First Year of Engineering (2024 Pattern)

Unit 1
Basic Electronics Engineering
Diodes and Applications

Evolution of Electronics

Electronics is the study of flow and control of electrons. Thus the branch of electronics
engineering is to study the behaviour of an electron when they flow through various materials
or devices like resistor, capacitor, semiconductor devices etc under different conditions of
applied electric field. The device which controls the flow of electrons is called electronic
devices.

Electronic Components

History of Electronics:
1. Vacuum tube:

It is also called as electron tube or valve and it was first developed by John Ambrose Fleming
in 1904. The vacuum tube is a tube in which gas is removed and thus vacuum is created. The
basic working principle of vacuum tubes is thermionic emission. When you heat up a metal
the thermal energy makes some electrons loose. The vacuum tube consisted of two electrodes
a cathode and an anode placed on either side of the tube. When the cathode is heated up due
to thermionic emission the electrons are loosened and while applying positive voltage to the
anode, these negatively charged electrons (e-) are attracted towards anode. By creating
vacuum that is by removing the gas the path is made clear for the electrons to move from
cathode to anode. Thus current is created. It was bulky and used lot of electrical power and
because of the heat produced it reduced the life of tube.
Uses: Vacuum tubes were used in early computers as switch or amplifier.

2. Transistor :

Transistor was invented in 1947 by John Bardeen and Walter Brattain while working under
William Shockley at Bell Labs and they were awarded Nobel prize. Transistor is a three
terminal Semiconductor device used to amplify or regulates current or voltage flow and acts
as a switch or gate for electronic signals like faucet controls the flow of water. A voltage or
current applied to one pair of transistor’s terminals controls the current through another pair
of terminals and it can amplify the signal also. Mostly silicon and germanium is used for
manufacturing. Transistors are smaller in size than vacuum tubes and consume less and
generate almost no heat.

Transistors

Uses:

The first application of transistor was in Radios in 1950's

3. Integrated Circuit’s:

Integrated circuits is a set of electronic circuits on one small piece(chip) of semiconductor

material normally silicon. Integrated circuits were first developed on September 12th 1958 by
Jack Kilby at Texas instrument with five integrated components resistors, capacitors,
distributed capacitors and transistors. An integrated circuit can hold transistors, resistors and
capacitors. These integrated circuits can perform calculations and store data using either
digital or analog technology.
Uses:

IC’s found numerous applications from cars (automotive controls), televisions, computers,
microwaves, portable devices like laptops, MP3, play stations, cameras, cellular phones to
ship equipment, aero planes, space craft’s.

Evolution of Integrated Circuit:

SSI- Small Scale Integration(Tens of transistors-1950s)

MSI- Medium Scale Integration ( Hundreds of transistors-1960s)

LSI-Large scale integration (Thousands of transistors-1970s)

VLSI- Very Large Scale integration(Tens of thousands of transistors-1980s)

4. Very Large Scale integration (VLSI)

Very large scale integrated circuits

VLSI began in the 1970s. Before the introduction of VLSI technology most ICs had a limited
set of functions. VLSI involves packing more and more logic devices into smaller and
smaller areas. In other words it’s the process of combining millions of components into a
single chip.

Uses:

Used in digital camera, cellphones, computers , automated machines etc

The advantages of VLSI design are
*High speed,
*Low power
*Physically smaller
*Higher reliability
*More functionality.

Current trends in Electronics,

Artificial Intelligence and machine learning
While artificial intelligence encompasses the idea of a machine that can mimic human
intelligence, machine learning does not. Machine learning aims to teach a machine how to
perform a specific task and provide accurate results by identifying patterns.
e.g. Digital Assistants, Search engines, Social media, Online shopping, Robots,
Transportation and navigation, Text editing and autocorrect, Fraud prevention.

Internet of Things
The internet of things is a technology that allows us to add a device to an inert object (for
example: vehicles, plant electronic systems, roofs, lighting, etc.) that can measure
environmental parameters, generate associated data and transmit them through a
communications network.
e.g. Smart thermostats and Kitchen appliances, Fitness-tracking watches, self-driving cars
and home security systems. Personal medical devices like pacemakers are also IoT devices.

5G technology
5G is the fifth generation of cellular networks. It is the latest in a line of mobile technologies
that started with the introduction of 1G in the 1980s. In theory, 5G technology aims to
connect devices, machines and people who use them through high-speed and low-latency
data connections.

