1.

0 INTRODUCTION
Bridge is an important structure in civil engineering, serving as critical components in the
transportation infrastructure. They connect different areas and allow people, goods and vehicles
to pass through obstacles smoothly, such as rivers, valleys or other physical obstacles. It is built
to be strong enough to safely support its own weight as well as the weight of anything that
should pass over it (Surveyors, 2024). The construction of a bridges is a complex process, which
requires meticulous planning, advanced technology and a deep understanding of engineering
principles (Masters, 2017).

The design and construction of bridges involve several key components, which are usually
divided into substructure and superstructure. The substructure refers to the part of the bridge
below the bearing level, including the foundations, piers and abutments. It supports the weight of
the bridge and the loads passing through it, and transmits these forces to the ground (Masters,
2017b). The superstructure includes the elements above the load-bearing level, such as bridge
deck, beams, girders and trusses, which directly bear traffic loads. These components work
together to ensure the bridge's stability, strength, and durability, accommodating the
various forces and loads it encounters (Mitchell, 2021).

However, there are many types of bridge depends on several factors considered such as length of
the span, load requirements, hydrological and navigational requirements, aesthetic and cultural
and so on (Fluidconstructions & Fluidconstructions, 2024). For instance, the Sungai Besi
Expressway Bridge in Kuala Lumpur, is an example of a beam bridge in the country. Beam
bridge is capable of supporting only significant loads, making them suitable for heavy traffic,
including cars, trucks, and other vehicles. They are characterized by their simple design, which
consists of horizontal beams supported at each end by piers. The beam bridge is effective short to
medium spans, allowing for efficient construction, material use and cost-effectiveness
(MIDASoft, n.d.). Moreover, another example is the Langkawi Sky Bridge, it is a remarkable
pedestrian bridge located in the Langkawi, Malaysia. The tower of a cable-stayed bridge is
responsible for absorbing and dealing with compressional forces. Its long spanning 125 meters,
and the curved bridge offers aesthetically striking and breathtaking views to the surrounding
scenery (Lamb et al., 2021). These different factors and requirement will lead to different
design and affect the selection of bridge types based on specific project requirements.
Nowadays, modern bridge construction uses sophisticated equipment and innovative
construction methods to make modern bridge bigger, safer, and longer-lived. Sophisticated
equipment and innovative construction will help to improve the accuracy and precision by
ensuring that components fit together perfectly. This reduces errors and rework, leading to higher
quality and more reliable structures. It can also ensure safety by perform dangerous tasks that
would be risky for workers. Although sophisticated equipment may require a significant upfront
investment, but it can lead to long-term cost savings by reducing labor costs, minimizing
material waste, and shortening construction time (Hillier, 2024).

The study of construction technology in civil engineering is crucial for understanding and
applying tools, machinery, and technology during the substructure and superstructure stages of
construction. Knowledge in construction technology is essential for successful structural design,
ensuring that projects meet all recommended specifications and standards of bridge.

2.0 PROBLEM STATEMENT

Bridges are more complex than buildings due to the need to support dynamic loads over long
spans, endure harsh environmental conditions, and meet strict safety standards (Construction
Executive, n.d.). During the pre-construction stage of building a bridge, the cost estimation
process plays a significant role in determining the overall financial implications of the project. In
the first phase, the identification of design flaws can lead to costly redesigns. If a design issue is
discovered after construction has begun, it may necessitate additional engineering consultations
and revisions to the plans, which can escalate costs significantly. Furthermore, the need for
extensive testing and validation of the new designs can further strain the project budget, leading
to delays and increased labor costs.

Moreover, many bridge construction accidents leading to injuries and deaths could occur during
the construction stage. Mistakes made by workers, whether due to lack of training or oversight,
can lead to accidents. A long time ago, the construction of Brooklyn Bridge took 14 years with
frequent accidents, including 27 workers who died in various accidents during construction the
bridge. The first fatal accident occurred on October 23, 1871, when a pair of cranes used to drag
granite blocks to the top of Brooklyn Bridge Tower suddenly collapsed. Next, a wooden boom
cut off the upper part of the John French's head, and many other workers were killed in the
construction accidents (Klein & Klein, 2023). These historical examples emphasize the
importance of safety measures in large-scale projects.

Figure 1: The Brooklyn Bridge's Builders Fought Fire, Flood, and Death (Wagner, 2017).

Lastly, the post-construction stage of bridge building is critical, as it involves ensuring the
structure's integrity and functionality after completion, which implementing maintenance is
crucial for the longevity and safety of bridge structures. One of the most famous bridge accidents
is the collapse of I-35W bridge. After only 39 years in service, it experienced a catastrophic
failure during the evening rush hour on August 1, 2007, killing 13 people and injuring 145
peoples (Think Reliability, n.d.). This incident highlights the importance of the post-construction
phase, as to find potential problems after the construction and important of maintenances to
prevent it collapse.
 Figure 2: I-35W Bridge Collapse (I-35W Bridge Collapse, 2008).

3.0 BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION METHOD

Bridge construction is a complex process that involves various methods tailored to specific
project requirements, site conditions, and design considerations. Understanding these methods is
crucial for ensuring the structural integrity and longevity of the bridge.

3.1 Traditional Bridge Construction Methods

3.1.1.1 Precast Bridge Construction

Precast construction involves manufacturing bridge components off-site in a controlled

environment and then transporting them to the construction site for assembly. This method
allows for high-quality control and reduces on-site construction time, minimizing disruptions to
traffic and the surrounding environment. Precast elements can include beams, slabs, and even
entire bridge spans, which are assembled using cranes and other heavy machinery (Simex, 2022).

3.1.1.2 Process

1. Factory Production

Molds are prepared to shape the concrete components, such as beams, girders, or slabs. Then, the
concrete is poured into the molds and cured in a controlled environment. Curing conditions are
managed to achieve optimal strength and durability (Victor, 2023). During production, rigorous
quality control measures ensure that components meet design specifications and standards.

Figure 3: Standard precast beam (Victor, 2023).

 2. Transport and Assembly

Once cured, the precast components are carefully handled to avoid damage. Specialized
equipment, such as cranes and transport vehicles, is used for moving the components. Then,
precast components are assembled and joined together, often using additional concrete,
reinforcing steel, or other materials to complete the bridge structure. This method can speed up
construction time and reduce on-site labor (Simex, 2022).

Figure 4: Mobile crane assembling bridge

(Corporation, n.d.).

3. Finishing Work

Final inspections ensure that the assembled bridge meets all design and safety requirements.
Then, finish the additional work, such as road surfacing, guardrails, and other features to
complete the bridge (Davis & Floyd, 2024).

Figure 5: Bridge Inspection & Evaluation

(Davis & Floyd, 2024).
3.1.2.1 Cast In-situ Bridge Construction

Cast-in-situ bridge construction involves constructing the bridge directly at the site using
concrete that is poured and cured in place. This method contrasts with precast bridge
construction, where components are manufactured off-site and assembled on-site (Simex, 2022).

3.1.2.2 Process

1. Site Preparation

The construction site is cleared of vegetation and debris to provide a clean and stable surface for
mixing and placing concrete. Formwork or molds are constructed to shape the concrete. This
includes setting up forms for the bridge deck, abutments, piers, and other structural elements
(The Construction, 2018).

Figure 6: Cast-in-situ Method of Bridge

(The Construction, 2018).

2. Reinforcement Installation
Steel bars or mesh are placed within the formwork to provide tensile strength to the concrete.
Reinforcement is positioned according to the design specifications to handle anticipated loads

Figure 7: CAST IN SITU BRIDGE

(A.T. Consultants, n.d.).
and stresses (A.T. Consultants, n.d.).

3. Concrete Pouring and Curing

The concrete is poured into the formwork and compacted to remove air bubbles and ensure
uniformity. After pouring, the concrete is cured to maintain adequate moisture and temperature
conditions, which is essential for achieving desired strength and durability. Curing can involve
covering the concrete with wet burlap, applying curing compounds, or using other methods to
prevent drying out (The Construction, 2018).

Figure 8: Cast-in-situ Concrete Filling

(The Construction, 2018).

4. Finishing Works
Once the concrete has reached sufficient strength, the formwork is removed. The bridge is
inspected to ensure that it meets design specifications and safety standards. Additional elements,
such as road surfacing, railings, and drainage systems, are installed after the primary structural
elements are complete.

3.2 Advanced Bridge Construction Methods

3.2.1.1 Incremental Launching Bridge Construction

Incremental Launching is a construction method used primarily for the construction of long-span
bridges, especially when the use of precast concrete segments is involved. Incremental launching
of bridges can save time, money, space and disruption while easing access and delivering a high-
quality finish (The Construction, 2012).

3.2.1.2 Process
1. Preparation and Design

Evaluate the construction site to determine the feasibility of incremental launching. This includes
ensuring the structural integrity of the segments during the launching process and accounting for
the stresses involved.

Figure 9: Cast-in-situ Concrete Filling

(Research Gate, n.d.).

