical property
3. Sulphonation: that describes “the stability of a
molecule with a conjugated ring of
unsaturated bonds, lone pairs, or
4. Friedal craft’s reaction: empty orbitals”.

In friedal craft’s reaction, benzene is Benzene is aromatic in nature. But to

heated either with alkyl halides complete the argument for its
(alkylation) or acyl halide (acylation) aromatic nature, we have to check
in the presence of a catalyst whether it follows Huckel’s rule or
(anhydrous AlCl3). The products not.
formed are alkyl or acyl derivatives of According to Huckel rule – a molecule
benzene. is aromatic only if it has a planar,
monocyclic system of conjugated 4n +
2 π electrons where n = 0, 1, 2, 3, ….
Thus, molecules with 2, 6, 10, 14 π …
electrons can be aromatic.

 Carcinogenicity and toxicity

Carcinogenicity is the ability of a

substance to cause cancer, while
 Directive influence of toxicity is the degree to which a
substance can damage an organism.
functional groups

 Uses of aromatic compounds

Benzene is used as a solvent for several

organic compounds and thus, acts as a
medium for carrying out synthetic reactions.
In case of nitrobenze, we find that –
NO2 group is a meta directing group. Toluene, uses for dry-cleaning, as a solvent,
and as a starting material for the
manufacture of dyes, drugs, explosive
(trinitrotoluene, T.N.T.), benzaldehyde,
benzoic acid etc.

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 Question – Answer

❶ MCQs

1. Which of the following statements is correct regarding alkanes?

(A) They are unsaturated hydrocarbons.
(B) They undergo addition reactions.
(C) They have only sigma bonds.
(D) They are highly reactive.

Answer: (C) They have only sigma bonds.

2. What is the general formula of alkanes?

(A) CnH2n+2 (B) CnH2n (C) CnH2n-2 (D) CnH2n+1

Answer: (A) CnH2n+2

3. Which of the following reagents is used to distinguish between alkanes

and alkenes?
(A) Bromine water (B) Potassium permanganate
(C) Sodium metal (D) Both (A) and (B)

Answer: (D) Both (A) and (B)

4. What happens when ethene reacts with bromine in CCl4?

(A) Decolorization of bromine occurs.
(B) Formation of a white precipitate.
(C) No reaction takes place.
(D) Oxidation of ethene.

Answer: (A) Decolorization of bromine occurs.

5. Which is the major product when 1-butyne reacts with excess HBr?
(A) 1-Bromobutene (B) 2-Bromobutene
(C) 1,1-Dibromobutane (D) 2,2-Dibromobutane

Answer: (C) 1,1-Dibromobutane

6. Which of the following is not true for alkenes?

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 (A) They undergo addition reactions.
(B) They decolorize bromine water.
(C) They have sp3 hybridized carbon atoms.
(D) Their general formula is CnH2n.

Answer: (C) They have sp3 hybridized carbon atoms.

7. Which product is formed when ethyne reacts with water in the presence
of HgSO4 and H2SO4?
(A) Ethanol (B) Acetaldehyde (C) Acetone (D) Acetic acid

Answer: (B) Acetaldehyde

8. Sulphonation of aniline at 455–475 K produces:

(A) sulphonic acid (B) benzenediazonium sulphate
(C) anilinium hydrogen sulphate (D) sulphanilic acid

Answer: (D) sulphanilic acid [PYQ NIOS April 2024]

9. What is the product when methane is treated with chlorine in the

presence of sunlight?
(A) Chloroform (B) Dichloromethane
(C) Methyl chloride (D) A mixture of chlorinated products

Answer: (D) A mixture of chlorinated products

10. Which of the following statements is incorrect for alkynes?

(A) They contain at least one triple bond.
(B) Their general formula is CnH2n-2.
(C) They undergo electrophilic addition reactions.
(D) They react with ammoniacal AgNO3 to form a red precipitate.

Answer: (D) They react with ammoniacal AgNO3 to form a red precipitate.

11. Which alkane is commonly known as marsh gas?

(A) Methane (B) Ethane (C) Propane (D) Butane

Answer: (A) Methane

12. What is the product of the complete combustion of ethyne?

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 (A) Carbon dioxide and water
(B) Carbon monoxide and water
(C) Carbon black and hydrogen
(D) Carbon monoxide and hydrogen

Answer: (A) Carbon dioxide and water

13. The treatment of benzene with acid gives …………..

(A) Isobutyl benzene (B) Tert-butyl benzene
(C) n-Butyl benzene (D) No reaction

Answer: (B) Tert-butyl benzene [PYQ NIOS Oct 2017]

14. Which of the following reagents does not react with ethene?
(A) Bromine (B) Hydrogen gas
(C) Potassium permanganate (D) Sodium hydroxide

Answer: (D) Sodium hydroxide

15. What is the major product of the ozonolysis of ethene?

(A) Methanol (B) Methanal (C) Ethanal (D) Acetone

Answer: (B) Methanal

16. Which of the following has the highest boiling point?

(A) Methane (B) Ethane (C) Ethanol (D) Ethene

Answer: (C) Ethanol

17. Ethene on oxidation with cold dilute alkaline solution of KMnO4 gives

Answer: (D) CH₂OH-CH₂OH [PYQ NIOS Jan feb 2021]

18. What is the result of the oxidation of ethene with alkaline KMnO4?
(A) Carbon dioxide (B) Ethanol
(C) Ethylene glycol (D) Acetic acid

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Answer: (C) Ethylene glycol

19. Reddish brown colour of bromine dissolved in carbon tetrachloride and

purple colour of alkaline potassium permanganate solution are discharged
by:
(A) alkenes only (B) alkynes only
(C) both alkenes and alkynes (D) both alkanes and alkenes

Answer: (C) both alkenes and alkynes [PYQ NIOS April 2024]

OR

20. Sulphonation of benzene is carried out with:

(A) dil. H2SO4 (B) conc. H2SO4
(C) oleum (D) sulphur trioxide

Answer: (C) oleum [PYQ NIOS April 2024]

21. When acetylene is treated with HBr, the product is ———-

(a) Methyl bromide (b) Ethylene bromide
(c) Ethyl bromide (d) Ethylidene bromide

Answer: (d) Ethylidene bromide

22. Bond length of (I) ethane, (II) ethene, (III) acetylene and (IV) benzene
follows the order:
(a) I > II > III > IV (b) I > II > IV> III
(c) I > IV > II > III (d) III > IV > II > I

Answer: (c) I > IV > II > III

23. When phenol is treated with CHCl3 and NaOH followed by acidification,
the product formed is:
(A) benzaldehyde (B) salicylaldehyde
(C) salicylic acid (D) benzoic acid

Answer: (B) salicylaldehyde [PYQ NIOS April 2024]

24. How many carbons are there in the product of a decarboxylation

reaction when compared with the reactant?

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 a) two carbons more b) one carbon more
c) one carbon less d) an equal number of carbons

Answer: c) one carbon less

25. When phenol is treated with excess bromine water it gives………..

(A) m-bromophenol (B) o- and p-bromophenol
(C) 2,4-dibromophenol (D) 2,4,6-tribromophenol

Answer: (D) 2,4,6-tribromophenol [Sample paper]

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❷ Complete the sentence by using an appropriate word:
NOTE: Some words are extra only for make complexity or confusion.

26. Saturated, unsaturated, ethanol, pentane, carbocation, methane,

polymerization
(1) Alkanes are also known as __________ hydrocarbons.
(2) The alkane with the molecular formula C5H12 is called __________.
(3) Ethyne reacts with water in the presence of sulfuric acid and mercuric
sulfate to form __________.
(4) The intermediate formed during the electrophilic addition reaction of
alkenes is called __________.
(5) Alkenes are also known as __________ hydrocarbons.

Answer: (1) saturated, (2) pentane, (3) ethanol, (4) carbocation, (5)
unsaturated

27. CnH2n, saturated, insoluble, triple, benzene, CnHn, soluble

(a) The general formula for alkenes is __________.
(b) Alkanes are typically __________ in water due to their nonpolar nature.
(c) Alkynes contain a __________ bond between carbon atoms.
(d) When ethyne is passed through a red-hot copper tube, it forms
__________.

Answer: (a) CnH2n, (b) insoluble, (c) triple, (d) benzene

❸Fill in the blanks:

28.
1. Alkynes can be distinguished from alkenes by reacting with __________
ammoniacal solution.
2. The simplest alkyne is __________ with the formula C2H2.
3. Alkynes undergo __________ reactions similar to alkenes.
4. Ethene reacts with hydrogen in the presence of a catalyst to form
__________.

Answer: 1. Silver nitrate, 2. Ethyne, 3. Addition, 4. ethane

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❹ Match the following:

29. Match the statement given in column A with the suitable statement in
column B.

Column A (COMPOUNDS) Column B (PROPERTIES)

1. methane A. aromatic hydrocarbon
2. Ethene B. Unsaturated hydrcarbon
3. Ethyne C. saturated hydrocarbon
4. Benzene D. simplest alkyne

Answer: 1 – C, 2 – B, 3 – D, 4 – A

30. Match the statement given in column A with the suitable statement in
column B.

Column A Column B
1. Ligands A. Primary and secondary valency
2. Werner’s theory B. Stability increase
3. Linkage isomerism C. Donate lone pairs
4. Chelate effect D. Different donor atoms

Answer: 1 – C, 2 – A, 3 – D, 4 – B

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❺ True or false:

31. Alkanes are reactive due to the presence of double bonds.

 False.

32. Alkanes are nonpolar and are insoluble in water.

 True.

33. Methane is the simplest alkane with the formula C1H4.

 False.

34. The boiling points of alkanes increase with the number of carbon atoms.
 True.

35. The simplest alkene, ethene, can react with hydrogen in the presence of
a nickel catalyst to form ethane.

 True.

36. The combustion of alkanes produces carbon monoxide and water.

 False.

37. The reaction of ethyne with water in the presence of sulfuric acid and
mercuric sulfate forms ethanol.

 True.

38. The simplest alkyne, ethyne (acetylene), has the formula C2H2
 True.

39. Alkenes do not undergo combustion.

 False.
40. Alkenes are unsaturated hydrocarbons that contain a triple bond
between carbon atoms.

 False.

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❻ Passage:

41. Read the passage given below and answer the following questions (out
of four attempt any two) : 1×2=2 [PYQ NIOS April 2024]

Nitro compounds are those derivatives of hydrocarbons in which a hydrogen

atom is replaced by a nitro group. These may be aliphatic or aromatic.
Nitroalkanes are divided into primary, secondary or tertiary depending upon
the attachment of nitro group to primary, secondary or tertiary carbon atom
respectively.