Flexible and wearable electronics

Flexible and wearable electronics refer to electronic devices that are designed to be highly
deformable and can be worn on the body. These devices are made using soft and hybrid
materials that offer enhanced mechanical flexibility, allowing them to accommodate applied
strain in wearable applications

e.g. foldable smart phones, wearable health monitor, smart watches, fitness band,

Electrical vehicles and Autonomous driving

Autonomous electric vehicles (A-VE) are self-driving vehicles powered by electricity rather
than gasoline. These vehicles use sensors and computer vision to navigate. A-EVs are
capable of driving where traditional cars and human drivers do

Cyber security
Cyber security is the practice of protecting system, networks, and programs from digital
attacks. These cyber-attacks are usually aimed at accessing, changing, or destroying sensitive
information; extorting money from users through ransom ware; or interrupting normal
business processes.

Impact of Electronics in industry and society.

Electronics is a branch of engineering that has grown exponentially in recent years, and now
electronics has become a very important part of our lives because it has not only helped to
fulfil our individual needs but also helped with the growth of technology and the economy as
what is Electronics?
As the name suggests, “Electronics” is directly related to the electrons, which means how an
electron behaves when it is subjected to externally applied electric and magnetic fields. The
word electronics is derived from electron mechanics.

So basically, electronics is a branch of engineering that deals with the flow of current through
any form of matter, semiconductors, gases etc. It also deals with the theoretical study of
devices and their applications in real life.

Electronics is an enormous field and is particularly classified as:

 Physical Electronics
 Electronics Engineering
To analyse the motion of electrons in mediums like gas, vacuum, or semiconductors, physical
electronics are used. Whereas electronics engineering deals with the designing, fabrication,
and application of electronic devices.

What is the Importance of Electronics?

As we know that electronic applications tend to play a major role in everyone’s lives, a wide
range of applications of electronics has made our lives more efficient, and that’s why
electronic gadgets or machinery are one of the best ways to increase our efficiency and save
time.

Electronics are an essential part of our lives because it has not only helped to fulfil our
individual needs but also helped with the growth of technology and the economy as a whole.
Also, when it comes to inventions and innovations, electronics play a huge role. And due to
these reasons, electronics hold huge importance in today’s world.

Application of Electronics in Different Fields

Consumer Electronics
The devices and equipment meant for daily use are known as customer electronics; this
industry is widely applicable to the common people. Some of its applications included office
gadgets like computers, scanners, calculators, FAX machines, projectors etc.

It also includes home appliances like washing machines, refrigerators, microwaves, TVs,
vacuum cleaners, video games, loudspeakers etc. and some advanced storage devices such as
HDD jukebox, DVDs etc.

Industrial applications of electronics

Electronics engineering has a huge impact on the smooth functioning of the industries as it is
used in various systems, grids and processing units. For example, smart electric systems
collect information from the communication technology department, and several machines
use automation and motor control systems using electronics; also, it is used in extracting 3D
images from 2D using image processing systems.

Robotics and artificial intelligence

Apart from image processing that involves computer graphics, electronic systems are also
used in artificial intelligence and robotics technologies for inspection, navigation and
assembly. Virtual reality and face gesture recognition are computer-based, and these
developments have been possible because of electronics engineering.

Medical applications
For data recording and physiological analysis, advanced, sophisticated instruments are being
developed using the latest technologies and electronics engineering, and these instruments are
very useful in diagnosing diseases and for healing purposes.

Electronics play a vital role in the functioning of medical instruments; for instance, the
stethoscope is used to listen to the inner sounds of the human or animal body, a glucose metre
for checking sugar levels, a pacemaker for dropping and increasing heartbeat count and so on.

Defence and Aerospace

Electronics technology has been used extensively in the defence and aeronautical systems,
which include missile launching systems, cockpit controllers, military radars, aircraft
systems, rocket launchers for space and many more.

Automobiles
Electronics are widely used in the latest automobile technologies, like anti-collision units,
anti-lock braking systems, traction controls, window regulators and several electronic control
units.
Introduction to active and passive components.

In electrical and electronics engineering, the closed path followed by the electric current is
known as electric circuit. Every electric circuit is composed of many circuit components such
as sources of power, resistors, capacitors, inductors, diode, etc. Therefore,
the circuit components are the basic building blocks of an electrical or electronic circuit.

Depending upon the power delivering or absorbing ability, the circuit components can be
classified in following two types −

 Active components
 Passive components

The most significant difference between active components and passive components is that
an active component can supply power to an electric circuit, whereas a passive component
cannot deliver power, it can only absorb the power in the circuit.

