The Conditions of Europe, America, and Spain

Rizal's Century: The 19th Century

The 19th century was a century of change. During the last two decades of the
previous century, the age of enlightenment reached its zenith in France,
culminating in the French Revolution of 1789. In this age, ideas of freedom, liberty
and equality, and the belief in the sovereignty of the people in determining
government thundered all across Europe. The French Revolution resulted in the
toppling of the monarchy of King Louis XVI and the ushering in of the French
Republic. Though France was to slide back to monarchy following the establishment
of Napoleon Bonaparte's French Empire and the restored Bourbon dynasty, the
ideas of philosophers such as Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Montesquieu, François-Marie
Arouet (Voltaire), and Englishman John Locke spread around the world like a
conflagration. The world was never the same again.

The struggle for equal rights has spread over the world. Europe went up in
revolution from 1848, with the regimes of the absolute monarchs in France and
Austria being toppled by people seeking more responsible governments. In 1861,
the year of Rizal's birth, Tsar Alexander II emancipated Russian serfs. That year, the
Italians, under Giuseppe Garibaldi, threw out the Austrians and took over the papal
lands. Italian nationalism ended the domination of the Church and united the
various Italian states as one country. Germany, on the other hand, was in the
process of unification which lasted until 1871. In the United States, President
Abraham Lincoln emancipated the black slaves but also triggered the American Civil
War which lasted from 1861 to 1865. At the south of the U.S. border, Mexican
troops dealt a humiliating defeat on the French-supported regime of Archduke
Maximilian. In France, the regime of Napoleon III was crumbling after the debacle in
Mexico. Later, the French overthrew the monarchists and established a republic. At
this time,however, most of Spain's colonies such as those in South and Central
America, such as Mexico Chile, Argentina, Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru,
Nicaragua, El Salvador, Honduras, and others have won their independence from
Spain through revolution. The Philippines was one of Spain's remaining colonies
along with Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Spanish Sahara.

The Need for Reforms: Representation

During Napoleon's time, Spain was part of France's alliance against Great
Britain in the Continental System. When this alliance faltered, Napoleon invaded
Spain in 1808 and installed his brother Joseph as king. The Spaniards resisted the
French, and Spanish patriots declared allegiance to their crown prince Ferdinand
and gathered in the city of Cadiz where they crafted a constitution. The Constitution
of Cadiz had a novel feature of allowing colonies to be represented in the Spanish
parliament called the Cortes. The Philippines therefore was given representation for
the very first time, and Ventura de los Reyes, a Spaniard born in the Philippines,
was selected to represent the colony. However, after Napoleon was defeated,
Ferdinand, who had become King Ferdinand VII, abolished the Cortes, saying that
the body encroached on powers he believed belonged solely to him. The decision
was unpopular as Spain's American colonies began to revolt and sought
independence.

In 1820, the Spanish people rose up and held the king hostage. They forced
him to reconvene the Cortes and restore the representation of the colonies. The
restoration of the Cortes was short-lived as France, under the Bourbons, sent an
army which restored Ferdinand to absolute rule and caused the abolition of the
Cortes. In 1833, Ferdinand VII died and the Cortes was again restored. However, at
this time, the body held a secret session in which it was decided that the Philippines
should not be accorded representation. From that time on, the Philippines had no
representation in the Cortes. Representation in this body was one of the reforms
demanded by reformists like Rizal. It would have given the Filipinos the right to be
heard in the body and equal rights with the Spaniards. After Ferdinand VII died, the
country was ruled by his daughter, Queen Isabella II, whose rule was characterized
by decadence and mismanagement. Other European powers such as Great Britain
and France became leading powers in the continent.