(a) Name the following compound according to the IUPAC nomenclature :

(b) What happens when propane reacts with nitric acid at 680 K? Give the
chemical equation.

(c) Write the reduction of nitrobenzene in alkaline medium.

(d) Compare the boiling points of nitro compounds with the corresponding
alkanes. Justify your answer.

Answer:
(a) The compound is named 2-nitro-3-methylpentane.
(b) When propane reacts with nitric acid at 680 K, it undergoes a nitration
reaction, producing a mixture of nitroalkanes. The reaction can be represented
as:
680K
C₃H₈ + HNO₃ ----------> C₃H₇NO₂ + H₂O
(c) When nitrobenzene is reduced in an alkaline medium (e.g., Zn/NaOH), it
forms phenylhydroxylamine.
Zn/NaOH
C₆H₅NO₂ + 4[H] ----------> C₆H₅NHOH + H₂O
(d) Nitro compounds have higher boiling points than their corresponding
alkanes.

Justification:

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Nitro compounds are polar molecules due to the presence of the -NO₂ group,
which leads to strong intermolecular dipole-dipole interactions.

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❼Very short type questions [2 marks]:

42. What are cycloalkanes?

Answer: When carbon atoms form closed chains or ring compounds, which
are similar to alkanes, all carbon is connected with single bonds in
such a way that it gives a closed structure, and cycloalkanes are formed.

Some common examples of cycloalkanes are cyclopentane, Cyclobutane,

cyclohexane, cycloheptane, cyclooctane, etc

43. What is hydrogenation?

Answer: Dihydrogen gas is added to gas and alkenes in the presence of finely
divided catalysts like Pt, Pd, or Ni to create alkanes. This process is
known as hydrogenation.

44. Methane does not react with chlorine in the dark. Why?
Answer: Chlorination of Methane is a substitution process that uses free
radicals. The reaction does not occur because chlorine cannot be
converted into free radicals in the dark.

45. Why does the presence of a nitro group make the benzene ring less
reactive than the unsubstituted benzene ring? Explain.

Answer: The Nitro group is an electron-withdrawing group (-R and -I effects).

It deactivates the ring by decreasing nucleophilicity for further substitution.

46. Arrange the following hydrogen halides in order of their decreasing

reactivity with propene. Give explaination.
(i) HCl > HBr > HI
(ii) HBr > HI > HCl
(iii) HI > HBr > HCl

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 (iv) HCl > HI > HBr

Answer: (iii) HI > HBr > HCl

Bond strength and bond dissociation energy are two factors that impact the
reactivity of hydrogen halides. We are aware that the size of the halogen atom
increases while the bond dissociation energy and bond strength decreases in
halogen halides. Hence, the reactivity increases.

47. Explain sulphonation of benzene. Give chemical equation.

[PYQ NIOS April 2023]

Answer: Sulfonation of benzene is an electrophilic substitution reaction that

produces benzenesulfonic acid from benzene and sulfuric acid.

C6H6 + H2SO4 → C6H5 + SO3H + H2O

48. Write reactions of phenol with bromine

a) in aqueous solution and
b) in less polar solvent such as carbon disulphide [PYQ NIOS Jan feb 2021]

Answer: (a)

(b)

49. How many moles of methane are required to produce 22.0 g CO2(g)
after combustion of methane ? [PYQ NIOS Oct 2021]

Answer: CH4 + O2⟶ CO2 + 2H2O

Gram molecular mass of CO2 = 12 +2(16) = 44g/mol

From the reaction it is clear that 1 mole of methane on complete combustion

produces 44g (1 mole) of carbon dioxide.

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Therefore moles of CH4 required to produce 22g of CO2 are:

= 144 × 22 = 0.5 mol

50. In the alkane, CH3CH2—C(CH3)2—CH2—CH(CH3)2, identify 1°, 2°, 3°

carbon atoms and give the number of H-atoms bonded to each one of
these.

Answer: The expanded formula of the given compound is

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❽Short type questions [3 marks]:

51. How will you account for the structure of benzene?

Answer: In benzene, all six carbon atoms are sp2 hybridized. Each carbon
atom's two sp2 hybrid orbitals overlap with the sp2 hybrid orbitals of
neighboring carbon atoms to create six C-C sigma bonds in the hexagonal
plane.

Each carbon atom's remaining sp2 hybrid orbital overlaps with a hydrogen
atom's s-orbital to produce six C-H sigma bonds. One hybridized p-orbital
perpendicular to the ring plane remains for each carbon atom. The
unhybridized p-orbital of the carbon atoms will form the pi-bond.

52. What are the necessary conditions for any system to be aromatic?
Answer: The necessary conditions for a molecule to be aromatic are:
It should have a single cyclic cloud of delocalised n-electrons above and below
the plane of the molecule.

It should be planar. This is because complete delocalization of n-electrons is

possible only if the ring is planar to allow cyclic overlap of p-orbitals.

It should contain Huckel number of electrons, i.e., (4n + 2) n-electrons where n

= 0, 1, 2, 3 etc.
A molecule which does not satisfy any one or more of the above conditions is
said to be non-aromatic.

53. How do you account for the formation of ethane during chlorination of
methane?

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Answer: Chlorination of methane is a free radical reaction which occurs by
the following mechanism:

From the above mechanism, it is evident that during propagation step,

CH3 free radicals are produced which may undergo three reactions, i.e., (i) —
(iii). In the chain termination step, the two CH3 free radicals combine together
to form ethane (CH3—CH3) molecule.

54. How will you carry out the following conversions?

(i) Aniline to benzene
(ii) Propane – 1 – ol to 1 - chloropropane [PYQ NIOS April 2023]

Answer: (i) Conversion of Aniline to Benzene

Step 1: Convert aniline (C₆H₅NH₂) to diazonium salt (C₆H₅N₂⁺Cl⁻) by reaction
with nitrous acid (HNO₂) at 273–278 K.

C₆H₅NH₂ + HNO₂ + HCl → C₆H₅N₂⁺Cl⁻+ 2H₂O

Step 2: Reduce the diazonium salt to benzene using hypophosphorous acid

(H₃PO₂) or ethanol.

C₆H₅N₂⁺Cl⁻+ H₃PO₂ + H₂O → C₆H₆ + N₂ + HCl

(ii) Conversion of Propane-1-ol to 1-Chloropropane

React propane-1-ol (C₃H₇OH) with thionyl chloride (SOCl₂) in the presence of

pyridine. This is a nucleophilic substitution reaction where the -OH group is
replaced by a -Cl group.

C₃H₇OH + SOCl₂ → C₃H₇Cl + SO₂ + HCl

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55. What changes are observed when the following reagents are added to
alkanes, alkenes and alkynes? Write your answer in a tabular form.
Reagents :
(i) Bromine in CCl4
(ii) Baeyer’s reagent
(iii) Ammoniacal solution of AgNO3 and
(iv) Ammoniacal solution of Cu2Cl2 [PYQ NIOS Oct 2022]

Answer:
Reagent Alkanes Alkenes Alkynes

(i) Bromine in No change Decolorization Decolorization of

CCl₄ observed. of bromine bromine solution
solution (addition reaction).
(addition
reaction).
(ii) Baeyer’s No change Decolorization Decolorization of
reagent observed. of KMnO₄ KMnO₄ solution
(KMnO₄) solution (oxidation reaction).
(oxidation
reaction).
(iii) Ammoniacal No reaction No reaction Forms a white
solution of occurs. occurs. precipitate of silver
AgNO₃ acetylide (R–C≡C–Ag).
(iv) Ammoniacal No reaction No reaction Forms a red precipitate
solution of occurs. occurs. of copper acetylide (R–
Cu₂Cl₂ C≡C–Cu).

56. Ethyne is acidic in nature in comparison to ethene and ethane. Why is

it so?

Answer: Hydrogen atoms are joined to sp hybridised carbon atoms in ethyne,

whereas they are joined to sp2 hybridised carbon atoms in ethene
3
and sp hybridised carbons in ethane.

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Due to the largest percentage of s-character (50%) in ethyne molecules, the
carbon atoms’ sp hybridised orbitals have the highest electronegativity (50%)
of any orbital.

In comparison to the sp2 hybridised orbitals of carbon in ethene and the

sp3 hybridised orbitals of carbon in ethane, this attracts the shared pair of the
C-H bond of ethyne more strongly. Hydrogen atoms can be released as protons
more readily in the ethyne molecule as compared to ethene and ethane.

57. What are different types of hydrocarbon?

Answer: The four types of hydrocarbon are as follows:
Saturated hydrocarbons: Compounds with a single bond between carbon
atoms are known as saturated hydrocarbons. They play a significant part in
petroleum fuel.

Unsaturated hydrocarbons: Hydrocarbons that are unsaturated have at least

one double or triple bond between their carbon atoms. Alkynes are organic
compounds with triple bonds, while alkenes are compounds with double
bonds.

Aliphatic hydrocarbons: The chemical breakdown of fats produces alpha-

hydroxycarbons. These are typically chemical compounds with one or more
hydrogen atoms swapped out for halogen atoms.

Aromatic hydrocarbons: These are identified by the presence of benzene rings.

They release a variety of scents. The sole atoms in these hydrocarbons are
carbon and hydrogen.

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❾ Long type questions [5 marks]:

58. The compound X with formula C6H6O is aromatic in nature and shows
acidic behavior and is used as a disinfactant. Identify X. Give its two
methods of laboratory synthesis and write the reactions involved.
[PYQ NIOS Oct 2022]

Answer: The compound X is phenol (C₆H₅OH). It is aromatic, exhibits acidic

behavior due to the hydroxyl (-OH) group attached to the benzene
ring, and is commonly used as a disinfectant.

Laboratory Synthesis of Phenol:

1. From Chlorobenzene (Dow’s Process):

Chlorobenzene is heated with aqueous sodium hydroxide at high temperature

and pressure, followed by acidification with hydrochloric acid.
300°C, 200 atm
C6H5Cl + 2NaOH --------------> C6H5ONa + H2O
C6H5ONa + HCl -------> C6H5OH + NaCl
2. From Benzene Sulfonic Acid:

Benzene is first sulfonated with concentrated sulfuric acid to form benzene

sulfonic acid. This is then fused with sodium hydroxide, followed by
acidification.

