LINGUA, Vol. 17, No.

2, September 2020
p-ISSN: 1979-9411; e-ISSN: 2442-238X
Website: soloclcs.org; Email: presslingua@gmail.com
Center of Language and Cultural Studies, Surakarta, Indonesia
Soleh, Badrus, Muhammar. (2020). Task-Based Learning in the Classroom for EFL Learners: A Review.
Lingua (2020), 17(2): 123-134. DOI: 10.30957/lingua.v17i2.641.

Task-Based Learning in the Classroom for EFL Learners: A Review

Muhammad Badrus Sholeh

Universitas Negeri Makassar, Indonesia
Email: badrus2011@gmail.com

Abstract
In language teaching and learning, there are several methodologies and
approaches; one of them is TBL. Since the 1980s, this approach has had the
most pedagogical attention in second language pedagogy. TBL is becoming
increasingly common worldwide, particularly in English classes in
Indonesia. The task's goal is to establish a clear reason for language use and
create a natural meaning for language learning. The ideas and principles of
TBL have proven to be effective in classrooms. This paper aims to explain
why teachers should implement TBL (TBL) in the language classroom and
how to implement TBL during classroom instruction. The discussion begins
with the introduction and the description of TBL. Then, it goes on TBL
characteristics and continues with the approaches, the benefits, and
framework of TBL.

Keywords: TBL, English Classroom, EFL Learners

1. INTRODUCTION
English has been the first foreign language to be learned in schools in Indonesia
(Alisjahbana, 1990). Formal English language instruction was nationally launched at
junior high school. It was governed by the enactment of Law No. 22/2006 on
standardized content, specifying that English is a compulsory subject in junior and
senior high schools (SMP). The aim of English learning at SMP is to help students
attain a functional communication level (Supriyono & Sugirin, 2014). Students are
supposed to be skillfull in language skills; listening, speaking, reading, and writing.
These skills are incorporated into English teaching-learning. On English's significance,
it is taught to be used only in a formal school and in an informal school. Unfortunately,
while English was advertised as a mandatory lesson in Indonesia, the reality shows that
English teaching has not improved substantially in Indonesia's formal educational
institutions, including at the school level. Some researchers indicate that several factors
affect English learning; the teaching method is one factor (Ellis, 2006).
In response to this phenomenon, Task-Based Learning (henceforth, TBL) was
introduced in our country. Prabhu first recognized the approach on his
Communicational Teaching Project in Bangalore, India, in 1979. It suggests the term
"task" as the main activity of planning and teaching. Prabhu (1987) describes a task as
an operation that needs teachers to monitor the process, in which learners generate a
result from provided information through some thinking process. According to Nunan
(1989:10) task is a slide of classwork requiring learners to understand, exploit, create, or
communicate in the target language while stressing meaning rather than form. From the
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 LINGUA, Vol. 17, No. 2, September 2020
p-ISSN: 1979-9411; e-ISSN: 2442-238X
Website: soloclcs.org; Email: presslingua@gmail.com
Center of Language and Cultural Studies, Surakarta, Indonesia
Soleh, Badrus, Muhammar. (2020). Task-Based Learning in the Classroom for EFL Learners: A Review.
Lingua (2020), 17(2): 123-134. DOI: 10.30957/lingua.v17i2.641.

