1.

0 INTRODUCTION

Bridge is an important structure in civil engineering, serving as critical components in the

transportation infrastructure. They connect different areas and allow people, goods and vehicles to
pass through obstacles smoothly, such as rivers, valleys or other physical obstacles. It is built to be
strong enough to safely support its own weight as well as the weight of anything that should pass
over it (Surveyors, 2024). The construction of bridges is a complex process, which requires
meticulous planning, advanced technology and a deep understanding of engineering principles
(Masters, 2017).

The design and construction of bridges involve several key components, which are usually divided
into substructure and superstructure. The substructure refers to the part of the bridge below the
bearing level, including the foundations, piers and abutments. It supports the weight of the bridge
and the loads passing through it, and transmits these forces to the ground (Masters, 2017b). The
superstructure includes the elements above the load-bearing level, such as bridge deck, beams,
girders and trusses, which directly bear traffic loads. These components work together to ensure
the bridge's stability, strength, and durability, accommodating the various forces and loads it
encounters (Mitchell, 2021).

However, there are many types of bridge depending on several factors considered such as length
of the span, load requirements, hydrological and navigational requirements, aesthetic and cultural
and so on (Fluidconstructions & Fluidconstructions, 2024). For instance, the Sungai Besi
Expressway Bridge in Kuala Lumpur, is an example of a beam bridge in the country. Beam bridge
can support only significant loads, making them suitable for heavy traffic, including cars, trucks,
and other vehicles. They are characterized by their simple design, which consists of horizontal
beams supported at each end by piers. The beam bridge is effective short to medium spans,
allowing for efficient construction, material use and cost-effectiveness (MIDASoft, n.d.).
Moreover, another example is the Langkawi Sky Bridge, it is a remarkable pedestrian bridge
located in the Langkawi, Malaysia. The tower of a cable-stayed bridge is responsible for absorbing
and dealing with compressional forces. Its long spanning 125 meters, and the curved bridge offers
aesthetically striking and breathtaking views to the surrounding scenery (Lamb et al., 2021). These
different factors and requirements will lead to different designs and affect the selection of bridge
types based on specific project requirements.

6
Nowadays, modern bridge construction uses sophisticated equipment and innovative construction
methods to make modern bridges bigger, safer, and longer-lived. Sophisticated equipment and
innovative construction will help to improve accuracy and precision by ensuring that components
fit together perfectly. This reduces errors and rework, leading to higher quality and more reliable
structures. It can also ensure safety by performing dangerous tasks that would be risky for workers.
Although sophisticated equipment may require a significant upfront investment, it can lead to long-
term cost savings by reducing labor costs, minimizing material waste, and shortening construction
time (Hillier, 2024).

The study of construction technology in civil engineering is crucial for understanding and applying
tools, machinery, and technology during the substructure and superstructure stages of construction.
Knowledge in construction technology is essential for successful structural design, ensuring that
projects meet all recommended specifications and standards of bridge.

2.0 PROBLEM STATEMENT

Bridges are more complex than buildings due to the need to support dynamic loads over long spans,
endure harsh environmental conditions, and meet strict safety standards (Construction Executive,
n.d.). During the pre-construction stage of building a bridge, the cost estimation process plays a
significant role in determining the overall financial implications of the project. In the first phase,
the identification of design flaws can lead to costly redesigns. If a design issue is discovered after
construction has begun, it may necessitate additional engineering consultations and revisions to
the plans, which can escalate costs significantly. Furthermore, the need for extensive testing and
validation of the new designs can further strain the project budget, leading to delays and increased
labor costs.

Moreover, many bridge construction accidents leading to injuries and deaths could occur during
the construction stage. Mistakes made by workers, whether due to lack of training or oversight,
can lead to accidents. A long time ago, the construction of Brooklyn Bridge took 14 years with
frequent accidents, including 27 workers who died in various accidents during construction the
bridge. The first fatal accident occurred on October 23, 1871, when a pair of cranes used to drag
granite blocks to the top of Brooklyn Bridge Tower suddenly collapsed. Next, a wooden boom cut

7
off the upper part of the John French's head, and many other workers were killed in the construction
accidents (Klein & Klein, 2023). These historical examples emphasize the importance of safety
measures in large-scale projects.

Figure 1: The Brooklyn Bridge's Builders Fought Fire, Flood, and Death (Wagner, 2017).

Lastly, the post-construction stage of bridge building is critical, as it involves ensuring the
structure's integrity and functionality after completion, which implementing maintenance is crucial
for the longevity and safety of bridge structures. One of the most famous bridge accidents is the
collapse of I-35W bridge. After only 39 years in service, it experienced a catastrophic failure
during the evening rush hour on August 1, 2007, killing 13 people and injuring 145 peoples (Think
Reliability, n.d.). This incident highlights the importance of the post-construction phase, as to find
potential problems after the construction and important of maintenances to prevent it collapse.

Figure 2: I-35W Bridge Collapse (I-35W Bridge Collapse, 2008).

8
3.0 BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION METHOD

Bridge construction is a complex process that involves various methods tailored to specific project
requirements, site conditions, and design considerations. Understanding these methods is crucial
for ensuring the structural integrity and longevity of the bridge.

3.1 TRADITIONAL BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION METHODS

3.1.1 Precast Bridge Construction

Precast construction involves manufacturing bridge components off-site in a controlled

environment and then transporting them to the construction site for assembly. This method allows
for high-quality control and reduces on-site construction time, minimizing disruptions to traffic
and the surrounding environment. Precast elements can include beams, slabs, and even entire
bridge spans, which are assembled using cranes and other heavy machinery (Simex, 2022). Here
is the process for constructing a precast bridge:

1. Factory Production

Molds are prepared to shape concrete components, such as beams, girders, or slabs. Then, the
concrete is poured into the molds and cured in a controlled environment. Curing conditions are
managed to achieve optimal strength and durability (Victor, 2023). During production, rigorous
quality control measures ensure that components meet design specifications and standards.

Figure 3: Standard precast beam (Victor, 2023).

9
 2. Transport and Assembly

Once cured, the precast components are carefully handled to avoid damage. Specialized equipment,
such as cranes and transport vehicles, is used for moving the components. Then, precast
components are assembled and joined together, often using additional concrete, reinforcing steel,
or other materials to complete the bridge structure. This method can speed up construction time
and reduce on-site labor (Simex, 2022).

Figure 4: Mobile crane assembling bridge (Corporation, n.d.).

3. Finishing Work

Final inspections ensure that the assembled bridge meets all design and safety requirements. Then,
finish the additional work, such as road surfacing, guardrails, and other features to complete the
bridge (Davis & Floyd, 2024).

Figure 5: Bridge Inspection & Evaluation (Davis & Floyd, 2024).

10
3.1.2 Cast In-situ Bridge Construction

Cast-in-situ bridge construction involves constructing the bridge directly at the site using concrete
that is poured and cured in place. This method contrasts with precast bridge construction, where
components are manufactured off-site and assembled on-site (Simex, 2022). Here is the process
for constructing cast in-situ bridge:

1. Site Preparation

The construction site is cleared of vegetation and debris to provide a clean and stable surface for
mixing and placing concrete. Formwork or molds are constructed to shape the concrete. This
includes setting up forms for the bridge deck, abutments, piers, and other structural elements
(The Construction, 2018).

Figure 6: Cast-in-situ Method of Bridge (The Construction, 2018).

2. Reinforcement Installation

Steel bars or mesh are placed within the formwork to provide tensile strength to the concrete.
Reinforcement is positioned according to the design specifications to handle anticipated loads
and stresses (A.T. Consultants, n.d.).

Figure 7: Cast-in-situ bridge (A.T. Consultants, n.d.).

11
 3. Concrete Pouring and Curing

The concrete is poured into the formwork and compacted to remove air bubbles and ensure
uniformity. After pouring, the concrete is cured to maintain adequate moisture and temperature
conditions, which is essential for achieving desired strength and durability. Curing can involve
covering the concrete with wet burlap, applying curing compounds, or using other methods to
prevent drying out (The Construction, 2018).

Figure 8: Cast-in-situ Concrete Filling (The Construction, 2018).

