Почвознание агрохимия и екология, 56, 3/2022

Bulgarian Journal of Soil Science Agrochemisty and Ecology, 56, 3/2022

Land use types and their influence on heavy metals concentra-

tion in soils of Yenagoa and Southern Ijaw local government
area of Bayelsa State
Williams Perekekeme Agbai1*, Ufuoma Isaiah Efenudu2

1. Niger Delta University, Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Soil Science, Wilberforce Island, Bayelsa
State
2. University of Benin, Faculty of Agriculture, Central Laboratory, Benin City, Edo State. Nigeria
Corresponding author*: agbaiwilliams@gmail.com

Orcid1: Williams Perekekeme Agbai: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4458-1922

Orcid2: Ufuoma Isaiah Efenudu: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0931-513

Citation: Agbai, W. P., & Efenudu, U. I. (2022). Land use types and their influence on heavy met-
als concentration in soils of Yenagoa and Southern Ijaw local government area of Bayelsa State.
Bulgarian Journal of Soil Science Agrochemisty and Ecology, 56(3), 3-16.

Abstract

The research aimed to determine the influence of different land use types on heavy metal concen-
trations in soils. The study was carried out in two local government areas in Bayelsa State namely:
Southern Ijaw and Yenagoa; which embodies four land use types (oil palm plantation (OPT), plantain
plantation (PPT), fallow land (FFL) and virgin land (VVL)). A total of twelve (12) composite and
representative soil samples were taken with the aid of an auger at the respective land use type, and
were subjected to some physical, chemical analysis. The samples were taken at three depths: 0-15,
15-30 and 30-45 cm. Heavy metals were determined using flame atomic adsorption spectrophotom-
etry - GBC scientific equipment SENS AA. The VVL with higher hydraulic conductivity (13.6 cm/
hr) adsorbed fewer heavy metals compared to the others (FFL – 13.2 cm/hr, OPT – 9.8 cm/hr, and
PPT – 7.6 cm/hr). The soils of the plantain plantation, oil palm plantation, virgin land and fallow land
recorded iron and cadmium toxicity as its Fe (25.09, 18.68, 13.18 and 18.67 mg/kg) and Cd concen-
tration (1.31, 1.09, 0.83 and 1.13 mg/kg) were higher than the WHO/DPR permissible level of 0.8.
Manganese, zinc, copper, chromium, lead, nickel and vanadium were non-hazardous in the different
land use types as their concentrations were lower than the permissible levels. The contamination
and pollution index showed that the Fe and Cd pollution was weakest in the virgin land, and higher
in the other land use types (plantain plantation, oil palm plantation, fallow land) where human and
agricultural activities had taken place. It is therefore advised that the activities of subsistent farmers
in the area be checkmated because the residents of the area depend on the farms for survival.
Keywords: land use types, heavy metals, hydraulic conductivity, concentration, Bayelsa State

3
Introduction pollution loads (Mingorance et al., 2007; Yang et
al., 2005; Dankoub et al., 2012). Trace elements
Heavy metal pollution is one of the universal such as arsenic, cadmium, copper, lead, zinc have
environmental pollution issues and is extended been found to be accumulated when agrochemi-
into the environment by various industrial and cals such as fertilizers and pesticides are used
agricultural activities (Feng-ju et al., 2012). Pollu- on the soil (Harris et al., 2000). Agricultural and
tion is a term that generally refers to the introduc- industrial wastes have been reported to be the
tion of harmful substances into the environment most damaging anthropogenic activities in the
which are potentially harmful to human health or world (Krami et al., 2013).
which weakens the appropriate use of the environ- Activities by man have been found and reported
ment for economic, social, cultural, aesthetic and to affect the natural, geological and biological
amenity uses (Azeez et al., 2011). Environmental redistribution of heavy metals in soils and such
degradation caused by inappropriate land use is a activities in urban areas have contributed to the
worldwide problem that has attracted attention in high metal availability (Peter & Adeniyi, 2011).
sustainable agricultural production. As land use is Other anthropogenic sources include the addi-
defined as the arrangements, activities and input tion of manures, and sewage sludge, which can
people undertake in a certain land to produce, affect the utilization of heavy metals by altering
change or maintain it value (Iwegbue, 2014). Land the soil physico-chemical properties such as the
as it has been defined is the activities, manners organic matter, pH, and bioavailability of heavy
and engagements people carryout in a particular metals (Yusuf & Osibanjo, 2006; Odika et al.,
piece of land to produce, modify or sustain it. 2020). Although plants require certain heavy
Land uses and its management practices have metals for their growth and upkeep in the soil,
severe influence on the natural resources found in excessive amounts of these metals can become
soils, which include water, nutrients and plants. toxic to plants. Some of the direct toxic effects
Information from land uses can be used to prof- caused by high metal concentration include inhibi-
fer solution to natural resource sustenance and tion of cytoplasmic enzymes and damage to cell
management which include issues such as soil structures due to oxidative stress (Duruibe et al.,
and water quality. Lots of man’s activities such as 2007; Young, 2005). Heavy metals concentration
deforestation, agriculture, urban development etc in soil can extend to as high as 100,000 mg/kg
have altered the soil and its nutrients, replacing (Long et al., 2002)
them with potentially harmful elements (Khormali Despite the toxic effect of these heavy metals
et al., 2009; Ayoubi et al., 2011). both in the soil and in humans, their concentration
The soil as a function of the ecosystem is a ware- and buildup has not been adequately and effectively
house of pollutants and is importance in ecosystems monitored in developing cities and countries, es-
research (Luo et al., 2007) and pollution studies pecially in sub-Saharan Africa, and equivalently
(Madrid et al., 2002). Amongst the components in Bayelsa State, Nigeria. While these metals are
of the environment (soil, air and water), the soil is in the soils, they stay for a long time due to the
one that receives pollutants from the others. This fact that they immobile and non-biodegradable.
is mainly due to anthropogenic activities which The metals have been confirmed to cause acute
mount substantial pressure on the land, either by health challenges in humans (Madrid et al., 2002;
transportation, contamination, restructuring etc. Lee et al., 2006). Excessive accumulation of these
In agricultural activities, fertilizer, pesticides and heavy metals in food cause a number of diseases,
herbicides application meant to improve nutrient such as renal, neurological, cardiovascular, bone
status of the soil and increase yield contribute diseases and cancer (Vijaya et al., 2010; Thomas
majorly to soil pollution, as constituents of the et al., 2015). The study aimed at evaluating the
inorganic materials and trace elements are largely effect of land use systems on the concentration
deposited serving in many cases as biomonitors of of some heavy metals (copper (Cu), zinc (Zn),