above definitions, it can be inferred that the focus in TBL lies on meaning. Moreover,
Willis (1996:18) proposes the utilization of tasks as a key priority for language lessons,
suggesting that tasks have a supporting analytical structure. According to her, tasks
eliminate the dominance of teachers. Thus, the teacher's role is nothing more than a
guide, whereas the roles of the students are very involved. In short, the usage of tasks in
English for Foreign Language teaching tends to be the prime criterion for the successful
participation of students in the process of learning.
TBL can be as a part of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT). According
to Littlewood (1999), TBL can be described as a specific approach for applying the
broader of communicative approach. TBL aims to build students ' communication skills
through practical and communicative tasks. These are activities where learners use the
target language to obtain an outcome on a communicative goal (Willis, 1996). This
approach gives students a chance to actively participate in activities designed to achieve
an objective or complete a task. It creates an enjoyable classroom environment by
involving students through the use of tasks in the learning process. The tasks are carried
out daily, such as writing a letter or speaking to someone on phone. TBL aims to build
students' inter-language by assigning problems and then using language to solve them
(Skehan, 1998:9). It also improves their learning, as the TBL tasks stimulate student
participation and enhance substantial language output. Tasks are seen as instruments in
task-supported teaching that teachers and learners use to meet common language goals
and objectives with the teacher support through training, online resources and selective
feedback (Samuda and Bygate, 2008:10).
TBL in the Indonesian context is a relatively new concept for most English
teachers. Some of them do not have the right ideas about teaching methods and
strategies. Ideally, teachers need to perform various forms of language classroom
activities, such as tasks related to the growth of language skills. Many tasks depend on
the classroom size, the amount of students, the incentives for group and pair work, and
so on. Contradictory, most teachers are not familiar with current approaches to ELT, so
my research study researcher aimed at finding methods that are easily accessible to
teachers in the ELT field. Most teachers follow traditional methods of teaching English,
and students are also used to learning this way. Yet nowadays teachers are struggling to
keep up with new English teaching methods. In their classrooms, they seek to apply
some of the processes. Some teacher also started using TBL for teaching the students in
language classrooms. There are certainly some reflections among teachers and learners
about this approach.
This paper aims to present the definition of TBL, identify the characteristics of
TBL, highlight the approaches of TBL, expound the benefits of TBL, and explore how
to implement the approach in the EFL Classroom.

2. DISCUSSION
2.1. Definition of TBL
TBL was initiated in the 1980s. Prabhu had developed it to support the teaching of
communicative languages. Prabhu claimed that students could learn in a more effective
way when they focus on the task, not the language they use. TBL is a framework in
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 LINGUA, Vol. 17, No. 2, September 2020
p-ISSN: 1979-9411; e-ISSN: 2442-238X
Website: soloclcs.org; Email: presslingua@gmail.com
Center of Language and Cultural Studies, Surakarta, Indonesia
Soleh, Badrus, Muhammar. (2020). Task-Based Learning in the Classroom for EFL Learners: A Review.
Lingua (2020), 17(2): 123-134. DOI: 10.30957/lingua.v17i2.641.

which communication and practical activities are essential to language learning. The
communications language methodplays a greater role than creating the correct language.
TBL is, therefore, seen as one model of CLT in considering real and effective
communication as the key features of language teaching (Richards & Rodgers, 2001).
TBL is an approach which emphasizes the learning process of communication by
engagement in the target language. It represents the acknowledgment of communicative
language teaching theory. Ellis (2003) also points out that activities are also used as
valuable testing methods and as the basis for language training strategies. TBL focuses
on authentic language and the origination of practical activities using the target
language. An effective learning will happen if students engage in language taks instead
of learning form or grammar (Nunan, 2004). The main objective of this approach is to
utilize tasks to promote target language acquisition. Such activities can include
reserving a restaurant table, shopping with friends, visiting a doctor, or finding other
people's advice. In contrast to the GTM, the assessment focuses primarily on results, the
proper fulfillment of real-world tasks, not the precision of specified language forms. It
makes TBL particularly effective in creating target language fluency and confidence in
the EFL class.
TBL aims to enhance the activities of students in language rather than the
activities of teachers. The teacher creates and executes various tasks, encouraging the
learners to encounter the target language naturally, independently, and originally
(Willis, 1996:25). The tasks must offer learners new personal experiences of the target
language and the teacher’s role is so critical. The teacher must be responsible for raising
awareness and the students must fulfill the experimental task.
TBL usually uses pair work and group work to improve student engagement and
cooperation. It can also use more formal cooperative learning models. This approach
applies to all language ability levels, but the nature of the task differs between
levels.Another significant feature of TBL is that it is not intended to guide or regulate
language forms used by learners. However, learners can make certain mistakes when
they talk but must find their mistakes as a nominal learning component. Learners must
feel free to play with the risk-taking target language. The teacher would then support
themto take the risk of doing something wrong, rather than saying anything.