This article is meant for explaining the major differences between active components and
passive components. Also, we have briefly described the active and passive components
which make the understanding of differences easier. What is an Active Component? An
electric circuit element which can supply electric power to the circuit or power gain in the
Circuit is known as an active element or active component. Some common examples of
active circuit elements are energy sources (voltage sources or current sources), generators or
alternators, semiconductor devices such as transistors, photodiodes, etc. The active elements
are the circuit component which is entirely responsible for the flow of electric current in the
circuit. What is a Passive Component? The circuit element which can only absorb electrical
energy and dissipates it in the form of heat or stores in either magnetic field or electric field is
known as passive circuit component or simply passive component. Therefore, a passive
component cannot provide electric power or power amplification in an electric circuit. Some
common examples of passive circuit components are resistor, inductor, capacitor and
transformer, etc.

Difference between Active and Passive Components

Both active and passive elements are the main parts of an electrical or electronic circuit.
However, they are different from each other in many aspects. All the noticeable differences
between active and passive circuit elements are enlisted in the following table.
 Basis of Active Component Passive Component
Difference

A circuit component which can A circuit element which only absorbs

deliver power or power gain in an the power and converts it in heat or
Definition electric circuit for infinite duration stores in electric field or magnetic field
of time is known as active is known as passive component.
component.

The common examples of active The examples of passive components

components are energy sources are resistor, inductor, capacitor and
(voltage or current source), transformer, etc.
Examples
generators, semiconductor devices
like transistors, solar cells, SCR,
etc.

Role in the Active components behave as The passive components act as load in
circuit source of power in the circuit. the circuit.

Active components can provide Passive components cannot provide

Power gain
power gain in the electric circuit. power gain.

Active components receive energy Passive components receive electrical

in the forms such as thermal energy and either convert it in the other
energy, chemical energy, forms such as heat, light, rotation, etc.
Function
hydraulic energy, etc. and delivers or store in the magnetic field or electric
in the circuit in the form of field.
electrical energy.

Active components cause current The passive components cannot control

Control of
flow in the circuit and control the the current flow in the circuit.
current flow
flow of current.

The slope of VI characteristics The slope of VI characteristics curve

Slope of VI curve (i.e. ratio of voltage to the (i.e. the ratio of voltage to current) of a
graph current) of an active element is passive component is positive at all the
negative. points.

For an active element, the VI The VI curve of the passive elements

Quadrant of
curve lies in the 2 nd and lies in the 1st and 3rd quadrant.
graph
4th quadrant.

Power deliver or Active components can deliver as A passive element can only absorb
 Basis of Active Component Passive Component
Difference

absorb well as absorb the electrical electrical power. It is not capable for
power. For example, a battery, deliver power.
during charging absorbs electrical
energy and during discharging
delivers electrical energy.

Some active components require Passive components do not require any

an external power source to external power source to function. The
Need of external function. For example, the active passive components such as resistor,
power source to components like transistors and inductor, capacitor, etc. do not require
function SCR use electrical energy to any source of electricity to function,
function, i.e., to control the power they use some other property to control
in the circuit. the power in the circuit.

Active components have power For passive components, the power

Amplification gain more than unity, so they can gain is less than unity, hence they
amplify a signal. cannot amplify a signal.

P-N Junction Diode:

P-N Junction diode construction and its working in forward and reverse bias
conditions

Two-terminal or two-electrode semiconductor device, which allows the electric current to

flow only in one direction while blocking the electric current in the opposite or reverse
direction, is known as PN junction diode. This device is forward biased, allowing the electric
current to flow. On the other hand, in reverse bias conditions, it blocks the electric current
flow.

In this article we will learn about the definition, graph, symbol, working principle, biasing
conditions, properties, and applications of PN junction diode along with the difference
between Zener diode and PN junction diodes

What is PN Junction Diode?

An interface or a boundary within a semiconductor device, between the P-type and the N-
type semiconductor material, is called the PN junction. The P-side, or positive side, of a
semiconductor, contains more holes than the N-side, or negative side, which has more
electrons. The PN junction in a semiconductor is created by the doping process. A PN
junction diode is a semiconductor device that is formed through this method and used in
allowing the flow of electric current in one direction and blocking in the opposite.

PN Junction Diode Symbol

The symbol of the PN junction diode is depicted as a triangle pointing towards a line or
running through one vertex. This arrangement shows the direction of current flow in the
circuit from the positive anode terminal to the negative cathode terminal.

Let us first discuss the process of doping to get a better understanding of the working
principle of the PN junction diode.

