CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.0 BACKGROUND OF STUDY

Soil, all over the world in the past years, has been contaminated very rapidly due to different

anthropogenic activities, such as effluent discharges from domestic and industrial sources,

crumbs of vehicular parts, mining activities, power stations and metallurgical industries (Kaur,

2022)

Various types of contaminants, such as heavy metals, pesticides and polyaromatic hydrocarbons,

have been documented to enter the soil ecosystem through direct and indirect human activities.

Among the various contaminants, heavy metals have been recognized as potential carcinogens

that fall under the category of most hazardous pollutants due to their direct toxicity, ecological

risks and non-degradable nature (Zheng, 2010). Apart from these, heavy metals upon exposure

via inhalation, ingestion or dermal contact can pose both carcinogenic as well as non-

carcinogenic effects on human beings. The ultimate threat of heavy metals in the soil is due to

their persistent nature and their potential to become bio-accumulated in food crop plants (Liu,

2021). Once these heavy metals enter food crops, they can pose adverse effects upon the

consumption of contaminated vegetables and grains. Soil pollution, on account of heavy metals,

has turned out to be a serious problem in developing countries due to the increasing number of

pollution sources (Ahmad, 2019). Various anthropogenic activities, including automobile

emissions, traffic activities and industrial activities, can cause heavy metals to diffuse into

urbanized environments. Based on the above, roadside soil, street dust, and plants can be
exposed to significant levels of metals, owing to both vehicle emissions and carried harmful

chemicals. The burning of fossil fuels, vehicle wear (tires, body and brakes) and vehicular fluids

all contribute to increased metal levels in the environment. It has been observed that roadside soil

is highly contaminated with various heavy metals, namely Ni, Cd, Zn, Cu and Pb (Bhatti, 2021).

Many studies found that human activities are the primary source of metal contamination in

different environmental samples, such as soil, dust, sediments and plants. Thus, the study of

heavy metal pollution in soils is the need of the hour. Many studies have been conducted to

explore the spatial distribution of heavy metal pollution in roadside soils (Zhao, 2021)

The bioaccumulation of different metals in crop plants depends on the physico-chemical

characteristics of the soil. The parameters, such as pH, electrical conductivity, availability of

various cations and anions, play a key role in metal availability to the plants from the soil. The

physico-chemical characteristics of soil differ from place to place and from time to time,

depending on the parent material, due to integrated effects of natural factors, for example,

climate conditions and anthropogenic activities, such as emission from industrial, domestic and

vehicular sources. It is well established that soil physico-chemical characterization plays a key

role in exploring the composition of soil and evaluating soil pollution. Many studies across the

world have been conducted to explore the physico-chemical characteristics of roadside soil in

different regions (Szwalec, 2020)

Roads serve as major link among communities through which foods and other important

commodities are transported. It is an essential amenity that plays a major role in enhancing social

and economic activities. However, road construction has also resulted in heavy environmental

pollution especially on soils (Bai et al., 2009). Besides this, reports have shown that roadside
soils may be contaminated from various anthropogenic activities such as industrial and energy

production, vehicle exhaust, waste disposal as well as coal and fuel combustion (Li et al., 2001).

Public motor roads affects natural environment to a large extent because automobile act as line

sources of heavy metal pollutants (Poszyler-Adamska and Czemiak, 2007). Excess of metal

pollutants deposited on soils may be transformed and transported to vegetation (Atayese et al.,

2009) and from plants they pass on to animals and human being (Suzuki et al., 2008). There have

been several reports on road side soils in some urban cities in Nigeria including soils from Jos

(Abechi et al., 2010), Osogbo (Fakayode and Olu-Owolabi, 2003) and Ibadan (Onianwa et al.,

2001) and other cities (Ihenyen, 1998a; 1998b). Roadside soils in U.K. (Thornton, 1982),

Holland (Edelman & Bruin, 1986) and India (Kuhad et al., 1989), Botswana (Mmolawa et al.,

2011) have also been studied. Road side soil pollution in these studies was attributed to traffic.