2. Fabrication of Segments

Manufacture precast concrete segments off-site or in a staging area near the bridge site. These
segments are designed to fit together to form the complete bridge deck and superstructure.
 Figure 10: Cast-in-situ Concrete Filling
(Innovative Bridge Technologies, n.d.).

3. Segment Assembly

Construct formwork and supports for the bridge segments at the staging area. Then, assemble
the segments into a continuous section that will be launched. This may involve connecting the
segments with temporary supports or additional reinforcement (Civil Digital, 2024).

Figure 11: Incremental launching method of

bridge construction (Civil Digital, 2024).

4. Launching Process

Install hydraulic jacks or other launching equipment that will be used to push the assembled
segments into their final position. Next, gradually push the assembled segments out over the
supports. As the bridge is launched, temporary supports or staging may be used to stabilize the
structure and ensure it remains aligned.
 Figure 12: Incremental launching using
match cast method (Structurae, n.d.).

5. Completion and Finishing

Make any necessary adjustments to ensure the bridge is correctly aligned and secured. This may
involve additional welding, grouting, or other finishing work. Conduct thorough inspections then
complete any remaining work, such as road surfacing or installation of railings, and prepare the
bridge for use.

3.2.2.1 Advanced Shoring Bridge Construction

This method involves integrating specialized temporary support systems to ensure stability and
safety during the construction process. Advanced shoring is particularly useful in complex bridge
projects where traditional methods may not provide the necessary support or flexibility.

3.2.2.2 Process
1. Planning and Shoring Design

Assess site conditions, including soil and load-bearing capacity, and integrate advanced shoring
systems into the bridge design to ensure structural stability during construction.
 Figure 13: TYPICAL ADVANCE SHORING
BRIDGE (Acrow | Shoring, n.d.).

2. Pier and Abutment Construction

Construct the bridge piers and abutments by setting up formwork and reinforcing it with
advanced shoring systems, then pour concrete, allowing it to cure while supported by shoring.

Figure 14: TYPICAL ADVANCE SHORING

BRIDGE (Acrow | Shoring, n.d.).

3. Superstructure and Deck Assembly

Install girders, beams, and the bridge deck, using advanced shoring to temporarily support these
elements until the concrete has cured and the structure can support itself.

Figure 15: TYPICAL ADVANCE SHORING

BRIDGE (Acrow | Shoring, n.d.).
 4. Finalization and Inspection

Carefully remove the shoring systems, complete finishing touches like surfacing and guardrails,
and conduct load testing and safety inspections before opening the bridge to traffic.

Figure 16: Bridge Inspection

(Bridge Inspection, 2020).

3.3 Comparison between Traditional Methods and Advanced Methods

Aspect Traditional Methods Advanced Methods

Construction Speed Generally slower Faster due to prefabrication
Flexibility and Limited flexibility Highly adaptable to complex
Complexity designs
Material Usage Often uses conventional Incorporates advanced materials
materials
Cost Initial costs can be lower Higher upfront costs, but saving
costs in time
Environmental Impact More site disturbance Reduced environmental footprint
Maintenance Regular inspections needed Smart technologies for real-time
monitoring
4.0 Equipment

4.1 Construction hoist

Figure 17: Construction Hoist (Wang, n.d.).

A construction hoist is vital in bridge construction as it facilitates efficient vertical transportation

of workers, tools, and materials. It improves efficiency by swiftly transporting substantial items
to higher work locations, decreases labor expenses, and guarantees safety through the inclusion
of emergency brakes and sturdy platforms. The hoist's versatility enables convenient access to
various elevations at specific inclinations, and it seamlessly combines with other machinery such
as cranes and scaffolding. In general, the hoist ensures efficiency, safety, and cost-effectiveness
in the construction process.

4.2 Floating Cranes

Figure 18: Floating Cranes (PileBuck, 2020).

Floating cranes are robust cranes that are commonly employed for constructing bridges across
bodies of water. They are capable of doing tasks such as lifting big loads, placing them with great
accuracy, and moving about. They have the capability to transport and place huge bridge
components in inaccessible locations, while maintaining stability even in difficult sea
circumstances. These vessels help to decrease the requirement for large-scale onshore
infrastructure, hence minimizing the environmental impact and disturbance. Floating cranes
facilitate efficient, safe, and precise bridge construction by providing support for various
construction activities and seamless integration with other equipment.

4.3 Tower cranes

Figure 19: Tower Cranes (Pooja, 2023).

Tower cranes are employed in conjunction with floating cranes during bridge construction.
Nevertheless, tower cranes are commonly anchored to the ground or directly to the bridge
structure. Tower cranes play a crucial role in hoisting and positioning bulky objects at
considerable elevations. They facilitate the construction of tall structures such as pylons and
towers, improve construction productivity by minimising manual labour, and enable access to
elevated regions. Tower cranes can collaborate with floating cranes to ensure a synchronized and
effective construction procedure.
4.4 Self-climbing Formwork systems

Figure 20: Self Climbing Formwork (Tee, 2024).

Self-climbing formwork systems are advantageous in bridge building due to their ability to
provide effective vertical assembly of tall parts such as pylons or bridge piers. Automated
climbing systems expedite the process of ascending while minimising the use for external
scaffolding, therefore improving safety by providing sturdy work platforms. These methods
guarantee accurate and consistent concrete finishes, reduce labour expenses, and can be adjusted
to accommodate different bridge designs, making them an invaluable asset for intricate and tall
bridge projects.
4.5 Piling Rigs

Piling rigs are specialised devices utilised for the purpose of forcefully inserting or boring piles
into the earth, with the intention of establishing sturdy foundations for constructions such as
bridges. Their installation process is highly efficient, and they can easily adjust to different soil
conditions. Additionally, they have a high capacity for handling enormous heaps. The rigs
provide accurate positioning and alignment, hence improving safety and bolstering the stability
of bridge structures.

Figure 21: Piling Rigs (Sources: Casagrande, n.d.).

4.6 Launching Gantries

Figure 22: Launching Gantries (Aicrance, 2024).

A launching gantry, also called a bridge-building machine, is a special kind of mobile gantry
crane that is used to build bridges, especially segmental bridges with precast box girder bridge
segments. Gantries are very important when building a bridge because they make it easy to move
and lift big parts like beams and deck pieces. They move these parts horizontally over spans,
often going over rough terrain or buildings that are already there. The gantries provide a safe and
dependable platform for moving heavy loads, which improves the safety of construction work.
By automating the placement process, they greatly speed up the building process and reduce the
need for manual labor. This makes the bridge's assembly more streamlined and effective.

4.7 Strand Jacks

Figure 23: Strand Jacks (Enerpac, 2024)

In order to precisely lift heavy loads vertically or at an angle, strand jacks are highly advanced
lifting devices. These machines work by grabbing steel strands and pulling them through a
hydraulic system. This lets heavy parts be raised gradually and safely. Because these devices
give you precise control over the lifting process, they can be used for tasks that need the utmost
safety and accuracy. It is very helpful to use strand jacks to move big structural parts like beams,
girders, or other large pieces into place, especially in tight or difficult spaces where other lifting
equipment might not work. Strand jacks make building bridges faster and safer by giving
workers more precise control and the ability to lift heavy loads.
4.8 Concrete pumps

Figure 24: Concrete Pump (Daswell, n.d.)

Concrete pumps play a crucial role in bridge construction by efficiently and accurately
transferring liquid concrete to elevated or inaccessible locations. They guarantee a constant and
uninterrupted supply of concrete, minimising the requirement for manual labour and improving
production. Concrete pumps are available in many varieties, including boom pumps and line
pumps, each designed for specific project needs. These pumps enhance the structural integrity of
the bridge and reduce wastage by allowing accurate placement of concrete, resulting in improved
efficiency and cost-effectiveness.

4.9 Cable installation equipment

To build a bridge, you need a lot of different kinds of tools and equipment, like cable carriers,
tensioning machines, splicing tools, lifting equipment, support structures, monitoring systems,
and access equipment. This tool is necessary for building suspension and cable-stayed bridges
because it handles the heavy cables, makes sure they are perfectly aligned and tensioned, helps
with accurate load distribution, and raises safety standards. This system makes it easy to install
the bridge and keep an eye on it all the time, making sure that it stays strong and works well.
4.9.1 Cable carriers

Figure 25: Cable Carriers (MachineDesign, 2018)

Cable carriers are commonly used to install the primary cables, providing guidance and support
for the cables as they are extended from one end of the bridge to the other.

4.9.2 Tensioning Machines

Figure 26: Tensioning Machines (ITH, 2015)

Ensure accurate cable tension to maintain structural integrity.

4.9.3 Splicing Tools

These are utilized to firmly connect cable segments in the case that the cables consist of many
portions. Splicing tools guarantee a robust and uninterrupted connection across the whole length
of the cable.

4.9.4 Hoisting Equipment

This tool is utilized to elevate the cables to the desired position on the bridge, especially when
connecting them to the deck or pylons.

4.9.5 Support Structures

Support structures, such as scaffolding or temporary towers, are employed to provide assistance
in holding up the cables and other components during the process of installation. They guarantee
the stability and security of the work location.