Conditions in Asia in the 19th Century

In Asia, there were renewed efforts of European penetration with the

weakening of Spain and Portugal and the rise of Great Britain and France. The
British gained its colony in Hong Kong and forced China to open five ports to its
traders following China's defeat in the Opium War of 1839-1842. China was
humiliated with another defeat in the Arrow War of 1856-1858 when the British,
now joined by the French, forced China to open the whole country to foreigners.
Furthermore, Great Britain enlarged its colony in Hong Kong by taking over
Kowloon, and Japan was forced open by the Americans under Commodore Matthew
Perry in 1854. Unlike the Chinese, however, the Japanese were able to parry
western requests to make Yokohama a treaty port. India became a crown colony of
Great Britain in 1858 following the suppression of the Sepoy Mutiny in 1857. Burma
became a colony of Great Britain after three Burmese Wars in 1824-1826, 1862-
1863, and 1885-1886. Near the Philippines, Indo-China became a protectorate of
France following the suppression of the kingdoms of Annam and Cochin-China.
Filipino troops sent from Manila played a role in the conquest of Indo-China for
France. Malaysia became a protectorate and eventually a colony of Great Britain
while Indonesia was conquered by the Dutch of Netherlands.
 Liberal stirrings from Europe reached the Philippines. In the Ilocos, leading
citizens there, called Kailanes, refused to believe that the Cadiz Constitution was
abolished by King Ferdinand and rose up in revolt. They were crushed by troops
from the other provinces. In 1826, Mexican soldiers led by Lt. Andres Novales
mutinied. They complained of discrimination and unfair treatment from peninsular
officials following the independence of Mexico from Spain. The mutineers tried to
rally the Filipinos to their support and promised to fight for the independence of the
Philippines. The mutiny, however, was crushed and the rebels were executed.

The last of the series of revolts took place in 1841-1842 when Apolinario de la
Cruz refuse to disband his religious organization, the Cofradia de San Jose. De la
Cruz aspired to be a priest but was refused by the Spaniards because of his race.
Instead, he founded the Cofradia which gained popularity among ordinary people
and was seen as a threat by the Catholic Church. Afte his execution and the
suppression of the Cofradia, members of the Tayabas Regiment of the Spanish
army, who turned out to be province-mates of de la Cruz, mutinied and almost took
over Manila. The arrival of native reinforcements saved the Spanish colonizers from
certain defeat

The defeats of native revolts demonstrated that the Philippines was disunited
because of lack of a national identity. The Spaniards used this disunity to divide and
rule the country Demographically, the Spaniards were a minority in the Philippines.
Peninsular officials or officials born in Spain were very few, consisting of the
governor-general, a few subalterns and the top church officials, and the insular
officials, the Spaniards born in the Philippines who were also few in comparison to
the native population which numbered around six million. In large towns, the
Spanish officials were only the parish priest and the head of the local police. The
colonial order was maintained largely by native officials. Local officials such as the
gobernadorcillos, the councilmen, and others were natives. The policemen were
also natives, and even the composition of the local Spanish army and civil guards
was largely natives. Only the officials down to the rank of sergeants were Spaniards.
The Spaniards, despite their inferior number, managed to retain the loyalty of the
native officials by giving them certain privileges that kept them separate from the
rest of the population. The gobernadorcillos were afforded the titles of capitan
municipal, teniente, and cabeza. Though their positions did not pay much, the titles
gave them an exalted position in native society and were called principales or
leading citizens. There were also some material rewards in serving the Spaniards. A
number of the principales descended from the loyal datus who pledged their loyalty
to the colonizers. They were exempt from taxation and community labor or
prestacion personal. They were also entitled to receive a portion of their collection
from the people. After serving their terms of office, former officials were still eligible
for reelection. It was possible for former officials to be reinstated into their former
offices several times. This explains why Spain controlled the Philippines for more
than 300 years. Spain controlled the natives through the native leaders.

Changes in the 19th century had profound effects to the Philippines. Even
during the previous century when it was forbidden for the Philippines to trade with
other countries because of Spain's monopolistic policy, colonial officials ignored this
instruction and traded with other nations anyway because it promised income for
the Philippines. By 1834, this mercantilist policy of not allowing the Philippines to
trade with other countries was scrapped with the opening of Manila to world trade.
Other ports in the colony like Iloilo and Zamboanga later followed There was brisk
demand for Philippine products such as sugar, coffee, abaca, tobacco, dyestuff. and
rice. This created economic opportunities as many families began trading these
products for the international market. These families were mostly mestizos
consisting of Spanish and Chinese families. They intermarried with natives who
were farmers that became traders. In the process, they became more affluent and
formed the nucleus of the middle class. The increased wealth allowed middle-class
families to have better homes and send their children to colleges and universities
for higher education. During the early 19th century, the education of choice was
priesthood and many middle-class families sent their sons to seminaries in Manila.
They obtained higher education degrees which made them equal with the
Spaniards. Eventually, they became concerned with issues of equality including
secularization. By the time of Rizal's birth in 1861, the quest for equality was the cry
of the times. It influenced Rizal throughout his life and it became his lifelong quest