4
manganese (Mn), chromium (Cr), cadmium (Cd), bags. They were thereafter air dried, ground and
nickel (Ni), vanadium (V) and lead (Pb)) in soils. put through a 2 mm sieve. Heavy metal determi-
Information about the presence of these heavy nation was carried out in the Central Laboratory,
metals will help land users make decisions on Faculty of Agriculture, University of Benin, Benin
how lands should be utilized and thereafter proffer City, Edo State, Nigeria.
preventive measures to sustain the ecosystem. Soil analysis
Particle Size Distribution was determined using
Materials and Methods the principle of Boyoucous hydrometer method
and sodium hexametaphosphate as the dispersant
Study Area as described in Gee & Or (2002). The pH of the
The research was carried out in two local gov- soil was measured in a 1:2.5 (m/v) soil to water
ernment areas in Bayelsa State namely: Southern suspension (8 g of soil for 20 ml of distilled water)
Ijaw and Yenagoa. Four land use types (oil palm prepared and left standing overnight (Abollino et
plantation popularly known as Bayelsa Palm, plan- al., 2002). Total organic carbon was determined
tain plantation, fallow land, and virgin land) were by wet dichromate oxidation method of Walkley
considered from the two local government areas. and Black as described by Radojevic & Bashkin
Yenagoa and Amassoma are Local Government (1999). The organic matters were computed by
Areas in Bayelsa State. The oil palm plantation multiplying the value of the organic carbon by a
(4058’50”N 6006’15” E) and plantain plantation value of 2.0 by Pribyl, (2010). One gramme (1.0
(4059’45”N 6022’20” E) were in Yenagoa, while g) of the soil sample was digested with 15 ml of
the fallow (4053’06”N 6019’26” E) and virgin aquaregia (HNO3:HCl 3:1 ratio) and was allowed
lands (4059’35”N 6007’21” E) were in Southern to stand overnight, in the next day the sample was
Ijaw Local Government Area. digested at 125oC for two hours. The digest was
Bayelsa lies within latitudes 04°4N and 05°, allowed to cool to room temperature and filtered
02N and longitudes 006°, 15E and 006°, 24E and through Whatman No 1 filter and diluted to 25
situated in the southern part of the Niger Delta of mL with 0.25 mol/l HNO3. The samples were
Nigeria. The wet season is warm and overcast, subsequently analyzed for Cd, Pb, Zn, Ni, Cu,
the dry season is hot and mostly cloudy, and it Cr, Fe and Mn using flame atomic adsorption
is oppressive year-round. Over the course of the spectrophotometry - GBC scientific equipment
year, the temperature typically varies from 71°F SENS AA, Australia. Matrix matching, standard
to 87°F and is rarely below 63°F or above 90°F. addition and background correction were used to
The annual rainfall of the study area is 2000 – overcome interference. After every determination,
4500 mm, spread over 8 to 10 months of the year blanks and certified reference materials were also
and bimodal, peaking at June and September. run to determine the precision and instrumental
The relative humidity averages 80% all over the uncertainty. Concentrations of heavy metals in the
state and the natural vegetation zone is tropical soils were then closely compared to the permis-
rainforest. sible levels as stated by Department of Petroleum
Soil sampling Resources (DPR, 2002) and WHO, (2008).
The samples were collected from three depths The saturated hydraulic conductivity (Ks)
(0-15, 15-30 and 30-45 cm) with the aid of a soil Measurements were made on the cores in the
auger. Soil samples were randomly collected laboratory using the modified falling head per-
from three different locations in each of the land meameter method similar to that described by
use types after which they were bulked to attain Tuffour et al., 2014.
a representative sampling unit. Termite mounds Contamination/pollution index
and flooded areas were avoided in order to limit The contamination/pollution index was gotten
errors and attain representative results. Samples by using the contamination/pollution index as
were carefully put into properly labeled transparent defined by Lacutusu (2000).