C6H6 + H2SO4 ----------> C6H5SO3H

Heat
C6H5SO3H + 2NaOH -----------> C6H5ONa + Na2SO3
C6H5ONa + Na2SO3 ----------> C6H5OH + NaCl

59. An alkyl halide C5H11Br (A) reacts with ethanolic KOH to give an alkene
‘B’, which reacts with Br2 to give a compound ‘C’, which on
dehydrobromination provides an alkyne with ‘D’. On treatment with
sodium metal in liquid ammonia, one mole of ‘D’ gives one mole of the
sodium salt of ‘D’ and half a mole of hydrogen gas. Complete
hydrogenation of ‘D’ yields a straight-chain alkane. Identify A, B, C and D.
Give the reactions involved.

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Answer:

The reactions suggest that (D) is a terminal alkyne. This means a triple bond is
at the end of the chain. It could be either (I) or (II).

Since alkyne ‘D’ on hydrogenation yields straight-chain alkane, the structure I is

alkyne (D).

Hence, A, B and C structures are as follows:

CH3-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2Br

CH3-CH2-CH2-CH=CH2

CH3-CH2-CH2-CH(Br)-CH2Br

60. How will you convert benzene into

(i) p – Nitro bromo benzene
(ii) m – Nitrochloro benzene
(iii) p – Nitro toluene

Answer:
(i) Benzene will be treated with bromine to form bromobenzene. This
bromobenzene will be treated with concentrated sulfuric acid and nitric
acid to form p-Nitrobromobenzene. The reaction is given below:

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(ii) Benzene will be treated with concentrated sulfuric acid and nitric acid to
form nitrobenzene. This Nitrobenzene will be treated with chlorine to
form mNitrochloro benzene. The reaction is given below:

(iii) Benzene will be treated with chloromethane to form Toluene. This

toluene will be treated with concentrated sulfuric acid and nitric acid to
form pNitrotoluene. The reaction is given below:

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 COMPOUNDS OF CARBON CONTAINING HALOGENS
25
(HALOALKANES AND HALOARENES)
2222

Short summary What do we learn Quick Revision

 Introduction  Nomenclature of haloalkanes

 Select the longest chain of carbon
When a hydrogen attached to a
that contains the halogen atom.
carbon atom in the hydrocarbons is
 Give least possible number to the
replaced by a halogen atom (i.e.
halogen atom.
F,Cl,Br or I), the compounds formed
are called haloalkanes or haloarenes.  The carbon containing double or
triple bond is given the least
 Haloalkanes number.
 Place the suitable suffix like di, tri,
Halo alkanes are the compounds
tetra for 2, 3, 4 halogen atoms
containing halogen atom attached to
respectively.
the sp3 hybridized carbon atom of an
 Name the compounds as halo
alkyl group.
alkanes, halo alkenes or halo
alkynes.

For example,

General formula: CnH2n+1X

 Haloarenes

Haloarenes are the compounds

containing halogen atom attached
to sp2 hybridized carbon atom of an
aryl group.

General formula: Ar - X

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 Nomenclature of haloarenes  Preparation of haloalkanes
 Commonly they are termed aryl
(b) Reaction with phosphorus
halides.
halides:
 Numerical prefixes (1,2) ; (1,3) ;
(1,4) for [for positions of the
compound with respect to halogen
atom.
 The halogen atom is given the (c) Reaction with thionyl compounds:
least number.

For example,
Ethanol Chloroethane

 Preparation of haloarenes

(i) From aromatic hydrocarbons:

 Preparation of haloalkanes When X = Cl or Br

(i) From Hydrocarbons: Direct

halogenation of hydrocarbons takes
place in the presence of sunlight or at
high temperature in dark. For This reaction is known as Sandmeyer’s
example, chloroethane is prepared by reaction. It is used for introduction a
monochlorination of ethane. chloro or bromo group in the benzene
ring.
(ii) From Alcohols: Alcohols are
converted into haloalkanes by (ii) From diazonium salts:
treating with (a) hydrogen halides (b)
phosphorus halides or (c) thionyl
chloride.

(a) Reaction with Hydrogen Halides: Gattermann reaction:

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 Physical properties  Chemical properties
 Color
Halo compounds can undergo the
Haloalkanes are colorless and following types of reactions :
odorless. Haloarenes can be colorless
Substitution Reaction with metals
liquids or crystalline solids.

 Boiling point Halo compounds

The boiling point of haloalkanes
increases with the number of Elimination Reduction
halogens and is higher than alkanes
Relative reactivity of alkyl halides for
with the same number of carbon
same alkyl group is RI > RBr > RCI> RF
atoms. The boiling point order for
alkyl halides is RI > RBr > RCl > RF. The
boiling point order for haloarenes is
iodoarene > bromoarene >  Substitution reaction
chloroarene.
Nucleophilic substitution reactions
 Solubility involve the replacement of a leaving
group (usually a halogen) in a
Haloalkanes and haloarenes are molecule with a nucleophile.
insoluble in water.
Nucleophilic substitution reactions
 Intermolecular forces are most common reactions of alkyl
Haloalkanes and haloarenes have halides.
strong intermolecular forces of The most common nucleophiles are
attraction due to dipole-dipole and OH- , CN-, NO2-, SH-, NH2-, OR- , RCOO-
van der Waals interactions.
Following are some examples:
 Reactivity

Haloalkanes are reactive and undergo

substitution, elimination, and Nucleophilic substitution may take
reduction reactions. They also react place in two ways:
with some metals to form
1. SN1 Mechanism
organometallic compounds.
2. SN2 Mechanism
Stability

The
Allstability of alkyl
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as the strength of the C-X bond
 Charactersitic of SN1  Elimination reaction

Kinetics: first-order kinetics. The rate Dehydrohalogenation is a -elimination

of reaction is given by the equation: reaction in which halogen is
rate = k[RX], where RX = substrate. from α carbon atom and the
hydrogen from the β carbon
Mechanism: Occurs in two steps.
according to Saytzeff rule, e.g.
First, the leaving group departs to
form a carbocation intermediate,
followed by the nucleophile attacking
the carbocation.
 Reduction reaction
Identity of R: More substituted Haloalkanes can be reduced to the
halides (tertiary) react fastest, as the corresponding alkanes.
formation of a stable carbocation is
For example,
favored.

Rate: The order of reactivity is R₃CX >

R₂CHX > RCH₂X > CH₃X.

 Charactersitic of SN2  Reaction with metals

Kinetics: second-order kinetics. The

rate of the reaction is given by the 1. Wurts reaction:
equation: rate = k[RX][Nu], where RX 2R-X + 2Na → R-R + 2Na+ X–
= substrate and Nu = nucleophile.
2. Wurts – fitting reaction:
Mechanism: Occurs in a single step.
The nucleophile attacks the carbon 2C2H5Br + 2Na →C4H10+ 2NaBr
atom from the backside while the
leaving group departs simultaneously. 3. Reaction with mg:
Identity of R: Unhindered halides C2H5- Cl + mg →C4H5 – mg - cl
(methyl or primary) react fastest, as
steric hindrance inhibits the
nucleophile’s attack.

Rate: The order of reactivity is CH₃X >

RCH₂X > R₂CHX > R₃CX.

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 Distinction between haoalkanes  Chloroform
and haloarenes

Haloalkane and haloarenes can be

distinguished by silver nitrate
(AgNO3).
This test is also known as carbolamine
Haloalkanes react with AgNO3 to give test. It can be used to test aliphatic
white precipitate of AgCl while and aromatic primary amines.
haloarenes do not react.
 Iodoform
RCl + NaOH  NaCl + ROH
Triiodomethane, commonly known as
NaCl + AgNO3  AgCl ↓ NaNO3
Iodoform, serves primarily as an
antiseptic. Its antiseptic properties
arise from the liberation of free iodine
 Some important halogen
rather than from Iodoform itself.
compounds

Some of the important compounds

are chloroform (CHCl3), iodoform
(CHI3), carbon tetrachloride (CCl4),
benzene hexachloride (BHC), DDT,
 Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane
etc.
(DDT)
 Chloroform
It is available in several different
From Ethanol: Chlorofom is prepared forms: powder, aerosols, granules,
in the laboratory by treating ethanol etc.
or propanone with chlorine gas in the
presence of an alkali:

Chloroform is a colourless sweet

smelling liquid (b.p. 334k).

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 Question – Answer

❶ MCQs

1. Which of the following is the correct IUPAC name for CH3- CH(Br)- CH3?
a) 1-Bromo-2-propane b) 2-Bromopropane
c) 1-Bromopropane d) Bromopropane

Answer: b) 2-Bromopropane

2. Which reagent is used to prepare chloroalkanes from alcohols?

a) H2SO4 b) PCl3 c) NaOH d) KMnO4

Answer: b) PCl3

3. The best method to prepare alkyl fluorides is:

a) Finkelstein reaction b) Swarts reaction
c) Sandmeyer reaction d) Wurtz reaction

Answer: b) Swarts reaction

4. Chloroform can be oxidized to which toxic compound in the presence of

air and light?
a) Phosgene b) Carbon tetrachloride
c) Dichloromethane d) Trichloroethanol

Answer: a) Phosgene

5. Iodoform test is used to detect:

a) Primary alcohols b) Ketones with methyl group
c) Secondary alcohols d) Aromatic compounds

Answer: b) Ketones with methyl group

6. Which of the following statements about DDT is correct?

a) It is biodegradable b) It accumulates in the food chain
c) It is used as a solvent d) It is a natural product

Answer: b) It accumulates in the food chain

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7. What is the major product when 1-bromopropane is treated with aqueous
KOH?
a) Propanol b) Propene c) Propane d) Bromopropane

Answer: a) Propanol

8. Which compound does not undergo hydrolysis?

a) CH3CH2Cl b) C6H5Cl c) CH3CH2CH2Cl d) CH3Cl

Answer: b) C6H5Cl

9. Which of the following reagents is used to convert chlorobenzene to

phenol?
a) NaOH (aq), high pressure b) H2SO4
c) HCl d) AlCl3

Answer: a) NaOH (aq), high pressure

10. The melting and boiling points of haloalkanes and haloarenes are
higher than those of their parent hydrocarbons due to:
(A) lower molecular masses
(B) lower magnitude of van der Waals forces of attraction
(C) the existence of intermolecular dipole-dipole interaction
(D) their capability to form intermolecular hydrogen bonds

Answer: (C) the existence of intermolecular dipole-dipole interaction.

[PYQ NIOS April 2024]

11. Monohalo, dihalo, trihalo and tetrahalo are types of haloalkanes and
haloarenes based on the ______
a) type of halogen atom
b) number of halogen atoms
c) nature of carbon atom
d) hybridisation of C atom to which halogen is bonded

Answer: b) number of halogen atoms.