Group Activity:

1. Using the reading on the Philippines in the 19th century. Make three columns and
label the headings as "Political Aspect," "Economic Aspect," and "Sociocultural
Aspect."

2. In each column, list down the changes that occurred in the Philippines.

3. Present the work to class. Analyze if the items listed down were in the correct
columns.
The Religious Front: Secularization
Aside from the need to secure political and social reforms, there was also the
persisting issue of the secularization of the Philippine Church. This was basically a
matter involving the Catholic clergy in the Philippines. As early as the 16th century,
it was the wish of the King of Spain and of the Pope to turn over the country's
parishes to the secular priests. At the beginning of the Spanish colonization, the
task of establishing and administering the country's parishes was done by the
regular priests who belong to different religious orders. These were the
Augustinians, Recollects, Jesuits, Franciscans, and Dominicans. Originally, they
came as missionaries to the Philippines. During the course of Spanish rule, there
were demands by the seculars to implement the royal and papal orders. For a time,
this was actually implemented but turned out to be failures, as the secular priests,
who were mostly composed of Filipino priests, were found to be wanting and
deemed to be unready to head the parishes. The expulsion of the Jesuits in 1767
created some opportunities for seculars to occupy some parishes. However, when
the Jesuits were allowed to return in 1858, parishes held by the seculars were given
back to the regulars once the secular priest holding the post died. What happened
was a reverse secularization of the churches, where the parishes held by the
seculars were reverted to the regulars. Since the issue pitted Filipino seculars
against the Spanish regular clergy, the secularization issue has become a race issue

During the Spanish colonization, the Spaniards in the Philippines who were
born and who grew up in Spain were called peninsulares, while the Spaniards born
in the Philippines were called Filipinos. This issue was between the Spanish regulars
versus the Filipino seculars. In the forefront of this struggle were Filipino priests like
Fathers Pedro Pablo Pelaez, Jacinto Zamora, Mariano Gomez, and Jose Burgos who
championed the cause of equal rights with Spaniards and the reduction of the
influence of the Church in politics. Also among the suspects were the leaders of the
Filipino secular clergy who fought for secularization of the Philippine Catholic
Church. The King of Spain and the Pope himself gave instructions for the
secularization of the country's parishes, but this was resisted by the orders of friars
who contended that the Filipino seculars were never ready to take over. During the
previous administration of the liberal Governor- General Carlos Ma. de la Torre,
these Filipino liberals and seculars were allowed to voice their grievances. Under
Governor-General Izquierdo's regime, this right was suppressed. The Filipinos, on
the other hand, struggled to defend their gains under the old regime. They were
already identified by the conservative Spaniards for elimination. The Cavite Mutiny
provided the pretext for the conservatives to eliminate the Filipino liberals. The
Spanish forces arrested several known liberals, among them were Jose Ma. Basa,
Antonio Ma. Regidor, Balbino Mauricio, Joaquin Pardo de Tavera, and Filipino secular
priests like Pedro Dandan and Toribio H. del Pilar, the brother of propagandist
Marcelo H. del Pilar.
 Fathers Gomez, Burgos, and Zamora were identified by a false witness
named Francisco Zaldua, who pointed out that the three priests were indeed out to
lead a government that would overthrow the Spaniards and install Father Burgos as
the future leader of the Philippines. Despite the protests and insufficient evidence,
the three priests were garroted at Bagumbayan on February 17, 1872. The others
who were identified as sympathizers of the secularization issue also underwent trial
and were found guilty. They were sentenced with deportation to Guam in the
Marianas and were never allowed to return as long as Spain ruled the Philippines.