4. Finishing Works

Once the concrete has reached sufficient strength, the formwork is removed. The bridge is
inspected to ensure that it meets design specifications and safety standards. Additional elements,
such as road surfacing, railings, and drainage systems, are installed after the primary structural
elements are complete.

3.2 ADVANCED BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION METHODS

3.2.1 Incremental Launching Bridge Construction

Incremental Launching is a construction method used primarily for the construction of long-span
bridges, especially when the use of precast concrete segments is involved. Incremental launching
of bridges can save time, money, space and disruption while easing access and delivering a high-
quality finish (The Construction, 2012). Here is the process for constructing incremental launching
bridge:
12
 1. Preparation and Design

Evaluate the construction site to determine the feasibility of incremental launching. This includes
ensuring the structural integrity of the segments during the launching process and accounting for
the stresses involved.

Figure 9: Schematic view of bridge construction by incremental launching method

(Research Gate, n.d.).

2. Fabrication of Segments

Manufacture precast concrete segments off-site or in a staging area near the bridge site. These
segments are designed to fit together to form the complete bridge deck and superstructure.

Figure 10: Incremental launching method (Innovative Bridge Technologies, n.d.).

13
 3. Segment Assembly

Construct formwork and support for the bridge segments at the staging area. Then, assemble the
segments into a continuous section that will be launched. This may involve connecting the
segments with temporary support or additional reinforcement (Civil Digital, 2024).

Figure 11: Incremental launching method of bridge construction (Civil Digital, 2024).

4. Launching Process

Install hydraulic jacks or other launching equipment that will be used to push the assembled
segments into their final position. Next, gradually push the assembled segments out over the
supports. As the bridge is launched, temporary supports or staging may be used to stabilize the
structure and ensure it remains aligned.

Figure 12: Incremental launching using match cast method (Structurae, n.d.).

14
 5. Completion and Finishing

Make any necessary adjustments to ensure the bridge is correctly aligned and secured. This may
involve additional welding, grouting, or other finishing work. Conduct thorough inspections then
complete any remaining work, such as road surfacing or installation of railings, and prepare the
bridge for use.

3.2.2 Advanced Shoring Bridge Construction

This method involves integrating specialized temporary support systems to ensure stability and
safety during the construction process. Advanced shoring is particularly useful in complex bridge
projects where traditional methods may not provide the necessary support or flexibility. Here is
the process for constructing advanced shoring bridge:

1. Planning and Shoring Design

Assess site conditions, including soil and load-bearing capacity, and integrate advanced shoring
systems into the bridge design to ensure structural stability during construction.

Figure 13: Typical advance shoring bridge (Acrow | Shoring, n.d.).

15
 2. Pier and Abutment Construction

Construct the bridge piers and abutments by setting up formwork and reinforcing it with advanced
shoring systems, then pour concrete, allowing it to cure while supported by shoring.

Figure 14: Typical advance shoring bridge (Acrow | Shoring, n.d.).

3. Superstructure and Deck Assembly

Install girders, beams, and the bridge deck, using advanced shoring to temporarily support these
elements until the concrete has cured and the structure can support itself.

Figure 15: Typical advance shoring bridge (Acrow | Shoring, n.d.).

16
 4. Finalization and Inspection

Carefully remove the shoring systems, complete finishing touches like surfacing and guardrails,
and conduct load testing and safety inspections before opening the bridge to traffic.

Figure 16: Bridge Inspection (Bridge Inspection, 2020).

3.3 COMPARISON BETWEEN TRADITIONAL METHODS AND ADVANCED

METHODS

Table 1: Differences between traditional methods and advanced methods.

Aspect Traditional Methods Advanced Methods

Construction Speed Generally slower Faster due to prefabrication
Flexibility and Limited flexibility Highly adaptable to complex
Complexity designs
Material Usage Often uses conventional Incorporates advanced materials
materials
Cost Initial costs can be lower Higher upfront costs, but saving
costs in time
Environmental Impact More site disturbance Reduced environmental footprint
Maintenance Regular inspections needed Smart technologies for real-time
monitoring

17
4.0 EQUIPMENT

4.1 CONSTRUCTION HOIST

Figure 17: Construction Hoist (Wang, n.d.).

A construction hoist is vital in bridge construction as it facilitates efficient vertical transportation

of workers, tools, and materials. It improves efficiency by swiftly transporting substantial items to
higher work locations, decreases labor expenses, and guarantees safety through the inclusion of
emergency brakes and sturdy platforms. The hoist's versatility enables convenient access to various
elevations at specific inclinations, and it seamlessly combines with other machinery such as cranes
and scaffolding. In general, the hoist ensures efficiency, safety, and cost-effectiveness in the
construction process.

4.2 FLOATING CRANES

Figure 18: Floating Cranes (PileBuck, 2020).

18
Floating cranes are robust cranes that are commonly employed for constructing bridges across
bodies of water. They are capable of doing tasks such as lifting big loads, placing them with great
accuracy, and moving about. They have the capability to transport and place huge bridge
components in inaccessible locations, while maintaining stability even in difficult sea
circumstances. These vessels help to decrease the requirement for large-scale onshore
infrastructure, hence minimizing the environmental impact and disturbance. Floating cranes
facilitate efficient, safe, and precise bridge construction by providing support for various
construction activities and seamless integration with other equipment.

4.3 TOWER CRANES

Figure 19: Tower Cranes (Pooja, 2023).

Tower cranes are employed in conjunction with floating cranes during bridge construction.
Nevertheless, tower cranes are commonly anchored to the ground or directly to the bridge structure.
Tower cranes play a crucial role in hoisting and positioning bulky objects at considerable
elevations. They facilitate the construction of tall structures such as pylons and towers, improve
construction productivity by minimizing manual labour, and enable access to elevated regions.
Tower cranes can collaborate with floating cranes to ensure a synchronized and effective
construction procedure.

19
4.4 SELF-CLIMBING FORMWORK SYSTEMS

Figure 20: Self-Climbing Formwork (Tee, 2024).

Self-climbing formwork systems are advantageous in bridge building due to their ability to provide
effective vertical assembly of tall parts such as pylons or bridge piers. Automated climbing systems
speed up ascending while minimising the use for external scaffolding, therefore improving safety
by providing sturdy work platforms. These methods guarantee accurate and consistent concrete
finishes, reduce labour expenses, and can be adjusted to accommodate different bridge designs,
making them an invaluable asset for intricate and tall bridge projects.

20
4.5 PILING RIGS

Figure 21: Piling Rigs (Sources: Casagrande, n.d.).

Piling rigs are specialised devices utilised for the purpose of forcefully inserting or boring piles
into the earth, with the intention of establishing sturdy foundations for constructions such as
bridges. Their installation process is highly efficient, and they can easily adjust to different soil
conditions. Additionally, they have a high capacity for handling enormous heaps. The rigs provide
accurate positioning and alignment, hence improving safety and bolstering the stability of bridge
structures.

4.6 LAUNCHING GANTRIES

Figure 22: Launching Gantries (Aicrance, 2024).

21
A launching gantry, also called a bridge-building machine, is a special kind of mobile gantry crane
that is used to build bridges, especially segmental bridges with precast box girder bridge segments.
Gantries are very important when building a bridge because they make it easy to move and lift big
parts like beams and deck pieces. They move these parts horizontally over spans, often going over
rough terrain or buildings that are already there. The gantries provide a safe and dependable
platform for moving heavy loads, which improves the safety of construction work. By automating
the placement process, they greatly speed up the building process and reduce the need for manual
labor. This makes the bridge's assembly more streamlined and effective.

4.7 STRAND JACKS

Figure 23: Strand Jacks (Enerpac, 2024).

To precisely lift heavy loads vertically or at an angle, strand jacks are highly advanced lifting
devices. These machines work by grabbing steel strands and pulling them through a hydraulic
system. This lets heavy parts be raised gradually and safely. Because these devices give you precise
control over the lifting process, they can be used for tasks that need the utmost safety and accuracy.
It is very helpful to use strand jacks to move big structural parts like beams, girders, or other large
pieces into place, especially in tight or difficult spaces where other lifting equipment might not
work. Strand jacks make building bridges faster and safer by giving workers more precise control
and the ability to lift heavy loads.

22
4.8 CONCRETE PUMPS

Figure 24: Concrete Pump (Daswell, n.d.)