2.2. Characteristics of TBL

Swan (2005) says TBL has the following characteristics:
Language learning should be natural and focuses on meaning rather than language
forms.
Instructions will promote student-centeredness, not teacher-centricity.
Because naturalistic learning does not achieve target precision, involvement is
important for fostering the disguise of languagecomponents while preserving the
apparent advantages of a natural approach.
This approach can be accomplished through providing chances to concentrate on the
structure that will attract students' attention to language elementsbecause they appear
in classes based on meaning.
Communication tasks are particularly appropriate instruments for this approach.

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 LINGUA, Vol. 17, No. 2, September 2020
p-ISSN: 1979-9411; e-ISSN: 2442-238X
Website: soloclcs.org; Email: presslingua@gmail.com
Center of Language and Cultural Studies, Surakarta, Indonesia
Soleh, Badrus, Muhammar. (2020). Task-Based Learning in the Classroom for EFL Learners: A Review.
Lingua (2020), 17(2): 123-134. DOI: 10.30957/lingua.v17i2.641.

More systematic language analysis before or after activities may be beneficial. That
can contribute to the internalization of communication by leading to or optimizing
awareness of formal features.
Traditional approaches are impractical and inappropriate, especially where passive
formal training and practice are necessary, communication isolated.
Nunan also suggests seven principles of TBL (2004:35-36), as discussed below.
Scaffolding. It is necessary for an educator to perform lessons or use resources to
reinforce the context of the learning process.
The dependency of tasks. A task needs to be set up focusing on the instructions
sequence.
Recycle. A teacher must reintroduce a specific linguistic aspects to the students for a
length of time.
Active learning. There will be other opportunities for the learners to participate in the
teaching and learning process. The theory suggests that learners will understand
better if they will consciously improve their understanding instead of listening to
teacher explanation alone.
Integration. The teaching and learning process should include all facets of language
instruction, rather than concentrating on only one aspect. There are three aspects to
be taught, which are considered important, namely form, function and meaning.
Integration. The learning process should cover all aspects of language teaching,
instead of focusing on just one aspect. Three things to be taught are considered
essential in learning language, namely form, function and meaning.
Based on the explanationsabove, a task is defined as activities that will contribute
to the classroom interaction and the students in comprehending the materials. Besides, it
is expected to improve the students' engagement and language skills, task is hopefully
able to increase the students' motivation.

2.3. Approaches to TBL in EFL Classroom

TBL has three primary approaches, they are Long (1985), Skehan (1998), and
Ellis (2003). Ellis following table (2009) classifies these three TBL approaches by five
characteristics: (1) offering incentives for natural use of language; (2) learner-
centeredness; (3) focus-on-form; (4) type of task; and (5) opposing conventional
language teaching methods (e.g. PPP).

Table 1. A comparison of three approaches to TBL in Language Teaching

Characteristic Long (1985) Skehan (1988) Ellis (2003)
Natural Language use Yes Yes Yes
Learner-centredness Yes Yes Not necessarily
Focus on form Yes-through Yes-mainly Yes-in all phrases of
corrective feedback TBL lesson
Tasks Yes-unfocused and Yes-unfocused Yes-unfocused and
focused focused
Rejection of Yes Yes No
Traditional approach

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 LINGUA, Vol. 17, No. 2, September 2020
p-ISSN: 1979-9411; e-ISSN: 2442-238X
Website: soloclcs.org; Email: presslingua@gmail.com
Center of Language and Cultural Studies, Surakarta, Indonesia
Soleh, Badrus, Muhammar. (2020). Task-Based Learning in the Classroom for EFL Learners: A Review.
Lingua (2020), 17(2): 123-134. DOI: 10.30957/lingua.v17i2.641.