Reinforcing Spanish domination in the country were the Spanish clergymen.

At the beginning of Spanish rule, they helped establish the country's parishes and
even several towns in the course of their evangelization. Through centuries of
Spanish rule, they performed an important role not only as spreaders of the
Christian faith but also as representatives of the colonial government. Very often,
the Spanish religious officials acted as the eyes and ears of the colonial
government, and in many cases, they served or held positions in the government.
They also controlled education in the country as the country's educational
institutions were controlled by the religious orders. On the local level, the Church
operated parish schools which were the primary schools until the enactment of
religious reforms in 1868. Religious officials were also guardians of public morals as
they sat on bodies such as those concerning censorship. In the local level, the
parish priest often endorsed candidates for political positions. This gave him a
political role in addition to a religious role. In the national level, religious officials
acted as advisers to the governor-general. Many of these officials belong to the
regular orders such as the friar orders. More often than not, religious officials serve
longer than the governor-general whose average term lasted around three years.
Given this condition, the religious officials were deeply entrenched and it was
difficult for a new governor general to enforce sweeping reforms especially those
that threaten the supremacy of the religious officials. With the cries for reform,
especially those concerning secularization, the religious orders strongly opposed the
efforts.

Group Activity:

1. Emphasize the definition of the words "Filipino", "regular priests", and

"secularization issue."

2. Discuss the arguments of the pro-secularization group and the anti-secularization

group.
3. If the word "propaganda" means to give out information, analyze why the
secularization issue became a crucial point in the Propaganda Period of Philippine
history.

The Rizal Law

The Story of the Rizal Law

In 1956, Senator Claro M. Recto filed a measure, which became the original
Rizal Bill, recognizing the need to instill heroism among the youth at the time when
the country was experiencing social turmoil. It was a time when the country was
being ravaged by the Hukbalahap Insurgency. The Imperialist presence in the form
of American influence was strong in the country's economy and political policies.
The communist insurgency was fought through American guidance and material aid.
The Philippines became part of the global network to contain the spread of
communism with the conclusion of a mutual defense agreement with the United
States in 1951 and its joining the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO). On
the economic front, the United States still reigned supreme with the enforcement of
the Bell Trade Act back in 1947 and the parity rights granted in the Philippine
Constitution which allowed the Americans to exploit the country's natural resources.
In 1956, the Laurel-Langley Agreement ensured the free entry of American
products, thus ensuring the preference of Filipinos for American goods. Internally,
the country was buffeted by corrupt party politics and news of political corruption
was rampant. The 1950s was indeed confusing times.

This was the period when Recto submitted his bill, calling for a return to
patriotic values enunciated by Filipino heroes like Jose Rizal. Under the bill, it shall
be obligatory for college and university students to study the life and works of Jose
Rizal. The issuance of the bill was not welcomed by various quarters. The Catholic
Church assailed the Rizal Bill as anti-Church because It forces the students to read
Rizal's works like the Noli Me Tangere and El Filibusterismo which contain passages
that were anti-Church. They presented fears that the religious beliefs of the young
students would be harmed by reading Rizal's works while they were at their
formative years. Forcing the students to read Rizal's works which have religious
overtones would be a violation of the constitutional freedom of religion and of
conscience. The Church made use of lobbyists as well as priests in opposing the
Rizal Bill. Among them were Catholic organizations such as the Accion Catolico
which was formerly headed by Senator Francisco "Soc" Rodrigo. Priests attended
and actively participated in the hearings of the Senate.
 Many of these priests were foreigners who sought audience with senators to
convince them to oppose the bill. This was a clear interference of the Church on the
making of policies by the State.