5
C/PI = Concentration of metal in soil /Target value significant indication of clay illuviation (Niu et
from reference table al., 2015).
Concentration of heavy metals in the Plantain
A difference between the soil contamination Plantation (PPT)
and pollution range was attained by means of The result in table 3 shows the heavy metal
the contamination/pollution index (C/PI) (Table load in the plantain plantation. The highest value
9). This represents a metal content effectively of iron concentration 31.25 mg/kg was found in
measured in soil by chemical analysis and the the surface soil (0-15 cm) and reduced (22.51 and
reference value of contamination obtained using 21.51 mg/kg) as the depth increased. The mean
the standard table formulated by the Department iron concentration was 25.09 mg/kg. The mean
of Petroleum Resources of Nigeria (DPR, 2002) iron concentration was above the permissible
for maximum allowed concentrations of heavy level of DPR (2002) and WHO (2008). Also, the
metals in soil (Table 1). C/P index values greater iron concentration in the three depths was also
than unity (1) defines the pollution range and when higher than the tolerable level. This indicates iron
lowers than unity the contamination range. toxicity in the soil. Mn concentration was highest
Determination of Bulk Density (11.3 mg/kg) and reduced with increasing depth.
Bulk density was determined according to the The mean Mn concentration was 8.85 mg/kg and
method of Hunt & Gilkes, (1992) adopted by when compared to the permissible level, it was far
Mckenzie et al. (2004). Samples were collected lower. Manganese concentration in the soil posed
with the aid of a core, a metal cylinder of known no threat to living organisms. Zinc concentration
volume (V) was pushed into the soil at right ranged from 10.33-28.72 mg/kg with a mean of
angles to ground surface. The cylinder was then 17.71 mg/kg. The highest concentration was found
dug out and the soil core was gently pushed out of in the surface soil (0-15 cm) while the lowest was
the cylinder using a plunger, into a well labelled found in the subsoil (30-45 cm). The mean zinc
cellophane bag and transported to the laboratory concentration was below the tolerable limit and
where it was oven-dried at 105oC and weighed. standard, posing no form of threat in the soils. In
the plantain plantation, copper (Cu) concentration
Bulk density = oven dried mass of the sample (g)/ had a range of 4.9-8.14 mg/kg with a mean of 6.37
Volume of the core (cm3) mg/kg. The highest concentration was registered
in the top soil (0-15 cm) and the lowest in the
Result and Discussions subsoil level (30-45 cm). The mean concentration
was lower than the permissible limit indicating
The result as stated in table 2 shows that on the that the cupper level showed no form of hazard
average pH was strongly acidic (4.4 - 4.7) in all in the soil. Chromium concentration ranged from
the land use types and had significant difference 3.236-5.37 mg/kg with an average of 3.65 mg/
(P<0.05) between them all. The acidic state of kg. The highest concentration of Cr was found at
soils was due to leaching of basic cations by heavy the surface soil (0-15 cm) and the lowest at the
rainfall in the region (Agbai et al., 2022). subsoil (30-45 cm). The values across the three
Organic matter was significantly different in depth and the mean concentration was below the
the four land use types: virgin land recorded to WHO and DPR threshold signifying no form of
highest value - 43.33 g/kg > oil palm plantation – chromium risk factor. Cadmium concentration
34.67 g/kg > fallow land – 23.33 g/kg > plantain ranged from 1.007-1.671 mg/kg across the three
plantation - 14.67 g/kg.; while plantain plantation depths with a mean of 1.31 mg/kg. The concentra-
recorded the lowest value. In the different land tions down the soil and the mean concentration
use systems, the sand fraction had the highest was higher than the WHO/DPR permissible level
values which could be attributed to the kaolinitic indicating that the concentration of cadmium in
nature of the parent materials (Fasina, 2005) and the soil is hazardous. Lead concentration from the

6
Table 1. Target values for heavy metals (mg.kg-1)

Metals Target value Intervention value

Cd 0.8 17
Cr 100 380
Cu 36 190
Pb 85 530
Ni 35 210
Zn 140 720
Mn 850
Fe 4.7
V 0.5

Adapted from DPR (2002)

Table 2. Some physicochemical properties of the different land use systems

CODE Depth pH Org. C Org. M Sand Clay Silt Soil texture

g/kg
4059’45”N 6022’20” E
PPT 0-15 4.4a 11c 22c 853.4c 91.4a 55.2a loamy sand
PPT 15-30 4.7b 7b 14b 813.4b 111.4b 75.2b loamy sand
PPT 30-45 4.7b 4a 8a 793.4a 131.4c 75.2b sandy loam
4.6 7.33 14.67 820.08 111.4 68.53
4058’50”N 6006’15” E
OPT 0-15 4.5b 36c 72c 773.4c 111.4a 115.2a sandy loam
OPT 15-30 4.5b 11b 22b 723.4b 151.4b 125.2b sandy loam
OPT 30-45 4.3a 5a 10a 713.4a 161.4c 125.2b sandy loam
4.43 17.33 34.67 736.73 141.4 121.87
4059’35”N 6007’21” E
VVL 0-15 4.7a 29c 58c 693.4c 191.4a 115.2b sandy loam
VVL 15-30 4.7a 22b 44b 683.4b 211.4b 105.2a sandy clay
loam
VVL 30-45 4.7a 14a 28a 653.4a 221.4c 125.2c sandy clay
loam
4.7 21.67 43.33 676.73 208.07 115.20
4053’06”N 6019’26” E
FFL 0-15 4.5a 17c 34c 733.4c 141.4a 125.2a sandy loam
FFL 15-30 4.5a 11b 22b 723.4b 151.4b 125.2a sandy loam
FFL 30-45 4.6b 7a 14a 703.4a 161.4c 135.2b sandy loam
MEAN 4.53 11.67 23.33 720.07 151.4 128.53