4.9.6 Monitoring Systems

Figure 27: Strain Gauge (Nachazel, 2020)

These systems consist of sensors and software that are used to monitor the tension, alignment,
and overall condition of the cables before and after installation. Real-time monitoring facilitates
timely modifications as necessary.
4.9.7 Protective Gear and Safety Equipment

Figure 28: Protective Equipment (Nebraska, n.d.)

To protect the safety of the personnel involved in the high-risk installation procedure, it is
imperative that they wear harnesses, helmets, and other necessary safety gear.
4.10 New Technology

4.10.1 Building Information Modelling (BIM)

BIM stands for Building Information Modeling or Building Information Management. The
process is characterized by extensive collaboration among architects, engineers, real estate
developers, contractors, manufacturers, and other construction professionals. Its purpose is to
facilitate the planning, design, and construction of a structure or building using a single 3D
model. Building Information Management (BIM) encompasses the utilization of data available to
building or structure owners to extend its scope to include the operation and management of
buildings. This data enables governments, municipalities, and property managers to make well-
informed decisions using information obtained from the model, even after the completion of the
building. (Lorek, 2022).

Figure 29: Implementation of BIM in bridge construction (Zigurat, 2020)

BIM harnesses vast potential to revolutionize conventional construction processes. The United
Kingdom (UK), the United States of America (USA), Singapore, and Finland are among the
countries that have recognized this opportunity and are at the forefront of BIM adoption in
infrastructure projects. BIM is utilized in the Design and Planning phase to augment
visualization and collaboration, enhance clash detection and conflict resolution, facilitate
simulated analysis and performance evaluation, and conduct geotechnical studies and analysis.
Furthermore, during the Construction and Execution stage, these tools are utilized to provide
more precise Bill of Quantities (BQ) and cost estimation, improve construction planning and
sequencing, and act as a centralized platform for collaboration among project stakeholders
throughout the construction process. BIM is utilized in the Management and Maintenance phase
as a comprehensive storage of asset information throughout the entire lifespan of bridge
infrastructure. Currently, BIM enables the implementation of predictive maintenance strategies
for bridge infrastructure. This is achieved by connecting the BIM model with asset management
systems, allowing maintenance teams to monitor the conditions of different building components
and forecast maintenance needs (Sharma, 2023).

4.10.2 Digital Twins

Digital twins in construction are interactive virtual representations of physical buildings or

infrastructure projects. These virtual replicas are generated through sophisticated simulation
models and incorporate real-time data from diverse sources, including sensors, BIM models, and
other IoT devices. Digital twins offer valuable insights into the construction process, enhance
decision-making, and optimize performance throughout the entire lifecycle of the project
(Matterport, 2024).

Figure 30: Implementation of Digital Twins on Bridge Construction (SAPTV, 2023)

Digital twins provide substantial advantages for bridge and road development projects,
particularly those that are intricate and involve multiple components such as bridges, roads,
ramps, and transit systems. Digital twins offer designers and engineers a comprehensive
perspective by presenting a three-dimensional representation. This allows them to comprehend
the interactions between various components, anticipate and mitigate potential problems before
they occur, and resolve any issues that may arise after the bridge is operational. These models not
only improve the quality of the project, but also expedite development and decrease costs. In
addition, 3D twin models enhance communication and collaboration among stakeholders by
offering a shared and realistic perspective of the project (Masters, n.d.).
4.10.3 Self-Healing Concrete

Self-healing concrete is primarily characterized by its capacity to spontaneously repair cracks

without external intervention. It is alternatively referred to as self-repairing concrete. Cracks in
concrete are a frequent occurrence as a result of its comparatively limited ability to withstand
tension. The cracks in concrete compromise its durability as they create a convenient pathway for
the movement of liquids and gasses that may contain hazardous substances. Should microcracks
propagate and reach the reinforcement, both the concrete itself and the reinforcement steel bars
will be subject to corrosion. Hence, it is crucial to regulate the width of the cracks and promptly
repair them. The ability of concrete to repair its own cracks would enhance the longevity of
concrete structures and improve the material's durability and sustainability (Dong, Zhang, Wang
& Han, 2023).

Figure 31: Self-Healing Concrete (Pooja, 2023)

Self-healing concrete is suitable for bridge construction as it can autonomously repair small
cracks and prevent further deterioration, which is particularly beneficial in the harsh
environments that bridges often face. This feature enhances the durability and longevity of the
structure by reducing maintenance needs and extending the service life of the bridge (Gerrard,
2023).
4.11 Temporary Works and Structures

4.11.1 Cofferdams

Figure 32: Cofferdam (Britannica, 1998)

A cofferdam, also known as a coffer, is a structure constructed either inside or across a body of
water in order to facilitate the removal of water from the enclosed area. The process of pumping
removes moisture from the working environment, thereby ensuring a safe working condition.
Enclosed coffers are frequently employed in the construction or repair of permanent structures
such as dams, oil platforms, and bridge piers that are built within or over bodies of water. The
cofferdams are typically constructed using welded steel structures, which include sheet piles,
walers, and cross braces as their components. Typically, these structures are disassembled once
the construction is finished (ESC, 2024).

4.11.2 Deck Barges

 Figure 33: Deck Barges (TKCompanies, n.d.)

Deck barges, as their name suggests, are large boats with flat decks that make it easier to store
and move heavy equipment and other materials. In addition, they can be used as work platforms
to move heavy equipment and do other things. The deck of this barge can hold up to several
hundred tons of weight, which can include bulky items like concrete and steel, as well as heavy
machinery like cranes and excavators. In order to store and move large prefabricated bridge
sections, deck barges are the best option (Eiffel, n.d.).

5.0 CASE STUDY: QUEENFERRY CROSSING

5.1 PROJECT BACKGROUND

The Queensferry Crossing is a significant infrastructure project in Scotland, designed to provide

a vital transportation link across the Firth of Forth, connecting Edinburgh and Fife. The
Queensferry Crossing was officially opened on 30 August 2017. It is the longest 3-tower cable-
stayed bridge in the world, which is 2.7 km long (Queensferry Crossing, n.d.). The bridge was
developed due to the ageing condition of the existing Forth Road Bridge. The Forth Road
Bridge, completed in 1964, provided a vital road link for that area and faced significant structural
challenges. The bridge has served for more than five decades; there is extensive maintenance and
repairs that need to be carried out.
Another reason is increasing traffic demands. The traffic volume had increased dramatically after
the Forth Road Bridge’s opening. Originally, the Forth Road Bridge is designed to handle 30,000
vehicles in each direction per day (Ellis, 2018). According to the statistics, the bridge was
regularly accommodating over 70,000 vehicles per day, which is much more vehicles passing
through than the original design (Brocklehurst, 2015). This led to congestion and delays.
Moreover, economic consideration is also one of the factors that led the Scottish Government to
make the decision to develop the bridge. The Forth Road Bridge is an important connection in
Scotland's transport network, allowing trade and commerce between the north and south of the
nation. Any interruptions or closures due to maintenance had a major economic impact,
emphasising the importance of a more dependable crossing to promote long-term economic
growth.

Thus, Queensferry Crossing is designed to meet the demands of modern traffic. The new
crossing aimed to ensure a reliable and resilient transport route, supporting economic growth and
improving connectivity for commuters and freight traffic. The Scottish Government invested
over RM 7.5 billion for building the bridge to upgrade the cross-Forth transport corridor in the
east of Scotland (Queensferry Crossing, n.d.).

5.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT

5.2.1 PRE-CONSTRUCTION STAGE

The Queensferry Crossing is the longest three-tower cable-stayed bridge in the world, and it
faced some challenges throughout the development process. This process can be divided into
three general stages, which are pre-construction, construction, and post-construction. During the
pre-construction phase, the construction team conducted the surveys for topographical,
environmental, traffic, and ground investigation (Transport Scotland, 2008a). The data provided
in the surveys is needed for the design team to prepare high-precision maps and 3D computer
models for the bridge. The environmental survey is vital to be conducted because the Firth of
Forth is an ecologically sensitive area. It is acting as home to various species of birds and marine
life. However, the project was delayed because of the significant environmental impact
assessments that were required to guarantee that the development did not disrupt the surrounding
ecology (Transport Scotland, 2008b). Furthermore, obtaining the requisite regulatory clearances
was time-consuming since several stakeholders, including environmental groups and local
people, had to be engaged. These delays have pushed back the commencement of construction.

Another challenge during the pre-construction stage is the foundation for the Queensferry
Crossing. The contractors held the ground investigation on the land where the network
connections are planned to be built and in locations on the current road network (Transport
Scotland, 2009). The engineers were responsible for designing and planning the foundation for
the bridge, and there are too many issues to be considered, such as the soil conditions, load
factors, material selection, construction methods, and maintenance practices.

Figure 35: Environmental Survey (Transport Scotland, 2008b).