12. The compound C6H5F is an example of a ________ halide.

a) allylic b) benzylic c) vinylic d) aryl

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Answer: d) aryl

13. A mono haloarenes is an example of __________

a) aliphatic halogen compound b) side-chain substituted aryl halide
c) alkyl halide d) aromatic halogen compound

Answer: d) aromatic halogen compound

14. Which of the following substances has the highest melting point?
a) Chloromethane b) Tetrachloromethane
c) Trichloromethane d) Dichloromethane

Answer: b) Tetrachloromethane

15. The main difference between C – X bond of a haloalkane and a

haloarene is:
(a) C – X bond in haloalkanes is shorter than haloarenes
(b) In haloalkanes the C attached to halogen in C – X bond is sp3 hybridised
while in haloarenes it is sp2 hybridised.
(c) C – X bond in haloalkanes acquires a double bond character due to
higher electronegativity of X than haloarenes.
(d) haloalkanes are less reactive than haloarenes due to difficulty in C –
X cleavage in haloalkanes.

Answer: (b) In haloalkanes the C attached to halogen in C – X bond is

sp3 hybridised while in haloarenes it is sp2 hybridised.

16. Which is the correct IUPAC name for:

(a) Methylchlorobenzene (b) 1-Methyl-4-chlorobenzene

(c) 1-Chloro-4-methylbenzene (d) Toluene

Answer: (c) 1-Chloro-4-methylbenzene

17. Aryl halides are less reactive towards nucleophilic substitution

reactions as compared to alkyl halides due to:

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 (a) formation of a less stable carbonium ion in aryl halides
(b) resonance stabilization in aryl halides
(c) presence of double bonds in alkyl halides
(d) inductive effect in aryl halides

Answer: (b) resonance stabilization in aryl halides.

18. Which among the following is the halogenation of alkanes?

(a) An isothermal process (b) An endothermic process
(c) A reductive process (d) An oxidative process

Answer: (d) An oxidative process

19. _______ possesses the highest melting point among the given set of
compounds?
(a) o-dichlorobenzene (b) p-dichlorobenzene
(c) M-dichlorobenzene (d) All of the Given

Answer: (B) p-dichlorobenzene

20. A chemical substance called ethylene dichloride is prepared by the

addition of hydrochloric acid to _________
(a) Methane (b) Ethylene (c) Propane (d) Ethylene glycol

Answer: (d) Ethylene glycol

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❷ Complete the sentence by using an appropriate word:
NOTE: Some words are extra only for make complexity or confusion.

21. One, higher, iodoform, two, chloroform, CnH2n+1X, lower

(1) Haloalkanes have ________ boiling points compared to their parent
hydrocarbons.
(2) The SN1 mechanism is a ________ step reaction.
(3) The ________ test is used to detect methyl ketones.
(4) The general formula of haloalkanes is ________.

Answer: (1) Higher, (2) two, (3) iodoform, (4) CnH2n+1X

22. Alkanes, iodoform, alkenes, halogen, SN1, chloroform, SN2, nucleophilic

(a) The elimination reaction of haloalkanes in the presence of alcoholic KOH
forms ________.
(b) In a substitution reaction, a stronger nucleophile favors the ________
mechanism.
(c) The common name for trichloromethane is ________.
(d) Chlorobenzene undergoes electrophilic substitution reactions, but it does
not readily undergo ________ substitution.

Answer: (a) alkenes, (b) SN2, (c) chloroform, (d) nucleophilic

❸Fill in the blanks:

23.
1. In SN1 reactions, a ________ intermediate is formed.
2. The reactivity of alkyl halides towards SN2 reactions decreases as the steric
hindrance ________
3. The test to distinguish between haloalkanes and haloarenes involves the
reaction with ________ .
4. The reaction of alcohol with PCl5 gives ________ as the main product.

Answer: 1. Carbocation, 2. Increases, 3. Aqueous AgNO3, 4. Alkyl chloride

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❹ Match the following:

24. Match the statement given in column A with the suitable statement in
column B.

Column A Column B
1. SN1 reaction A. one step mechanism
2. SN2 reaction B. trichloromethane
3. chloroform C. two step reaction
4. Elimination reaction D. alkene formation

Answer: 1 – A, 2 – C, 3 – B, 4 – D

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❺ True or false:

25. Haloalkanes are generally more reactive than haloarenes.

 True

26. The boiling points of haloarenes are lower than their corresponding
hydrocarbons.

 False

27. Chloroform is oxidized to phosgene in the presence of sunlight.

 True

28. Alcohol reacts with PCl5 to form alkyl bromides.

 False

29. The Swarts reaction is used to prepare alkyl fluorides.

 True
30. Haloalkanes exhibit hydrogen bonding.

 False

31. Iodoform test is positive for compounds containing the CH3-CO- group.

 True

32. DDT is readily biodegradable in the environment.

 False

33. The compound in which a CH2Br group is attached to a benzene ring is

an aryl halide.

 False.

34. The elimination reaction of alkyl halides with alcoholic KOH gives
alkanes.

 False.

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❻ Very short questions [2 marks]:

35. Which of the following compounds will have the highest melting point
and why?

Answer: Compound II is most symmetrical because it has both CH3 groups

and Cl atoms p− to each other. Therefore, it fits in the crystal lattice
better than the other two isomers and hence it has a high melting point. Due
to symmetry of para-positions; it fits into the crystal lattice better than other
isomers.

36.
1. Why is chloroform stored in dark coloured bottles?
2. What type of of compounds will give a positive iodoform test?
[NIOS Book intext question]

Answer:
1. Chloroform is stored in dark-colored bottles to prevent it from oxidizing and
forming phosgene, a highly poisonous gas.
2. Compounds that give a positive iodoform test include: Acetaldehyde,
Methyl ketones, Ethanol, and Secondary alcohols with methyl groups in the
alpha position.
37. In the following pair of halogen compounds, which compound will
react faster by SN1 mechanism?

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Answer:

38. What products will obtained when ethylbromide reacts with (i) aq.
KOH and (ii) alc. KOH [NIOS Book intext question]

Answer:
Reactant Product Explanation

Aqueous Ethanol The hydroxide ion (OH-) attacks the carbon atom
KOH (C2H5OH) attached to the bromine, substituting the bromine
with a hydroxyl group.

Alcoholic Ethylene The base abstracts a proton from the β-carbon,

KOH (C2H4) forming a double bond between the α and β
carbons. This reaction is known as
dehydrohalogenation.

39. Arrange each set of compounds in order of increasing boiling points.

(i) Bromomethane, Bromoform, Chloromethane, Dibromomethane.
(ii) 1-Chloropropane, Isopropyl chloride, 1-Chlorobutane.

Answer:

40. What will be the product obtained on treatment of 1-propanol with

thionyl chloride? [NIOS Book intext question]

Answer: When 1-propanol (CH3-CH2-CH2-OH) is treated with thionyl chloride

(SOCl2), it undergoes a substitution reaction to form 1-

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chloropropane (CH3-CH2-CH2-Cl) along with the release of sulfur dioxide (SO2)
and hydrogen chloride (HCl) as by-products.

CH3−CH2−CH2−OH + SOCl2 → CH3−CH2−CH2−Cl + SO2 + HCl

41. Which of the following compounds will have the highest melting point
and why?

Answer: Compound II is most symmetrical because it has both CH3 groups

and Cl atoms p− to each other. Therefore, it fits in the crystal lattice
better than the other two isomers and hence it has a high melting point. Due
to symmetry of para-positions; it fits into the crystal lattice better than other
isomers.

42. Give one example of preparation of chlorbenzene using Sandmeyer

reaction? [NIOS Book intext question]

Answer: Preparing chlorobenzene using the Sandmeyer reaction is

by reacting benzene diazonium chloride with cuprous chloride in
hydrochloric acid.

43.
(1) Why do haloalkanes have higher boiling points than their parent alkanes?
(2) Explain why haloarenes are less reactive towards nucleophilic substitution
compared to haloalkanes.

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Answer: (1) Haloalkanes have higher boiling points due to the presence of
stronger dipole-dipole interactions and higher molecular masses
compared to alkanes.

(2) Haloarenes are less reactive due to resonance stabilization of the aromatic
ring and the partial double bond character of the C-X bond.

44. Write the structure of the main product obtained by treating 1-

propanol with excess of hydrogen chloride in the presence of anhydrous
zinc chloride. [NIOS Book intext question]

Answer: 1-Propanol reacts with HCl and ZnCl2 to form 1-chloropropane

(CH3-CH2-CH2-Cl).

H H H
| | |
H – C – C – C – Cl
| | |
H H H

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❼ Short questions [3 marks]:

45. How are the following conversions carried out?

(i) Benzyl chloride to benzyl alcohol,

(ii) Methyl magnesium bromide to 2-methyl- propan-2-ol.
Answer:
(i) Benzyl chloride to benzyl alcohol

(ii) Methyl magnesium bromide to 2-methylpropan-2-ol

46. Elimination reactions (especially B-elimination) are as common as the

nucleophilic substitution reaction in case of alkyl halides. Specify the
reagents used in both cases.

Answer: Nucleophilic substitution and elimination (beta-elimination)

reactions are both possible with alkyl halides.

Although, with the correct reaction conditions and reagent selection, a specific
product can be obtained. In most cases, the elimination reaction is best suited
to strong and bigger bases, as well as high temperatures. The substitution
reaction, on the other hand, is best for weaker and smaller bases at lower
temperatures.

47. What happens when HCl reacts with propanol ? Write the reaction
involved and write IUPAC name of the main product. This reaction occurs

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 in presence of a substance. Name the substance and give its role.
[PYQ NIOS Oct 2022]

Answer: When HCI (hydrogen chloride) reacts with propanol (C3H7OH), the
main reaction involved is the formation of an alkyl chloride. The
reaction can be represented as follows:

C3H7OH + HCl → C3H7Cl + H2O

The IUPAC name of the main product, C3H7Cl, is 1-chloropropane.

This reaction occurs in the presence of zinc chloride (ZnCl2) as a catalyst. The
role of zinc chloride is to facilitate the reaction by increasing the
electrophilicity of the hydrogen chloride molecule, thereby promoting the
addition of HCl to the propanol and leading to the formation of 1-
chloropropane.

48. Haloalkanes undergo nucleophilic substitution whereas haloarenes

undergo electrophilic substitution. Explain.

