TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. DECLARATION …………………….………………………………………………………01
2. ABSTRACT …………………………………………………………………………………03
3. A. INTRODUCTION…………………………………………………………...………..04-14

A.1 SIGNIFICANCE OF STUDY……………………………………………………...……04-05

A.2 OBJECTIVES …………………………………………………………………............……06

A.3 LEGAL THEMES ……...…………………………………………………………………...07

A.4 LITERATURE REVIEW...……………………….……………………………….................08

A.5 RESEARCH QUESTION…………………………………………………………...............09

A.6 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM…………………………………………………....................10

A.7 HYPOTHESIS ………………………………………………………………………………11

A.8 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY……………………………………………………………12

A.9 SCOPE AND LIMITATION OF PROJECT………..…………………….………..........13-14

4. SUSBTANTIVE BODY OF THE PROJECT……………………………………………...15-21

CHAPTER 1………………………………………………………………………………….15-18

CHAPTER 2………………………………………………………………………………….18-21

5. C. CONCLUSION ….………………………………………………………………………...22

6. D. BIBLIOGRAPHY………………………………………………………………………….23

7. E. APPENDIX……………………………………………………………………………...23-24
 ABSTRACT

This study ventures into the heart of social stratification by examining the intricate processes of
subclassification within the Scheduled Caste category through a vibrant Marxist lens. It challenges
traditional narratives by revealing how these classifications, far from being mere bureaucratic tools,
are deeply intertwined with historical struggles and capitalist imperatives that perpetuate inequality.
Employing a dynamic case study approach, the research dissects legislative texts, policy documents,
and lived experiences to uncover the hidden mechanisms through which state apparatus reinforces
class divisions and legitimizes economic exploitation. By combining critical discourse analysis with
in-depth stakeholder interviews, the project not only demystifies the ideological forces at work but
also sparks a renewed dialogue on transformative policy reform. Ultimately, this research invites us
to reimagine subclassification as a potent frontier in the fight for social justice, urging policymakers
to confront the systemic roots of marginalization and forge pathways toward genuine equality.

Keywords: Marxist analysis; Social stratification; Scheduled Castes; Subclassification; Class

struggle; Capitalist dynamics; State policy; Inequality; Social justice; Policy reform.

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 A. INTRODUCTION

“The history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles.” – Karl Marx

This timeless insight resonates powerfully with the contemporary debate on subclassification within the
Scheduled Caste (SC) category in the states existing. The government asserts that such subclassifications are
indispensable tools for ensuring that affirmative action measures effectively reach historically disadvantaged
groups. As one government spokesperson recently stated, “Our policies are meticulously crafted to channel
resources and opportunities to the most marginalized segments of society, thereby promoting social equity and
balanced development.”

In contrast, this research, grounded in a Marxist framework, argues that subclassification is not the neutral
administrative tool it is often portrayed to be. Instead, it functions as a mechanism that reinforces existing
capitalist power structures by segmenting communities and perpetuating class divisions. We contend that the
state’s reliance on such classifications—while ostensibly aimed at remedying historical injustices—ultimately
contributes to a stratified social order that privileges dominant economic interests. Furthermore, by shifting
the responsibility of risk management onto private entities operating on such lands, the government effectively
circumvents its non-delegable duty to maintain critical public infrastructure, such as flood control measures,
thereby creating a hostile business environment.

This project critically examines the ideological underpinnings and practical outcomes of SC subclassification,
questioning whether it truly fosters social justice or inadvertently deepens structural inequality. Through a
detailed analysis of policy documents, legislative texts, and empirical evidence, we aim to demonstrate that
the current system serves as a tool for managing class conflict in a manner that benefits the ruling capitalist
class, while leaving the most vulnerable communities further marginalized.

A.1 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

In a world where the visible divides of society often obscure the deeper, more insidious forces at work, this
study peels back the layers of Scheduled Caste subclassification to reveal its true nature—a mechanism
intricately woven into the fabric of class dynamics and capitalist power. By harnessing the transformative lens
of Marxist analysis alongside the nuanced perspectives of Weber, Bourdieu, and Durkheim, the research
reimagines subclassification as far more than a bureaucratic exercise; it is a subtle yet powerful tool that
sustains and reproduces societal hierarchies.

This project is significant because it challenges the status quo by exposing how subclassification, designed
under the guise of remedial measures, can paradoxically entrench marginalization and reinforce exploitative

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systems. It invites us to rethink established narratives and see these classifications not as neutral instruments
but as dynamic processes that mirror the relentless struggles between dominant and subordinate forces.

Moreover, the study contributes to contemporary discourse by linking abstract theory with palpable realities,
offering fresh insights into how state policies and cultural capital interact to shape the destiny of entire
communities. The implications extend beyond academia, serving as a clarion call for policymakers to pursue
reforms that dismantle systemic barriers and forge pathways to true social justice. In essence, this research not
only enriches our understanding of class dynamics but also sparks a transformative conversation about
equality and the future of our collective social fabric.