Concrete pumps play a crucial role in bridge construction by efficiently and accurately transferring
liquid concrete to elevated or inaccessible locations. They guarantee a constant and uninterrupted
supply of concrete, minimising the requirement for manual labour and improving production.
Concrete pumps are available in many varieties, including boom pumps and line pumps, each
designed for specific project needs. These pumps enhance the structural integrity of the bridge and
reduce wastage by allowing accurate placement of concrete, resulting in improved efficiency and
cost-effectiveness.

4.9 CABLE INSTALLATION EQUIPMENT

To build a bridge, you need a lot of different kinds of tools and equipment, like cable carriers,
tensioning machines, splicing tools, lifting equipment, support structures, monitoring systems, and
access equipment. This tool is necessary for building suspension and cable-stayed bridges because
it handles the heavy cables, makes sure they are perfectly aligned and tensioned, helps with
accurate load distribution, and raises safety standards. This system makes it easy to install the
bridge and keep an eye on it all the time, making sure that it stays strong and works well.

23
4.9.1 Cable carriers

Figure 25: Cable Carriers (MachineDesign, 2018)

Cable carriers are commonly used to install the primary cables, providing guidance and support
for the cables as they are extended from one end of the bridge to the other.

4.9.2 Tensioning Machines

Figure 26: Tensioning Machines (ITH, 2015)

Tensioning machines are used to ensure accurate cable tension to maintain structural integrity.
24
4.9.3 Splicing Tools

These are utilized to firmly connect cable segments in the case that the cables consist of many
portions. Splicing tools guarantee a robust and uninterrupted connection across the whole length
of the cable.

4.9.4 Hoisting Equipment

This tool is utilized to elevate the cables to the desired position on the bridge, especially when
connecting them to the deck or pylons.

4.9.5 Support Structures

Support structures, such as scaffolding or temporary towers, are employed to provide assistance in
holding up the cables and other components during the process of installation. They guarantee the
stability and security of the work location.

4.9.6 Monitoring Systems

Figure 27: Strain Gauge (Nachazel, 2020)

These systems consist of sensors and software that are used to monitor the tension, alignment, and
overall condition of the cables before and after installation. Real-time monitoring facilitates timely
modifications as necessary.

25
4.9.7 Protective Gear and Safety Equipment

Figure 28: Protective Equipment (Nebraska, n.d.)

To protect the safety of the personnel involved in the high-risk installation procedure, it is
imperative that they wear harnesses, helmets, and other necessary safety gear.

26
4.10 NEW TECHNOLOGY

4.10.1 Building Information Modelling (BIM)

BIM stands for Building Information Modeling or Building Information Management. The process
is characterized by extensive collaboration among architects, engineers, real estate developers,
contractors, manufacturers, and other construction professionals. Its purpose is to facilitate the
planning, design, and construction of a structure or building using a single 3D model. Building
Information Management (BIM) encompasses the utilization of data available to building or
structure owners to extend its scope to include the operation and management of buildings. This
data enables governments, municipalities, and property managers to make well-informed decisions
using information obtained from the model, even after the completion of the building. (Lorek,
2022).

Figure 29: Implementation of BIM in bridge construction (Zigurat, 2020)

BIM harnesses vast potential to revolutionize conventional construction processes. The United
Kingdom (UK), the United States of America (USA), Singapore, and Finland are among the
countries that have recognized this opportunity and are at the forefront of BIM adoption in
infrastructure projects. BIM is utilized in the Design and Planning phase to augment visualization
and collaboration, enhance clash detection and conflict resolution, facilitate simulated analysis and
performance evaluation, and conduct geotechnical studies and analysis. Furthermore, during the
Construction and Execution stage, these tools are utilized to provide more precise Bill of Quantities
(BQ) and cost estimation, improve construction planning and sequencing, and act as a centralized
platform for collaboration among project stakeholders throughout the construction process. BIM

27
is utilized in the Management and Maintenance phase as a comprehensive storage of asset
information throughout the entire lifespan of bridge infrastructure. Currently, BIM enables the
implementation of predictive maintenance strategies for bridge infrastructure. This is achieved by
connecting the BIM model with asset management systems, allowing maintenance teams to
monitor the conditions of different building components and forecast maintenance needs (Sharma,
2023).

4.10.2 Digital Twins

Digital twins in construction are interactive virtual representations of physical buildings or

infrastructure projects. These virtual replicas are generated through sophisticated simulation
models and incorporate real-time data from diverse sources, including sensors, BIM models, and
other IoT devices. Digital twins offer valuable insights into the construction process, enhance
decision-making, and optimize performance throughout the entire lifecycle of the project
(Matterport, 2024).

Figure 30: Implementation of Digital Twins on Bridge Construction (SAPTV, 2023)

Digital twins provide substantial advantages for bridge and road development projects, particularly
those that are intricate and involve multiple components such as bridges, roads, ramps, and transit
systems. Digital twins offer designers and engineers a comprehensive perspective by presenting a
three-dimensional representation. This allows them to comprehend the interactions between
various components, anticipate and mitigate potential problems before they occur, and resolve any
issues that may arise after the bridge is operational. These models not only improve the quality of
the project, but also expedite development and decrease costs. In addition, 3D twins models

28
enhance communication and collaboration among stakeholders by offering a shared and realistic
perspective of the project (Masters, n.d.).

4.10.3 Self-Healing Concrete

Self-healing concrete is primarily characterized by its capacity to spontaneously repair cracks

without external intervention. It is alternatively referred to as self-repairing concrete. Cracks in
concrete are a frequent occurrence because of its comparatively limited ability to withstand tension.
The cracks in concrete compromise its durability as they create a convenient pathway for the
movement of liquids and gases that may contain hazardous substances. Should microcracks
propagate and reach the reinforcement, both the concrete itself and the reinforcement steel bars
will be subject to corrosion. Hence, it is crucial to regulate the width of the cracks and promptly
repair them. The ability of concrete to repair its own cracks would enhance the longevity of
concrete structures and improve the material's durability and sustainability (Dong, Zhang, Wang
& Han, 2023).

Figure 31: Self-Healing Concrete (Pooja, 2023)

Self-healing concrete is suitable for bridge construction as it can autonomously repair small cracks
and prevent further deterioration, which is particularly beneficial in the harsh environments that
bridges often face. This feature enhances the durability and longevity of the structure by reducing
maintenance needs and extending the service life of the bridge (Gerrard, 2023).

29
4.11 TEMPORARY WORKS AND STRUCTURES

4.11.1 Cofferdams

Figure 32: Cofferdam (Britannica, 1998)

A cofferdam, also known as a coffer, is a structure constructed either inside or across a body of
water in order to facilitate the removal of water from the enclosed area. The process of pumping
removes moisture from the working environment, thereby ensuring a safe working condition.
Enclosed coffers are frequently employed in the construction or repair of permanent structures
such as dams, oil platforms, and bridge piers that are built within or over bodies of water. The
cofferdams are typically constructed using welded steel structures, which include sheet piles,
walers, and cross braces as their components. Typically, these structures are disassembled once the
construction is finished (ESC, 2024).

4.11.2 Deck Barges

Figure 33: Deck Barges (TKCompanies, n.d.)

30
Deck barges, as their name suggests, are large boats with flat decks that make it easier to store and
move heavy equipment and other materials. In addition, they can be used as work platforms to
move heavy equipment and do other things. The deck of this barge can hold up to several hundred
tons of weight, which can include bulky items like concrete and steel, as well as heavy machinery
like cranes and excavators. In order to store and move large, prefabricated bridge sections, deck
barges are the best option (Eiffel, n.d.).

5.0 CASE STUDY: QUEENFERRY CROSSING

5.1 PROJECT BACKGROUND

The Queensferry Crossing is a significant infrastructure project in Scotland, designed to provide a

vital transportation link across the Firth of Forth, connecting Edinburgh and Fife. The Queensferry
Crossing was officially opened on 30 August 2017. It is the longest 3-tower cable-stayed bridge in
the world, which is 2.7 km long (Queensferry Crossing, n.d.). The bridge was developed due to
the ageing condition of the existing Forth Road Bridge. The Forth Road Bridge, completed in 1964,
provided a vital road link for that area and faced significant structural challenges. The bridge has
served for more than five decades; there is extensive maintenance and repairs that need to be
carried out.