Thus, emissions from heavy traffic are a global phenomenon.

Heavy metals frequently reported in literature with regards to potential hazards and occurrences

in contaminated soils are Cd, Cr, Pb, Zn, Fe and Cu (Alloway, 1995; Akoto et al., 2008).

Emission from heavy traffic were reported to contain Lead, Cadmium, Zinc and Nickel which

are present in fuel as anti-knock agent (Suzuki et al., 2008; Atayese et al., 2009). Vehicle

exhausts, as well as several industrial activities emit these heavy metals such that soils, plants

and even residents along roads with heavy traffic loads are subjected to increasing levels of

contamination with heavy metals (Ghrefat & Yusuf, 2006). Soils are critical in assessing the

potential environmental impacts of automobile emissions and several researchers have indicated

the need for a better understanding of heavy metal pollution of roadside soils (De Kimple &

Morel, 2000; Manta et al., 2002). In Nigeria, over the years, the number of vehicles plying roads
kept on increasing as more heavy trucks and trailers are been used for transportation of goods

across different zones because rail system was abandoned.

Soil, being the major sink for the accumulation of different contaminants, such as heavy metals

released through anthropogenic practices, needs immediate attention (Kumar, 2021). Hence, it

has become imperative to comprehend levels the soil pollution in different areas all over the

world. In past decades, the general criteria adopted for the evaluation of soil pollution mainly

focused on the physico-chemical characterization of soil. However, a number of parameters, the

huge data and the variability of data, can designate the level of pollution, but make it difficult to

compare the pollution levels of various sites. To overcome this problem, a broad ranging

approach has been applied by various researchers to assess the soil pollution, which includes the

usage of various indices, such as the heavy metal pollution index (HPI), geoaccumulation index

(Igeo), enrichment factor (EF), contamination factor (CF) and ecological risk index (RI).

1.2 BACKGROUND OF STUDY

Nowadays, Heavy Metal pollution assessments are crucial because people are worried about

Heavy Metal risk all over the world. Heavy Metal pollution in the soil affects crops, human and

ecological health directly or indirectly due to its accumulation in the terrestrial and aquatic

ecosystems through the food chain. Higher Heavy Metal concentration in the agricultural field

leads to soil and water pollution as their concentration exceeds the threshold level which impacts

crop health and crop production directly due to the effect of soil microbiological imbalance and

decreased soil fertility (Ali, 2019). It also affects aquatic biota indirectly because agricultural

effluents are discharged into the aquatic ecosystems. In the last few decades, Heavy Metal

pollution has been a major concern all over the world as humans are much more aware of their
health as well as their ecological health. Heavy Metal pollution leads to various diseases such as

blackfoot, gastric disorder, vomiting, skin irritation, mucous membranes, heart problems,

leukemia, anemia, hypertension, cardiovascular disorders, asthma, bronchitis/emphysema, and

other respiratory diseases, and even cancer (Sunitha, 2021). Under the permissible limit of HM,

some metals like Cu, Fe, Zn, and even Cr (III) are crucial for human and aquatic biota health 9.

However, some metals like Hg, As, Pb and Cd are non-essential biologically and are very toxic

for the living organism. Moreover, riverine ecological health not only depends on the quantity,

quality, and timing of water flow (i.e., environmental flow) but also the assurance of controlled

concentrations of the HM in the soil profiles.

1.3 AIMS/OBJECTIVES OF STUDY

The objectives of this study are:

 Determine the concentration of heavy metals present in the roadside soil samples so as to

establish any risk posed to human health, plants and animals

 Determine the physic-chemical properties such as Electrical conductivity, Alkalinity, pH

and particle size in the roadside samples.

 Propose policy framework for soil pollution so as to reduce its effects caused by heavy

metals.