5.2.2 CONSTRUCTION STAGE

When the Queensferry Crossing was under construction, the noise and vibration produced by
the works were the biggest challenges. The works involved both on land and in the water. To
solve this problem, the contractor demonstrated the alternative methods that have been
considered by the client and local authorities and came up with the best choice. The
environmental manager of the project also mentioned that they set up a network of state-of-the-
art monitoring equipment to measure noise, vibration, and air quality 24 hours a day for the
duration of the project (Transport Scotland, 2012b).
Moreover, the excavation process is tough, especially since it had to be working out at sea and
beneath the water. The underwater excavation process for tower and pier foundations required
machine operators to operate "blind." The operators were relying on equipment to determine
depth to rock rather than visual inspection. Therefore, to ensure the excavation for the foundation
is enough, they sent divers to carry out inspections on the seabed, and the divers sent pictures for
the experts to view. The concreting for the foundation can only be started when the rock surface
is clean, free of loose rocks, sediment, and other material (Transport Scotland, 2012a).

Figure 16: Foundation work (Transport Scotland, 2012a).

5.2.3 POST-CONSTRUCTION STAGE

Figure 37: Queensferry Crossing closed due to ice falling (Dalton, 2021)
There is a major post-construction issue for Queensferry Crossing, which is the ice accretion
problem (Brocklehurst, 2020). The accumulation of ice on the bridge’s towers and cables created
a safety risk since falling ice may damage the vehicles passing by. This has happened when
certain weather patterns have brought in wet snow, which got stuck to the cables, frozen, and
then dropped off. The ice on cables was considered a potential issue during the design stage, but
this was expected to be a rare event to happen. This challenge needs continuous monitoring and
the development of mitigating solutions, such as ice sensor installation on the bridge (Bear
Scotland, 2024).

5.3 CONSTRUCTION METHOD

Queensferry Crossing is constructed using the cable-stayed method, and the construction
involved several advanced engineering techniques. These methods are customised to the specific
constraints that arise from the site's environment and design needs.

The foundation is the key element in maintaining the stability of the towers that support the
anchors for the cables from the deck. Queensferry Crossing is using caisson foundation since the
bridge is built across the sea. The caisson functions by creating a watertight structure that allows
concreting to be carried out. Each of the caissons is lowered to the seabed according to their
position located using the GPS technology to ensure placement within a very tight 250mm
tolerance. After that, the double-skinned cavity wall sections were then filled with water and
concrete as ballast to raise the caissons' weight and help the caissons sink into the glacial and
sedimentary alluvium until they were covering the bedrock. The following steps for foundation
work are continued with excavation, dewatering, and concreting (Transport Scotland, 2012a).

For the tower of Queensferry Crossing, it is built in 4-meter-high segments, each called a "lift".
The tower used a jump form to be constructed, in which the concrete is poured and hydraulically
jacked up to the next level once the concrete in each lift has gained sufficient strength to support
itself and the jump form. The process takes approximately 36 hours (Transport Scotland, 2014).
 Figure 38: Caisson Section view (Transport Scotland, 2012a)

While the bridge deck construction is using precast concrete in segments. These segments were
produced with composite steel tub girders fabricated into segments in the factory, then underwent
post tensioning. The deck segments would be lifted by erection traveller crane during the
installation process, and the reinforced concrete stitch is being poured. The stay cable is
tensioned up to the final tension, at which point the weight of the deck segment is transferred
from the erection traveller crane to the stay cables (Transport Scotland, 2015).
Furthermore, at the centre of each span, there is a length of deck where the stay cables
descending from one tower cross with the cabling from the neighbouring tower. This represents a
unique solution to the need to stabilise the central tower in multi-span, cable-stayed bridges
(Transport Scotland, 2012b).

Moreover, each span of the Queensferry Crossing is supported by a central stay cable plane in
the shape of a fan. Each of the cable fans is made up of twenty-four pairs of stays that are
anchored to steel components in the deck and tower. The cable pairs are separated around 5 m
transversely and 16.2 m longitudinally between central webs in the deck structure. At the
midpoint, the cable stays overlapped. This overlapping gives longitudinal stability to the central
tower, lowering the overturning force on the tower's base and reducing bridge deflections under
asymmetrical live loading of the major spans. This method resulted in a slim tower design (Kærn
& Hansen, 2017). At the final stage of bridge construction, they installed the intelligent transport
system (ITS) and the wind shielding. The ITS technology is used to improve traffic flow, reduce
congestion, and improve road safety. This is the first controlled ITS environment in Scotland,
including changing mandatory speed limitations, a parallel public transport route, bus lane hard
shoulder use, and above-ground vehicle detection. The driver experience is improved by the use
of lane control signals and an intelligent lighting control system that includes elements like low-
height lighting to illuminate road connections (Arup, n.d.).

Other than that, the Queensferry Crossing features specially constructed 3.3-metre-high wind
shielding that deflects gusts of wind up and over vehicles. This enables it to remain open at far
greater wind speeds than the unshielded Forth Road Bridge (Queensferry Crossing Wind
Shielding Success, n.d.). The main purpose of installing wind shielding is to protect cars from
the Firth of Forth's regular strong winds.

Figure 41: Wind shielding on Queensferry Crossing (Kenneth Stearn,

Figure 40: Intelligent Transport System (Crossing,

5.4 Construction Procedure of Queensferry Crossing

5.4.1 Pre-construction Stage

Step 1 – Planning and design

a) Environmental investigation
The environmental investigation to find out issues that need to be considered when the
crossing and road connections are designed. This step started in .February 2018. More
than 20 different surveys is done such as ecological surveys, landscape and visual impact
assessments, water surveys, noise and air quality monitoring and more (Transport
Scotland,2008).

Figure 42: Topographical surveys on the North shore (Transport Scottland, 2011)

b) Feasibility study
To confirm the present traffic volumes on the surrounding road network and offer up-to-
date statistics following the elimination of tolls, survey teams and counters have been
monitoring traffic levels since March 2008 (Transport Scottland, 2008).

c) Geological investigation
The Forth Estuary and its surrounding regions are the subject of ongoing ground and
marine investigations. The site's drilling and boring operations were finished in August
2008, and the samples were analysed in a lab. Decisions about the location and type of
bridge foundations utilised in the crossing as well as the path of the linked road network
will be influenced by the results of these investigations, which offer important details
 about the underlying ground conditions on the approaches to the bridge and the seabed.
(Transport Scottland, 2008).

Figure 43: Marine investigation in Firth of Forth (Transport Scottland, 2008).

d) Design
The proposed bridge is a cable-stayed bridge built with three slender single column
towers and including the approach viaduct. The bridge has an overall length of 2.7km.
The deck of the bridge will be carrying two general lanes of the traffic and hard shoulders
in each direction. The selected design is cost-effective in both construction and
maintenance, and can be built within the timescales required (Queensferry Crossing,
n.d.).

Figure 44: Reality picture of Queensferry Crossing (Queensferry Crossing, n.d.)

5.4.2 Construction Stage

Step 2 – Foundation

Figure 45: Components of the foundation for the tower

The foundation of the Queensferry Crossing is been done using three large steel foundation
caissons. An offsite construction and onsite assembly are used on the foundation construction.
The steel caissons are fabricated in factory before transport and assembly at the site. The steps of
transport and assembly of the steel caissons are as below:

1) Caisson lifting and positioning

The caissons were lifted off a semi-submersible transportation barge using a floating
sheerleg crane designed for the operation. Once positioned, each of the caissons was
lowered to the seabed using the latest GPS technology to ensure placement within a very
tight tolerance (The Three Bridge, 2017).
 Figure 46: Process of positioning the steel caissons (The Three Bridge, 2017)

2) Ballasting
After the position has been fixed, water is then pumped into the double-skinned cavity
wall sections as ballast to increase weight and help the sinking of the steel caissons into
the sedimentary alluvium and glacial till overlaying the bedrock (Transport Scotland,
2014).

3) Concrete Pouring
Then 3300 cubic meters of concrete are poured into the cavities to displace the water and
increase the weight in to sink the caissons further down into the clay and glacial till
levels of the seabed (Transport Scotland , 2014).
 Figure 47: Process of concrete pouring (Transport Scotland , 2014).
4) Excavation
After the steel caissons sink to the seabed level, the construction continue with
excavation inside the caissons. Floating cranes with grabs is use to remove 46000 cubic
meters of material inside the caissons. The excavated material was transported to deep
water areas downstream in the Firth of Forth (The Three Bridge, 2017).

5) Jet Grouting and Temporary Caissons

A grouting seal was formed at the bottom of the caisson walls to create a strong seal
between the caissons and the bedrock to prevent the seawater and sediment from seeping
into the caissons. The temporary caissons were installed on the top of each main caisson
to keep the structure surface above the water level (Transport Scotland , 2014).

6) Concrete Plug and De-watering

Around 18000 cubic meters of concrete were poured into each caisson to form a plug.
The concrete filled the caisson to a depth of 26 meters. After the plug was formed the sea
water was pumped out to create dry conditions within the caisson. Then a 14-meters-high
reinforced concrete tower foundation base was constructed on top of the plug to act as the
platform for the 210-meter-high bridge towers (Transport Scotland , 2014).

Figure 48: Dewatering process of the caissons (Transport Scotland , 2014).