Figure 34: Queensferry Crossing (Morby, 2014).

31
Another reason is increasing traffic demands. The traffic volume had increased dramatically after
the Forth Road Bridge’s opening. Originally, the Forth Road Bridge is designed to handle 30,000
vehicles in each direction per day (Ellis, 2018). According to the statistics, the bridge was regularly
accommodating over 70,000 vehicles per day, which is much more vehicles passing through than
the original design (Brocklehurst, 2015). This led to congestion and delays. Moreover, economic
consideration is also one of the factors that led the Scottish Government to make the decision to
develop the bridge. The Forth Road Bridge is an important connection in Scotland's transport
network, allowing trade and commerce between the north and south of the nation. Any
interruptions or closures due to maintenance had a major economic impact, emphasising the
importance of a more dependable crossing to promote long-term economic growth.

Thus, Queensferry Crossing is designed to meet the demands of modern traffic. The new crossing
aimed to ensure a reliable and resilient transport route, supporting economic growth and improving
connectivity for commuters and freight traffic. The Scottish Government invested over RM 7.5
billion for building the bridge to upgrade the cross-Forth transport corridor in the east of Scotland
(Queensferry Crossing, n.d.).

5.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT

5.2.1 Pre-Construction Stage

The Queensferry Crossing is the longest three-tower cable-stayed bridge in the world, and it faced
some challenges throughout the development process. This process can be divided into three
general stages, which are pre-construction, construction, and post-construction. During the pre-
construction phase, the construction team conducted the surveys for topographical, environmental,
traffic, and ground investigation (Transport Scotland, 2008a). The data provided in the surveys is
needed for the design team to prepare high-precision maps and 3D computer models for the bridge.
The environmental survey is vital to be conducted because the Firth of Forth is an ecologically
sensitive area. It is acting as home to various species of birds and marine life. However, the project
was delayed because of the significant environmental impact assessments that were required to
guarantee that the development did not disrupt the surrounding ecology (Transport Scotland,
2008b). Furthermore, obtaining the requisite regulatory clearances was time-consuming since

32
several stakeholders, including environmental groups and local people, had to be engaged. These
delays have pushed back the commencement of construction.

Another challenge during the pre-construction stage is the foundation for the Queensferry Crossing.
The contractors held the ground investigation on the land where the network connections are
planned to be built and in locations on the current road network (Transport Scotland, 2009). The
engineers were responsible for designing and planning the foundation for the bridge, and there are
too many issues to be considered, such as the soil conditions, load factors, material selection,
construction methods, and maintenance practices.

Figure 35: Environmental Survey (Transport Scotland, 2008b).

5.2.2 Construction Stage

When the Queensferry Crossing was under construction, the noise and vibration produced by the
works were the biggest challenges. The works involved both on land and in the water. To solve
this problem, the contractor demonstrated the alternative methods that have been considered by
the client and local authorities and came up with the best choice. The environmental manager of
the project also mentioned that they set up a network of state-of-the-art monitoring equipment to
measure noise, vibration, and air quality 24 hours a day for the duration of the project (Transport
Scotland, 2012b).

33
Moreover, the excavation process is tough, especially since it had to be working out at sea and
beneath the water. The underwater excavation process for tower and pier foundations required
machine operators to operate "blind." The operators were relying on equipment to determine depth
to rock rather than visual inspection. Therefore, to ensure the excavation for the foundation is
enough, they sent divers to carry out inspections on the seabed, and the divers sent pictures for the
experts to view. The concreting for the foundation can only be started when the rock surface is
clean, free of loose rocks, sediment, and other material (Transport Scotland, 2012a).

Figure 16: Foundation work (Transport Scotland, 2012).

5.2.3 Post-Construction Stage

Figure 37: Queensferry Crossing closed due to ice falling (Dalton, 2021)

34
There is a major post-construction issue for Queensferry Crossing, which is the ice accretion
problem (Brocklehurst, 2020). The accumulation of ice on the bridge’s towers and cables created
a safety risk since falling ice may damage the vehicles passing by. This has happened when certain
weather patterns have brought in wet snow, which got stuck to the cables, frozen, and then dropped
off. The ice on cables was considered a potential issue during the design stage, but this was
expected to be a rare event to happen. This challenge needs continuous monitoring and the
development of mitigating solutions, such as ice sensor installation on the bridge (Bear Scotland,
2024).

5.3 CONSTRUCTION METHOD

Queensferry Crossing is constructed using the cable-stayed method, and the construction involved
several advanced engineering techniques. These methods are customised to the specific constraints
that arise from the site's environment and design needs.

Figure 38: Caisson Section view (Transport Scotland, 2012a)

35
The foundation is the key element in maintaining the stability of the towers that support the anchors
for the cables from the deck. Queensferry Crossing is using caisson foundation since the bridge is
built across the sea. The caisson functions by creating a watertight structure that allows concreting
to be carried out. Each of the caissons is lowered to the seabed according to their position located
using the GPS technology to ensure placement within a very tight 250mm tolerance. After that,
the double-skinned cavity wall sections were then filled with water and concrete as ballast to raise
the caissons' weight and help the caissons sink into the glacial and sedimentary alluvium until they
were covering the bedrock. The following steps for foundation work are continued with excavation,
dewatering, and concreting (Transport Scotland, 2012a).

For the tower of Queensferry Crossing, it is built in 4-meter-high segments, each called a "lift".
The tower used a jump form to be constructed, in which the concrete is poured and hydraulically
jacked up to the next level once the concrete in each lift has gained sufficient strength to support
itself and the jump form. The process takes approximately 36 hours (Transport Scotland, 2014).

While the bridge deck construction is using precast concrete in segments. These segments were
produced with composite steel tub girders fabricated into segments in the factory, then underwent
post tensioning. The deck segments would be lifted by erection traveller crane during the
installation process, and the reinforced concrete stitch is being poured. The stay cable is tensioned
up to the final tension, at which point the weight of the deck segment is transferred from the
erection traveller crane to the stay cables (Transport Scotland, 2015).

Figure 39: Deck segment lifted by erection traveller crane (Transport Scotland, 2015)
36
Furthermore, at the centre of each span, there is a length of deck where the stay cables descending
from one tower cross with the cabling from the neighbouring tower. This represents a unique
solution to the need to stabilise the central tower in multi-span, cable-stayed bridges (Transport
Scotland, 2012b).

Moreover, each span of the Queensferry Crossing is supported by a central stay cable plane in the
shape of a fan. Each of the cable fans is made up of twenty-four pairs of stays that are anchored to
steel components in the deck and tower. The cable pairs are separated around 5 m transversely and
16.2 m longitudinally between central webs in the deck structure. At the midpoint, the cable stays
overlapped. This overlapping gives longitudinal stability to the central tower, lowering the
overturning force on the tower's base and reducing bridge deflections under asymmetrical live
loading of the major spans. This method resulted in a slim tower design (Kærn & Hansen, 2017).

At the final stage of bridge construction, they installed the intelligent transport system (ITS) and
the wind shielding. The ITS technology is used to improve traffic flow, reduce congestion, and
improve road safety. This is the first controlled ITS environment in Scotland, including changing
mandatory speed limitations, a parallel public transport route, bus lane hard shoulder use, and
above-ground vehicle detection. The driver experience is improved by the use of lane control
signals and an intelligent lighting control system that includes elements like low-height lighting to
illuminate road connections (Arup, n.d.).

Figure 40: Intelligent Transport System (Crossing, 2018)

37
Other than that, the Queensferry Crossing features specially constructed 3.3-metre-high wind
shielding that deflects gusts of wind up and over vehicles. This enables it to remain open at far
greater wind speeds than the unshielded Forth Road Bridge (Queensferry Crossing Wind Shielding
Success, n.d.). The main purpose of installing wind shielding is to protect cars from the Firth of
Forth's regular strong winds.

Figure 41: Wind shielding on Queensferry Crossing (Kenneth Stearn, 2016)

5.4 CONSTRUCTION PROCEDURE OF QUEENSFERRY CROSSING

5.4.1 Pre-construction Stage

• Step 1: Planning and design

a) Environmental investigation
The environmental investigation to find out issues that need to be considered when the
crossing and road connections are designed. This step started in February 2018. More than
20 different surveys are done such as ecological surveys, landscape and visual impact
assessments, water surveys, noise and air quality monitoring and more (Transport Scotland,
2008).