Mean value(s) with the same letters(s) in the column are not significantly different from one another at 5% level of probability in each location.
PPT - Plantain plantation, OPT - Oil Palm Plantation, VVL - Virgin land, FFL - Fallow land

7
surface to the subsurface was below the WHO/ while the lowest was at the surface level (0-15
DPR Permissible level. The lead concentration cm). The individual depth and mean concentration
ranged from 1.974-3.276 mg/kg with a mean of were lower than the permissible limit indicating
1.31 mg/kg. There was no hazardous lead threat that the copper level showed no form of hazard
in the plantain plantation. The nickel concentra- in the soil. Chromium concentration ranged from
tion through the soil from the surface downwards 1.891-5.113 mg/kg with an average of 3.51 mg/
and the mean value of 0.63 indicated that there kg. The highest concentration of Cr was found
was no nickel toxicity in the soil as the concen- at the subsurface soil (15-30 cm) and the lowest
trations were below the WHO/DPR threat levels at the surface soil (0 -15 cm). The values across
(Table 1). The mean vanadium concentration in the three depth and the mean concentration was
the soils (0.13 mg/kg) of the plantain plantation below the WHO and DPR threshold signify-
was below the permissible level of WHO/DPR. ing no form of chromium risk factor. Cadmium
The concentration had a range of 0.102-0.169 mg/ concentration ranged 0.588-1.591 mg/kg across
kg from the surface soils through the subsurface the three depths with a mean of 1.09 mg/kg. The
soils. The low concentration shows that the level concentration of cadmium in surface soils at
and concentration of vanadium in the plantain 0-15 cm was below the permissible limit while
plantation is non-toxic. the concentrations down the soil and the mean
Concentration of heavy metals in the Oil Palm concentration were higher than the WHO/DPR
Plantation (OPT) permissible level indicating that the concentration
Heavy metals concentration in the oil palm of cadmium below the surface soil is hazardous.
plantation was displayed in table 4. The highest The lead concentration was highest (3.119 mg/
value of iron concentration 23.25 mg/kg was kg) at the subsurface level (15-30 cm) and lowest
found in the subsurface soil (15-30 cm) while the at the surface soil. The lead concentration ranged
lowest concentration (10.53 mg/kg) was found from 1.154-3.119 mg/kg with a mean of 2.14 mg/
in the surface soils (0-15 cm). The mean iron kg. There was no hazardous lead threat in the oil
concentration was 18.68 mg/kg. The mean iron palm plantation as the Pb concentration was below
concentration was above the permissible level the WHO/DPR permissible level at all depths. The
of DPR (2002) and WHO (2008). Also, the iron nickel concentration through the soil from the
concentration in the three depths was also higher surface downwards and the mean value of 0.52
than the tolerable level. This indicates iron toxic- mg/kg indicated that there was no nickel toxicity
ity in the soils. Manganese (Mn) concentration in the soil as the concentrations were below the
was highest (10.76 mg/kg) at the 15-30 cm depth WHO/DPR threat levels. The mean vanadium
and lowest (3.98 mg/kg) at the surface (0-15 cm). concentration in the soils (0.11 mg/kg) of the oil
The mean Mn concentration was 7.39 mg/kg and palm plantation was below the permissible level
when compared to the permissible level, it was far of WHO/DPR. The concentration had a range of
lower. Manganese concentration in the considered 0.06-0.161 mg/kg from the surface soils through
depths posed no threat to living organisms. Zinc the subsurface soils. The low concentration shows
concentration ranged from 7.53-18.34 mg/kg with that the level and concentration of vanadium in
a mean of 12.30 mg/kg. The highest concentration the oil palm plantation is non-toxic.
was found at the 15-30 cm depth while the low- Concentration of heavy metals in the Virgin
est was found at the surface soil (0-15 cm). The Land (VVL)
mean zinc concentration was below the tolerable Table 5 shows the heavy metals concentra-
limit and standard, posing no form of threat in tion in the virgin land. The highest value of iron
the soils. In the oil palm plantation, copper (Cu) concentration (18.04 mg/kg) was found in the
concentration ranged from 2.87-7.75 mg/kg with subsurface soil (15-30 cm) while the lowest con-
a mean of 5.33 mg/kg. The highest concentration centration (10.73 mg/kg) was found in the surface
was registered in the subsurface soil (15-30 cm) soils (0-15 cm) and subsurface (30-45 cm) with