Step 3 – Construction of the Towers and deck construction

1) Preparation of Tower Base

The tower foundation base was built after the installation of the concrete plug and
caisson. In order to provide a stable platform for the tower construction, a 14-meter-tall
reinforced concrete structure had to be built on top of the marine foundation (Transport
Scotland , 2013).
2) Construction of Tower Segments
The towers are constructed in segments each about 4 meters tall. All the segments of was
precast off site then only assembly on site. Each segment was inserted with post
tensioning cables to ensure they were securely connected (Transport Scotland , 2013).
3) Climb form System
To construct the towers, a self-climbing formwork technology was applied. External
scaffolding was unnecessary because of this method, which allowed the formwork to
"climb" up the tower as each new segment was cast in place. By enabling a continuous
pouring of concrete, the self-climbing technology reduced construction time and ensured
an uninterrupted and efficient building of the tower (ARC, 2022).

Figure 49: The process of construction of the tower (ARC, 2022)

4) Installation of Internal Components

 The internal structure of the tower was also been installed after the casting of the tower.
At the same time the anchorage for the stay cable that needs to support the bridge deck is
also housed on the tower. (Transport Scotland , 2013).
5) Stay Cable installation
As the towers reached their final height, preparations were made for the installation of the
stay cables. The cables, made of high-strength steel strands, were fabricated and delivered
to the site in sections. Then the cable will be attached to the tower at specific anchor
points (ARC, 2022).

Figure 50: stay cable of the bridge (ARC, 2022).

6) Integration with Bridge Deck

After the towers are completed until the final segment, the bridge deck will be connected
using the stay cable. The bridge deck was largely created in 122 sections, in Rosyth.
From their marine yard home, these 750-tonne segments were barged out into the Forth
to be lifted by special movable hydraulic lifting equipment called erection travellers. In
order to balance the structure, sequential north and south lifts were used to produce each
deck fan. The Centre Tower fan was the longest free-standing balanced cantilever ever
built before it was joined to the remainder of the building (ARC, 2022).
 Figure 51: Deck joining Process (ARC, 2022)

Step 4 – Finishing and Testing

1) Roadway and Finishing

The high-performance asphalt surface was laid for the roadway after the deck is
completed. All the road infrastructure such as safety barriers and lighting is also been
installed (Woods, C, 2024).
2) Testing and commissioning
Load testing is done on the bridge to ensure it can safely handle traffic. This included
both static and dynamic tests using heavy vehicle. A final detailed inspection was carried
out to verify the quality of the construction. All the necessary adjustments were made
before the bridge was opened to the public (Woods, C, 2024).

Step 5 – Opening of the Queensferry Crossing

The Queen Elizabeth II accompanied by The Duke of Edinburgh, has opened the new
Queensferry Crossing over the Firth of Forth on September 4, 2017 (Scottish government,
2017).
Figure 52: A picture showing The Queen has officially opened the new Queensferry Crossing
(BBC News ,2017).

5.5 CONSTRUCTION MATERIAL

The construction of the Queensferry Crossing Bridge involved the use of several key materials:

5.5.1 High-Performance Concrete

Figure 53: Central Tower of Queensferry Crossing, (Redirect Notice, n.d.).

C55/67 grade concrete was used in the construction of the central tower, which is nearly 210
meters tall and the highest point of the bridge. To survive the considerable bending moments and
stresses encountered during the free cantilevering construction phase, this high-strength concrete
was required. This concrete was also used to build the somewhat shorter flanking towers,
however because of to deal with the various structural stresses, the walls of the flanking towers
were slightly thinner than those of the central tower.

Figure 54: V-shaped Piers of Queensferry Crossing, (Redirect Notice, n.d.).

The approach viaducts' V-shaped piers were built with concrete of C50/60 grade. The Firth of
Forth is an aggressive saline environment, therefore durability is crucial. This blend was
selected because of its strong resistance to chloride incursion (Ceravolo & Zonta, 2018).

5.5.2 Steel
 Figure 55: Single box deck section (cable-stayed bridge), (Redirect Notice, n.d.).

Figure 56: Twin-box deck section (viaducts), (Redirect Notice, n.d.).

One of the most important parts of the bridge is the road deck, which is a three-cell composite
cross section composed of a concrete slab and steel boxes. The steel boxes were built on-site
after being sent from China to Scotland. Transverse frames and trapezoidal longitudinal
stiffeners were used to increase the structural strength of the steel deck sections. Through its
design, the bridge was able to withstand a range of loads and strains while it was in use
(Ceravolo & Zonta, 2018).
5.5.3 Stay Cables

Figure 27: Tension and Compression Strength in Cable Stayed Bridge, (Team, n.d.).

Stay cables on the bridge are made up of parallel strands that are individually anchored and
housed inside High Density Polyethylene (HDPE) pipes. These cables are crucial to the cable-
stayed architecture of the bridge. For corrosion prevention, the strands are waxed and
galvanised, guaranteeing a 60-year design service life. The varying length wires provide the
deck the stability it needs and may be easily replaced if necessary (Ceravolo & Zonta, 2018).
5.5.4 Caissons and Cofferdams

Figure 58: South Tower foundation, Plan, (Ceravolo & Zonta, 2018).
 Figure 59: South Tower foundation general arrangement drawing, detailing steel caisson,
(Ceravolo & Zonta, 2018).

The north and south tower foundations were built using massive steel caissons that weighed up
to 1,200 tonnes and had a diameter of up to 30 meters. These caissons were erected precisely
using GPS technology after being manufactured off-site and carried by barge. After that, the
caissons were buried, ballasted, and filled with concrete to make them secure.
An octagonal cofferdam anchored deeply into Beamer Rock was used to build the central tower
base. The cofferdam was constructed using prefabricated L-shaped panels with steel sheet piling
walls and bases built of reinforced concrete. The panels were set above the rock and filled with
concrete to make a strong foundation (Ceravolo & Zonta, 2018).

5.6 CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENT

The Queensferry Crossing Bridge was built using several significant pieces of equipment. These
specialised tools and machines were critical to ensure that the project was successful.

5.6.1 Construction Hoists (Alimak Scando 650 Construction Hoists)

Figure 60: Alimak Scando 650, (ALIMAK Scando 650 FC, 2023).
 Figure 61: Alimak Scando 650 Construction Hoist, (ALIMAK Scando 650 FC, 2023).

During the construction of the suspension bridge, three concrete pylons were accessible via six
Alimak Scando 650 construction hoists. To enable passengers to escape the hoist car on the side
opposite the mast tower and onto the moving concrete formwork, each machine underwent
extensive modifications to establish a side door.

On every pylon, which measured more than 200 meters in height, there were two hoists installed:
a Scando 650 DOL that served from sea level to road level and a Scando 650 FC that served
from road level to the top of the pylon.

To create a safer working environment for installing ties, Alimak built and supplied platforms for
tie placement on each hoist. To facilitate communication between the hoist and the moving
concrete formwork, a specially made rolling tie was also created, considering the structural
stresses and forces involved in using this machinery in harsh conditions (QUEENSFERRY
CROSSING - Alimak USA, 2023).
5.6.2 Industrial Elevators (Alimak SE 500 Industrial Elevators)

Figure 62: Alimak SE 500, (Alimak Malaysia, 2022).

The bridge pylons are equipped with three Alimak SE 500 industrial elevators, one for each
pylon, each of which serves seventeen landings. These offer secure access for regular
maintenance of the suspension cable of the bridge.

It was necessary for the lifts to fit into shafts originally intended for a different kind of goods. To
make sure the SE 500 product would fit into the current shaft, Alimak modified the conventional
model (QUEENSFERRY CROSSING - Alimak USA, 2023).
5.6.3 Tower Cranes (Liebherr Cranes)

Figure 63: Liebherr cranes on the Queensferry Crossing, (Selby, 2017).

The building of the Queensferry Crossing, which spans Scotland's Firth of Forth, involved the
use of over 10 Liebherr cranes from three distinct divisions.

The three Liebherr 630 EC-H 40 tower cranes were supported by two Liebherr LR 1300 crawler
cranes owned and managed by Ainscough Crane Hire Limited. On a barge in the river, one of
these cranes was fixed. The second machine was stationed on land and functioned to assist the
barge by unloading parts that needed to be transported to the tower bases.

On the Queensferry Crossing construction site, Ainscough Crane Hire ran 12 various types of
Liebherr mobile telescopic and lattice-boom cranes, weighing between 40 and 500 tonnes. The
parts required to build the bridge were lifted by cranes. Almost every model of telescopic crane
produced by Liebherr was utilised for the project, at least one of them (Selby, 2017).
5.6.4 Floating Cranes

Figure 64: Caissons positioning with floating cranes, (Crossing, 2018).

The crane in the figure above is being used to position caissons as the Queensferry Crossing
bridge is being built. Caissons are huge, water-tight structures used to build bridge piers. Usually,
they are buried in the seabed or riverbed to give the bridge piers above a stable base.

In this case, a caisson is being carefully lifted and placed in the water by the floating crane.
Eventually, concrete or other materials will be poured into the caisson to create a solid base for
the support pillars of the bridge. The correct positioning of these caissons is critical for the
bridge's stability and safety (Crossing, 2018).