38
 Figure 42: Topographical surveys on the North shore (Transport Scottland, 2011)

b) Feasibility study
To confirm the present traffic volumes on the surrounding road network and offer up-to-
date statistics following the elimination of tolls, survey teams and counters have been
monitoring traffic levels since March 2008 (Transport Scottland, 2008).
c) Geological investigation
The Forth Estuary and its surrounding regions are the subject of ongoing ground and
marine investigations. The site's drilling and boring operations were finished in August
2008, and the samples were analysed in a lab. Decisions about the location and type of
bridge foundations utilised in the crossing as well as the path of the linked road network
will be influenced by the results of these investigations, which offer important details about
the underlying ground conditions on the approaches to the bridge and the seabed.
(Transport Scottland, 2008).

39
 Figure 43: Marine investigation in Firth of Forth (Transport Scottland, 2008).

d) Design
The proposed bridge is a cable-stayed bridge built with three slender single column towers
and including the approach viaduct. The bridge has an overall length of 2.7km. The deck
of the bridge will be carrying two general lanes of traffic and hard shoulders in each
direction. The selected design is cost-effective in both construction and maintenance and
can be built within the timescales required (Queensferry Crossing, n.d.).

Figure 44: Reality picture of Queensferry Crossing (Queensferry Crossing, n.d.)

40
5.4.2 Construction Stage

• Step 2: Foundation
The foundation of the Queensferry Crossing has been done using three large steel foundation
caissons. An offsite construction and onsite assembly are used on the foundation construction.
The steel caissons are fabricated in factory before transport and assembly at the site. The steps
of transport and assembly of the steel caissons are as below:

Figure 45: Components of the foundation for the tower (Transport Scotland, 2014)

a) Caisson lifting and positioning

The caissons were lifted off a semi-submersible transportation barge using a floating
sheerleg crane designed for the operation. Once positioned, each of the caissons was
lowered to the seabed using the latest GPS technology to ensure placement within a very
tight tolerance (The Three Bridge, 2017).
41
 Figure 46: Process of positioning the steel caissons (The Three Bridge, 2017)

b) Ballasting
After the position has been fixed, water is then pumped into the double-skinned cavity wall
sections as ballast to increase weight and help the sinking of the steel caissons into the
sedimentary alluvium and glacial till overlaying the bedrock (Transport Scotland, 2014).
c) Concrete Pouring
Then 3300 cubic meters of concrete are poured into the cavities to displace the water and
increase the weight in to sink the caissons further down into the clay and glacial till levels
of the seabed (Transport Scotland, 2014).

Figure 47: Process of concrete pouring (Transport Scotland, 2014).

42
d) Excavation
After the steel caissons sink to the seabed level, the construction continues with excavation
inside the caissons. Floating cranes with grabs are used to remove 46000 cubic meters of
material inside the caissons. The excavated material was transported to deep water areas
downstream in the Firth of Forth (The Three Bridge, 2017).
e) Jet Grouting and Temporary Caissons
A grouting seal was formed at the bottom of the caisson walls to create a strong seal
between the caissons and the bedrock to prevent the seawater and sediment from seeping
into the caissons. The temporary caissons were installed on the top of each main caisson to
keep the structure surface above the water level (Transport Scotland, 2014).
f) Concrete Plug and De-watering
Around 18000 cubic meters of concrete were poured into each caisson to form a plug. The
concrete filled the caisson to a depth of 26 meters. After the plug was formed the sea water
was pumped out to create dry conditions within the caisson. Then a 14-meter-high
reinforced concrete tower foundation base was constructed on top of the plug to act as the
platform for the 210-meter-high bridge towers (Transport Scotland, 2014).

Figure 48: Dewatering process of the caissons (Transport Scotland, 2014).

43
• Step 3: Construction of the Towers and deck construction
a) Preparation of Tower Base
The tower foundation base was built after the installation of the concrete plug and caisson.
In order to provide a stable platform for the tower construction, a 14-meter-tall reinforced
concrete structure had to be built on top of the marine foundation (Transport Scotland,
2013).
b) Construction of Tower Segments
The towers are constructed in segments each about 4 meters tall. All the segments were
precast off site then only assembly on site. Each segment was inserted with post tensioning
cables to ensure they were securely connected (Transport Scotland, 2013).
c) Climb form System
To construct the towers, self-climbing formwork technology was applied. External
scaffolding was unnecessary because of this method, which allowed the formwork to
"climb" up the tower as each new segment was cast in place. By enabling a continuous
pouring of concrete, the self-climbing technology reduced construction time and ensured
an uninterrupted and efficient building of the tower (ARC, 2022).

Figure 49: The process of construction of the tower (ARC, 2022)

44
d) Installation of Internal Components
The internal structure of the tower has also been installed after the casting of the tower. At
the same time the anchorage for the stay cable that needs to support the bridge deck is also
housed on the tower. (Transport Scotland, 2013).
e) Stay Cable installation
As the towers reached their final height, preparations were made for the installation of the
stay cables. The cables, made of high-strength steel strands, were fabricated and delivered
to the site in sections. Then the cable will be attached to the tower at specific anchor points
(ARC, 2022).

Figure 50: Stay cable of the bridge (ARC, 2022).

f) Integration with Bridge Deck

After the towers are completed until the final segment, the bridge deck will be connected
using the stay cable. The bridge deck was largely created in 122 sections, in Rosyth. From
their marine yard home, these 750-tonne segments were barged out into the Forth to be
lifted by special movable hydraulic lifting equipment called erection travelers. To balance
the structure, sequential north and south lifts were used to produce each deck fan. The
Centre Tower fan was the longest free-standing balanced cantilever ever built before it was
joined to the remainder of the building (ARC, 2022).
45
 Figure 51: Deck joining Process (ARC, 2022)

• Step 4: Finishing and Testing

a) Roadway and Finishing
The high-performance asphalt surface was laid for the roadway after the deck was
completed. All the road infrastructure such as safety barriers and lighting has also been
installed (Woods, C, 2024).
b) Testing and commissioning
Load testing is done on the bridge to ensure it can safely handle traffic. This included both
static and dynamic tests using heavy vehicles. A final detailed inspection was carried out
to verify the quality of the construction. All the necessary adjustments were made before
the bridge was opened to the public (Woods, C, 2024).
• Step 5: Opening of the Queensferry Crossing

The Queen Elizabeth II accompanied by The Duke of Edinburgh, has opened the new
Queensferry Crossing over the Firth of Forth on September 4, 2017 (Scottish government, 2017).

46
Figure 52: A picture showing The Queen has officially opened the new Queensferry Crossing
(BBC News ,2017).

5.5 CONSTRUCTION MATERIAL

The construction of the Queensferry Crossing Bridge involved the use of several key materials:

5.5.1 High-Performance Concrete

Figure 53: Central Tower of Queensferry Crossing (Redirect Notice, n.d.).

47
C55/67 grade concrete was used in the construction of the central tower, which is nearly 210 meters
tall and the highest point of the bridge. To survive the considerable bending moments and stresses
encountered during the free cantilevering construction phase, this high-strength concrete was
required. This concrete was also used to build the somewhat shorter flanking towers, however
because of to deal with the various structural stresses, the walls of the flanking towers were slightly
thinner than those of the central tower.

Figure 54: V-shaped Piers of Queensferry Crossing (Redirect Notice, n.d.).

The approach viaducts' V-shaped piers were built with concrete of C50/60 grade. The Firth of
Forth is an aggressive saline environment, therefore durability is crucial. This blend was selected
because of its strong resistance to chloride incursion (Ceravolo & Zonta, 2018).

5.5.2 Steel

Figure 55: Single box deck section (cable-stayed bridge) (Redirect Notice, n.d.).

48
 Figure 56: Twin-box deck section (viaducts) (Redirect Notice, n.d.).

One of the most important parts of the bridge is the road deck, which is a three-cell composite
cross section composed of a concrete slab and steel boxes. The steel boxes were built on-site after
being sent from China to Scotland. Transverse frames and trapezoidal longitudinal stiffeners were
used to increase the structural strength of the steel deck sections. Through its design, the bridge
was able to withstand a range of loads and strains while it was in use (Ceravolo & Zonta, 2018).