Answer: Haloarenes (say chlorobenzene) is a resonance hybrid of the

following five structures :

Resonance leads to lowering of energy and hence greater stability. On the

other hand, no such resonance is possible in haloalkanes. Halogens directly
attached to benzene ring are o, p-directing in electrophilic subsitution
reactions. This is due to greater electron density at these positions in
resonance.

49. Haloarenes are less reactive than haloalkanes and haloarenes. Explain.

Answer: Polarity of the carbon-halogen bond- As we all know, the higher the
polarity, the higher the reactivity. The dipole moment of the C-X
bond in haloarenes is less than that of the haloalkane (for example, the dipole
moment for C-X in haloalkane is 2.0-2.2D while the dipole moment for

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chlorobenzene is 1.7D), hence the higher the polarity of the haloalkane, the
more reactive it is.

Haloarenes are in the sp2 hybridisation state, whereas haloalkanes are in the
sp3 hybridisation state. Because the bond length in the sp2 hybridisation is
shorter than in the sp3 hybridisation, the bond generated by the haloarenes is
stronger than the haloalkane bond. so the haloarenes are less reactive.

The electron of the benzene ring is in combination with the electron pair of the
halogen in the haloarenes, resulting in resonance stabilisation. As a result of
the resonance hybrid nature of haloarenes, the C-X bond possesses a partial
double bond character, making the haloarene more stable and less reactive.

50. Why do haloalkanes undergo nucleophilic substitution reactions ?

What is a nucleophilic substitution bimolecular reaction ? Show its
mechanism and give its important characteristics. [PYQ NIOS Oct 2022]

Answer: Haloalkanes undergo nucleophilic substitution reactions because the

halogen atom is more electronegative than the carbon atom, making
the bond between them polar. This gives the carbon atom a partial positive
charge, which nucleophiles are attracted to.

A nucleophilic substitution bimolecular reaction, also known as an SN2

reaction, is a one-step reaction where a nucleophile attacks a positively
charged carbon atom and the halogen leaves. The rate of this reaction depends
on both the haloalkane and the nucleophile, and it follows second order
kinetics.

51. Elimination reactions (especially B-elimination) are as common as the

nucleophilic substitution reaction in case of alkyl halides. Specify the
reagents used in both cases.

Answer: Nucleophilic substitution and elimination (beta-elimination)

reactions are both possible with alkyl halides.

Although, with the correct reaction conditions and reagent selection, a specific
product can be obtained. In most cases, the elimination reaction is best suited
to strong and bigger bases, as well as high temperatures. The substitution

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reaction, on the other hand, is best for weaker and smaller bases at lower
temperatures.

52. Discuss the nature of C-X bond in the haloarenes.

Answer: The carbon of benzene is linked to the halogen in haloarenes. The

electronegativity of halogen is higher than that of the benzene ring’s
2
sp hybridised carbon. As a result, the C- X bond is a polar bond. Aside from
that, the halogen atom’s lone pair of electrons are engaged in the benzene
ring’s resonance. As a result, this C- X bond now has a partial bond character.

Haloarenes’ C-X bond is less polar than haloalkanes’ C-X bond. The fact that the
dipole moment of chlorobenzene (= 1.69 D) is slightly lower than that of CH3CI
(= 1.83 D) supports this.

53. Arrange the following in the increasing order of properly indicated :

i. bromomethane, chloromethane, dichloromethane. (Increasing order of

boiling points).

ii. o,m,p-dichlorobenzenes (Increasing order of melting points)

Answer: (i) As we can see that all the compounds given above are
haloalkanes. The order will be:

Chloromethane < Bromomethane < Dichloromethane

This is due to the fact that as the halogen size increases the boiling point will
increase and as the number of halogen atoms increases in the same chain, the
boiling point will increase.

(ii) Because of its symmetry and structure, p-dichlorobenzene has the greatest
melting point, followed by ortho, and finally meta.

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The melting point of a compound is related to its symmetry. As a result, the
symmetry of the compound follows the same pattern as the melting point. The
order is given below:

m-Dichlorobenzene < o-Dichlorobenzen < p-Dichlorobenzene

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❽ Long questions [5 marks]:

54. Explain why:

(a) The dipole moment of chlorobenzene is lower than that of cyclohexyl
chloride.
(b) Alkyl halides, though polar, are immiscible with water.

Answer: (a) Chlorobenzene has lower dipole moment than cyclohexyl

chloride due to lower magnitude of -ve charge on the Cl atom and
shorter C – Cl distance. Due to greater S-character, a sp2-hybrid carbon is more
electronegative than a sp3-hybrid carbon. Therefore, the sp2-hybrid carbon of
C – Cl bond in chlorobenzene has less tendency to release electrons to Cl than
a sp3 hybrid carbon of cyclohexyl chloride.

(b) Alkyl halides and polar molecules are held together by dipole-dipole
interaction. The molecules of H2O are held together by H- bonds. Since the
new forces of attraction between water and alkyl halide molecules are weaker
than the forces of attraction already existing between alkyl halide-alkyl halide
molecules and water-water molecules, therefore alkyl halides are immiscible
(not soluble) with water.

55. Some alkyl halides undergo substitution whereas some undergo

elimination reactions on treatment with bases. Discuss the structural
features of alkyl halides with the help of examples which are responsible
for this difference.

Answer: The structure of the alkyl halide as well as the chemicals used in the
reaction dictate whether it undergoes substitution or elimination.
The reactivity of alkyl halides to substitution mechanisms can be observed to
better understand their structural properties. The SN2 mechanism, which

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involves cleavage of the halide from the carbon atom and simultaneous
attachment of the attacking nucleophile, is preferred by primary alkyl halides
for substitution reactions.

Tertiary halides, on the other hand, go through an elimination reaction due to

the creation of stable carbocation. Tertiary halides also prefer to go through
the SN1 reaction, which is a two-step reaction including the production of a
stable carbocation once the halide atom is cleaved.

The given reaction is for a primary alkyl halide to undergo SN2 substitution.

The described reaction is for an SN1 substitution of a tertiary alkyl halide. The
strength of the base employed determines the mechanism. When using a weak
base, such as aqueous KOH, the reaction is substitution, whereas when using a
strong base, such as alcoholic base, the reaction is elimination.

56. How are the following conversions carried out?

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(i) Ethanol to chloroethane
(ii) Benzene diazonium chloride to bromobenzene
(iii) Chloromethane to propyne
(iv) Chlorobenzene to 2-nitrochlorobenzene [PYQ NIOS Oct 2016]

Answer: (i) Ethanol to Chloroethane

Ethanol (CH3CH2OH) can be converted to chloroethane (CH3CH2Cl) by reacting
with thionyl chloride (SOCl2).

CH3CH2OH + SOCl2 → CH3CH2Cl + SO2+ HCl

(ii) Benzene Diazonium Chloride to Bromobenzene

Benzene diazonium chloride (C6H5N2+Cl−) can be converted to bromobenzene

(C6H5Br) using the Sandmeyer reaction with copper(I) bromide (CuBr)

C6H5N2+Cl− + CuBr → C6H5Br + N2

(iii) Chloromethane to Propyne

This conversion requires the following steps:

- Convert chloromethane to ethyne (acetylene):

Treat chloromethane (CH3Cl) with sodium amide (NaNH2 ) to form ethyne
(CH≡CH).

CH3Cl + NaNH2→ CH≡CH + NaCl + NH3

- Convert ethyne to propyne:

Treat ethyne with sodium amide (NaNH2) to form the acetylide ion (HC≡C−),
which is then alkylated with methyl iodide (CH3I):

CH≡CH + NaNH2 → HC≡C−Na+

HC≡C−Na++ CH3I → CH3C≡CH

(iv) Chlorobenzene to 2-Nitrochlorobenzene

Chlorobenzene (C6H5Cl) can be converted to 2-nitrochlorobenzene via

electrophilic substitution using concentrated nitric acid (HNO3) and sulfuric
acid (H2SO4) as catalysts.

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 H2SO4
C6H5Cl + HNO3 ---------> o-Nitrochlorobenzene (minor) + p-
Nitrochlorobenzene (major)

57. Why are aryl halides less reactive towards nucleophilic substitution
reactions than alkyl halides? How can we enhance the reactivity of aryl
halides?

Answer: Because of the following reasons, aryl halides are less reactive in
nucleophilic substitution reactions.

The lone pair of electrons on the halogen are in resonance with the benzene
ring in haloarenes. As a result, the C-Cl bond gains a partial double bond
character, which strengthens the bond. As a result, they have a lower reactivity
to nucleophilic substitution reactions.

The carbon atom linked to the halogen is sp2 hybridised in haloarenes.

Compared to sp3 hybridised carbon, sp2 hybridised carbon is more
electronegative. In haloarenes, the sp2-hybridised carbon can retain the
electron pair of the C-X bond more tightly, making the C-CI link shorter than
the C-Cl bond in haloalkanes.

Because a shorter bond is more difficult to break than a longer connection,

haloarenes are less reactive than haloarenes.

The phenyl cation will not be stabilised by resonance in haloarenes, hence the
SN1 mechanism is ruled out (iv) Because the nucleaphile and electron-rich
arenes repel each other, aryl halides are less reactive than alkyl halides.

When an electron withdrawing group (NO2) is present at the ortho and para
positions, the reactivity of aryl halides can be increased. The presence of this
electron withdrawing group at the above-mentioned location causes the
benzene ring to lose electron density. As a result, the nucleophile will have an
easier time attacking. Carbocation is produced as a result of resonance. The
electron density is clearly higher at the ortho and para locations. As a result,
the presence of EWG facilitates nucleophilic at ortho and para locations but
not at meta.

58. Explain the following reactions with suitable examples:

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(a) Finkelstein reaction
(b) Swarts reaction
(c) Wurtz reaction
(d) Wurtz-Fitting reaction
(e) Friedel-Crafts alkylation reaction

Answer:
(a) In the traditional Finkelstein reaction, an alkyl bromide or alkyl chloride is
converted to an alkyl iodide, which is then treated with a sodium iodide
solution in acetone. The reaction is given below:
CH3CH2Br + NaI → CH3CH2I + NaBr
(b) Swarts' reaction is commonly used to make alkyl fluorides from alkyl
chlorides or alkyl bromides. This is accomplished by heating the alkyl
chloride / bromide in the presence of fluoride in certain heavy metals. The
reaction is given below:
CH3-Br + AgF → CH3F + AgBr
(c) To generate higher alkanes, alkyl halides are treated with sodium metal in a
dry ethereal (moisture-free) solution. It can also be utilized to create higher
alkanes with an even number of carbon atoms. The reaction is given below:
2 R-X + 2Na → R-R + 2 NaX
(d) The Wurtz–Fitting reaction is a chemical reaction that produces substituted
aromatic compounds by combining aryl halides with alkyl halides and
sodium metal in the presence of dry ether. The reaction is given below:

(e) This reaction permitted alkylbenzenes to be formed from alkyl halides, but
it was hampered with undesired supplementary activity, which decreased
its efficiency. The reaction is given below:

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 Alcohols, Phenols And Ethers
26
2222

Quick Revision
Short summary
What do we learn

 Introduction  Examples

Among the compounds with carbon- CH3 –OH CH3CH2 –OH

oxygen single bond are the classes of
Methanol Ethanol
alcohols, phenols and ethers having
(Methyl alcohol) (Ethyl alcohol)
the following general structures.