A.2 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

1. Dissecting the Devil in the Details:

o Unpack the hidden machinery of SC subclassification to reveal how bureaucratic procedures

—often dressed in the guise of social uplift—are in fact sophisticated tools that perpetuate
class hierarchies and fuel capitalist exploitation. In doing so, we aim to expose the “Devil in
the Details” that lies beneath administrative jargon.

2. Marxist Lens on Class Dynamics:

o Employ a robust Marxist framework to interrogate how subclassification is not merely a

classification exercise but a potent mechanism for reproducing economic and social
inequalities. We will explore how surplus value, alienation, and class struggle are intricately
woven into these processes—bringing to light what Marx might call “capital in disguise.”

3. Sociological Smorgasbord: Comparing Theories:

o Juxtapose Marx’s materialist critique with the perspectives of Weber, Bourdieu, and
Durkheim to create a rich tapestry of analysis.

 Marx tells us that class conflict is the engine of history.

 Weber adds nuance by distinguishing class from status and party, reminding us that
social honor matters as much as economic might.

 Bourdieu introduces habitus and cultural capital, suggesting that these classifications
become self-perpetuating symbols of social distinction.

 Durkheim reminds us that even seemingly divisive categorizations can serve the
function of social solidarity—albeit in a way that masks underlying inequalities.

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 o Through this sociological smorgasbord, we aim to stir up a unique critique that is both
theoretically rigorous and creatively engaging.

4. State vs. Society – The Policy Punchline:

o Critically evaluate how state policies and infrastructural inaction—especially regarding

essential public works like the Suman Dam—play a pivotal role in creating a hostile
environment for marginalized communities.

o Argue that when public safety nets fail, it is the state that drops the ball, not the private
entities that operate on its land. In this “policy punchline,” the government’s negligence
becomes the ultimate spoiler of social justice.

5. Blueprint for a Fairer Future:

o Develop innovative, actionable policy recommendations that aim to dismantle the systemic
barriers embedded in SC subclassification.

o Propose reforms that do not just shuffle the deck but reimagine the rules of the game—
ensuring that affirmative action becomes a genuine ladder to equality rather than a staircase
that inadvertently reinforces the status quo.

Reasoning: In essence, this study aspires to mix sharp theoretical analysis with a creative, no-holds-barred
critique of current practices—serving as both a wake-up call and a roadmap for transforming social policy in a
way that truly empowers the marginalized.

A.3. CONTEMPORARY LEGAL RELEVANCE

In India, the legal framework surrounding affirmative action and caste-based classification has been shaped by
landmark cases that resonate with the themes of class dynamics and state responsibility central to this
research. The seminal case of Indra Sawhney v. Union of India1 affirmed the constitutionality of reservations
for Scheduled Castes (SCs), yet it also imposed critical limits and guidelines. This judgment states:

‘Indra Sawhney did not limit sub-classification to OBCs; Sub-classification of SC/STs permissible’: A point
wise breakdown of Majority Ruling in SC’s 6:1 Verdict “Article 341 does not create an integrated
homogenous class. Sub-classification within the Scheduled Castes does not violate Article 341(2) because the
castes are not per se included in or excluded from the List.”2

1
Indra Sawhney v. Union of India, 1992 SCC (Cri) 1 (India).
2
E.V. Chinnaiah v. State of A.P., (2005) 1 SCC 394.

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And therefore, highlights the dual-edged nature of caste classifications—while intended to uplift marginalized
communities, they may also reinforce internal hierarchies and inadvertently entrench social divisions.

Similarly, the decision in M. Nagaraj v. Union of India3 reinforced the state's obligation to ensure social
justice, emphasizing that affirmative action measures must not merely be symbolic but must translate into
genuine improvements in the lives of the disadvantaged. Such cases underscore the delicate balance between
state intervention and the risk of institutionalizing divisions that may perpetuate economic and social
inequities.

Moreover, Indian jurisprudence on state liability in maintaining public infrastructure—although not directly
linked to caste subclassification—provides a parallel narrative on accountability. For example, controversies
surrounding the maintenance and safety of major dam projects, such as those seen in debates over the
Narmada Dam and subsequent disaster management failures, have demonstrated that the state can be held
accountable for neglecting its non-delegable duty to protect citizens from infrastructural hazards. These
precedents indirectly support a Marxist critique by illustrating how governmental inaction can exacerbate
vulnerabilities among marginalized groups.

By engaging with these Indian cases, this study situates its Marxist analysis within a vibrant legal landscape
where affirmative action, social justice, and state accountability intersect. It challenges the conventional
narrative that caste subclassification is an impartial administrative tool, arguing instead that it reflects and
reinforces deeper class dynamics. This research ultimately calls for a reimagining of policies to ensure that
legal interventions truly dismantle entrenched inequalities rather than perpetuating them.