5.5.3 Stay Cables

Figure 57: Tension and Compression Strength in Cable Stayed Bridge (Team, n.d.).

49
Stay cables on the bridge are made up of parallel strands that are individually anchored and housed
inside High Density Polyethylene (HDPE) pipes. These cables are crucial to the cable-stayed
architecture of the bridge. For corrosion prevention, the strands are waxed and galvanized,
guaranteeing a 60-year design service life. The varying length wires provide the deck with the
stability it needs and may be easily replaced if necessary (Ceravolo & Zonta, 2018).

5.5.4 Caissons and Cofferdams

Figure 58: South Tower foundation plan (Ceravolo & Zonta, 2018).

50
 Figure 59: South Tower foundation general arrangement drawing, detailing steel caisson
(Ceravolo & Zonta, 2018).

The north and south tower foundations were built using massive steel caissons that weighed up to
1,200 tonne and had a diameter of up to 30 meters. These caissons were erected precisely using
GPS technology after being manufactured off-site and carried by barge. After that, the caissons
were buried, ballasted, and filled with concrete to make them secure.

51
An octagonal cofferdam anchored deeply into Beamer Rock was used to build the central tower
base. The cofferdam was constructed using prefabricated L-shaped panels with steel sheet piling
walls and bases built of reinforced concrete. The panels were set above the rock and filled with
concrete to make a strong foundation (Ceravolo & Zonta, 2018).

5.6 CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENT

The Queensferry Crossing Bridge was built using several significant pieces of equipment. These
specialised tools and machines were critical to ensure that the project was successful.

5.6.1 Construction Hoists (Alimak Scando 650 Construction Hoists)

Figure 60: Alimak Scando 650 (ALIMAK Scando 650 FC, 2023).

Figure 61: Alimak Scando 650 Construction Hoist (ALIMAK Scando 650 FC, 2023).
52
During the construction of the suspension bridge, three concrete pylons were accessible via six
Alimak Scando 650 construction hoists. To enable passengers to escape the hoist car on the side
opposite the mast tower and onto the moving concrete formwork, each machine underwent
extensive modifications to establish a side door.

On every pylon, which measured more than 200 meters in height, there were two hoists installed:
a Scando 650 DOL that served from sea level to road level and a Scando 650 FC that served from
road level to the top of the pylon.

To create a safer working environment for installing ties, Alimak built and supplied platforms for
tie placement on each hoist. To facilitate communication between the hoist and the moving
concrete formwork, a specially made rolling tie was also created, considering the structural stresses
and forces involved in using this machinery in harsh conditions (QUEENSFERRY CROSSING -
Alimak USA, 2023).

5.6.2 Industrial Elevators (Alimak SE 500 Industrial Elevators)

Figure 62: Alimak SE 500 (Alimak Malaysia, 2022).

53
The bridge pylons are equipped with three Alimak SE 500 industrial elevators, one for each pylon,
each of which serves seventeen landings. These offer secure access for regular maintenance of the
suspension cable of the bridge.

It was necessary for the lifts to fit into shafts originally intended for different kinds of goods. To
make sure the SE 500 product would fit into the current shaft, Alimak modified the conventional
model (QUEENSFERRY CROSSING - Alimak USA, 2023).

5.6.3 Tower Cranes (Liebherr Cranes)

Figure 63: Liebherr cranes on the Queensferry Crossing (Selby, 2017).

The building of the Queensferry Crossing, which spans Scotland's Firth of Forth, involved the use
of over 10 Liebherr cranes from three distinct divisions.

54
The three Liebherr 630 EC-H 40 tower cranes were supported by two Liebherr LR 1300 crawler
cranes owned and managed by Ainscough Crane Hire Limited. On a barge in the river, one of these
cranes was fixed. The second machine was stationed on land and functioned to assist the barge by
unloading parts that needed to be transported to the tower bases.

On the Queensferry Crossing construction site, Ainscough Crane Hire ran 12 various types of
Liebherr mobile telescopic and lattice-boom cranes, weighing between 40 and 500 tonnes. The
parts required to build the bridge were lifted by cranes. Almost every model of telescopic crane
produced by Liebherr was utilised for the project, at least one of them (Selby, 2017).

5.6.4 Floating Cranes

Figure 64: Caissons positioning with floating cranes (Crossing, 2018).

The crane in the figure above is being used to position caissons as the Queensferry Crossing bridge
is being built. Caissons are huge, water-tight structures used to build bridge piers. Usually, they
are buried in the seabed or riverbed to give the bridge piers above a stable base.

In this case, a caisson is being carefully lifted and placed in the water by the floating crane.
Eventually, concrete or other materials will be poured into the caisson to create a solid base for the
support pillars of the bridge. The correct positioning of these caissons is critical for the bridge's
stability and safety (Crossing, 2018).

55
5.6.5 Deck Erection System

Figure 65: Deck Erection System (Bhattacharya, 2022).

This method played a key role in hoisting and arranging the precast concrete deck sections onto
the central towers of the bridge. The configuration required large, custom-built lifting gantries
that could withstand the massive weight of the deck portions. The bridge's centre towers contained
these gantries, which made it possible to precisely position each section as it extended outward
towards the beach (Crossing, 2018).

5.6.6 Erection Traveller Crane

Figure 66: Scheme of the erection traveller crane (Redirect Notice, n.d.).

56
The erection traveller crane was vital to the gradual launch of the deck pieces. This crane was
made for moving along the sections of the bridge that have previously been installed, lifting and
adjusting the subsequent piece into position. It guaranteed the bridge deck's balanced and
sequential extension from the towers, a technique crucial to preserving structural stability during
the building phase (Kærn & Hansen, 2017).

5.7 INNOVATIVE CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUE

The Queensferry Crossing Bridge used a variety of unique building techniques, contributing to its
rank as one of the world's most advanced infrastructure projects. The important innovations are:

5.7.1 Balanced Cantilever Construction

To preserve balance, deck pieces were put alternately on either side of each tower throughout the
building process of the bridge using the balanced cantilever method. During construction, this
technique made the bridge the longest free-standing cantilever structure in the world, reaching a
span of 644 meters (Queensferry Crossing Facts & Figures, n.d.).

5.7.2 Central Tower Stabilization

Stabilising the central tower was difficult due to a lack of direct support from anchor piers. A
virtual truss system that enhanced both static and dynamic performance was created by
overlapping or crossing the stay cables over about 25% of each main span. Additionally, the
longitudinal overturning moment at the base of the central tower was lowered by 30% due to this
crossing cable system (Carter et al., 2010).

5.7.3 Use of Caissons and Cofferdams

Caissons were employed as foundations in deeper water locations, whereas cofferdams were used
for the central tower and shallower water foundations. The caissons were huge, the largest
weighing 1,200 tonnes. Water ballasting, bentonite slurry injections, and caisson excavation all
contributed to the sinking process, which was meticulously monitored (Nichols, 2021).

57
 Figure 67: A Compressed air Caisson (Nichols, 2021).

Figure 68: A water-filled type of cofferdam is used to hold back water for a bridge repair,
(Nichols, 2021).

58
5.7.4 Innovative Deck Construction

The deck segments were manufactured in China and transported to the site, where they were
assembled and lifted into place with specialized cranes. The installation was a difficult procedure
because of strong winds and severe weather. The parts were inserted in a balanced manner to keep
the structure stable throughout construction (Ceravolo & Zonta, 2018).

5.7.5 Monolithic Connection at Central Tower

The bridge deck was joined to the central tower in one piece, necessitating a strong construction
to withstand large bending moments and deck torsion. Concrete was used to create this connection
on the steel deck's bottom flange, along with post-tensioned reinforcement (Ceravolo & Zonta,
2018).

5.7.6 Extensive Use of Structural Health Monitoring (SHM)

Figure 69: Promising bridge SHM methods (Promising Bridge SHM Methods, n.d.).
59
The bridge was fitted with an advanced SHM system that included approximately 2,000 sensors.
These sensors give real-time data on environmental actions and bridge responses, allowing for
more effective maintenance planning and early intervention to keep costs under control (Carter et
al., 2019).