Seminars were held across the countryside to oppose the bill. In one seminar,
one of the oppositors, Fr. Jesus Cavanna, commented that Rizal's novels belonged
to the past and it would be harmful to read them because they presented a false
picture of the conditions of the country at that time. He also said that out of the 333
pages of the Noli Me Tangere, there were only 25 patriotic statements compared to
120 anti-Catholic statements. One commentator, Jesus Paredes, said that the novels
contain objectionable matters and Catholics had the right to refuse to read them, so
as not to endanger their faith. Another commentator, Narciso Pimentel, offered the
speculation that Recto introduced his Rizal Bill to get back at the Catholic voters,
who. together with President Magsaysay, were responsible for his poor showing in
the 1955 elections Lawmakers such as Representative Miguel Cuenco and Senator
Francisco "Soc" Rodrigo voiced the opposition of the Church in Congress. Senator
Rodrigo commented that he would not let his teenage son read the Noli Me Tangere
and El Filibusterismo lest he endangers his Catholic faith. He proposed that the
footnoted or annotated versions of the novels be used instead of the unexpurgated
versions required in the Recto Bill.

The Church continued its opposition of the bill by calling all Catholic voters to
reject lawmakers who supported Recto's Rizal Bill. Pastoral letters were read in
masses voicing opposition. Bishops threatened to close down Catholic schools if the
bill was approved. Recto. however, stood his ground and dared the Catholic Church
to shut down their schools, knowing that this was only an idle threat since the
Catholic learning institutions were its major source of Income. He also rejected
Senator Rodrigo's suggestion that the annotated or edited versions of the Noli Me
Tangere and El Filibusterismo should be used.

After a month-long standoff, a compromise bill was filed. It was authored by

Senator Jose P. Laurel and it was based on the proposals of Senators Roseller Lim
and Emmanuel Pelaez. On June 12, 1956, Republic Act No. 1425, better known as
the Rizal Law, came into effect. The law accommodated the objections of the
Catholic Church. This could be seen in the second paragraph of Section 1, allowing
students to seek exemption from reading Rizal's works for religious reasons. To the
authors of the original bill, it was a complete victory but its oppositors felt satisfied
that at least they achieved something. The law, however, still requires the reading
of the unexpurgated versions of Rizal's novels. It also provided the funding of
publication of Rizal's works and their distribution to the countryside. It was,
however, a one-time appropriation and provision, for future publication was not
given. The Rizal Law is more than 50 years old now, and it may need revisions to
make it more relevant.
 Republic Act No. 1425

House Bill No. 5561

Senate Bill No. 438

An act to include in the curricula of all public and private schools, colleges,
and universities courses on the life, works, and writings of Jose Rizal, particularly his
novels Noli Me Tangere and El Filibusterismo, authorizing the printing and
distribution thereof, and for other purposes.

Whereas, today, more than any other period of our history, there is a need for
a re-dedication to the ideals of freedom and nationalism for which our heroes lived
and died;

Whereas, it is meet that in honoring them, particularly the national hero and
patriot, Jose Rizal, we remember with special fondness and devotion their lives and
works that have shaped the national character;

Whereas, the life, works, and writings of Jose Rizal, particularly his novels Noli
Me Tangere and El Filibusterismo, are a constant and inspiring source of patriotism
with which the minds of the youth, especially during their formative and decisive
years in school, should be suffused;

Whereas, all educational institutions are under the supervision of, and subject
to regulation by the State, and all schools are enjoined to develop moral character,
personal discipline, civic conscience and to teach the duties of citizenship; Now,
therefore,

Section 1. Courses on the life, works, and writings of Jose Rizal, particularly
his novels Noli Me Tangere and El Filibusterismo, shall be included in the curricula of
all schools, colleges, and universities, public or private: Provided, that in the
collegiate courses, the original or unexpurgated editions of the Noli Me Tangere and
El Filibusterismo or their English translation shall be used as basic texts.

The Board of National Education is hereby authorized and directed to adopt

forthwith measures to implement and carry out the provisions of this Section,
including the writing and printing of appropriate primers, readers, and textbooks.
The Board shall, within sixty (60) days from the effectivity of this Act, promulgate
rules and regulations, including those of a disciplinarynature, to carry out and
enforce the regulations of this Act.

The Board shall promulgate rules and regulations providing for the exemption
of students for reasons of religious belief stated in a sworn written statement, from
the requirement of the provision contained in the second part of the first paragraph
of this section; but not from taking the course provided for in the first part of said
paragraph. Said rules and regulations shall take effect thirty (30) days after their
publication in the Official Gazette.