A.4. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

Literature on caste, class, and state policy is as rich and layered as a well-crafted mille-feuille—and this study
slices through those layers with both scholarly rigor and a touch of irreverence. Marx’s foundational critique,
which exposes the relentless engine of class struggle, serves as our analytical backbone. His insistence that
economic relations are the heartbeat of social structure finds echoes in contemporary analyses of Scheduled
Caste subclassification, which reveal how these classifications are more than mere bureaucratic footnotes—
they are the gears that keep the machinery of exploitation humming.

Yet, while Marx provides the cannonball, Max Weber offers a refined shot of espresso. Weber’s
multidimensional view of society, where status and power play as significant a role as economic relations,
challenges us to reconsider the neat divisions Marx might propose. His perspective reminds us that culture and
prestige—often measured in the subtle lexicon of honour and reputation—can be just as binding as capital.

3
M. Nagaraj v. Union of India, (2006) 8 S.C.C. 212 (India).

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Pierre Bourdieu, with his concept of habitus and the accumulation of cultural capital, adds an irresistible layer
of complexity.

Bourdieu’s work shows that subclassification is not just a label; it becomes a lived experience that shapes
identities, habits, and even tastes—a kind of “social seasoning” that can either mask or amplify class
distinctions. In contrast, Émile Durkheim’s exploration of social solidarity and collective conscience
underscores that these divisions, while they may appear to fragment society, sometimes serve the paradoxical
function of creating order out of chaos—even if that order is laced with inequality.

In synthesizing these diverse scholarly flavours, the literature reveals a tapestry where caste and class are not
static relics but dynamic constructs, continuously reformed by legal, political, and cultural forces. This review
not only charts the evolution of thought on these issues but also playfully suggests that while our intellectual
predecessors served us a rich buffet of ideas, the current challenge is to decide which Flavors to blend for a
recipe that fosters genuine social justice. Far from a dry recitation of established dogmas, this literature review
invites readers to taste the evolving discourse on subclassification—where every theory has its own spice and
every critique its own punchline.

A.5. RESEARCH QUESTION

How does the process of SC subclassification function as a tool for reproducing class divisions and
reinforcing capitalist structures?

A.6. STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

The Scheduled Castes (SCs) in India have long been viewed as a monolithic group within state policies and
affirmative action frameworks. However, sociological inquiry reveals that the SC category is internally
differentiated by stark variations in economic, educational, and social capital. This intra-caste heterogeneity
manifests in unequal access to resources, labour market opportunities, and political representation, with some
subgroups—often those closer to the “creamy layer” of relative affluence—capturing the bulk of state
benefits, while the most marginalized remain further entrenched in precarity.

Using a Marxist analytical framework, this research project interrogates how the capitalist mode of production
and class exploitation not only reproduce but also deepen these internal divisions. Marxist theory compels us
to look beyond the static identity of the SCs and to understand how underlying class relations, labour
dynamics, and economic structures shape social stratification within this group. It argues that the SC
subclassification is a reflection of broader systemic inequalities where the forces of capital, power, and state
apparatus work in tandem to perpetuate differential access to opportunities.

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This inquiry is thus centred on two interrelated sociological questions:

 How do the processes of capitalist production and class conflict contribute to the internal
differentiation within the SC category?

 In what ways do existing state interventions, such as reservation policies, inadvertently reinforce
class divisions among SC subgroups by failing to address these structural inequalities?

 How do Marxist theories of class struggle and exploitation explain the emergence and persistence of
these intra-SC hierarchies?

 In what ways do current affirmative action policies fail to address the nuanced disparities among SC
subgroups, and what alternative strategies could promote more equitable outcomes?

Reasoning: By examining these questions, the study aims to bridge the gap between caste-based and class-
based analyses in sociological theory, offering a critical lens through which to reimagine public policies that
are sensitive to the complexities of intra-caste stratification and that strive for genuine social equity.

A.7. HYPOTHESIS

1. Primary Hypothesis:
The stratification observed within the Scheduled Castes (SCs) in India is largely a product of
underlying class dynamics shaped by capitalist economic relations. In other words, SC subgroups that
have managed to secure higher levels of economic, cultural, and political capital tend to form a
"creamy layer" that not only enjoys disproportionate benefits from state interventions (such as
reservation policies) but also reinforces existing intra-caste inequalities.

2. Sub-Hypotheses:

i. H1: Within the SC category, groups that have achieved relative socio-economic advancement
(as measured by income, educational attainment, and social capital) will exhibit higher levels
of representation in formal employment, political institutions, and social leadership roles
compared to their more marginalized counterparts.

ii. H2: Uniform affirmative action policies, which treat the SCs as a homogeneous entity, fail to
address the differential impacts of capitalist production processes. This oversight results in
policies that inadvertently consolidate benefits among the relatively privileged SC subgroups,
further entrenching the disadvantages faced by the most oppressed segments.

iii. H3: The persistence of intra-SC inequalities is a reflection of broader class exploitation. The
dynamics of capitalist production—characterized by unequal access to resources and

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 opportunities—operate within the SCs to reproduce and amplify existing disparities,
mirroring the class struggles that Marxist theory predicts in advanced capitalist societies.