5.8 TEMPORARY WORKS

Several key temporary works were required for the Queensferry Crossing Bridge construction,
including heavy-duty shoring, precision formwork systems, and modular scaffolding. These works
were essential for maintaining project safety, efficiency, and quality.

5.8.1 PERI UP Rosett Flex Modular Scaffolding System

Figure 70：PERI UP Rosett Flex Modular Scaffolding System (Peri, 2023).

The flexible scaffolding options offered by the PERI UP Rosett Flex system were designed to
accommodate the complicated construction of Queensferry Crossing. The tall structures of the
bridge had to be built, and this modular system provided integrated access options and
safety working platforms. Due to its versatility, it was able to fit into the many shapes of the bridge,
guaranteeing that workers could reach all required locations in a safe manner. Because of the
system's rapid assembly and disassembly capabilities, building time was decreased overall and
labour efficiency was maximised (Peri, 2023).
60
5.8.2 VARIO GT 24 Girder Wall Formwork System

Figure 71: VARIO GT24 Girders (Peri, 2023).

The VARIO GT 24 system was essential for precisely building the bridge's huge concrete towers
and piers. This flexible wall formwork method made it possible to create intricate, customised
forms that were precisely designed to the specifications of the structural components of the
Queensferry Crossing. It guaranteed premium concrete finishes, which were necessary for the
bridge's durability and visual appeal. The ability of the framework to be reused in other bridge
sections improved resource efficiency and decreased expenses (Peri, 2023).

5.8.3 Heavy-Duty Shoring and Support Structures

Figure 72: HD 200 Heavy-Duty Prop (Peri, 2023).

61
Heavy-duty shoring devices were crucial in providing support for the superstructure of the bridge
as it was being built. To maintain stability until the permanent structures could support the loads,
these temporary supports were essential during the cantilever construction and deck installation
phases. PERI HD 200 heavy-duty props and VR towers were among the systems that were
employed to control the large loads and preserve the structural integrity at different phases of the
building process. These shoring systems were adaptable, enabling load distribution and height
modifications based on the specific requirements of the bridge (Peri, 2023).

6.0 CONCLUSION

The Queensferry Crossing Bridge, a landmark feat in modern civil engineering, exhibits the
seamless integration of new materials, innovative construction techniques, and modern
technologies. It is the world's longest three-tower cable-stayed bridge, measuring 2.7 km in total.
The project overcame significant challenges, including environmental concerns, complex marine
foundation work, and the unique issue of ice accretion on cables, through meticulous planning and
the use of advanced techniques such as caisson foundations, balanced cantilever construction, and
self-climbing formwork. The bridge, which includes Structural Health Monitoring systems and
Intelligent Transport Systems, is designed for long-term durability, safety, and operational
efficiency, setting a new benchmark for future infrastructure projects around the world.

62
7.0 REFERENCES

A.T. Consultants, (n.d.). SPAN BY SPAN CAST IN SITU BRIDGE. https://www.international-

engineering-consultants.com/ramp5Unit1.php?lang=en

Acrow | Shoring. (n.d.). https://acrow.com/solutions/temporary-bridges/shoring-systems/

Aicrane (2024) A comprehensive overview of bridge girder launching Gantry Crane, LinkedIn.
Available at: https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/comprehensive-overview-bridge-girder-launching-
gantry-crane-sjzuc

Alimak Malaysia. (2022). FCBC Queensferry case study: Alimak Construction and Industrial
Products at work on world famous Bridge. In www.alimak.com. https://alimak.com/no/wp-
content/uploads/2023/03/Alimak-Case-Study-Queensferry-Crossing-Scotland-1614-EN-Sep-
2022.pdf

ALIMAK Scando 650 FC. (2023, March 23). Archis Hoist Solutions. https://www.archishoist
solutions.co.uk/alimak-650-fc

ARC, Q. C. (2022). Deck fan process. Queensferry Crossing ARC. https://www.queensferry

crossingarc.co.uk/build-story/deck-fan-process

ARC, Q. C. (2022). Towers. Queensferry Crossing ARC. https://www.queensferrycrossing

arc.co.uk/build-story/tower

ARC. (2022). Build Story. Queensferry Crossing ARC. https://www.queensferry

crossingarc.co.uk/build-story

Arup. (n.d.). Queensferry Crossing - The largest infrastructure project in Scotland for a generation.
Arup.com. https://www.arup.com/projects/queensferry-crossing/#:~:text=The%20Queensferry
%20Crossing%20is%20the,safety%20and%20reduce%20vehicle%20emissions.

BBC News. (2017). Queen opens new queensferry crossing. Bbc.com. https://www.
bbc.com/news/uk-scotland-edinburgh-east-fife-41143016

63
Bear Scotland. (2024). Queensferry Crossing ice accretion. BEAR Scotland. https://
www.bearscot.com/winter-portal-old/queensferry-crossing-ice-sensors-2/

Bhattacharya, T. (2022, December 21). The Queensferry Crossing — India’s top construction,
infrastructure & civil engineering magazine. India’s Top Construction, Infrastructure & Civil
Engineering Magazine. https://www.cecr.in/engineering-marvel-index/the-queensferry-crossing

Bridge Inspection - Mercado Consultants, Inc. (2020, June 9). Mercado Consultants, Inc. https://
mercadoeng.com/services/bridge-inspection/

Britannica. (1998, July 20). Cofferdam | Construction, Design & Maintenance. Encyclopedia
Britannica. Retrieved September 3, 2024, from https://www.britannica.com/technology/coffer
dam

Brocklehurst, S. (2015, December 2). The troubles of the Forth Road Bridge. BBC News.
https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-scotland-edinburgh-east-fife-34983063

Brocklehurst, S. (2020, February 11). Queensferry Crossing: The bridge that should never close.
BBC News. https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-scotland-38598155

Carter, M., Hornby, R., Hussain, N., & Murray, I. (2019). Crossing the forth. Civil Engineering,
89(1), 44–86. https://doi.org/10.1061/ciegag.0001343

Carter, M., Kite, S., Hussain, N., & Minto, B. (2010). Design of the Forth replacement crossing,
Scotland. Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers - Bridge Engineering, 163(2), 91–99.
https://doi.org/10.1680/bren.2010.163.2.91

Casagrande (no date) B240 XP-2, Casagradne Piling Rigs . Casagrande Group . Available at:
https://www.casagrandegroup.com/piling-rigs/b240-xp-2/ (Accessed: 14 August 2024).

Ceravolo, R., & Zonta, D. (2018). An application to the Queensferry Crossing Structural Health
Monitoring System Data: Parameter estimation on concrete used for the central tower. Tesi di
Laurea Magistrale. https://webthesis.biblio.polito.it/11148/1/tesi.pdf

64
Civil Digital. (2024, June 19). CivilDigital.com - Civil engineering site. CivilDigital. https://
civildigital.com/?faqs=in-incremental-launching-method-of-bridge-construction-what-are-the-
measures-adopted-to-enhance-sufficient-resistance-of-the-superstructure-during-the-launching-
process

Construction executive. (n.d.).Design-Build poses a greater risk to contractors than conventional

delivery. https://www.constructionexec.com/article/design-build-poses-a-greater-risk-to-
contractors-than-conventional-delivery

Corporation, M. I. (n.d.). Solution | Precast concrete bridges. https://resource.midasuser.com/en

/solution/precast-concrete-bridges

Crossing, Q. (2018). Finishing touches. Queensferry Crossing ARC. https://www.

queensferrycrossingarc.co.uk/build-story/finishing-touches

Crossing, Q. (2018, August 1). Explore. Queensferry Crossing ARC.

https://www.queensferrycrossingarc.co.uk/explore

Dalton, A. (2021). Queensferry crossing “ice bombs”: Could snow-repelling cable coatings or
mesh be solution?. The Scotsman. https://www.scotsman.com/news/transport/queensferry-
crossing-ice-bombs-could-be-averted-by-snow-repelling-coatings-3482245

Daswell (no date) Concrete Boom Pump, Daswell. Available at: https://daswell.com/concrete-
pump/concrete-boom-pump/

Davis & Floyd. (2024, July 18). SCDOT Bridge Inspections & Evaluation Statewide | Davis &
Floyd. https://www.davisfloyd.com/market/scdot-bridge-inspection-evaluation/