The technique used to increase or decrease the number of holes and electrons in a
semiconductor is known as doping

To make N-type semiconductor material, atoms with one additional valence electron than
silicon are employed. For this purpose, elements from group V of the periodic table are used.
These elements have 5 valence electrons out of which 4 participate in the covalent
bond formation with silicon and an additional valence electron is left unbound. As a result,
more electrons are introduced to the conduction band, increasing the total amount of electrons
in the system.
The elements from the 3rd group of the periodic table are mixed to create a P-type
semiconductor. As a result, P-type materials only have three valence electrons to interact with
silicon atoms. The total effect is a hole, as there aren’t enough electrons to create the four
covalent bonds that encircle the atoms and nuclei. The amount of electrons trapped in bonds
is larger in P-type materials, thus increasing the number of holes. There is always more of
one type of carrier than the other in doped material, and the carrier with the larger
concentration is referred to as a ‘majority carrier,’ while the carrier with the lesser
concentration is referred to as a ‘minority carrier.’ When these two types of semiconductors
are joined together, a PN junction type of diode is formed.

Formation of PN Junction Diode

In a PN junction diode, an ionized donor is left behind on the N-side when an electron
diffuses from the N-side to the P-side and a layer of positive charge develops on the N-side of
the junction. When a hole moves from the P-side to the N-side, an ionized acceptor is left
behind on the P-side, causing a layer of negative charges to accumulate on the P-side of the
junction. The depletion area is defined as a region of positive and negative charge on each
side of the junction. An electric field with a direction from a positive charge to a negative
charge develops on either side of the junction.

The electric potential between P and N-regions changes when an external potential is
supplied to the PN junction terminals. As a result, the flow of the majority of carriers is
altered, allowing electrons and holes to diffuse through the PN junction.
The diode is thought to be in the forward bias state if the applied voltage reduces the width of
the depletion layer, and reverse bias if the applied voltage increases the width of the depletion
layer. The diode is said to be in the zero bias or unbias state if the breadth of the depletion
layer remains unchanged.

Biasing Conditions of PN Junction Diode

Let us understand the working principle of forward and reverse bias conditions of the PN
junction in detail.

Forward Bias
The PN junction is forward-biased when the P-type is connected to the positive terminal of
the battery and the N-type is connected to the negative terminal. In this condition, the
applied electric field and the built-in electric field at the PN junction are in opposing
directions.

Adding both the electric fields gives a resultant electric field, thus the resulting electric field
is found to be smaller than the built-in electric field. As a result, the depletion area becomes
thinner and less resistant. When the applied voltage is high, the resistance of the depletion
area becomes insignificant. At 0.6 V, the resistance of the depletion zone in silicon becomes
absolutely insignificant, allowing current to flow freely over it.

Reverse Bias

The PN junction is reverse bias when the P-type is connected to the negative terminal of the
battery and the N-type is connected to the positive side. In this condition, the applied electric
field and the built-in electric field are both in the same direction. The resultant electric field
and the built-in electric field are also in the same direction, resulting in a more resistive,
thicker depletion area. Increasing the applied voltage results in a thicker and more resistant
depletion area.
V-I characteristics of P-N junction Diode,
V-I Characteristics of PN Junction

The relationship between the voltage across the junction and current through the circuit is
known as the volt-ampere (V-I) characteristics of a PN junction or semiconductor diode.
Normally, voltage is measured along the x-axis, whereas the current is measured along the y-
axis.

The V-I characteristics of the PN junction can be explained in three cases:

 o Zero bias or unbias
o Forward bias
o Reverse bias

No movement of holes or electrons occurs at zero bias state as no potential is applied

externally which prevents the passage of electric current to flow in the diode.

When the PN junction diode is in the forward bias, the P-type is linked to the positive
terminal of the external voltage, while the N-type is connected to the negative terminal. This
arrangement of diodes reduces the potential barrier. When the voltage is 0.7 V for silicon
diodes and 0.3 V for germanium diodes, the potential barriers diminish, and current flows.

The current grows slowly while the diode is in the forward bias, and the curve formed is non-
linear because the voltage supplied to the diode surpasses the potential barrier. Once the
diode has broken over the potential barrier, it operates normally, and the curve climbs steeply
as the external voltage rises, yielding a linear curve.

When the PN junction diode is in negative bias, the P-type is linked to the negative terminal
of the external voltage, while the N-type is connected to the positive terminal which leads to
the higher potential barrier. Because minority carriers are present at the junction, a reverse
saturation current occurs at first.