Reasoning: This sociologically grounded hypothesis posits that a nuanced understanding of SC

subclassification requires not only an examination of caste as an identity category but also a critical analysis
of how capitalist forces and class relations intersect with caste dynamics to produce layered and uneven social
outcomes.

A.8. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

I. Qualitative research methods (critical discourse analysis, case study approach, in-depth
interviews).

Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA): (Hypothetical Draft)

Title: Discourse of Reservation and Capitalist Exploitation in Public Debate

Abstract Excerpt:
This section examines the language and narratives surrounding reservation policies as portrayed in media
articles, political speeches, and academic texts. Using a Marxist lens, the analysis reveals that the discourse
frequently presents the Scheduled Castes (SCs) as a homogenous group while subtly reinforcing internal
hierarchies. Key themes include the legitimization of a “creamy layer” within the SC community, the portrayal
of reservation as a mere administrative tool, and the implicit class biases underlying discussions of
backwardness.

Sample Excerpt:
“For instance, in a televised address by a prominent policymaker, the reservation policy was described as a
‘one-size-fits-all solution’ that does not account for the nuances of socio-economic disparities among the SCs.
The repeated use of terms such as ‘backward’ and ‘underprivileged’ in a uniform manner suggests a discursive
neglect of internal diversity. Through systematic coding of 50 news articles from leading dailies and 10
political speeches from parliamentary sessions, this analysis identifies how capitalist ideologies inform these
narratives, thereby reinforcing the social reproduction of inequality.”

Case Study Approach: (Hypothetical Draft)

Title: Intra-Caste Inequalities in Rural Bihar – A Case Study of District X

Introduction and Context:

District X in Bihar is selected due to its documented high levels of SC diversity. Preliminary archival research
indicates significant disparities in educational attainment and income among SC subgroups. This case study

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will investigate the lived realities of SC communities in District X and assess how local practices of land
distribution and labour relations contribute to intra-caste inequalities.

Sample Field Notes Excerpt:

“During a visit to a local community centre in Village A of District X, interviews with community elders
revealed a stark division between the SC subgroup that has been traditionally associated with artisanal
occupations and those who have migrated towards urban centres for government employment. Observations at
the local market indicate that while one subgroup operates small-scale workshops, another predominantly
engages in manual labour, with little upward mobility. This qualitative evidence underscores how localized
economic practices mirror broader structural forces and class dynamics.”

Data Analysis Outline:

 Compare socio-economic indicators (education, income, access to government jobs) between SC

subgroups.

 Map local resource allocation (e.g., land holdings, access to credit).

 Integrate historical narratives from village archives with current observations.

In-Depth Interviews: (Hypothetical Draft)

Title: Voices from the Margins – In-Depth Interviews with SC Community Members

Interview Objective and Sample:

The purpose is to capture personal narratives and perceptions regarding the impact of reservation policies and
capitalist exploitation on intra-SC dynamics. A purposive sample of 25 participants will be interviewed,
including community leaders, local activists, and SC members from both the “creamy layer” and the most
marginalized segments.

Interview Excerpt (Transcript Fragment):

Interviewer: “Can you describe how you perceive the benefits of reservation policies in your community?”
Participant 1 (representing a relatively advantaged subgroup): “While we do benefit from reserved seats
in education, many of our peers in other SC groups still struggle to access basic resources. It feels like the
system only helps those who already have a little advantage.”
Participant 2 (from a marginalized subgroup): “I have seen young people from our community forced to
work in low-paying jobs with little hope of change. The reservation system does not address the underlying
class barriers we face.”

Data Analysis Plan:

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  Transcribe and code interviews for recurring themes such as “unequal access,” “systemic
exploitation,” and “perceptions of state policy.”

 Perform thematic analysis to identify how participants articulate the interplay between caste identity
and capitalist constraints.

 Validate findings by comparing them with observations from the case study and discourse analysis.

II. Analysis of Legislative Texts, Policy Documents, and Historical Narratives

Title: Legislative Evolution and Its Impact on Intra-SC Stratification: (Hypothetical Draft)

Objective:
This component examines how state policies, constitutional provisions, and historical reforms have addressed
(or neglected) the diversity within the SC community. The analysis will focus on texts like the Constitution,
amendments related to reservation, official government reports, and historical narratives that document caste
reforms.

Document Analysis Excerpt:

“An analysis of the Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribe (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989 4, alongside
subsequent amendments, reveals that the language used consistently categorizes SCs as a uniform group.
However, historical records from local archives in Bihar suggest that this administrative approach overlooks
the socio-economic divergence within SC communities. For instance, debates in parliamentary committees
(recorded in official Hansards) frequently refer to SCs without addressing subgroup disparities. This
contradiction between legislative intent and historical socio-economic realities provides evidence for the need
to reframe policies in a manner that accounts for class-based stratification.”