All these three approaches have in common, as is evident from the table, that
they all underline the tasks features characteristic of tasks in contexts setting for natural
language useand concentrate on form. However, there are strong variations in the three
strategies on how to obtain attention to form with Long stressing restorative input,
Skehan task design and pre-work preparation, and Ellis a multitude of forms in all three
stages of the TBL. There are also differences in the three approaches in terms of (1) (i.e.
Ellis does not see group work as a critical features), (2) (i.e. while Skehan prefers only
chaotic tasks, Long and Ellis still see a place for concentrated tasks) and (3) (While
Long and Skehan see conventional hierarchical teaching as potentially impossible, Ellis
finds that its reciprocal to TBL) (Ellis, 2009).

2.4. TBL in the EFL Classroom, Why?

TBL provides many benefits because it is focused on communication and
encourages the learnersto express previously acquired skills in different forms of
communication (Nunan, 1989). This allows the language learners to use language that is
geared towards meaning (Breen 1989 as quoted in Ellis, 2009).

TBL enables spontaneous communication between learners

Learners should use anything they know about vocabulary and grammar. For example, a
role-play allows the learners to make free use of vocabulary. It offers students a chance
to check what language they already learn. It provides learners the opportunity to hear
and understand from other languages and thus gradually increase their level of
confidence. When they perform a task, the cognitive and communicative skills of the
learners are established. Rather than focusing on individual language systems, attention
is drawn to problem-solving by the learners. It promotes more creativity amongst the
learners.

Automaticity
Language learning automaticity is characterized as a more effective, accurate, and
consistent output (Segadowitz, 2003 referred to in Rider, et al 2007). Automaticity is
likewise claimed to lead to findings close to those of native ones. Studies in the areas of
cognitive psychology and second language learningindicate that automaticity is
accomplished in an authentic communication situation by using language laws in a
innovative way (Rider et al, 2007). TBL encourages automaticity. Cognitive language
theories say that real-life conditions help achieve automatic language comprehension
(Johnson, 1988 as quoted in Ellis 2009).

TBL helps language learners to master vocabulary

In general, teachers clarify the vocabulary in a pre-task, and learners are not active;
words taught are quickly forgotten. So when the teacher considers creatively to involve
students in the pre-task, and it is helpful for students. Some of the suggested options for
vocabulary enhancement include estimating words for the task topic or subject, and
building words on word network through brainstorm, cooperative dictionary search, and
matching word list with a meaning list (Newton, 2001). The teacher has to make extra

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p-ISSN: 1979-9411; e-ISSN: 2442-238X
Website: soloclcs.org; Email: presslingua@gmail.com
Center of Language and Cultural Studies, Surakarta, Indonesia
Soleh, Badrus, Muhammar. (2020). Task-Based Learning in the Classroom for EFL Learners: A Review.
Lingua (2020), 17(2): 123-134. DOI: 10.30957/lingua.v17i2.641.

effort to plan an interactive glossary. It is also worth empowering learners to negotiate

meaning from new rather than an old source.Although the question remains regarding
the amount of vocabulary learned through community learning, learners have improved
significantly. This is often suggested that vocabulary learning happens indirectly when
learners engage in interaction based on the cooperative mission. Upon completing the
tasks, if the learners are motivated to record of new words and revisit the terms, and if
they address new words in various ways even contexts, it will improve their language
skills. A teacher has to make sure that learners can access and learn new words without
teacher assistance through tasks and use this vocabulary to accomplish specific
objectives of the tasks (Newton, 2001).

After finishing the task, if the students are roused to record of new words and return to
the terms, and on the off chance that they address new words in different manners even
settings, it will improve their language abilities. An instructor needs to ensure that
students can get to and learn new words without educator help through undertakings and
utilize this jargon to achieve explicit goals of the assignments

Providing language learning requirements

Language learning can not take place without motivation and chances.TBL allows
learners to communicate and use the language. Learners have an opportunity to discuss
turns to chat and even seek out a lot of contact techniques. TBL produces conditions
that naturally improve language learning. It trains learners to use real-world language
(Andon, 2010).