Diode as a switch,
The diode is an electronic instrument of great importance, one of them being using the
diode as a switch. It is interesting to note that under certain conditions we can use a diode
as a switch. In this article, we will study what is an electrical switch and how it differs from
a mechanical switch. We will look at the working of the diode as a switch and we will even
understand the diode switching times.
In the end, we will see the advantages and disadvantages of a diode as a switch. We will
understand the advantages through the applications of the diode as a switch.

Whenever a specified voltage is exceeded, the diode resistance gets increased, making
the Diode reverse biased and it acts as an open switch. Whenever the voltage applied is below
the reference voltage, the diode resistance gets decreased, making the diode forward biased,
and it acts as a closed switch. The following circuit explains the diode acting as a switch.

Working of Diode as a Switch

A diode has a PN junction which is doped up with impurities. The P-region in a diode is
lightly doped with impurities whereas the N-region is heavily doped with impurities.
Different amounts of dopants are used for this purpose.
The diodes like silicon have a certain reference voltage. Any voltage applied to the diode
below this reference voltage decreases the resistance of the diode which makes the diode
forward-biased. In forward-biased conditions, the diode acts as a closed switch. When the
applied voltage increases the threshold, it increases the resistance of the diode. Under this
condition, the diode is reverse-biased. This makes the circuit open and the diode acts as an
open-switch. Let us see the working through the circuit diagram.
As explained above, when the voltage applied to the diode is greater than the reference
voltage, the resistance of the diode increases due to increase in the width of the depletion
region. Under this reverse biased condition, a reverse current flows through the diode for a
small period of time. After this small period of time, the switch turns OFF, the reverse
current is directly proportional to the leakage current.
Note that this can lead to phenomena called Ringing. Ringing refers to the oscillations that
occur in the diode due to sudden flow of reverse current in a diode under reverse-biased
condition. This ringing is a lossy phenomenon and therefore should be minimized.

Half wave rectifier,

Working of Half Wave Rectifier

In order to convert AC Voltage and DC Voltage, the half wave rectifier is actively employed.
And it is important for students to understand how the half wave rectifier works, and what
difference it makes in a circuit, especially in its usage in finding out various quantities.
However, if you are learning the topic of half wave rectifier working for the first time, you
might find it hard to understand the principle more clearly. This is why we are going to
provide a detailed guide on the half wave rectifier working, in this article.

What is a Half Wave Rectifier?

As stated above, the half wave rectifier is equipment used in the circuit board, mainly to
convert AC Voltage into DC Voltage. And not just that, it is said to be one of the simplest
types of rectifiers, as it only needs one diode in order to make the half wave rectifier.
Moreover, depending on the type of appliance, or the application, the AC voltage is
converted to DC Voltage and vice versa. A half wave rectifier allows only one-half cycle of
an AC voltage waveform to pass as it blocks the other half cycle. This is a primary aspect to
learn as part of the half wave rectifier working.
The half wave rectifier consists of three main components, such as,

 Diode
 Resistive Load
 Transformer
Half Wave Rectifier Circuit Diagram
The Half wave rectifier diagram is shown below,

Working of Half Wave Rectifier

Now that we have covered the basics of a half-wave rectifier waveform, let us now discuss
how the half wave rectifier works, in order to convert AC voltage into DC voltage.

 As Shown in Half wave rectifier diagram, firstly, a high voltage is applied to the primary
side of the step-down transformer. Now a secondary low voltage is applied to the diode.
 Moreover, based on the positive half cycle and a negative half cycle of AC Voltage, the
diode is changed from forward-biased to reverse-biased.
 During the positive half cycle of the AC voltage, the diode is in forward bias mode and
the current flows through it. In the case of the negative half cycle of the AC voltage, the
diode is in reverse bias where the current flow is blocked.
 After this, the Final voltage observed from the circuit is the DC voltage.

Half Wave Rectifier

Centre Tapped Full Wave Rectifier
An electrical device that is used for converting alternating current (AC) to direct current (DC)
is called a rectifier. Generally, these are available in two type’s half wave rectifier or HWR
and full wave rectifier or FWR. HWRs are not appropriate where a stable, as well as flat DC
voltage, is necessary. So HWR is not capable of converting AC-DC. To overcome this main
drawback, a full wave rectifier (FWR) is used. This kind of rectifier has benefits as compared
to HWR. The normal DC o/p voltage generated by the FWR is higher as compared to HWR.
Again FWRs are categorized into two types centre tapped full wave rectifier & bridge full
wave rectifier. This article discusses an overview of a centre-tapped full wave rectifier –
working with applications.

What is Centre Tapped Full Wave Rectifier?