Analytical Steps:

 Collect and catalog relevant legislative texts and policy documents spanning from the 1950s to the
present.

 Perform a content analysis to trace shifts in policy language concerning caste and class.

 Cross-reference these findings with historical narratives from academic sources and community
records to build a timeline of policy evolution.

4
The Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, No. 33 of 1989, India Code (1989).

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A.9. SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY

Scope

1. Theoretical Framework:
The study is anchored in a Marxist theoretical framework, aiming to explore the interplay between
caste and class dynamics within the Scheduled Castes (SCs) in India. It examines how capitalist
economic relations and state policies contribute to the internal stratification of SCs, highlighting the
emergence of a “creamy layer” within the community.

2. Geographical Coverage:
The research focuses primarily on select regions in India (e.g., districts in Bihar) where significant
intra-caste disparities are evident. Case studies from these areas provide contextualized insights into
local practices of resource allocation, labour relations, and social mobility among SC subgroups.

3. Methodological Breadth:
The study employs a multi-method qualitative approach, integrating:

o Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) of political speeches, media reports, and academic texts.

o In-depth case studies in selected rural areas.

o Semi-structured, in-depth interviews with SC community members, local leaders, and

policymakers.

o Document analysis of legislative texts, policy documents, and historical narratives relating to
caste and reservation policies.

4. Temporal Coverage:
The research investigates both historical narratives (tracing the evolution of caste-based policies from
post-independence to the present) and contemporary practices. This dual focus helps in understanding
how historical legacies continue to shape current socio-economic dynamics within the SC community.

5. Policy Analysis:
By examining the impact of uniform affirmative action policies on diverse SC subgroups, the study
seeks to contribute to policy debates on how reservation systems might be restructured to better
address intra-caste inequalities.

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Limitations

1. Generalizability:

o Context-Specific Findings:
The case study approach, while providing in-depth insights, is context-specific. Findings from
selected districts (e.g., in Bihar) may not be universally applicable across all regions of India
where the SC population is diverse.

o Scope of Qualitative Methods:

The reliance on qualitative methods means that the results provide rich, contextualized
understandings but may lack the statistical generalizability that large-scale quantitative
studies offer.

2. Data Collection Challenges:

o Access to Sensitive Information:

Interviews and field observations on caste dynamics can be sensitive. Respondents may be
hesitant to share personal experiences of discrimination or may offer socially desirable
responses, potentially affecting the depth and authenticity of data.

o Archival Limitations:
Historical documents and local records may be incomplete or biased, thereby limiting a
comprehensive understanding of past policy impacts on intra-SC stratification.

3. Subjectivity in Analysis:

o Interpretive Bias:
Qualitative data analysis (e.g., in CDA and thematic analysis of interviews) involves
subjective interpretation. Despite efforts to triangulate data from multiple sources, researcher
bias may influence the interpretation of findings.

Policy and Legal Document Constraints:

o Evolving Legislation:
The dynamic nature of Indian legislation on caste and reservation policies means that policy
documents analysed may quickly become outdated as new amendments and judicial
interpretations emerge.

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o Availability of Updated Data:
There may be gaps in the most current data, particularly regarding the impact of recent
judicial decisions on sub-classification of SCs.

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 B. SUBSTANTIVE BODY OF THE PROJECT

CHAPTER 1: THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND HISTORICAL CONTEXT

1.1 Introduction

This chapter establishes the theoretical and historical foundations for analysing internal stratification within
India’s Scheduled Castes (SCs) through a Marxist lens. We begin by outlining key concepts in Marxist theory,
illustrating how class dynamics intersect with caste. Next, we trace the historical evolution of the caste system
and its gradual subdivision, paying special attention to the emergence of a rising middle Dalit class. Finally,
we analyse how state policies and capitalist dynamics have contributed to SC subclassification, setting the
stage for later analyses of how these dynamics reinforce class divisions.

1.2 Overview of Marxist Theory and Its Application to Social Stratification

1.2.1 Key Concepts in Marxist Theory

Marxist theory centres on the idea that society is fundamentally divided into classes based on their
relationship to the means of production. Core concepts include:

 Mode of Production: In capitalism, private ownership of the means of production leads to wage
labour and the extraction of surplus value.

 Exploitation and Surplus Value: The capitalist class (bourgeoisie) extracts surplus value from the
labour of the working class (proletariat), perpetuating economic inequality.

 Class Struggle: The conflict between classes drives social change, and the development of class
consciousness among oppressed groups is seen as a catalyst for revolutionary transformation.

1.2.2 Application to Caste and Social Stratification in India

Marxist analysis extends the class framework to understand how caste operates as an additional mechanism of
stratification in India:

 Caste as Both Social and Economic Marker: The historical caste system not only delineated social
roles but also entrenched economic disparities. Upper castes-controlled land and resources, while SCs
were relegated to menial tasks.