 Nomenclature

Common name -'Alcohol 'associated

with the alkyl group name, such as
methyl alcohol, ethyl alcohol, etc.
 Alcohols IUPAC - The suffix-'ol 'attached to the
Alcohols are organic compounds that alkane name, such as methanol
have one or more hydroxy (-OH) (CH3OH).
groups bonded to the carbon atoms
 Structure
in aliphatic compounds.
There is a bond between C and O sp3
They are indicated by presence of—
hybridized orbitals.
OH group in a chain .This -OH is
regarded as hydroxyl group. Bond angle: 108.9 ° is the C-O-H bond
angle, i.e. less than tetrahedral (109 °-
Functional group – OH
28 '). It is caused by repulsion
Suffix used: “ol” between Oxygen electron pairs

Bond length: In Methanol, the C-O

bond length is 142 pm.

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 Classification  Preparation
1. Hydrolysis of haloalkanes:
 Based on the number of alkyl
groups: Haloalkanes can be converted to
corresponding alcohols using aqueous
sodium or potassium hydroxide or
water as nucleophiles.
 Based on Number of hydroxyl
groups attached:

❶Only one –OH group is present in

the molecule. These alcohols are 2. From hydration of alkanes:
called monohydric alcohols. (i) Acid – catalysed hydration:

Examples:
CH3 –OH CH3CH2 –OH
Methanol Ethanol (ii) Oxymercuration – demercuration

❷Alcohols having two hydroxyl

groups in a molecule are known as
dihydric alcohols or diols or glycols.
3. Reduction of carbonyl
compounds:

❸Alcohols having three hydroxyl

groups are called trihydric alcohols.
1,2,3-propanetriol which is Carboxylic acids and esters also
commanly known as glycerol, is a give primary alcohols on reduction.
trihydric alcohol. 4. From aldehydes and ketones
using Grignard reagent:

 Based on the type of hybridization:

1. It can be sp3 like ethanol - CH3-CH2- 5. Fermentation: it involves breaking

OH. down large molecules into simpler
2. It can be sp2 like Benzyl alcohol- ones using enzymes (yeast).

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 Physical properties  Reaction of alcohols
2. Formation of alkoxides:
Boiling point
Alcohols react with sodium, or
Alcohols have higher boiling points
potassium metals to give the
than alkanes. This is because of the
respective alkoxides.
hydrogen bonds between the
hydroxyl groups of alcohols.

Solubility

Alcohols are more soluble in water

3. Conversion of alkyl halides:
than other simple
hydrocarbons. Lower alcohols are
highly soluble in water, but the
solubility decreases with increasing
molecular weight.

Acidity Lucas test:

Alcohols are acidic in nature and 4. Formation of alkenes:

react with metals.
Primary alcohols > secondary
alcohols > tertiary alcohols

 Reaction of alcohols 5. Dehydration to form ether:

1. Acidic and basic medium:

Alcohols behave both as acids and

bases. They are weakly acidic. A
strong base such as a hydride ion (H-) 6. Oxidation:
in sodium hydride (NaH), can remove
the proton from the alcohol
molecules and an alkoxide ion results.
7. Formation of esters:

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 Uses of alcohols  Nomenclature of Phenols
 The simplest phenol is C6H5OH.
Alcohols find a large variety of uses as
 The OH group location is denoted
follows:
by o (ortho), m (meta), p (para), or
1. As solvent by cyclic carbon numbers, etc.
2. As laboratory  structure of Phenols
3. In medicines
4. As thinning in paints, varnishes etc. There is a bond between C of the
aromatic ring and O of sp2 hybridized
 Uses of methanol and ethanol
orbitals.
It is useful industrially both as a
 Bond angle: In Phenol, the C-O-H
solvent and in the production of
bond angle is 109°
formaldehyde and acetic acid, as a
 Bond length: The length of the C-O
starting material. It is also used in the
bond in Phenol is 136 pm.
synthesis of which is used as an to
gasoline MTBE.  Classification
CH3OC(CH3)3 Depending on the number of hydroxyl
Methyl tert – butyl ether groups it is further classified into
(MTBE) monohydric, dihydric, and polyhydric.

Ethanol, obtained by the

fermentation of sugars is present in
all alcoholic beverges.  Physical properties
Boiling point: Due to intermolecular
hydrogen bonding, the boiling point
 Phenols of phenol is more as compared with
other compounds such as arenes,
An aromatic hydrocarbon's hydrogen
ethers, haloarenes, etc.
is substituted by the -OH (hydroxyl)
group. Solubility: Solubility is due to
intermolecular hydrogen bonding
The name phenol is specifically used
with water. It decreases with an
for the following compound
increase in the hydrophobic part.
(hydroxybenzene) in which one
hydroxyl group is attached to the
benzene ring.

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 Preparation  Reaction of phenols
❶ Laboratory synthesis of phenols ❶ Acidic and basic nature:

1. From arenediazonium salts: Phenols are much more acidic thn

alcohols.

They are soluble in dilute sodium

hydroxide.

2. Alkali fusion of sodium

benzenesulphaonate:

Phenols behave as weak bases also.

❷ Electrophilic substitution
reactions:
❷ Industrial synthesis of phenols:
1.Nitration
1. Dow process 2.Halogenation
in this process, chlorobenzene is 3.Kolbe reaction
heated with aquous sodium hydroxide 4.Reimer-Tiemann Reaction
under pressure. Sodium phenoxide so 5.Oxidation
produced on acidification gives 6.Esterification
phenol. 7.Coupling reactions
 Reactions in which phenol (O-H
bond cleavage) reacts as a
Nucleophile: The reaction of
phenol with NaOH to form sodium
phenoxide.On the reaction of
2. From cumene hydroperoxide
phenols with carboxylic acids,
The reaction between benzene and acetic anhydride, and acid chloride
propene in presence of phosphoric to form esters.
acid yields cumene.  Reactions in which there is C-O
bond cleavage:
C6H5OH + Zn → C6H6 + ZnO

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 Uses  Nomenclature of Ethers
1. Phenol is used as a disinfectant.
Common Name: The term 'ether'
2. It is also used in the synthesis of
follows in alphabetical order the
polymers.
name of the alkyl groups, e.g. Ethyl
3. Phenols are used in the synthesis
Methyl ether, ether of diethyl, etc.
of many organic compounds.
4. Substituted phenols are used in IUPAC Name-derivative of
dyeing and tanning industries. hydrocarbons named as alkoxy or
aryloxy. The parent hydrocarbon is
considered ad the bulkier group, e.g.
 Ethers Methoxymethane, Methoxybenzene,
and so on
A hydrocarbon's hydrogen is
substituted by the group -OR/-OAr
(Alkoxy or Aryloxy).
 Classification of Ethers
They are functional isomers of
alcohols .The functional group in  Depending upon the type of alkyl
them is ROR and are represented as group on both sides we can classify
ROR where R is alkyl group. ethers as:

There are two types of ethers-

Symmetrical - The same groups are

attached to O

Unsymmetrical - Different groups are

 Structure of Ethers attached to O
 Bond angle: The angle of the C-O-C Depending upon the number of alkyl
bond is 111.7 (Methoxymethane). groups present we can classify ethers
 It is more than tetrahedral because as: Primary ,secondary and tertiary
of the repulsion between the two ethers:
classes of R (bulky)
 Bond length: The length of the C-O
bond is 141 pm, approximately the
same as alcohol.

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 Physical properties  Chemical reactions
Boiling point: The boiling point is ❷ Reaction with acids:
comparatively less than that of
Since the oxygen atom of ethers
alcohols due to intermolecular
contains lone pairs of electrons, they
hydrogen bonding in alcohols.
can accept a propton from the acids.
Solubility: Owing to the formation of
a hydrogen bond with water and O of
ether, ether miscibility is equivalent
to alcohol and more than alkane of
❸ Acidic cleavage:
the same molecular mass.
Heating dialkyl ethers with strong
acids as HI, HBr or H2SO4 leads to their
 Preparation cleavage.

William synthesis: it involves the

displacement of the halides ion by the
alkoxide ion The alcohol formed reacts with
additional HBr to give
bromomethane.

Hence,

 Chemical reactions
❶ Reaction with oxygen:

Ethers slowly react with oxygen to

form hydroperoxides and phenols.