Maximizing connectivity
TBL provides requirements to appreciate what students feel and comprehend in
conducting their task. Throughengaging the tasks, learners use the language they have
learned recently as well as new language objects. Tasks help learners to gain to
assimilate language components they know and comprehend easily. This helps learners
to pass their past acquired skills creatively to new interaction contexts. This involves
learners in constructive dialogues and helps learners to play with various
communication strategies and furnishes learners with public language.

Experiential learning
Experiential learning is considered an assential basisfor TBL. The actual personal
experience of the students is the starting point in this approach.Intellectual development
is believed to occur when learners participate and concentrate on task sequences.This
approach considers active involvement to be central and therefore the approach is
learner centered. This is contrary to the instructional communication approach in which
the learners acquire the teachers’ knowledge passively.

2.5. TBL in the EFL Classroom, How?

According to Long (2000), TBL can be operationalized at a macro level using
the following procedures: (1) performing needs analysis to determine the target tasks,

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p-ISSN: 1979-9411; e-ISSN: 2442-238X
Website: soloclcs.org; Email: presslingua@gmail.com
Center of Language and Cultural Studies, Surakarta, Indonesia
Soleh, Badrus, Muhammar. (2020). Task-Based Learning in the Classroom for EFL Learners: A Review.
Lingua (2020), 17(2): 123-134. DOI: 10.30957/lingua.v17i2.641.

(2) classifying tasks in some categories, (3) developing pedagogical tasks from the task
types or categories, (4) choosing and arranging pedagogical tasks to develop a task-
based syllabus. Skehan (1996) identified four phases in implementing TBL at a micro
level: pre-emptive stage, during the task period, post-task 1 and post-task 2. The pre-
emptive stage is aimed at reducing cognitive load and developing target language
through preparation and awareness-raising. It aims at integrating fluency and precision
through task choice and pressure manipulation during the actual task. Post-task 1
includes public success after group-level tasks have been completed, performance
monitoring by videotaping etc., and testing. It ultimately aims at defocusing learners
from unnecessary fluency and promoting precision and restructuring. The final step,
Post-Task 2, is aimed at facilitating the process of analysis and synthesis through task
sequences (repeating and parallel tasks) and task families (tasks similar to those carried
out).
TBL proposes that teachers assist students with practical classroom tasks and let
students accomplish these tasksby modeling, experiencing, practicing, participating,
cooperating and communicating (Nunan, 2004). In Nunan's view (2004), a TBL
framework is established which identifies and illustrates the key elements. However,
Willis (1996) and Gatbonton and Segalowitz (2005) have explained the following
elements for an effective TBL lesson: pre-task, task cycle and post-task (see Figure 1).
The procedures above can be adapted by teachers when conducting TBL. They
can be adjusted to create a successful learning condition with the learning objective and
the students' level of proficiency.
The English teacher who seeks TBL will play three key roles: (1) task selector
and sequencer; (2) task preparation; and (3) awareness building. Related to the first
position of teacher, it should be emphasized that the teacher is involved in identifying,
modifying, developing, and constructing tasks suitable for the student's needs, desires,
preferences, and language levels. Concerning the second position of the teacher, it may
be mentioned that some pre-task training is essential for students. Such training
exercises can involve presenting subjects, defining instructions for task, helping
students learn or remember useful words and phrases to promote the task and partially
view processes of task. As for the last teacher position, it can be stressed that the
teacherusesa combination of shape-focusing strategies, covers pre-task-focused
activities, reviews the text in question, directs access to similar tasks and uses
comprehensive content (Richards and Rogers, 2001).
In the EFL classroom, the students exposes to TBL will play three main roles:
(1) group participant; (2) monitor; and (3) risk-taker and innovator. With regard to the
students' first position, it is suggested that the studentscomplete a variety of tasks in
pairs or groups. Pair or group work can require some transformation for students who
are more accustomed to all-around activities and/or individual tasks. Concerning the
second student function, it should be emphasized that tasks are used as instruments in
TBL to promote learning processes.
In the EFL study hall, the understudies opens to TBL will assume three
fundamental jobs: (1) bunch member; (2) screen; and (3) daring individual and
trailblazer. With respect to the understudies' first position, it is recommended that the