8
Table 3. Heavy metal status in the plantain plantation

CODE Depth Fe Mn Zn Cu Cr Cd Pb Ni V
mg/kg
PPT 0-15 31.25c 11.3c 28.72c 8.14c 5.37c 1.671c 3.276c 0.802c 0.169a
PPT 15-30 22.51b 8.45b 14.07b 6.08b 4.015b 1.249b 2.449b 0.6b 0.127a
PPT 30-45 21.51a 6.81a 10.33a 4.9a 3.236a 1.007a 1.974a 0.483a 0.102a
Mean 25.09 8.85 17.71 6.37 3.63 1.31 2.57 0.63 0.13

Mean value(s) with the same letters(s) in the column are not significantly different from one another at 5% level of probability in each location.
PPT - Plantain plantation, OPT - Oil Palm Plantation, VVL - Virgin land, FFL - Fallow land

Table 4. Heavy metal status in the oil palm plantation

CODE Depth Fe Mn Zn Cu Cr Cd Pb Ni V
mg/kg
OPT 0-15 10.53a 3.98a 7.53a 2.87a 1.891a 0.588a 1.154a 0.282a 0.06a
OPT 15-30 23.25c 10.76c 18.34c 7.75c 5.113c 1.591c 3.119c 0.764c 0.161b
OPT 30-45 22.25b 7.44b 11.04b 5.36b 3.535b 1.1b 2.157b 0.528b 0.112b
Mean 18.68 7.39 12.30 5.33 3.51 1.09 2.14 0.52 0.11

Mean value(s) with the same letters(s) in the column are not significantly different from one another at 5% level of probability in each location.
PPT - Plantain plantation, OPT - Oil Palm Plantation, VVL - Virgin land, FFL - Fallow land

Table 5. Heavy metal status in the virgin land

CODE Depth Fe Mn Zn Cu Cr Cd Pb Ni V
mg/kg
VVL 0-15 10.75a 4.87a 7.74a 3.51a 2.314a 0.72a 1.412a 0.346a 0.073a
VVL 15-30 18.04b 6.53c 8.79c 4.7c 3.103c 0.965c 1.893c 0.463b 0.098a
VVL 30-45 10.75a 5.42b 8.15b 3.9b 2.576b 0.801b 1.571b 0.385a 0.081a
Mean 13.18 5.61 8.23 4.04 2.66 0.83 1.63 0.40 0.08

Mean value(s) with the same letters(s) in the column are not significantly different from one another at 5% level of probability in each location.
PPT - Plantain plantation, OPT - Oil Palm Plantation, VVL - Virgin land, FFL - Fallow land

Table 6. Heavy metal status in the fallow land

CODE Depth Fe Mn Zn Cu Cr Cd Pb Ni V
mg/kg
FFL 0-15 11.01a 5.55a 15.36c 6.75c 4.453c 1.385c 2.716c 0.665c 0.14c
FFL 15-30 22.25b 8.01b 11.06b 5.77b 3.806b 1.184b 2.322b 0.568b 0.12b
FFL 30-45 22.75c 9.37c 8.3a 4a 2.637a 0.82a 1.609a 0.394a 0.083a
Mean 18.67 7.64 11.57 5.51 3.63 1.13 2.22 0.54 0.11

Mean value(s) with the same letters(s) in the column are not significantly different from one another at 5% level of probability in each location.
PPT - Plantain plantation, OPT - Oil Palm Plantation, VVL - Virgin land, FFL - Fallow land