5.6.5 Deck Erection System

Figure 65: Deck Erection System, (Bhattacharya, 2022).

This method played a key role in hoisting and arranging the precast concrete deck sections onto
the central towers of the bridge. The configuration required large, custom-built lifting gantries
that could withstand the massive weight of the deck portions. The bridge's centre towers
contained these gantries, which made it possible to precisely position each section as it extended
outward towards the beach (Crossing, 2018).

5.6.6 Erection Traveller Crane

Figure 66: Scheme of the erection traveller crane, (Redirect Notice, n.d.).

The erection traveller crane was vital to the gradual launch of the deck pieces. This crane was
made for moving along the sections of the bridge that have previously been installed, lifting and
adjusting the subsequent piece into position. It guaranteed the bridge deck's balanced and
sequential extension from the towers, a technique crucial to preserving structural stability during
the building phase (Kærn & Hansen, 2017).

5.7 INNOVATIVE CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUE

The Queensferry Crossing Bridge used a variety of unique building techniques, contributing to
its rank as one of the world's most advanced infrastructure projects. The important innovations
are:

5.7.1 Balanced Cantilever Construction

To preserve balance, deck pieces were put alternately on either side of each tower throughout
the building process of the bridge using the balanced cantilever method. During construction,
this technique made the bridge the longest free-standing cantilever structure in the world,
reaching a span of 644 meters (Queensferry Crossing Facts & Figures, n.d.).

5.7.2 Central Tower Stabilization

Stabilising the central tower was difficult due to a lack of direct support from anchor piers. A
virtual truss system that enhanced both static and dynamic performance was created by
overlapping or crossing the stay cables over about 25% of each main span. Additionally, the
longitudinal overturning moment at the base of the central tower was lowered by 30% due to
this crossing cable system (Carter et al., 2010).
5.7.3 Use of Caissons and Cofferdams

Figure 67: A Compressed air Caisson, (Nichols, 2021).

 Figure 68: A water-filled type of cofferdam is used to hold back water for a bridge repair,
(Nichols, 2021).

Caissons were employed as foundations in deeper water locations, whereas cofferdams were
used for the central tower and shallower water foundations. The caissons were huge, the largest
weighing 1,200 tonnes. Water ballasting, bentonite slurry injections, and caisson excavation all
contributed to the sinking process, which was meticulously monitored (Nichols, 2021).

5.7.4 Innovative Deck Construction

The deck segments were manufactured in China and transported to the site, where they were
assembled and lifted into place with specialised cranes. The installation was a difficult procedure
because of strong winds and severe weather. The parts were inserted in a balanced manner to
keep the structure stable throughout construction (Ceravolo & Zonta, 2018).

5.7.5 Monolithic Connection at Central Tower

The bridge deck was joined to the central tower in one piece, necessitating a strong construction
to withstand large bending moments and deck torsion. Concrete was used to create this
connection on the steel deck's bottom flange, along with post-tensioned reinforcement (Ceravolo
& Zonta, 2018).
5.7.6 Extensive Use of Structural Health Monitoring (SHM)

Figure 69: Promising bridge SHM methods, (Promising Bridge SHM Methods, n.d.).

The bridge was fitted with an advanced SHM system that included approximately 2,000 sensors.
These sensors give real-time data on environmental actions and bridge responses, allowing for
more effective maintenance planning and early intervention to keep costs under control (Carter et
al., 2019).
5.8 TEMPORARY WORKS

Several key temporary works were required for the Queensferry Crossing Bridge construction,
including heavy-duty shoring, precision formwork systems, and modular scaffolding. These
works were essential for maintaining project safety, efficiency, and quality.

1. PERI UP Rosett Flex Modular Scaffolding System

Figure 70：PERI UP Rosett Flex Modular Scaffolding System, (Peri, 2023).

The flexible scaffolding options offered by the PERI UP Rosett Flex system were designed to
accommodate the complicated construction of Queensferry Crossing. The tall structures of the
bridge had to be built, and this modular system provided integrated access options and
safety working platforms. Due to its versatility, it was able to fit into the many shapes of the
bridge, guaranteeing that workers could reach all required locations in a safe manner. Because of
the system's rapid assembly and disassembly capabilities, building time was decreased overall
and labour efficiency was maximised (Peri, 2023).
2. VARIO GT 24 Girder Wall Formwork System

Figure 71: VARIO GT24 Girders, (Peri, 2023).

The VARIO GT 24 system was essential for precisely building the bridge's huge concrete towers
and piers. This flexible wall formwork method made it possible to create intricate, customised
forms that were precisely designed to the specifications of the structural components of the
Queensferry Crossing. It guaranteed premium concrete finishes, which were necessary for the
bridge's durability and visual appeal. The ability of the framework to be reused in other bridge
sections improved resource efficiency and decreased expenses (Peri, 2023).

3. Heavy-Duty Shoring and Support Structures

 Figure 72: HD 200 Heavy-Duty Prop, (Peri, 2023).

Heavy-duty shoring devices were crucial in providing support for the superstructure of the
bridge as it was being built. To maintain stability until the permanent structures could support
the loads, these temporary supports were essential during the cantilever construction and deck
installation phases. PERI HD 200 heavy-duty props and VR towers were among the systems that
were employed to control the large loads and preserve the structural integrity at different phases
of the building process. These shoring systems were adaptable, enabling load distribution and
height modifications based on the specific requirements of the bridge (Peri, 2023).

6.0 CONCLUSION

The Queensferry Crossing Bridge, a landmark feat in modern civil engineering, exhibits the
seamless integration of new materials, innovative construction techniques, and modern
technologies. It is the world's longest three-tower cable-stayed bridge, measuring 2.7 km in total.
The project overcame significant challenges, including environmental concerns, complex marine
foundation work, and the unique issue of ice accretion on cables, through meticulous planning
and the use of advanced techniques such as caisson foundations, balanced cantilever
construction, and self-climbing formwork. The bridge, which includes Structural Health
Monitoring systems and Intelligent Transport Systems, is designed for long-term durability,
safety, and operational efficiency, setting a new benchmark for future infrastructure projects
around the world.
References:
1. A.T. Consultants, (n.d.). SPAN BY SPAN CAST IN SITU BRIDGE.
https://www.international-engineering-consultants.com/ramp5Unit1.php?lang=en
2. Acrow | Shoring. (n.d.). https://acrow.com/solutions/temporary-bridges/shoring-systems/

3. Aicrane (2024) A comprehensive overview of bridge girder launching Gantry Crane,

LinkedIn. Available at: https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/comprehensive-overview-bridge-
girder-launching-gantry-crane-sjzuc (Accessed: 14 August 2024).
4. Alimak Malaysia. (2022). FCBC Queensferry case study: Alimak Construction and
Industrial Products at work on world famous Bridge. In www.alimak.com.
https://alimak.com/no/wp-content/uploads/2023/03/Alimak-Case-Study-Queensferry-
Crossing-Scotland-1614-EN-Sep-2022.pdf
5. ALIMAK Scando 650 FC. (2023, March 23). Archis Hoist Solutions.
https://www.archishoistsolutions.co.uk/alimak-650-fc
6. ARC, Q. C. (2022 ). Deck fan process. Queensferry Crossing ARC.
https://www.queensferrycrossingarc.co.uk/build-story/deck-fan-process
7. ARC, Q. C. (2022). Towers. Queensferry Crossing ARC.
https://www.queensferrycrossingarc.co.uk/build-story/tower
8. ARC. (2022). Build Story. Queensferry Crossing ARC. https://www.queensferry
crossingarc.co.uk/build-story
9. Arup. (n.d.). Queensferry Crossing - The largest infrastructure project in Scotland for a
generation. Arup.com. https://www.arup.com/projects/queensferry-crossing/#:~:text=The
%20
Queensferry%20Crossing%20is%20the,safety%20and%20reduce%20vehicle
%20emissions.
10. BBC News. (2017). Queen opens new queensferry crossing. Bbc.com.
https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-scotland-edinburgh-east-fife-41143016
11. Bear Scotland. (2024). Queensferry Crossing ice accretion. BEAR Scotland.
https://www.bearscot.com/winter-portal-old/queensferry-crossing-ice-sensors-2/
12. Bhattacharya, T. (2022, December 21). The Queensferry Crossing — India’s top
construction, infrastructure & civil engineering magazine. India’s Top Construction,
Infrastructure & Civil Engineering Magazine. https://www.cecr.in/engineering-marvel-
index/the-queensferry-crossing
13. Bridge Inspection - Mercado Consultants, Inc. (2020, June 9). Mercado Consultants, Inc.