Section 2. It shall be obligatory on all schools, colleges, and universities to

keep in their libraries an adequate number of copies of the original and
unexpurgated editions of the Noli Me Tangere and El Filibusterismo, as well as
Rizal's other works and biography. The said unexpurgated editions of the Noli Me
Tangere and El Filibusterismo or their translations in English as well as other
writings of Rizal shall be included in the list of approved books for required reading
in all public or private schools, colleges, and universities.

The Board of National Education shall determine the adequacy of the number
of books, depending upon the enrollment of the school, college, or university.

Section 3. The Board of National Education shall cause the translation of the
Noli Me Tangere and El Filibusterismo, as well as other writings of Jose Rizal into
English, Tagalog, and the principal Philippine dialects; cause them to be printed in
cheap, popular editions; and cause them to be distributed, free of charge, to
persons desiring to read them, through the Purok organizations and the Barrio
Councils throughout the country.

Section 4. Nothing in this Act shall be construed as amendment or repealing

section nine hundred twenty-seven of the Administrative Code, prohibiting the
discussion of religious doctrines by public school teachers and other person
engaged in any public school.

Section 5. The sum of three hundred thousand pesos is hereby authorized to

be appropriated out of any fund not otherwise appropriated in the National Treasury
to carry out the purposes of this Act.

Section 6. This Act shall take effect upon its approval.

Approved: June 12, 1956

Conditions of Europe, America, and Spain in the 19th Century

1. Europe and the Age of Enlightenment:

o The French Revolution (1789) brought ideas of freedom, liberty, equality, and
sovereignty of the people.
o Philosophers like Rousseau, Montesquieu, Voltaire, and John Locke influenced
global political thought.
 2. Political Movements and Reforms:
o Revolutions across Europe in 1848 sought more responsible governments.
o Unification of Italy and Germany; Emancipation of Russian serfs.
o American Civil War (1861-1865) and the abolition of slavery.
o Independence movements in Latin America; Spanish colonies like Mexico, Chile,
Argentina gained independence.
3. Spain and its Colonies:
o The Constitution of Cadiz granted representation to colonies, including the
Philippines.
o King Ferdinand VII abolished the Cortes, causing unrest and revolts in Spain's
colonies.
o The Philippines remained a Spanish colony, facing governance by a minority
Spanish population and the influence of native officials.

The Philippines in the 19th Century

1. Political Aspect:
o The opening of Manila to world trade in 1834 ended Spain's mercantilist policies.
o Rise of a middle class composed of mestizos and affluent families from trade.
2. Economic Aspect:
o Increased international trade in products like sugar, coffee, and tobacco.
o Emergence of a middle class due to economic prosperity from trade.
3. Sociocultural Aspect:
o Education of Filipinos, leading to a growing awareness of equality and
secularization issues.
o Revolts and movements like those led by the Kailanes and the Cofradia de San
Jose demonstrated a desire for change and resistance against colonial rule.

Secularization and Religious Issues

1. Secularization Movement:
o Conflict between Filipino secular priests and Spanish regular clergy.
o The desire to transfer parishes to Filipino secular priests as mandated by the King
and Pope.
2. Key Figures:
o Fathers Gomez, Burgos, and Zamora (Gomburza) were prominent in advocating
for secularization and were executed after the 1872 Cavite Mutiny.
3. Impact on the Church:
o Spanish clergy held significant influence in politics and education.
o The secularization issue became a rallying point for Filipino nationalism and
reform movements.

The Rizal Law (Republic Act No. 1425)

1. Background and Context:

 o Filed by Senator Claro M. Recto in 1956 during a time of social turmoil and
strong American influence.
o Aimed to promote patriotism and nationalism through the study of Jose Rizal's
life and works.
2. Opposition and Compromise:
o The Catholic Church opposed the bill, citing potential harm to students' religious
beliefs.
o A compromise was reached, allowing exemptions for religious reasons but still
mandating the study of Rizal's works.
3. Provisions of the Law:
o Required the inclusion of Rizal's life and works in the curricula of all schools.
o Mandated the availability of unexpurgated versions of "Noli Me Tangere" and "El
Filibusterismo" in school libraries.
o Provided for the translation and distribution of Rizal's works in various languages.