9
mean of 13.18 mg/kg. The mean iron concentra- hazardous lead threat in the virgin land as the Pb
tion was found to be above the permissible level concentration was below the WHO/DPR permis-
of DPR (2002) and WHO (2008). Also, the iron sible level at all depths. The nickel concentration
concentration in the three depths was also higher through the soil from the surface downwards and
than the tolerable level. This indicates iron toxic- the mean concentration of 0.40 mg/kg indicated
ity in the virgin land soils. Mn concentration was that there was no nickel toxicity in the soil as
highest (6.53 mg/kg) at the 15-30 cm depth and the concentrations were below the WHO/DPR
lowest (4.87 mg/kg) at the surface (0-15 cm). threat levels. The mean vanadium concentration
The mean Mn concentration was 5.61 mg/kg in the soils (0.08 mg/kg) of the virgin land was
and when compared to the permissible level, it below the permissible level of WHO/DPR. The
was far lower. Manganese concentration in the concentration had a range of 0.073-0.098 mg/
considered depths posed no threat to living organ- kg from the surface soils through the subsurface
isms. Zinc concentration ranged from 7.74-8.79 soils. The low concentration shows that the level
mg/kg with a mean of 8.23 mg/kg. The highest and concentration of vanadium in the virgin land
concentration was found at the 15-30 cm depth is non-toxic.
while the lowest was found at the surface soil (0-15 Concentration of heavy metals in the Fallow
cm). The mean zinc concentration was below the land (FFL)
tolerable limit and standard, posing no form of Table 6 shows the heavy metal weight in the
threat in the soils. In the virgin land, copper (Cu) fallow land. The highest value of iron concentra-
concentration ranged from 3.51-4.7 mg/kg with tion (22.75 mg/kg) was found in the subsurface
a mean of 4.04 mg/kg. The highest concentration soil (30-45 cm) while the lowest concentration
was registered in the subsurface soil (15-30 cm) (11.01 mg/kg) was found in the surface soils (0-15
while the lowest was at the surface level (0-15 cm). The mean iron concentration was 18.67
cm). The individual depth and mean concentration mg/kg. The mean iron concentration was above
were lower than the permissible limit indicating the permissible level of DPR (2002) and WHO
that the copper level showed no form of hazard (2008). Also, the iron concentration in the three
in the soil. Chromium concentration ranged from depths was also higher than the tolerable level.
2.314-3.103 mg/kg with an average of 2.66 mg/ This indicates iron toxicity in the fallow land.
kg. The highest concentration of Cr was found at Mn concentration was highest (9.37 mg/kg) at
the subsurface soil (15-30 cm) and the lowest at the 30-45cm depth and lowest (5.55 mg/kg) at
the surface soil (0-15 cm). The values across the the surface (0-15 cm). The mean Mn concentra-
three depth and the mean concentration was below tion was 7.64 mg/kg and when compared to the
the WHO and DPR threshold signifying no form permissible level, it was far lower. Manganese
of chromium risk factor. Cadmium concentration concentration in the considered depths posed
ranged 0.72-0.965 mg/kg across the three depths no threat to living organisms. Zinc concentra-
with a mean of 0.83 mg/kg. The concentration of tion ranged from 8.3-15.36 mg/kg with a mean
cadmium in surface soils at 0-15 cm was below of 11.57 mg/kg. The highest concentration was
the permissible limit while the concentrations in found at the surface soils (0-15 cm depth) while
the other depths and the mean concentration were the lowest was found at the subsurface soil (30-
higher than the WHO/DPR permissible level in- 45 cm). The mean zinc concentration was below
dicating that the concentration of cadmium below the tolerable limit and standard, posing no form
the surface soil is hazardous. Table 5 shows that of threat in the soils. Copper (Cu) concentration
the lead concentration was highest (1.893 mg/ ranged from 4-6.75 mg/kg with a mean of 5.51
kg) at the subsurface level (15-30 cm) and low- mg/kg. The highest concentration was registered
est (1.412 mg/kg) at the surface soil (0-15 cm). in the surface soil (0-15 cm) while the lowest was
The lead concentration ranged from 1.412-1.893 at the subsurface level (30-45 cm). The individual
mg/kg with a mean of 1.63 mg/kg. There was no depth and mean concentration were lower than

10
the permissible limit indicating that the copper WHO/DPR permissible level of 0.8. Manganese,
level showed no form of hazard in the soil. Chro- zinc, copper, chromium, lead, nickel and vana-
mium concentration ranged from 2.637-4.453 mg/ dium were non-hazardous in the different land use
kg with an average of 3.36 mg/kg. The highest types as their concentrations were lower than the
concentration of Cr was found at the surface soil permissible levels. Cadmium is extremely toxic
(0-15 cm) and the lowest was at the subsurface to human, and in particular adversely affecting
soil (30-45 cm). The values across the three kidneys, and bones (Greenpeace, 2008). The
depth and the mean concentration was below the research revealed that soil heavy metals content
WHO and DPR threshold signifying no form of could be related to agricultural activities (Huang
chromium risk factor. Cadmium concentration & Jin, 2008), since agricultural activities are the
ranged 0.82-1.385 mg/kg across the three depths most possible practice in Bayelsa State and can
with a mean of 1.13 mg/kg. The concentrations increase the iron and cadmium content. Agricul-
of cadmium across the three depths were above tural and industrial wastes are reported to be the
the permissible limit while the mean concentra- most damaging anthropogenic activities in the
tion was higher than the WHO/DPR permissible world (Krami et al., 2013).
level indicating that the concentration of cadmium Soil hydraulic conductivity and the heavy metal
across the entire soil is hazardous. Table 6 shows concentration
that the lead concentration was highest (2.716 Hydraulic conductivity which signifies the
mg/kg) at the surface soils (0-15 cm) and lowest ease of water movement through the soil was
(1.609 mg/kg) at the subsurface soil (30-45 cm). more rapid in the virgin land and slower in the
The lead concentration ranged from 1.609-2.716 plantain plantation. The mean hydraulic conduc-
mg/kg with a mean of 2.22 mg/kg. There was no tivity through the land use types were: PPT (7.6
hazardous lead threat in the fallow land as the Pb cm/hr), OPT (9.8 cm/hr), VVL (13.8 cm/hr) and
concentration was below the WHO/DPR permis- FFL (13.2 cm/hr). The result therefore showed
sible level at all depths. The nickel concentration that higher and threatening concentration of the
through the soil from the surface downwards and heavy metals were found in soils with low hy-
the mean concentration of 0.54 mg/kg indicated draulic conductivity such as the OPT and PPT,
that there was no nickel toxicity in the soil as while the reduced and less hazardous concentra-
the concentrations were below the WHO/DPR tion was found in the virgin land and fallow land
threat levels. The mean vanadium concentration with higher hydraulic conductivity (Table 7).
in the soils (0.11 mg/kg) of the fallow land was This affirms the contribution of Chokor & Agbai
below the permissible level of WHO/DPR. The (2014) that soils with lower permeability would
concentration had a range of 0.083-0.14 mg/kg retain more heavy metals than those with more
from the surface soils through the subsurface rapid water movement through the soil.
soils. The low concentration shows that the level The results show soil physical and chemical
and concentration of vanadium in the fallow land characteristics of the four land use types according
is non-toxic. to their depths (Table 2). The low pH across the
Effect of the different land use types on the heavy four sites could be as a result of the decomposi-
metal concentration in the soils tion and rapid mineralization of organic matter
Figure 1 and table 7 showed that the different that thereafter releases carbon (IV) oxide, which
land use types had significant effect (P<0.05) on reacted with water to form carbonic acid. This
the heavy metal concentration in the soils. The low pH promoted rapid solubility and mobility
soils of the plantain plantation, oil palm planta- of the heavy metals, just as stated by Akan et
tion, virgin land and fallow land recorded iron and al., 2013. However, there was a decline in the
cadmium toxicity as its Fe (25.09, 18.68, 13.18 heavy metal concentration as the pH of the soils
and 18.67 mg/kg) and Cd concentration (1.31, increased. The organic matter content was found
1.09, 0.83 and 1.13 mg/kg) were higher than the to influence the heavy metal concentration, the