https://mercadoeng.com/services/bridge-inspection/

14. Britannica. (1998, July 20). Cofferdam | Construction, Design & Maintenance.
Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved September 3, 2024, from
https://www.britannica.com/technology/cofferdam
15. Brocklehurst, S. (2015, December 2). The troubles of the Forth Road Bridge. BBC News.
https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-scotland-edinburgh-east-fife-34983063
16. Brocklehurst, S. (2020, February 11). Queensferry Crossing: The bridge that should
never close. BBC News. https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-scotland-38598155
17. Carter, M., Hornby, R., Hussain, N., & Murray, I. (2019). Crossing the forth. Civil
Engineering, 89(1), 44–86. https://doi.org/10.1061/ciegag.0001343
18. Carter, M., Kite, S., Hussain, N., & Minto, B. (2010). Design of the Forth replacement
crossing, Scotland. Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers - Bridge
Engineering, 163(2), 91–99. https://doi.org/10.1680/bren.2010.163.2.91
19. Casagrande (no date) B240 XP-2, Casagradne Piling Rigs . Casagrande Group . Available
at: https://www.casagrandegroup.com/piling-rigs/b240-xp-2/ (Accessed: 14 August
2024).
20. Ceravolo, R., & Zonta, D. (2018). An application to the Queensferry Crossing Structural
Health Monitoring System Data: Parameter estimation on concrete used for the central
tower. Tesi di Laurea Magistrale. https://webthesis.biblio.polito.it/11148/1/tesi.pdf

21. Civil Digital. (2024, June 19). CivilDigital.com - Civil engineering site. CivilDigital.

https://civildigital.com/?faqs=in-incremental-launching-method-of-bridge-construction-

what-are-the-measures-adopted-to-enhance-sufficient-resistance-of-the-superstructure-

during-the-launching-process

22. Corporation, M. I. (n.d.). Solution | Precast concrete bridges.

https://resource.midasuser.com/en/solution/precast-concrete-bridges

23. Crossing, Q. (2018). Finishing touches. Queensferry Crossing ARC. https://www.

queensferrycrossingarc.co.uk/build-story/finishing-touches
24. Crossing, Q. (2018, August 1). Explore. Queensferry Crossing ARC.
https://www.queensferrycrossingarc.co.uk/explore
25. Dalton, A. (2021). Queensferry crossing “ice bombs”: Could snow-repelling cable
coatings or mesh be solution?. The Scotsman.
https://www.scotsman.com/news/transport/queensferry-crossing-ice-bombs-could-be-
averted-by-snow-repelling-coatings-3482245
26. Daswell (no date) Concrete Boom Pump, Daswell. Available at:
https://daswell.com/concrete-pump/concrete-boom-pump/ (Accessed: 14 August 2024).
27. Davis & Floyd. (2024, July 18). SCDOT Bridge Inspections & Evaluation Statewide |

Davis & Floyd. https://www.davisfloyd.com/market/scdot-bridge-inspection-evaluation/

28. Design-Build poses a greater risk to contractors than conventional delivery -

construction executive. (n.d.). Construction Executive.

https://www.constructionexec.com/article/design-build-poses-a-greater-risk-to-

contractors-than-conventional-delivery

29. Different cast-in-situ methods of bridge construction. (2018, August 4).

theconstructor.org. https://theconstructor.org/structures/different-cast-in-situ-methods-

bridge-construction/6140/

30. Dong, S., Zhang, W., Wang, X., & Han, B. (2023). New-generation pavement empowered
by smart and multifunctional concrete: A review. Construction and Building Materials,
402, 132980. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2023.132980

31. Eiffel. (n.d.). Barge Application: Bridge Construction | Eiffel Trading. Eiffel Trading
Company. https://www.eiffeltrading.com/blog/post/barge-application-bridge-
construction
32. Ellis, R. (2018, March 29). The Forth Road Bridge. West Yorkshire Steel.
https://www.westyorkssteel.com/blog/the-forth-road-bridge/#:~:text=Its%20original%20
capacity%20of%2030%2C000

33. Enerpac (2024) How does a strand Jack work?, Enerpac Blog. Available at:
https://blog.enerpac.com/how-does-a-strand-jack-work/ (Accessed: 14 August 2024).
34. ESC. (2024, April 7). What is a cofferdam, its types, and uses in the construction
industry? ESCPile. https://www.escpile.com/single-post/what-is-a-cofferdam-its-types-
and-uses-in-the-construction-industry

35. Figure 6. Promising bridge SHM methods. (n.d.). ResearchGate. https://www.

researchgate.net/figure/Promising-bridge-SHM-methods_fig5_330831101

36. Fluidconstructions, & Fluidconstructions. (2024, May 22). What are the Different Types

of Bridges? | Fluidconstructions. Fluidconstructions | Earthmoving, Construction, and

Infrastructure Services in India. https://www.fluidconstructions.com/construction/what-

are-the-different-types-of-bridges/

37. Gerrard, N. (2023, March 27). Will self-healing concrete ever play a significant role in
construction? Construction Briefing. https://www.constructionbriefing.com/news/will-
self-healing-concrete-ever-play-a-significant-role-in-construction-/8026219.article

38. HBK (no date) DD1 Precise displacement and strain transducer, HBK World . HBK.
Available at: https://www.hbm.com/en/2514/dd1-dual-use-strain-displacement-strain-
sensor-precise/?product_type_no=DD1%20Dual-Use,%20Precision%20Displacement
%20&%20Strain%20Sensor (Accessed: 14 August 2024).
39. Hillier, A. (2024, May 3). Bridge building equipment: Video roundup. Enerpac Blog.

https://blog.enerpac.com/bridge-building-equipment-video-roundup/

40. I-35W Bridge Collapse. (2008). Thornton Tomasetti.

https://www.thorntontomasetti.com/project/i-35w-bridge-collapse

41. Innovative Bridge Technologies/Accelerated Bridge Construction. (n.d.). Incremental

(Longitudinal) launching of bridges | https://abc-utc.fiu.edu/mc-events/incremental-

longitudinal-launching-of-bridges/?mc_id=820

42. ITH (2015) Suspension bridge cable clamp installation at bosphorus with Ith Bolt
tensioning cylinders, ITH. Available at:
https://www.ith.com/en/exhibitions-news/articles/cable-clamp-suspension-bridge-
bosporus-bolt-connection-tightening.php (Accessed: 14 August 2024).
43. Kærn, J. C., & Hansen, J. E. (2017). 16.13: Queensferry crossing cable‐stayed composite
bridge. ce/papers, 1(2-3), 4143-4152.
 https://www.researchgate.net/publication/319697000
_Queensferry_crossing_cable-stayed_composite_bridge
44. Kærn, J. C., & Hansen, J. E. (2017). 16.13: Queensferry crossing cable-stayed composite
bridge. Ce/Papers, 1(2–3), 4143–4152. https://doi.org/10.1002/cepa.47
45. Kenneth Stearn. (2016). Queensferry Crossing from start to Feb 2016 [Video]. YouTube.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LaYXCQf8Ayc

46. Klein, C., & Klein, C. (2023, June 1). Construction of the Brooklyn Bridge took 14 Years

—And multiple lives. HISTORY. https://www.history.com/news/brooklyn-bridge-

construction-deaths

47. Lamb, R., Morrissey, M., & Kiger, P. J. (2021, November 12). How bridges work.

HowStuffWorks. https://science.howstuffworks.com/engineering/civil/bridge7.htm

48. Lorek, S. (2022, April 6). What is BIM (Building Information Modeling). Trimble
Construction. https://constructible.trimble.com/construction-industry/what-is-bim-
building-information-modeling

49. MachineDesign (2018) Lift bridge redesign relies on 21st century cables and cable
carriers, Machine Design. Available at: https://www.machinedesign.com/mechanical-
motion-systems/article/21837200/lift-bridge-redesign-relies-on-21st-century-cables-and-
cable-carriers (Accessed: 14 August 2024).

50. Masters, B. (2017, May 10). What do civil engineers do, exactly? - Bridge Masters.
Bridge Masters. https://bridgemastersinc.com/what-do-civil-engineers-do/
51. Masters, B. (2017b, December 11). Breaking down essential parts of a bridge structure
[Term Guide]. Bridge Masters. https://bridgemastersinc.com/breaking-down-essential-
parts-of-a-bridges-structure
52. Masters, B. (2022, September 7). Digital Twins: The present and Future of bridge
construction and maintenance. Bridge Masters. https://bridgemastersinc.com/digital-
twins/
53. Matterport, E. T. (2024, March 7). How to implement digital twins in construction
[Examples]. Matterport. Retrieved September 2, 2024, from
https://matterport.com/learn/digital-twin/construction
54. Mersey Gateway Project. (2015). Concrete pour for bridge pylons marks next step for the
Mersey Gateway Project | The Mersey Gateway Project. Merseygateway.co.uk.
 https://merseygateway.co.uk/concrete-pour-for-bridge-pylons-marks-next-step-for-the-
mersey-gateway-project/
55. MIDASoft. (n.d.). Understanding beam bridges: design, components, and construction