A type of rectifier which is designed by using two diodes as well as a centre tapped
transformer for converting the whole AC signal to DC is called centre tapped FWR. This is
called as “full wave centre tapped” because there are two full cycles in one complete cycle of
AC voltage. This means that it produces twice as much DC voltage as a half-wave rectifier
would produce from an equivalent AC source.

Centre Tap Full Wave Rectifier Circuit

The circuit diagram of the centre tap full wave rectifier circuit is shown below. This rectifier
circuit can be designed with an AC source, two diodes, a load resistor & a center
tapped transformer. As shown in the following circuit diagram, the two diodes are connected
to the two ends of a centre-tapped transformer.

Bridge rectifier
The AC source within the circuit is given to the centre-tapped transformer’s main winding. A
centre tap or extra wire which is connected at the centre of the secondary (minor) winding
will divide the i/p voltage into 2 parts.

The secondary winding’s higher portion is coupled to the ‘D1’ diode whereas the lower
portion is coupled to the ‘D2’ diode. Both the diodes are simply connected to a load resistor
(RL) using a centre tapped transformer. Usually, the centre tap is considered as the ground
point or zero voltage reference.

How Does a Centre-Tapped Full-Wave Rectifier Works?

The operation of the centre tapped full wave rectifier is, once i/p voltage (Vin) is applied to
the rectifier, then the centre-tapped transformer’s secondary winding will divide this applied
voltage into 2 parts positive & negative.
Throughout the +ve half i/p voltage cycle, the ‘A’ end turns into positive & ‘B’ end turns into
negative. Therefore, the D1 diode will become forward biased & D2 diode will become
reverse biased. These two D1 and D2 diodes will conduct at the same time. So, once the D1
diode conducts, then the D2 diode will not conduct. Whenever the ‘D1’ diode is conducting,
the flow of current ‘I’ will be throughout this diode D1 and load resistor ‘RL’.

Throughout the -ve half-cycle of the i/p voltage, the ‘B’ end will become positive whereas the
‘A’ end will become negative to make the ‘D2’ diode forward biased & ‘D1’ diode reverse
biased. The flow of current throughout the load resistor ‘RL’ is in a similar direction
throughout both the +ve & the -ve half cycle of the applied i/p voltage. Therefore, the DC o/p
voltage like Vout = i RL can be obtained across the RL

The waveforms for the applied input voltage, the flow of current throughout the load & the
o/p voltage obtained across the load. The center tapped full wave rectifier waveforms are
shown below.

Introduction to Bridge Rectifier

Before we get into the core of working of a bridge rectifier, let us understand what a rectifier
is. A rectifier is an electrical circuit that turns an alternating current voltage input into a direct
current voltage at the output terminal. In regular parlance, AC voltage is converted into DC
voltage by a rectifier. The rectified output voltage is the name given to this output. Rectifiers
are primarily used in power supplies, supplying DC voltage to electronic equipment.
Electronic circuits primarily need rectifiers to power electronic components, whereas DC
powering happens from the available AC mains supply. Of the rectifiers, bridge rectifiers are
known to be the most effective circuits. They fall under the full-wave rectifier category. In
the ensuing sections, let us learn more about the working of bridge rectifiers. Besides, the
bridge rectifier circuit diagram is also made available for better understanding through an
illustration. The article also clearly covers the characteristics of the full-wave bridge rectifier.
So, rectifiers are primarily classified into two categories, based on their operation-

 Half Wave Rectifiers

 Full-Wave Rectifiers

Full-wave rectifiers are more effective than half-wave rectifiers in increasing the efficiency of
the rectification. Full-wave rectifiers generate an output voltage by using both positive and
negative half cycles of the input voltage.
Full-wave rectifiers are in turn classified into two types:

 Bridge full-wave Rectifier

 Centre tap full-wave rectifier

Let us know more about full-wave bridge rectifiers before we attempt to get deeper into
learning about bridge rectifiers.
A full wave rectifier is a rectifier that transforms both halves of each alternating wave cycle
(alternating current) into a pulsing DC (direct current) signal.
Full-wave rectifiers are used for a smoother and more consistent supply of power. Full-wave
rectifiers are used to convert a whole cycle of alternating current voltage (AC) to direct
current voltage (DC).
The differentiation between these two types of full-wave rectifiers goes a long way in
understanding effectively the full-wave rectifier working
In a center-tapped full-wave rectifier, the system is made up of a center-tapped transformer,
two diodes, and a resistive load. Whereas, under a full-wave bridge rectifier, the architecture
features four diodes or more, and the resistive load. The diodes are named A, B, C and D, and
form a bridge circuit.