11
Fig. 1. Effect of the different land use types on the heavy metal concentration in the soils

Table 7. Mean concentration of heavy metals and hydraulic conductivity in the different land use types

Land Fe Mn Zn Cu Cr Cd Pb Ni V HC
use mg/kg cm/hr
PPT 25.09c 8.85c 17.71c 6.37c 3.63b 1.31c 2.57d 0.63c 0.13a 7.6a
OPT 18.68b 7.39b 12.3b 5.33b 3.51b 1.09b 2.14b 0.52b 0.11a 9.8b
VVL 13.18a 5.61a 8.23a 4.04a 2.66a 0.83a 1.63a 0.4a 0.08a 13.6c
FFL 18.67b 7.64b 11.57b 5.51b 3.63b 1.13b 2.22c 0.54b 0.11b 13.2c

PPT – Plantain plantation, OPT – Oil palm plantation, VVL – Virgin land, FFL – Fallow land, HC – Hydraulic conductivity. Mean value(s) with the
same letters(s) in the column are not significantly different from one another at 5% level of probability in each location.

12
Table 8. Contamination/Pollution Index of the metals in the soil samples

Land Depth Fe Mn Zn Cu Cr Cd Pb Ni V
use mg/kg
PPT 0-15 6.64 0.013 0.205 0.226 0.054 2.089 0.039 0.023 0.338
15-30 4.79 0.010 0.101 0.169 0.040 1.561 0.029 0.017 0.254
30-45 4.58 0.008 0.074 0.136 0.032 1.259 0.023 0.014 0.204
Mean 5.34 0.010 0.126 0.177 0.042 1.636 0.030 0.018 0.265
OPT 0-15 2.240 0.005 0.054 0.080 0.019 0.735 0.014 0.008 0.12
15-30 4.947 0.013 0.131 0.215 0.051 1.989 0.037 0.022 0.322
30-45 4.734 0.009 0.079 0.149 0.035 1.375 0.025 0.015 0.224
Mean 3.974 0.009 0.088 0.148 0.035 1.366 0.025 0.015 0.222
VVL 0-15 2.287 0.006 0.055 0.098 0.023 0.900 0.017 0.010 0.146
15-30 3.838 0.008 0.063 0.131 0.031 1.206 0.022 0.013 0.196
30-45 2.287 0.006 0.058 0.108 0.026 1.001 0.018 0.011 0.162
Mean 2.804 0.007 0.059 0.112 0.027 1.036 0.019 0.011 0.168
FFL 0-15 2.343 0.007 0.110 0.188 0.045 1.731 0.032 0.019 0.280
15-30 4.734 0.009 0.079 0.160 0.038 1.480 0.027 0.016 0.240
30-45 4.840 0.011 0.059 0.111 0.026 1.025 0.019 0.011 0.166
Mean 3.972 0.009 0.083 0.153 0.036 1.412 0.026 0.015 0.229

Table 9. Range of contamination and pollution index

CPI Significance Remark

<0.1 Very slight contamination No negative effect on soil, plant and
environment
0.10 –0.25 Slight contamination
0.26 –0.5 Moderate contamination
0.5 –0.75 Severe contamination
0.76 –1.00 Very severe contamination
1.1 – 2.0 Slight pollution Will pose negative effect on soil,
plant and environment
2.1-4.0 Moderate pollution
4.1 – 8.0 Severe pollution
8.1 –16.0 Very severe pollution
> 16.0 Excessive pollution

Adapted from Lacutusu (2000)