 Internal Differentiation and the Middle Dalit Class: Over time, access to education and
employment has enabled certain SC subgroups to accumulate capital and social resources.

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  This process has given rise to a burgeoning middle Dalit class—often termed part of the “creamy
layer”—which enjoys improved economic status and opportunities.

 However, this rise has also accentuated divisions within the SC community, as those who remain in
traditional labour roles continue to face significant socio-economic disadvantages.

 Reproduction of Inequality: Capitalist dynamics, particularly in terms of differential access to

education, credit, and employment, amplify both class and caste divisions. As a result, the state’s
uniform policies often benefit the more advanced middle Dalit groups, leaving the most marginalized
further behind.

1.3 Historical Evolution of Caste and Subclassification

1.3.1 Early Origins and Medieval Transformation

 Ancient and Vedic Periods: The original Varna system, which was initially flexible and linked to
occupation, gradually became rigid and evolved into the jati system.

 Medieval Developments: With the emergence of regional kingdoms and the influence of Islamic
rule, caste identities became further crystallized. Colonial administrative practices later reinforced
these identities through censuses and legal classifications.

1.3.2 Post-Independence Reforms and the Emergence of Subclassification

 Affirmative Action and Reservations: Post-independence, India’s constitutional guarantees (Articles

15 and 17) led to the adoption of reservation policies intended to uplift SCs. However, these policies
often treated SCs as a single, homogenous group.

 Emergence of the Middle Dalit Class: In the decades following independence, access to education
and urban employment opportunities enabled some SC groups to break from traditional occupations.
This gave rise to a middle Dalit class, which—by gaining a foothold in formal sectors such as
government service and private enterprises—became economically and socially distinct from their
more marginalized peers. This differentiation has intensified debates on intra-caste stratification, as it
highlights the failure of uniform policies to address varied needs.

 Legal and Social Debates: The Mandal Commission5 (1980) and subsequent legal interventions
exposed the limitations of a one-size-fits-all approach, sparking calls for policies that recognize
internal diversity within the SC category.

1.3.3 Historical Case Example: The Mahadalit Categorization in Bihar

In Bihar, the state government introduced the concept of “Mahadalits” to identify the most deprived among
the SCs.
5
The Mandal Commission Report, 1980 (India).

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For example:

 Laxmanpur Bathe Incident: The massacre of nearly 50 Dalits by upper-caste militias such as the
Ranvir Sena underscored the severe marginalization within certain SC subgroups.

 Subsequent welfare schemes targeted Mahadalits; however, these measures inadvertently reinforced a
dual structure, where a rising middle Dalit class could access opportunities, leaving others further
marginalized.

 Land Reforms and Economic Divergence: While some SC families were able to leverage land
reforms and reservation-backed jobs to rise economically, many remained in traditional, insecure
labour roles. This divergence not only reflected but also reinforced internal class divisions among
SCs.

1.4 Analysis of State Policies and Capitalist Dynamics Influencing SC Subclassification

1.4.1 State Interventions and Affirmative Action

 Legislative Foundations: The Indian Constitution enshrines non-discrimination and affirmative

action, yet state policies often assume SCs are homogenous.

 Uniform Reservation Policies: Policies that do not account for the rising middle Dalit class tend to
benefit those who already have access to resources, thus intensifying intra-caste disparities.

 Judicial Interventions: Judicial interpretations—such as recent rulings on the “creamy layer”—

attempt to recalibrate these policies. However, the debate continues on whether such measures
adequately address the differentiated needs within the SC community.

1.4.2 Capitalist Dynamics and the Reproduction of Inequality

 Access to Economic Capital: As capitalist market forces reward individuals with better education
and resources, SC subgroups that have managed to secure these advantages form a distinct middle
Dalit class. This group often garners disproportionate benefits from reservation policies.

 Labor Market Differentiation: The capitalist labour market inherently favours skilled and educated
workers. As a result, SC individuals in the middle class are able to secure higher-paying jobs, while
those without access remain confined to low-wage, informal employment.

 Interplay of Private and Public Sectors: The differential impact of state policies on those with
private capital versus those reliant on public infrastructure exacerbates existing class divisions. In
urban canters, for instance, middle Dalits leverage private resources to gain better opportunities,
whereas marginalized SC groups, lacking such resources, face systemic barriers.

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1.4.3 Example: Urban Versus Rural Dynamics

 Urban Case Example – Mumbai: In Mumbai, a middle Dalit class has emerged in professional
sectors, enabled by access to quality education and urban networks. However, adjacent urban
localities continue to see SC communities struggling with informal, low-wage work. This disparity is
indicative of how capitalist forces intersect with state policies to reinforce intra-caste stratification.

 Rural Case Example – Bihar: Fieldwork in rural Bihar illustrates that while some SC households
have transitioned to stable economic roles (e.g., small business owners, government employees),
others continue to rely on precarious labour. This divergence is linked to both historical land
distribution and current state policies that do not differentiate based on intra-caste socio-economic
status.