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 Question – Answer

❶ MCQs
ALCOHOLS

1. Which reagent is used for the Lucas test to distinguish between primary,
secondary, and tertiary alcohols?
a) Potassium permanganate b) Conc. HCl and ZnCl₂
c) Sodium dichromate d) Bromine water

Answer: b) Conc. HCl and ZnCl₂

2. Which method of preparation is used to synthesize ethers through

intermolecular dehydration of alcohols?
a) Williamson synthesis b) Kolbe's reaction
c) Dehydration with conc. H₂SO₄ d) Hydrolysis of esters

Answer: c) Dehydration with conc. H₂SO₄

3. Which of the following compounds will give a positive iodoform test?

a) Ethanol b) Methanol c) Propanol d) Benzyl alcohol

Answer: a) Ethanol

4. Which of the following alcohols can be prepared by the hydroboration-

oxidation of an alkene?
a) Primary alcohol b) Secondary alcohol
c) Tertiary alcohol d) All of the above

Answer: a) Primary alcohol

OR

5. Which type of alcohol undergoes dehydration most readily?

a) Primary alcohol b) Secondary alcohol
c) Tertiary alcohol d) All dehydrate equally

Answer: c) Tertiary alcohol

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6. The reaction of 2-methylpropene with B₂H₆ followed by H₂O₂ and OH⁻
gives:
a) 2-Methyl-1-propanol b) 2-Methyl-2-propanol
c) Propan-2-ol d) Propan-1-ol

Answer: a) 2-Methyl-1-propanol

7. Which of the following is true regarding polyhydric alcohols?

a) It should have one or more OH groups
b) It should have two or more OH groups
c) It should have three or more OH groups
d) It should have more than four OH groups

Answer: b) It should have two or more OH groups

8. Choose the most suitable classification for the shown compound?

a) Secondary alcohol b) Allylic alcohol

c) Dihydric alcohol d) Benzylic alcohol

Answer: b) Allylic alcohol

PHENOLS

9. Which of the following compounds contain an aryl carbon?

a) Ethanol b) Benzyl alcohol c) Vinyl alcohol d) Phenol

Answer: d) Phenol

10. Which of the following phenols is least acidic?

a) Phenol b) p-Nitrophenol c) o-Cresol d) m-Nitrophenol

Answer: c) o-Cresol

11. The major product of the reaction between phenol and chloroform in
the presence of NaOH is:

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 a) Benzaldehyde b) Salicylaldehyde
c) Chlorophenol d) Benzyl alcohol

Answer: b) Salicylaldehyde

12. When phenol reacts with carbon dioxide in the presence of NaOH, the
product is:
a) Salicylic acid b) Benzaldehyde
c) Benzoic acid d) Benzyl alcohol

Answer: a) Salicylic acid

ETHERS

13. Which of the following is the correct IUPAC name for the compound
CH₃-O-CH₂CH₂CH₃?
a) Ethyl methyl ether b) Propyl methyl ether
c) Methyl propyl ether d) Methoxypropane

Answer: c) Methyl propyl ether

14. Which of the following statements about ethers is incorrect?

a) Ethers are generally unreactive.
b) Ethers can form hydrogen bonds with water.
c) Ethers are less volatile than alcohols of comparable molecular weight.
d) Ethers have lower boiling points than alcohols of similar molecular
weight.

Answer: c) Ethers are less volatile than alcohols of comparable molecular

weight.

15. Which of the following ethers is symmetrical?

a) Ethyl methyl ether b) Diethyl ether
c) Phenyl methyl ether d) Ethyl phenyl ether

Answer: b) Diethyl ether

PYQs

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16. When phenol is treated with CHCl3 and NaOH followed by acidification,
the product formed is:
(A) benzaldehyde (B) salicylaldehyde
(C) salicylic acid (D) benzoic acid

Answer: (B) salicylaldehyde [PYQ NIOS April 2024]

17. Which of the following enzymes converts glucose into ethyl alcohol?
(A) Diastase (B) Invertase (C) Maltase (D) Zymase

Answer: (D) Zymase [PYQ NIOS April 2024]

18. Hemiacetals are chemically:

(A) alkoxy alcohols (B) alkyl alcohols
(C) gem-dialkoxy compounds (D) ethylene glycol

Answer: (A) alkoxy alcohols [PYQ NIOS April 2024]

19. Ethanol can be distinguished from methanol by the use of:

(A) Tollen’s reagent (B) Fehling’s solution
(C) I₂ + NaOH (D) AgNO₃(aq)

Answer: (C) I₂ + NaOH [PYQ NIOS April 2022]

20. When phenol is treated with excess bromine water it gives………..

(A) m-bromophenol (B) o- and p-bromophenol
(C) 2,4-dibromophenol (D) 2,4,6-tribromophenol

Answer: (D) 2,4,6-tribromophenol [Sample paper]

OR

Dehydration of alcohol is an example of………………

(A) addition reaction (B) elimination reaction
(C) substitution reaction (D) redox reaction

Answer: (B) Elimination reaction [Sample paper]

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❷ Complete the sentence by using an appropriate word:
NOTE: Some words are extra only for make complexity or confusion.

21. Ethanol, carboxylic acid, Hydrogen bonding, methanol, acetic acid,

Esterification, resonance
(1) In the presence of dilute HCl, ethene reacts with water to form ______.
(2) The hydrolysis of ethyl acetate in the presence of an acid gives ethanol and
______.
(3) An alcohol reacts with a carboxylic acid to form an ester and water in a
reaction known as ______.
(4) The boiling point of ethanol is higher than that of dimethyl ether due to the
presence of ______ in ethanol.

Answer: (1) ethanol, (2) acetic acid, (3) Esterification, (4) Hydrogen bonding

22. Resonance, Hydrogen bonding, sodium phenoxide, phenol, diethyl,

Ethoxyethane
(a) The acidity of phenol is due to the ______ stabilization of the phenoxide
ion.
(b) The reaction of phenol with sodium hydroxide produces ______.
(c) The IUPAC name of the compound CH₃-CH₂-O-CH₂-CH₃ is ______.

Answer: (a) resonance, (b) sodium phenoxide, (c) Ethoxyethane

❸Fill in the blanks:

23.
A. In the Kolbe's reaction, ______ reacts with carbon dioxide to form salicylic
acid.
B. Ethanol can be oxidized to ______ using potassium dichromate.
C. The acidity of alcohols generally ______ with the increase in molecular
weight.
D. In the reaction of phenol with bromine water, the major product formed is
______.

Answer: A. Phenol, B. ethanoic acid, C. decreases, D. 2,4,6-Tribromophenol

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❹ Match the following:

24. Match the statement given in column A with the suitable statement in
column B.

Column A Column B
a. Ethanol 1. Used as an antiseptic
b. Anisole 2. Common ether with sweet
odor
c. 2,4,6-Tribromophenol 3. Reacts with bromine water
d. Diethyl ether 4. Used as a fuel
e. Propanol 5. Solvent in perfumes
Answer: a – 4, b – 5, c – 3, d – 2, e – 1

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❺ True or false:

25. Methanol is less toxic than ethanol.

 False.

26. Phenol is more acidic than ethanol due to resonance stabilization of the
phenoxide ion.

 True.

27. Ethanol gives a positive iodoform test.

 True.

28. Primary alcohols are more easily dehydrated than tertiary alcohols.
 False.

29. Phenol is less reactive towards electrophilic substitution than benzene.

 False.

30. Ethers are more soluble in water than alcohols of comparable molecular
weight.

 False.

31. Primary alcohols can be benzylic in nature.

 True.

32. Diethyl ether is a mixed ether.

 False.

33. Anisole is the common name for methoxybenzene.

 True.

34. Secondary alcohols do not undergo oxidation to form aldehydes or

ketones.
 False.

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❻ Passage

35. Read the passage given below and answer the following questions (out
of four attempt any two) : 1×2=2

Ethers are organic compounds in which an oxygen atom is bonded to two

alkyl groups or aryl groups. Ethers have geometry similar to water and
alcohols.

(a) Draw the geometry of an ether molecule.

(b) Illustrate the basic nature of ethers with the help of a suitable reaction.
(c) What is the IUPAC name of methyl propyl ether?
(d) How can ethers be prepared by Williamson’s synthesis? Illustrate with an
example. [PYQ NIOS April 2024]

Answer:
(a)

(b) Ethers are weakly basic in nature because of the lone pair of electrons on
the oxygen atom, which can act as a Lewis base. Ethers can react with strong
acids such as HI, where the lone pair on the oxygen atom accepts a proton:

R-O-R + HI → R-I + R-OH

(c) The IUPAC name of methyl propyl ether is methoxypropane.

(d) Ethers can be prepared by Williamson’s synthesis, which involves the

reaction of an alkoxide ion (R-O⁻) with a primary alkyl halide (R’-X). The
alkoxide ion attacks the carbon atom of the alkyl halide in an SN2 mechanism,
displacing the halide ion and forming an ether.

For example: CH₃O− + C₂H₅Br → CH₃O-C₂H₅ + Br

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❼ Very short questions [2 marks]:

36. [PYQ NIOS April 2022]

Answer: Reactivity Order: CH3COOH, RCH2COOH, R2CHCOOH, R3CCOOHR

37.
A. Ortho nitrophenol has lower boiling point than p-nitrophenol. Why ?
B. Ortho-nitrophenol is more acidic than ortho-methoxyphenol. Why?

Answer:
A. Ortho-nitrophenol has lower boiling point due to formation of
intramolecular H-bonding whereas p-nitrophenol forms intermoleeular H-
bonding.

B. NO2 group is an electron withdrawing group while methoxy group is

electron donating in nature. The release of H+ is easier from O-nitrophenol
while it is difficult from O-methoxyphenol.
38. How would you obtain phenol from benzene?
Answer:

39. Write reactions of phenol with bromine

a) in aqueous solution and
b) b) in less polar solvent such as carbon disulphide [PYQ NIOS Jan feb 2021]

Answer:

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(a) C6H5OH + 3Br2 → C6H2Br3OH + 3HBr
(b) C6H5OH + Br2→ o-BrC6H4OH + p-BrC6H4OH

40. What is Lucas test? What is its use? [PYQ NIOS Oct 2022]

Answer: The Lucas test is a chemical test that distinguishes between primary,
secondary, and tertiary alcohols.

It is used as:

- Detecting alcohols
- Categorizing alcohols
- Determining the reactivity of different alcohols
- Classifying alcohols with low molecular weight, such as rubbing alcohol
41. Suggest a reagent for conversion of ethanol to ethanoic acid.
Answer: Acidified KMnO4 or K2Cr2O7 can be used to convert ethanol to
ethanoic acid. Both KMnO4 and K2Cr2O7 are powerful oxidizers.

42. Out of o-nitrophenol and o-cresol which is more acidic?

Answer:
The presence of an electron-withdrawing group (–NO2) in an ortho position
relative to the –OH group increases the acidic strength of the chemical by
stabilising the phenoxide ion, allowing o-nitrophenol to easily release a proton.

43. Explain why nucleophilic substitution reactions are not very common
in phenols.

Answer: The OH group in phenols is a powerful electron donor. As a result,

the benzene ring’s electron density is quite high, and it repels
nucleophiles. To put it another way, nucleophiles are unable to approach the
benzene ring, hence phenols rarely undergo nucleophilic substitution
reactions.

44. Alcohols have higher boiling points than ethers of comparable

molecular masses. What is the reason for this?

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Answer: The presence of the intermolecular hydrogen bond makes the
boiling points of alcohols high whereas this type of bond is not
present in ethers. Therefore, alcohols have higher boiling points than ethers of
comparable molecular masses.