13
higher heavy metal concentration was found in slightly polluted with Cd. The mean C/PI of Mn,
the layer (surface soils of 0-15 cm) with higher Zn, Cu, Cr, Pb, Ni and V were in the very slightly
organic carbon and organic matter content. This contaminated to slightly contaminated zone, with
observation was also confirmed by Oyedele et C/PI of 0.009, 0.088, 0.148, 0.035, 0.025, 0.015
al., (2008) and Osakwe (2014). and 0.222 (Table 8).
The variation between the heavy metal con- The mean C/PI of Fe and Cd in the virgin
centration at subsurface soils (15-30 cm and 30- land was 2.804 and 1.036, indicating moderate
45 cm) was low, as the clay content increased at and slight pollution, while Mn, Zn, Cu, Cr, Pb,
those depths. This occurrence can be attributed Ni and V had C/PI of 0.007, 0.059, 0.112, 0.027,
to the increasing clay content and surface area 0.019, 0.011, and 0.168 (0.007-0.169) depicting
for reaction and adsorption of the heavy metals, very slight to slight contamination as described
just as stated by Osakwe (2014). in table 9.
Contamination and Pollution Index (C/PI) Fallow land followed the trend as its mean Fe
In the plantain plantation (PPT), the pollu- (3.972) and Cd (1.412) C/PI depicted the slight
tion index ranged from 4.58-6.64 for iron with and severely pollution of the metals. The mean C/
an average of 5.34, and 1.25-2.089 for cadmium PI of Mn, Zn, Cu, Cr, Pb, Ni and V (0.009-0.229)
with an average of 1.636. The soils were severely showed slight to very slight contamination of the
polluted with iron and slightly polluted with soils by the metals.
cadmium through the soil depths, with the higher
pollution at the surface soil (0-15 cm) and lowest Conclusion
at the subsoil (30-45 cm). This indicates that the
pollution is detrimental to the soil, its inhabitant, The research showed the different land use types
users and the environment. Also, Mn, Zn, Cu, Cr, had significant effect (P<0.05) on the concentration
Pb, and Ni were slightly contaminated at the 0-15 on heavy metals in the respective soil depth. The
cm depth, with contamination index (CI) of 0.013, hydraulic conductivity (HC) of the soils played a
0.205, 0.226, 0.054, 0.039, and 0.023. Valadium part in the accumulation of the heavy metals, as the
was moderately contaminated with CI of 0.338, soils with higher HC adsorbed lower concentration
posing no detrimental effect to the use of the soil. of the heavy metals as compared to land use types
The contamination of Mn, Zn, Cu, Cr, Pb, Ni and with lower HC. The results showed that the mean
pollution index of iron, Cd reduced with increase concentrations were higher at the surface soils but
in depth. The mean C/PI in the plantain planta- reduced significantly as the depth increased. All
tion was 0.010, 0.126, 0.177, 0.042, 0.030, 0.018 other heavy metals were within the permissible
and 5.34, 1.636 depicting that there was a slight level of WHO/DPR except iron and cadmium. Also,
contamination of the soil by Mn, Zn, Cu, Cr, Pb, the contamination/pollution index further stated
Ni, while Fe and Cd showed severe pollution and the contamination or pollution status of the soils.
slight pollution (Table 9). The mean C/PI of Fe and Cd ranged from slight
In the oil palm plantation, there was slight to to severe pollution in the plantain plantation and
moderate pollution of Fe with a range of 2.24- fallow land, while the other metals showed slight
4.947, with the lowest pollution at the 0-15 cm to moderate contamination level in the plantain
depth and the highest at the 15-30 cm depth. The plantation and very slight to slight contamination
mean CPI of 3.97 showed that the soils were in the fallow land. In the oil palm plantation, C/
moderately polluted with iron. Also, the CPI of Cd PI of Fe showed moderate to severe pollution,
ranged from very severe contamination to slight while Cd showed severe contamination to slight
pollution with a range of 0.735-1.989. The high- pollution level. The other metals showed “very
est CPI value was found at the 15-30 cm depth slight” to “slight” contamination. In the virgin
while the lowest was in the 0-15 cm. The mean land, the mean C/PI indicated slight pollution for
CPI of 1.366 therefore signifies that the soils were Cd and moderate pollution for Fe, while the other

14
metals were within the “very slight” to “slight” Pribyl, D. W. (2010). A critical review of the con-
contamination. The study therefore affirms that ventional SOC to SOM conversion factor. Geoderma,
156(3-4), 75-83.
different land use types can regulate heavy metal DPR (2002). Environmental guidelines and Standards
pollution in soils with the lowest contamination for the petroleum industries in Nigeria. Department of
and pollution rate at the virgin land and the highest Petroleum Resources, Ministry of Petroleum and Mineral
at the plantain plantation and fallow land. This Resources, Abuja, Nigeria.
indicates that previous anthropogenic activities Duruibe, J. O., Ogwuegbu, M. O. C., & Egwurugwu,
J. N. (2007). Heavy metal pollution and human biotoxic
on the land have significant contribution to the effects. International Journal of physical sciences, 2(5),
heavy metal concentration in the soils. Due to 112-118.
the hazardous nature of these elements, which Fasina, A. S. (2005). Properties and classification of
could have been added by subsistent farmers in some selected Wetland soils in Ado Ekiti, Southwest Nigeria.
the area by fertilizer and herbicides application, Applied Tropical Agriculture, 10(2), 76-82.
Feng-ju, L., Bao-shan C., Yan L., Wen-ting L., Yongyan
it is thereby recommended that subsistent farmers L., & Ya-li T. (2012). Heavy Metal Pollution in Different
in the area be enlightened on the detrimental ef- Types of Land Use in Baiyangdian Lake
fect of indiscriminate use of inorganic fertilizers Gee, G. W., & Or, D. (2002). Particle Size Analysis. In:
and herbicides. Dane, J.H. and Topp, G.C., Eds., Methods of Soil Analysis,
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