CHAPTER 2: ANALYSIS OF SC SUBCLASSIFICATION MECHANISMS

2.1 Introduction

This chapter investigates the mechanisms through which subclassification within the SC category is
operationalized and maintained. It examines legislative texts, policy documents, and historical narratives to
uncover the role of state interventions and capitalist dynamics in reinforcing class divisions. Special emphasis
is placed on understanding how the rising middle Dalit class both emerges from and contributes to these
processes.

2.2 Examination of Legislative Texts and Policy Documents Governing Subclassification

2.2.1 Key Legal and Policy Instruments

 Constitutional Provisions and Reservation Policies:

Articles 156 and 177 of the Indian Constitution serve as the foundation for non-discrimination and
affirmative action. Despite these provisions, policy documents—such as reservation orders and
guidelines from the Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment—often fail to capture the diversity
within the SC community. For example, the language in these documents typically categorizes SCs as
a homogeneous group, despite evidence of a rising middle Dalit class.

 Judicial Decisions:
Landmark cases addressing the “creamy layer” (recent rulings in August 2024) illustrate judicial
attempts to recalibrate reservation policies. These cases provide insights into how legal frameworks
have evolved to exclude more privileged SC subgroups from benefits, highlighting the tension
between uniform policy implementation and the reality of intra-caste diversity.

2.2.2 Critical Discourse Analysis of Policy Language

6
India Const. art. 15.
7
India Const. art. 17.

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  Themes and Narratives:
A critical discourse analysis (CDA) of legislative texts and policy documents reveals a recurring
theme: the treatment of SCs as uniformly “backward.” This approach obscures internal disparities,
including the emergence of a middle Dalit class that has acquired significant socio-economic capital.

 Example Analysis:
Analysis of government reports—such as those related to the Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribe
(Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989—shows that while the intention is to protect vulnerable
populations, the failure to differentiate between various SC subgroups inadvertently benefits those
already positioned higher in the socio-economic hierarchy.

2.3 Critical Analysis of the Role of Government and Capitalist Dynamics

2.3.1 Government’s Role in Shaping Economic Opportunities

 Policy Implementation and Economic Barriers:

State interventions—ranging from land reforms to reservation policies—are intended to uplift SCs but
often lack the nuance required to address intra-caste disparities. In regions such as rural Bihar, some
SC families have benefited from these measures and ascended into a middle Dalit class. Yet, many
continue to rely on traditional labour roles, creating a dual structure within the same community.

 Hostile Business Environment:

Policies that incentivize private property accumulation and urban infrastructure development tend to
favour those with pre-existing capital. This environment benefits middle Dalits who can leverage
private resources to access quality education and employment, while the most marginalized remain
dependent on inadequate public services.

2.3.2 Separation Between Private Property Obligations and Public Infrastructure Failures

 Private Sector Advantages:

In urban settings, SC individuals with access to private capital enjoy better economic opportunities.
For instance, middle Dalits in Mumbai secure roles in professional sectors by leveraging networks
and resources, which are less accessible to those who depend solely on state-provided infrastructure.

 Public Infrastructure Shortcomings:

Conversely, marginalized SC groups continue to suffer from systemic failures in public infrastructure
—such as underfunded schools, inadequate healthcare, and poor transportation—which restrict their
upward mobility. This division further widens the gap within the SC community.

2.3.3 Case Example: Urban Dynamics in Mumbai Versus Rural Bihar

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  Mumbai – A Tale of Two Realities:
In Mumbai, a rising middle Dalit class has emerged in neighbourhoods with robust private
investments. Data from urban policy analyses and interviews reveal that SC individuals with private
capital have significantly higher educational and occupational outcomes than those in poorer, state-
dependent areas.

 Bihar – Contrasting Rural Outcomes:

Field observations in a rural district of Bihar demonstrate that while some SC families have
transitioned into stable economic roles due to successful access to government jobs and land reforms,
many others remain entrenched in low-wage, labour-intensive occupations. These disparities
underscore the role of capitalist dynamics in reinforcing subclassification within the SC community.

2.4 Evaluation of Case Studies Demonstrating How Subclassification Reinforces Class Divisions

2.4.1 Case Study: Rural District in Bihar

Background:
District Y in Bihar is selected for its high concentration of SC diversity and documented disparities.
Findings:

 Observations:
Fieldwork in Village A reveals that SC subgroups with access to reservation-backed employment have
transitioned into small business ownership and better socio-economic conditions. In contrast, other
subgroups remain reliant on manual labour.

 Interview Insights:
Local leaders noted, “Those who have managed to secure government jobs now own land and have
improved livelihoods, forming what we call the middle Dalit class. Meanwhile, many still work as
daily labourers without any hope of upward mobility.”

 Analysis:
This case demonstrates how state policies—intended to equalize opportunities—have instead
reinforced internal hierarchies by primarily benefiting those who could leverage capital, thus creating
a pronounced class division within the SC community.