What is Bridge Rectifier?

A bridge rectifier is full-wave rectifiers that use four diodes to create a close-loop bridge. The
diodes operate in pairs during each positive and negative half cycle, resulting in no power
waste.
A bridge rectifier does not require a center tap over the transformer’s secondary winding. The
input is sent through a transformer to the diode bridge’s diagonal. Unlike the center tap
rectifier, which consumes 50% of the transformer, the transformer in this circuit is constantly
busy since it delivers power during both cycles of input AC.
Bridge Rectifier Circuit Diagram

Bridge Rectifier Waveform

Working of Bridge Rectifier

Typically, a bridge rectifier works as follows:
As soon as an AC signal is sent through the bridge rectifier, terminal A turns positive during
the positive half cycle, while terminal B changes to negative. Thus, two diodes, D1 and D3
turn into forward bias, while the other two, D2 and D4 operate in reverse bias.
In the case of a negative half-cycle, terminal B transforms into a positive one while terminal
A is now negative. In this case, the diodes, D2 and D4 change to forward bias, whereas the
diodes, D1 and D3 are now reverse biased.
Thus, a bridge rectifier enables the flow of the electric current during positive as well as
negative half cycles of the input AC signal.

Special purpose diodes:

Light Emitting Diode (LED) and photo diode along with V- I characteristics and their
applications.
Light Emitting Diode V- I characteristics and their applications.
Introduction with History of Light-Emitting Diode
The light-emitting diode is a P-N junction diode, which consists of two leads and a
semiconductor light source. It activates by applying suitable voltages across its leads. Then it
emits light energy in the form of photons and determines the colour of this light by the band
gap of the semiconductor material. We can produce light energy through the recombination
of electrons and electron holes in this device. This process is referred to as the
electroluminescence process. This process was stated in the twentieth century for solid-state
material. When it reaches room temperature, it emits light energy.
At the beginning, the infrared light-emitting diode was developed, and its light intensity was
low, but it is still frequently used in a variety of consumer electronics circuits, such as remote
controls. Different sizes of light-emitting diodes are available on the market, from 1mm2 to
onward. One of the light-emitting diodes with an electrical symbol and a practical structure
diagram is shown in Figure 1. It is also used to make LED matrixes.

Construction of Light Emitting Diode

The construction of a light-emitting diode is so simple. It is made by depositing the three
layers of semiconductor material on a substrate. These three semiconductor material layers
make three regions, which are as follows: a P-type region, which is the top one; an active
region, which is the middle one; and an N-type region, which is the bottom one. Figure 2
shows all three semiconductor material regions.

Emitting Diode

As per figure 2, the P-type region has holes. The N-type region has electrons, and the active
region has both electrons and holes. In normal conditions, when there are no voltages at the
anode and cathode, then all the holes and electrons are present at their places. But when we
apply the voltages to this light LED, it becomes forward biased. At this stage, the holes from
the p-type region and the electrons from the n-type region push up towards the active region.
This is the depletion region. Because the holes have a positive charge and the electrons have
a negative charge, the recombination of these opposite polarity charges produces light.

Working Principle of Light Emitting Diode

The light LED works on the same principle as a simple PN junction diode. That means when
the anode connects to the positive terminal of the DC supply and the cathode connects to its
negative terminal, then the PN junction is in forward bias mode. When the PN junction is in
forward bias mode, then the holes in the P-type region and electrons from the N-type region
recombine. During this, the conduction band forms for emitting light energy in the form of
light

energy photons. This whole phenomenon is an electroluminescence phenomenon, and this

light energy depends upon the amount of current that the LED absorbs.

In other words, this light energy is directly proportional to the absorbing current. Which
means that when it absorbs more current, the light will be high? Similarly, when it absorbs a
low current, the light will be low. All the absorbing current does not convert into light
energy; rather, some of it converts into heat, which LED dissipates into the external
environment. This heat is electron dissipation energy. This dissipative energy also depends on
the semiconductor material of the light-emitting diode. We can see the inner working diagram
of this LED in Figure 3.

Figure 3: The Inner Working Diagram of Light Emitting Diode (photo credit)

I-V Characteristics of Light Emitting Diode

When we apply 2 to 3 V, the light-emitting diode is in forward bias mode. It emits visible,
invisible infrared, or laser light with a narrow band width. In this condition, it shows that the
forward current is almost constant at the early stage. But when it is fully on, then the forward
current increases constantly, as we can see in Figure 4.
The intensity of the light depends on this current. When this current is high, the intensity of
the output light will be high. The voltage at which the current increases constantly is the
forward voltage. We denote it as Vd in Figure 3. In reverse bias conditions, the reverse
current or leakage current is almost linearly constant. But a point comes when its PN junction
breaks down and reverses current increases constantly in the negative current region. The
voltage at which the breakdown occurs is the breakdown voltage, and we denote it as Vbr.
We can see this in Figure 4.