methods. https://www.midasbridge.com/en/blog/understanding-beam-bridges-design-

components-and-construction-methods

56. Mitchell, J. (2021, April 16). Main parts of a bridge - explained - EngineeringClicks.

EngineeringClicks. https://www.engineeringclicks.com/main-parts-of-a-bridge/

57. Morby, A. (2014). Queensferry Crossing opens £245m below budget. Construction
Enquirer News. https://www.constructionenquirer.com/2017/08/30/queensferry-crossing-
opens-245m-below-budget/
58. Nachazel, T. (2020) What is a strain gauge and how does it work?, Michigan Scientific
Corporation. Available at: https://www.michsci.com/what-is-a-strain-gauge/ (Accessed:
14 August 2024).
59. Nebraska (no date) Personal Protective Equipment Resources, Personal Protective
Equipment Resources | Announce | University of Nebraska-Lincoln. Available at:
https://newsroom.unl.edu/announce/ltap/13575/78111 (Accessed: 14 August 2024).
60. Nichols, A. (2021, August 18). Cofferdams and Caissons. Dam-It-Dams.
https://damitdams.com/cofferdams-and-caissons/
61. Peri. (2023, June 29). PERI supports development of Queensferry crossing. PERI
Supports Development of Queensferry Crossing.
https://www.peri.ltd.uk/projects/queensferry-crossing.html#impressions
62. PileBuck (2020) Floating cranes for marine construction, Pile Buck Magazine. Available
at: https://pilebuck.com/floating-cranes-marine-construction/ (Accessed: 14 August
2024).
63. Pooja (2023) Tower cranes in construction: Purposes, types and operations procedures,
gcelab. Available at: https://www.gcelab.com/blog/tower-cranes-in-construction-
purposes--types-and-operations-procedures (Accessed: 14 August 2024).
64. Pooja. (2023, January 15). What is Self-healing Concrete? Gurukul of Civil Engineers.
Retrieved September 2, 2024, from https://www.gcelab.com/blog/what-is-self-healing-
concrete
65. QUEENSFERRY CROSSING - Alimak USA. (2023, March 17). Alimak USA.
https://alimak.com/us/project/queensferry-crossing-english/
66. Queensferry Crossing facts & figures. (n.d.). https://www.theforthbridges.org/about-the-
forth-bridges/queensferry-crossing/queensferry-crossing-facts-figures/#:~:text=Prior
 %20to%20the
%20completion%20of,Guinness%20as%20the%20longest%20ever.
67. Queensferry crossing wind shielding success. (n.d.).
https://www.theforthbridges.org/news-and-blogs-from-the-forth-bridges/queensferry-
crossing-wind-shielding-success/#:~:text=The%20Queensferry%20Crossing%20is
%20fitted,the%20unshielded%20Forth%20Road%20Bridge.
68. Queensferry Crossing. (n.d.). Www.arup.com.
https://www.arup.com/projects/queensferry-crossing/
69. Queensferry Crossing. (n.d.). Www.theforthbridges.org. https://www.theforthbridges.
org/about-the-forth-bridges/queensferry-crossing/
70. Redirect notice. (n.d.). https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.
dlteng.com %2Fen%2Fprojects
%2FForth_crossing.html&psig=AOvVaw2xU_MofptUzE4wGum3rV-
x&ust=1725381770920000&source=images&cd=vfe&opi=89978449&ved=0CBQ
QjRxqFwoTCMjChJPapIgDFQAAAAAdAAAAABAJ

71. Research Gate. (n.d.). A schematic view of bridge construction by incremental

ResearchGate. https://www.researchgate.net/figure/A-schematic-view-of-bridge-

construction-by-incremental-launching-method-ILM_fig1_281627983

72. SAPTV, L. L. P. (2023, August 29). Bridging the Gap: How Norway is Using Digital
Twins to Maintain Its Bridges. https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/bridging-gap-how-
norway-using-digital-twins
73. Scottish government. (2017). Queensferry Crossing official opening. Www.gov.scot.
https://www.gov.scot/news/queensferry-crossing-official-opening/
74. Selby, R. (2017, July 10). Scotland’s Queensferry Crossing Construction Supported by
Liebherr Cranes. Crane Network News. https://cranenetworknews.com/liebherr-cranes-
support-queensferry-crossing/#:~:text=The%20three%20Liebherr%20630%20EC,a
%barge%
20in%20the%20river.
75. Sharma, P. (2023, August 9). Application of BIM for road and bridge construction
projects. NOVATR. https://www.novatr.com/blog/using-bim-for-construction-of-roads-
and-bridges#1
76. Simex. (2022, January 3). Bridge Construction Methods and the Principle Factors in 2022

| SIMEX Bangladesh. SIMEX Bangladesh. https://simex.com.bd/bridge-construction-

methods/

77. Structurae. (n.d.). Incremental launching using match cast method. Structurae.

https://structurae.net/en/structures/bridges/incremental-launching-using-match-cast-

method

78. Surveyors, M. E. &. (2024, January 18). Innovations in bridge Engineering: Forging the
path to the future. MFS Engineering.
https://www.mfsengineers.com/news/2024/innovations-in-bridge-engineering-forging-
the-path-to-the-future
79. Team, M. (n.d.). Dynamic analysis of Fan, Semi-Fan and Harp type of Cable-Stayed
bridges. https://www.midasbridge.com/en/blog/bridgeinsight/dynamic-analysis-of-fan-
semi-fan-and-harp-type-of-cable-stayed-bridges
80. Tee. (2024). BTBE2053 Advanced Building Construction Technology. Modern
Formwork Systems Lecture Notes. Pg 21
81. The Construction. (2012, January 17). INCREMENTAL LAUNCHING METHOD OF

BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION. theconstructor.org.

https://theconstructor.org/structures/incremental-launching-method-of-bridge-

construction/6126/

82. The Construction. (2018b, August 4). Different cast-in-situ methods of bridge

construction. theconstructor.org. https://theconstructor.org/structures/different-cast-in-

situ-methods-bridge-construction/6140/

83. The Three Bridge. (2017). Queensferry Crossing. The Three Bridges.
https://www.thethreebridges.com/queensferry-crossing/
84. Think Reliability. (n.d.). I-35 Bridge Collapse | ThinkReliability, case studies.

ThinkReliability. https://www.thinkreliability.com/case_studies/root-cause-analysis-of-

the-i-35-bridge-collapse/

85. TKCompanies. (n.d.). Deck Barges. TK Comapnies.

https://tkcompanies.com/tk-boats/deck-barges/
86. Transport Scotland (2013). FRC Project Update October 2013. In Transport Scotland,
Scotland.https://www.transport.gov.scot/media/35835/frc-project-update-october-
2013.pdf
87. Transport Scotland . (2014). Rise of the towers. Theforthbridges.org.
https://www.theforthbridges.org/about-the-forth-bridges/queensferry-crossing/
queensferry- crossing-history/queensferry-crossing-construction-blog/rise-of-the-towers/
88. Transport Scotland. (2008a). FRC project update April 2008. Transport Scotland.
https://www.transport.gov.scot/progress-update/frc-project-update-april-2008/
89. Transport Scotland. (2008b). FRC project update September 2008. Transport Scotland.
https://www.transport.gov.scot/progress-update/frc-project-update-september-2008/
90. Transport Scotland. (2009). FRC project update April 2009. Transport Scotland.
https://www.transport.gov.scot/progress-update/frc-project-update-april-2009/
91. Transport Scotland. (2012a). FRC project update August 2012. Transport Scotland.
https://www.transport.gov.scot/progress-update/frc-project-update-august-2012/
92. Transport Scotland. (2012b). FRC project update February 2012. Transport Scotland.
https://www.transport.gov.scot/progress-update/frc-project-update-february-2012/
93. Transport Scotland. (2014). FRC project update May 2014. Transport Scotland.
https://www.transport.gov.scot/progress-update/frc-project-update-may-2014/
94. Transport Scotland. (2015). Forth replacement Crossing. https://www.transport.gov
.scot/media/35842/frc-project-update-september-2015.pdf
95. Transport Scottland (2011). Preparation. Queensferry Crossing ARC.
https://www.queensferrycrossingarc.co.uk/build-story/preparation

96. Victor, O. (2023, March 19). Construction of concrete bridges| Precast. STRUCTURES

CENTRE. https://structurescentre.com/construction-of-concrete-bridges-precast/
97. Wagner, E. (2017, August 20). The Brooklyn Bridge’s builders fought fire, flood, and

death. The Daily Beast. https://www.thedailybeast.com/the-brooklyn-bridges-builders-

fought-fire-flood-and-death

98. Wang (no date) Anka Inclined Hoist Bridge Pylon/Dam Construction Building Curve
Passenger Hoist, Made-In-China. Anka Hoist . Available at: https://potential168.en.made-
in-china.com/product/mBwEjVFMEopx/China-Anka-Inclined-Hoist-Bridge-Pylon-Dam-
Construction-Building-Curve-Passenger-Hoist.html (Accessed: 14 August 2024).
99. Woods, C. (2024). Bridge Construction: How Bridges Are Built. Boomandbucket.com.
https://www.boomandbucket.com/blog/bridge-construction
100. Zigurat. (2020, June 12). BIM for new bridge construction - Engineers &
Architects Blog. Retrieved September 2, 2024, from
https://www.e-zigurat.com/en/blog/bim-new-bridge-construction-engineers-architects/