II.4.2 Case Study: Urban Dynamics in Mumbai

Mumbai’s diverse economic landscape offers a contrasting urban scenario where SC subgroups
exhibit divergent outcomes.

Findings:

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  Observations:
In one suburb, middle Dalit groups have successfully penetrated professional sectors and secured
high-paying jobs, supported by superior education and social networks. However, adjacent areas
continue to house SC communities struggling in the informal sector.

 Policy Impact:
Urban development policies and private investments have tended to favour those with existing
resources, thereby deepening the divide between the rising middle Dalit class and the marginalized.

2.5 Synthesis and Policy Implications

Integrating findings from legislative analysis, case studies, and interviews reveals that:

 Uniform Reservation Policies:

These policies, while well-intentioned, disproportionately benefit the rising middle Dalit class,
leaving the most disadvantaged SC subgroups further marginalized.

 Capitalist Dynamics:
The intersection of private capital accumulation and public infrastructure failures reinforces class
divisions within the SC community.

 Structural Gaps:
The divide between private and public sector support creates a dual economy among SC subgroups,
highlighting the need for more nuanced policy interventions.

Policy Recommendations:

 Targeted Affirmative Action:

Introduce differentiated reservation policies that recognize and address the economic heterogeneity
within the SC community.

 Investment in Public Infrastructure:

Prioritize improvements in public services—education, healthcare, and transportation—in regions
where marginalized SC groups are concentrated.

 Reassessment of the “Creamy Layer”:

Refine the criteria for excluding the creamy layer from reservation benefits to ensure that economic
advancement within the SC community does not further entrench intra-caste disparities.

C. CONCLUSION

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This study reveals that the internal stratification within India’s Scheduled Castes (SCs) is not merely a matter
of fixed identity but a dynamic process deeply influenced by capitalist economic relations and state policies.
Utilizing a Marxist theoretical framework, the research demonstrates how the uniform application of
reservation policies has inadvertently reinforced intra-caste inequalities by predominantly benefiting those SC
subgroups that have amassed economic, educational, and social capital—thereby giving rise to a distinct
middle Dalit class. Through the analysis of legislative texts, policy documents, and illustrative case studies
from both urban and rural contexts, it is evident that the interplay between state interventions and capitalist
market dynamics contributes to a dual economy within the SC community. While some SC subgroups have
secured upward mobility, others remain trapped in traditional, low-wage occupations, further widening the
socio-economic divide. The findings underscore the necessity for targeted policy interventions that
acknowledge intra-caste heterogeneity and aim to bridge these deepening gaps. Future policies should be
reoriented to support comprehensive public infrastructure improvements and differentiated affirmative action
strategies that address the unique needs of the most marginalized SC segments.

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 D. BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Ambedkar, B. R. (1936). Annihilation of Caste. (2nd ed.). Navayana.

2. Dalits in Modern India: Vision and Values. (2007). Sage Publications.

3. Gandhi, M. (2016). The Role of Affirmative Action in Indian Society. Journal of Social Policy, 12(2),
123–145.

4. Kumar, S. (2018). Post Mandal Politics in Bihar: Changing Electoral Patterns. SAGE Publications.

5. Mandal Commission Report. (1980). Government of India.

6. Samaddar, R. (2016). Government of Peace: Social Governance, Security and the Problematic of
Peace. Routledge.

7. Satyanarayana, K., & Tharu, S. (2013). The Exercise of Freedom: An Introduction to Dalit Writing.
Navayana.

8. Constitution of India. (1950). Articles 15 and 17.

9. Supreme Court of India. (2024). SC/ST Creamy Layer Judgment.

10. Additional sources and government policy documents as cited within the study.

E. APPENDIX

Appendix A: Interview Guide

 A semi-structured interview protocol developed for in-depth interviews with SC community members,
community leaders, and policymakers.

 Questions explore experiences with reservation policies, perceptions of intra-caste inequality, and the
impact of capitalist dynamics on economic mobility.

Appendix B: Coding Scheme for Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA)

 Detailed codebook outlining themes, categories, and sub-categories identified in political speeches,
media reports, and academic texts.

 Examples of coded text segments and the rationale behind each code.

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Appendix C: Case Study Protocol

 Fieldwork guidelines for conducting case studies in selected districts in Bihar and urban centres like
Mumbai.

 Documentation templates for recording observations, archival data, and local policy impacts.

Appendix D: Extracts from Legislative Texts and Policy Documents

 Selected excerpts from constitutional provisions, government orders, and policy documents relevant
to SC reservation policies.

 Summaries of key judicial decisions that have shaped the legal framework for SC subclassification.

Appendix E: Supplementary Data Tables and Figures

 Comparative tables of socio-economic indicators among SC subgroups in rural and urban settings.

 Figures illustrating the emergence of the middle Dalit class and the distribution of reservation
benefits.

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