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 LINGUA, Vol. 17, No. 2, September 2020
p-ISSN: 1979-9411; e-ISSN: 2442-238X
Website: soloclcs.org; Email: presslingua@gmail.com
Center of Language and Cultural Studies, Surakarta, Indonesia
Soleh, Badrus, Muhammar. (2020). Task-Based Learning in the Classroom for EFL Learners: A Review.
Lingua (2020), 17(2): 123-134. DOI: 10.30957/lingua.v17i2.641.

understudies total an assortment of undertakings two by two or gatherings. Pair or

gathering work can require some transformation for understudies who are more
acquainted with all-around exercises and additionally singular undertakings. Concerning
the subsequent understudy work, it ought to be underscored that errands are utilized as
instruments in TBL to advance learning forms.

Figure 1. The Framework of TBL

Steps Sub-steps Role of teacher Role of students
Pre-task Introduction to Discussing topic with the Doing the teacher’s instruction
topic and task students, aids students to
comprehend instructions and
prepare.
Task cycle Task Acting as a guide and support Working in pairs or groups to
students do the task
Planning • Making the report's intent • Preparing to explain to the
clear class how and what they
• Acting as a language learned
counselor • Rehearsing what they're
• Helping students prepare about to say or write a
oral reports or written one written version.
Report • Acting as a moderator, Showing to the class the
decides who will talk next spoken and written report.
or ensure that all students
read most written papers.
• Giving short feedback on
the form and content.
• Recordingstudents doing
the same or relevents task.
Post-task Analysis • Doing reviews every • Building knowledge to
analysisactivity with class recognize and process
• Giving additional essential different language features
words , sentences and from the task, text and/or
patterns. transcript
• Collecting language items • Asking about the features
from the report stage. that the students noticed
Practice Conducting after-analysis • Practicing words, phrases
tasks, if necessary to create and patterns of analytical
trust. activities
• Using other features in next
task or report process
• Entering valuable language
items in the notebooks
• Inserting useful laguage
items in the notebooks

Classroom activities should be designed to encourage students to understand

how language interacts. Students must "attend" the message in task activity, as well as
how such messages are usually packaged.Related to the third learner position, several
tasks can be said to force students to produce and report messages with no full language
resources and limited experience. The point of these tasks is said to be this. This may be
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 LINGUA, Vol. 17, No. 2, September 2020
p-ISSN: 1979-9411; e-ISSN: 2442-238X
Website: soloclcs.org; Email: presslingua@gmail.com
Center of Language and Cultural Studies, Surakarta, Indonesia
Soleh, Badrus, Muhammar. (2020). Task-Based Learning in the Classroom for EFL Learners: A Review.
Lingua (2020), 17(2): 123-134. DOI: 10.30957/lingua.v17i2.641.

useful for developing language and contextual guessing skills, finding explanations and
interacting with other students (Richards and Rogers, 2001).

3. CONCLUSION
Over the last two decades, task learning has evolved and remained a potential
and successful solution for many EFL teachers, while some researchers are still
investigating the influence of this approach. TBL represents a popular language
teaching concept. The aim of teaching is not to assiststudents achieve scheduled goals,
but to furnish them with the specific circumtance and conditions where learning of a
language occur.The positions of the teachershave additionally been moved from teacher
to research setting establishers, assistants, guides and learning activity advocates. A
teacher's role is important in setting up the stedentsin performing tasks, such as pre-
teaching vocabulary and grammar structures, encouraging the students to be engaged in
the process of teaching and learning, and so forth.
For any approach to successful teachers, students’ participation must be highly
imaginative and inventive and be able to take action to arouse students' curiosity.If
teachers are eligible, learning opportunities will be optimal. They will take any
opportunity to improve the students’ skills and prepare them in real-life scenarios to use
language in the future. Any effort should be put in to carry out the task well. This is also
the responsibility of teacher trainees and in- administration assessors to enhance the
performance of the students. Instead of trying to classify one approach as the best,
researchers, instructors, curriculum development officials, course designers, and
interested parties will find ways to promote language learning.

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