45. Name the chemical test commonly used to distinguish between the
following pairs of compounds.
- n-Propyl alcohol and isopropyl alcohol.
- Methanol and ethanol
- Cyclohexanol and phenol
- Phenol and anisole
- Ethanol and diethyl ether

Answer:
- n-Propyl alcohol and isopropyl alcohol can be distinguished by the Lucas
Test.
- Methanol and ethanol can be distinguished by the Iodoform Test.
- Cyclohexanol and phenol can be distinguished by FeCl3 test.
- Phenol and anisole can be distinguished by FeCl3 test.
- Ethanol and diethyl ether can be distinguished by the iodoform test.
46. Discuss the industrial preparation of ethanol from ethene. What are
the key steps and conditions involved in this process?

Answer: Industrial preparation of ethanol from ethene involves the hydration

of ethene. The key steps are:

Ethene is passed through concentrated sulfuric acid, resulting in the formation

of ethyl hydrogen sulfate.

The ethyl hydrogen sulfate is then hydrolyzed with water to produce ethanol.
This process is carried out under high pressure and moderate temperatures to
increase the yield of ethanol.

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❽ Short questions [3 marks]:

47. Explain the following reactions with an example for each :

(i) Reimer-Tiemann reaction
(ii) Friedel-Crafts reaction.

Answer: (i) Reimer-Tiemann reaction : Treatment of phenol with CHCl3 in

presence of aqueous NaOH at 340K followed by hydrolysis gives
salicylaldehyde.

(ii) Friedel-Crafts reaction : This reaction is used for introducing an alkyl or an

acyl group into an aromatic compound in presence of Lewis acid catalyst (AlCl3)
Example:

48. What products will be obtained when 2-chlorobutane is reacted with

alcoholic solution of KOH? Which will be the major product and why?
Write chemical equation involved. [PYQ NIOS Jan feb 2021]

Answer: When 2-chlorobutane is reacted with an alcoholic solution of

potassium hydroxide (KOH), an elimination reaction (E2 mechanism)
occurs, leading to the formation of alkenes. The major products are butene
isomers. The reaction proceeds as follows:

Reaction Mechanism:

E2 Elimination: The alcoholic KOH provides hydroxide ions (OH⁻), which

abstract a proton from the β-carbon (carbon adjacent to the carbon bearing
the chlorine atom) of 2-chlorobutane. This results in the elimination of a
hydrogen atom and the chlorine atom as HCl, leading to the formation of a
double bond.

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 CH3−CHCl−CH2−CH3 + KOH (alcoholic) → CH3−CH=CH−CH3 (major product)
+ HCl + KBr

49. (a) Write the structures of A, B, C, and D in the following reactions:

(b) Give simple chemical tests to distinguish between:

(i) Benzoic acid and phenol:

(ii) Propanol and propanone: [PYQ NIOS April 2022]

Answer: (a) A: CH3MgBr , B: CH3COOH, C: CH3CONH2 , D: CH3COCl

(b) (i) Benzoic acid and phenol:

Test: Ferric chloride test

Benzoic acid: No significant color change.

Phenol: Violet or purple coloration is observed due to the formation of ferric
phenoxide complex.

(ii) Propanol and propanone:

Test: Iodoform test

Propanol: No reaction (only gives a positive test if it's a secondary alcohol with
a methyl group).
Propanone: Positive iodoform test, forming a yellow precipitate of iodoform
CHI3

50. What happens when HCl reacts with propanol ? Write the reaction
involved and write IUPAC name of the main product. This reaction occurs
in presence of a substance. Name the substance and give its role.
[PYQ NIOS Oct 2022]

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Answer: When hydrogen chloride (HCl) reacts with propanol, a substitution
reaction occurs where the hydroxyl group (-OH) of propanol is
replaced by a chlorine atom, forming a haloalkane.

CH3CH2CH2OH + HCl → CH3CH2CH2Cl + H2O

The IUPAC name of the main product is 1-chloropropane.

The reaction occurs in the presence of anhydrous zinc chloride (ZnCl₂), which
acts as a catalyst.

51. Explain the following observations :

(i) The boiling point of ethanol is higher than that of methoxymethane.
(ii) Phenol is more acidic than ethanol.
(iii) o- and p-nitrophenols are more acidic than phenol.

Answer: (i) Due to presence of intermolecular H-bonding, associated

molecules are formed, hence ethanol has high boiling point while
methoxymethane does not have intermolecular H-bonding.

(ii) Phenol on losing H+ ion forms phenoxide ion, and ethanol on losing H+ ion
forms ethoxide ion. Phenoxide ion is more stable than ethoxide ion as
phenoxide ion exists in resonance structure. Due to this phenol is more acidic
than ethanol.

(iii) Both o- and p-nitrophenols contain the NO2 group which is an electron
withdrawing group. Due to -R and -I effect of the -NO2 group, electron density
in the OH bond of substituted phenol decreases and hence the loss of proton
becomes easy and therefore more acidic.

52. Name the factors responsible for the solubility of alcohols in water.
Answer: Hydrogen bonds – Because of their propensity to create hydrogen
bonds with water molecules or intermolecular hydrogen bonding,
alcohols are soluble in water.

Size of the alkyl or aryl groups – The solubility of alcohols in water diminishes
as the size of the alkyl or aryl groups grows larger. The presence of

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intermolecular hydrogen bonding between alcohol molecules makes low
molecular mass alcohols liquid in water.

Molecular mass of the Alcohols – It reduces the effect of the polar character of
the –OH group of alcohol with an increase in the alkyl group of alcohol or in
the case of large molecular mass alcohols. As a result, as the molecular size of
an alcohol increases, its solubility drops, therefore alcohols with lower
molecular masses are more soluble than alcohols with larger molecular
masses.

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❾ Long questions [5 marks]:

53. (a) The compound ‘A’ is obtained by diazotisation of aniline. It

undergoes diazo coupling reaction with phenol to give ‘B’. Write the
reaction and also the names of ‘A’ and ‘B’.

(b) The common painkiller aspirin is obtained by reacting a compound ‘X’

with acetic anhydride. Identify ‘X’. How is it prepared from phenol ? Write
the reaction and also write the names of the compounds formed in the first
two steps of the reaction. [PYQ NIOS Oct 2022]

Answer:
(a) 1. Diazotisation of Aniline: Aniline (C₆H₅NH₂) undergoes diazotisation when
treated with sodium nitrite (NaNO₂) and hydrochloric acid (HCl) at low
temperatures (0-5°C), forming benzene diazonium chloride (compound 'A').

C6H5NH2 + NaNO2 + 2HCl→C6H5N2Cl + NaCl +2H2O

A = Benzene diazonium chloride (C₆H₅N₂Cl)

2. Diazo Coupling Reaction: Benzene diazonium chloride reacts with phenol in

an alkaline medium to form an azo compound, p-hydroxyazobenzene
(compound 'B').

C6H5N2Cl + C6H5OH → C6H5N2C6H4OH + HCl

B = p-Hydroxyazobenzene.

(b) Compound 'X' is salicylic acid (C₇H₆O₃), which contains both hydroxyl (-OH)
and carboxyl (-COOH) groups.

Preparation of Salicylic Acid from Phenol:

1. First Step - Kolbe’s Reaction:

Reaction:

C6H5OH + NaOH → C6H5ONa + H2O

C6H5ONa + CO2 → C6H4 (OH)COONa

C6H4(OH)COONa + HCl → C6H4(OH)COOH + NaCl

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2. Second Step - Formation of Aspirin: Salicylic acid reacts with acetic
anhydride to form aspirin (acetylsalicylic acid) and acetic acid.

Reaction:

C6H4(OH)COOH + (CH3CO)2O → C6H4(OCOCH3)COOH + CH3COOH

- Names of compounds in the first two steps:

Sodium phenoxide (first step) and Salicylic acid (second step)

54. Describe the Lucas test for alcohols. How does it distinguish between
primary, secondary, and tertiary alcohols? Include the reaction
mechanism.

Answer: The Lucas test distinguishes between primary, secondary, and

tertiary alcohols based on their reactivity with Lucas reagent (a
mixture of concentrated HCl and ZnCl₂). The test relies on the formation of
alkyl halides, which are insoluble in water, causing turbidity.

Tertiary alcohols react almost immediately, forming turbidity due to rapid

formation of the alkyl chloride via a stable carbocation intermediate.

Secondary alcohols react more slowly, producing turbidity within a few

minutes as the carbocation formed is less stable than in tertiary alcohols.

Primary alcohols react very slowly or not at all under normal conditions
because they form the least stable carbocations.

Mechanism:

- The alcohol is protonated by HCl, converting the hydroxyl group into a

better leaving group (water).
- The loss of water forms a carbocation intermediate.
- The chloride ion from HCl attacks the carbocation, forming the alkyl
chloride.
- This test differentiates alcohols based on carbocation stability.
55. Describe the preparation of phenol from benzene. What are the key
steps and reagents involved?

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Answer: Phenol can be prepared from benzene through the sulfonation-
alkaline fusion method or the Dow process.

Sulfonation-Alkaline Fusion Method:

Sulfonation: Benzene is reacted with concentrated sulfuric acid to form

benzene sulfonic acid.

Alkaline Fusion: The benzene sulfonic acid is fused with sodium hydroxide at
high temperatures (around 300°C), forming sodium phenoxide.

Acidification: The sodium phenoxide is then treated with dilute hydrochloric

acid or sulfuric acid to produce phenol.

Dow Process:

Chlorination: Benzene is first chlorinated to form chlorobenzene.

Hydrolysis: Chlorobenzene is hydrolyzed using aqueous sodium hydroxide at

high temperatures and pressures (around 300°C and 200 atm) to produce
sodium phenoxide.

Acidification: Sodium phenoxide is acidified to yield phenol.

These methods involve converting benzene to intermediates that can be

hydrolyzed to phenol.

56. Describe the Williamson synthesis of ethers. How does the choice of
substrate affect the product?

Answer: Williamson synthesis is a method for preparing ethers by reacting an

alkoxide ion with an alkyl halide via an SN2 mechanism. The reaction
involves the nucleophilic attack of the alkoxide on the electrophilic carbon of
the alkyl halide, leading to the formation of an ether.

Steps:

Formation of the alkoxide ion by reacting an alcohol with a strong base like
sodium or potassium.

Reaction of the alkoxide with a primary alkyl halide or tosylate to form the
ether.

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Substrate Choice: The substrate plays a crucial role in determining the product
and reaction efficiency. Primary alkyl halides are preferred as they undergo SN2
reactions efficiently. Secondary and tertiary alkyl halides are less suitable due
to the tendency for elimination (E2) or the formation of side products. For
unsymmetrical ethers, the alkyl halide should be primary to minimize side
reactions and ensure a high yield of the desired ether.

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