Figure 4: The V-I Characteristic of Light Emitting Diode

Applications of Light Emitting Diode

1. Security alarm systems use LEDs, such as burglar alarm systems.

2. Electronic calculators use LEDs to show the digital data.
3. Mobile phones use LEDs as flash lights for taking pictures.
4. The LEDs on traffic signals control the traffic crowds in cities.
5. Their uses include lighting for homes, factories, and streets, etc.
6. These are more efficient than incandescent lamps for saving energy.
7. These are useful on digital computers for displaying computer data.
8. A digital multimeter uses LEDs to show the current, voltage, and resistance in digital
form.
9. These are useful in aviation lights for aircraft warning signals.
10. They are used in remote control systems such as TVs or LCDs.
11. They are also used in digital watches and automotive heat lamps.

Photo diode along with V- I characteristics and their applications.

A two-terminal electronic component that conducts the current(I) in one direction is called a
diode. In diodes, the most commonly used diode is a semiconductor diode. In this article, we
look at the special type of semiconductor diodes, their internal construction, and their types
with the application.The relationship between the current flowing through the diode and the
voltage due to the applied voltage in Photo-Diode is shown. Thus showing the voltage and
diode current through the graph is called IV characteristics of the diode.

Photodiode
Photodiodes are a special type of semiconductor diodes that convert light into electrical
energy when exposed to light.
The junction of the photodiode is illuminated then the electric current flows through the two
terminals.

Construction of photodiode

The PN junction of the photodiode is placed inside a glass. This transparent glass allows light
to pass through the diode. The other side of the glass is insulated.

Working of photodiode

When the photodiode is not exposed to light or radiation, the electrons in the p side flow
through the junction. As the minority carriers flow through the junction, there will be a flow
of reverse current. This current is called dark current.

When the photodiode is exposed to light, the temperature of the junction will increase. The
electrons and holes will get separated from each other. The electrons in the n side will get
attracted towards the positive terminal of the battery, and the holes in the p side will get
attracted to the (-) terminal of the battery.

As a result, a high amount of reverse current gets generated through the junction. When the
light intensity increases, more carriers are generated and flow through the photodiodes.
Hence, a large current is produced. The light intensity is directly proportional to the electric
current.

Forward Bias and Reverse Bias condition

There are two ways in which a p-n junction diode can operate, i.e., forward and reverse bias.
Forward biasing is when the positive terminal of the power supply is connected to the
junction’s P region, and the battery’s negative terminal is connected to the N region of the
junction. Reverse biasing is when the positive terminal of the power supply is connected to
the junction’s N region, and the battery’s positive terminal is connected to the P region of the
junction.

V-I Characteristics of Photodiode

A photodiode continually operates in a reverse bias mode. The characteristics of the

photodiode are shown clearly in the following figure that the photocurrent is nearly
independent of reverse bias voltage which is applied. For zero luminance, the photocurrent is
almost zero excluding for small dark current. It is of the order of nano amperes. As optical
power rises the photocurrent also rises linearly. The max photocurrent is incomplete by the
power dissipation of the photodiode.

Characteristics
Thus, this is all about the photodiode working principle, characteristics, and applications.
Optoelectronic devices like Photodiodes are available in different types which are used in
almost all electronic devices. These diodes are used with IR light sources such as neon, laser
LED & fluorescent. As compared with other light detection diodes, these diodes are not
expensive.

Applications of Photodiode

 The applications of photodiodes involve similar applications of photodetectors like

charge-coupled devices, photoconductors, and photomultiplier tubes.
 These diodes are used in consumer electronics devices like smoke detectors, compact disc
players, and televisions and remote controls in VCRs.
 In other consumer devices like clock radios, camera light meters, and street lights,
photoconductors are more frequently used rather than photodiodes.
 Photodiodes are frequently used for exact measurement of the intensity of light in science
& industry. Generally, they have an enhanced, more linear response than photoconductors.
 Photodiodes are also widely used in numerous medical applications like instruments to
analyse samples, detectors for computed tomography, and also used in blood gas monitors.
 These diodes are much faster & more complex than normal PN junction diodes and hence
are frequently used for lighting regulation and in optical communications.
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