Dong, S., Zhang, W., Wang, X., & Han, B. (2023). New-generation pavement empowered by
smart and multifunctional concrete: A review. Construction and Building Materials, 402, 132980.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2023.132980

Eiffel. (n.d.). Barge Application: Bridge Construction | Eiffel Trading. Eiffel Trading Company.
https://www.eiffeltrading.com/blog/post/barge-application-bridge-construction

65
Ellis, R. (2018, March 29). The Forth Road Bridge. West Yorkshire Steel.
https://www.westyorkssteel.com/blog/the-forth-road-bridge/#:~:text=Its%20original%20capacity
%20of%2030%2C000

Enerpac (2024) How does a strand Jack work?, Enerpac Blog. Available at: https://blog.enerpac.
com/how-does-a-strand-jack-work/

ESC. (2024, April 7). What is a cofferdam, its types, and uses in the construction industry?
ESCPile. https://www.escpile.com/single-post/what-is-a-cofferdam-its-types-and-uses-in-the-
construction-industry

Fluidconstructions, & Fluidconstructions. (2024, May 22). What are the Different Types of
Bridges? | Fluidconstructions. Fluidconstructions | Earthmoving, Construction, and
Infrastructure Services in India. https://www.fluidconstructions.com/construction/what-are-the-
different-types-of-bridges/

Gerrard, N. (2023, March 27). Will self-healing concrete ever play a significant role in
construction? Construction Briefing. https://www.constructionbriefing.com/news/will-self-
healing-concrete-ever-play-a-significant-role-in-construction-/8026219.article

HBK (no date) DD1 Precise displacement and strain transducer, HBK World . HBK. Available
at: https://www.hbm.com/en/2514/dd1-dual-use-strain-displacement-strain-sensor-precise/?
product_type_no=DD1%20Dual-Use,%20Precision%20Displacement%20&%20Strain%20
Sensor

Hillier, A. (2024, May 3). Bridge building equipment: Video roundup. Enerpac Blog. https://blog.
enerpac.com/bridge-building-equipment-video-roundup/

I-35W Bridge Collapse. (2008). Thornton Tomasetti. https://www.thorntontomasetti.com/project

/i-35w-bridge-collapse

Innovative Bridge Technologies/Accelerated Bridge Construction. (n.d.). Incremental

(Longitudinal) launching of bridges | https://abc-utc.fiu.edu/mc-events/incremental-longitudinal-
launching-of-bridges/?mc_id=820

66
ITH (2015) Suspension bridge cable clamp installation at bosphorus with Ith Bolt tensioning
cylinders, ITH. Available at: https://www.ith.com/en/exhibitions-news/articles/cable-clamp-
suspension-bridge-bosporus-bolt-connection-tightening.php

Kærn, J. C., & Hansen, J. E. (2017). 16.13: Queensferry crossing cable‐stayed composite bridge.
ce/papers, 1(2-3), 4143-4152. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/319697000
_Queensferry_crossing_cable-stayed_composite_bridge

Kærn, J. C., & Hansen, J. E. (2017). 16.13: Queensferry crossing cable-stayed composite bridge.
Ce/Papers, 1(2–3), 4143–4152. https://doi.org/10.1002/cepa.47

Kenneth Stearn. (2016). Queensferry Crossing from start to Feb 2016 [Video]. YouTube.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LaYXCQf8Ayc

Klein, C., & Klein, C. (2023, June 1). Construction of the Brooklyn Bridge took 14 Years—And
multiple lives. HISTORY. https://www.history.com/news/brooklyn-bridge-construction-deaths

Lamb, R., Morrissey, M., & Kiger, P. J. (2021, November 12). How bridges work. HowStuff
Works. https://science.howstuffworks.com/engineering/civil/bridge7.htm

Lorek, S. (2022, April 6). What is BIM (Building Information Modeling). Trimble Construction.
https://constructible.trimble.com/construction-industry/what-is-bim-building-information-
modeling

MachineDesign (2018) Lift bridge redesign relies on 21st century cables and cable carriers,
Machine Design. Available at: https://www.machinedesign.com/mechanical-motion-systems/
article/21837200/lift-bridge-redesign-relies-on-21st-century-cables-and-cable-carriers

Masters, B. (2017, May 10). What do civil engineers do, exactly? - Bridge Masters. Bridge
Masters. https://bridgemastersinc.com/what-do-civil-engineers-do/

Masters, B. (2017b, December 11). Breaking down essential parts of a bridge structure [Term
Guide]. Bridge Masters. https://bridgemastersinc.com/breaking-down-essential-parts-of-a-
bridges-structure

67
Masters, B. (2022, September 7). Digital Twins: The present and Future of bridge construction
and maintenance. Bridge Masters. https://bridgemastersinc.com/digital-twins/

Matterport, E. T. (2024, March 7). How to implement digital twins in construction [Examples].
Matterport. Retrieved September 2, 2024, from https://matterport.com/learn/digital-twin/
construction

Mersey Gateway Project. (2015). Concrete pour for bridge pylons marks next step for the Mersey
Gateway Project | The Mersey Gateway Project. Merseygateway.co.uk.
https://merseygateway.co.uk/concrete-pour-for-bridge-pylons-marks-next-step-for-the-mersey-
gateway-project/

MIDASoft. (n.d.). Understanding beam bridges: design, components, and construction methods.
https://www.midasbridge.com/en/blog/understanding-beam-bridges-design-components-and-
construction-methods

Mitchell, J. (2021, April 16). Main parts of a bridge - explained - EngineeringClicks.

EngineeringClicks. https://www.engineeringclicks.com/main-parts-of-a-bridge/

Morby, A. (2014). Queensferry Crossing opens £245m below budget. Construction Enquirer News.
https://www.constructionenquirer.com/2017/08/30/queensferry-crossing-opens-245m-below-
budget/

Nachazel, T. (2020) What is a strain gauge and how does it work?, Michigan Scientific
Corporation. Available at: https://www.michsci.com/what-is-a-strain-gauge/

Nebraska (no date) Personal Protective Equipment Resources, Personal Protective Equipment
Resources | Announce | University of Nebraska-Lincoln. Available at: https://newsroom.unl.edu
/announce/ltap/13575/78111 (Accessed: 14 August 2024).

Nichols, A. (2021, August 18). Cofferdams and Caissons. Dam-It-Dams. https://

damitdams.com/cofferdams-and-caissons/

68
Peri. (2023, June 29). PERI supports development of Queensferry crossing. PERI Supports
Development of Queensferry Crossing. https://www.peri.ltd.uk/projects/queensferry-
crossing.html#impressions

PileBuck (2020) Floating cranes for marine construction, Pile Buck Magazine. Available at:
https://pilebuck.com/floating-cranes-marine-construction/

Pooja (2023) Tower cranes in construction: Purposes, types and operations procedures, gcelab.
Available at: https://www.gcelab.com/blog/tower-cranes-in-construction-purposes--types-and-
operations-procedures

Pooja. (2023, January 15). What is Self-healing Concrete? Gurukul of Civil Engineers. Retrieved
September 2, 2024, from https://www.gcelab.com/blog/what-is-self-healing-concrete

QUEENSFERRY CROSSING - Alimak USA. (2023, March 17). Alimak USA. https://
alimak.com/us/project/queensferry-crossing-english/

Queensferry Crossing facts & figures. (n.d.). https://www.theforthbridges.org/about-the-forth-

bridges/queensferry-crossing/queensferry-crossing-facts-figures/#:~:text=Prior%20to%20the
%20completion%20of,Guinness%20as%20the%20longest%20ever.

Queensferry crossing wind shielding success. (n.d.). https://www.theforthbridges.org/news-and-

blogs-from-the-forth-bridges/queensferry-crossing-wind-shielding-success/#:~:text=The%20
Queensferry%20Crossing%20is%20fitted,the%20unshielded%20Forth%20Road%20Bridge.

Queensferry Crossing. (n.d.). Www.arup.com. https://www.arup.com/projects/queensferry-

crossing/

Queensferry Crossing. (n.d.). Www.theforthbridges.org.https://www.theforthbridges.org/about-

the-forth-bridges/queensferry-crossing/

Redirect notice. (n.d.). https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.

dlteng.com %2Fen%2Fprojects%2FForth_crossing.html&psig=AOvVaw2xU_MofptUzE4wGu
m3rV-x&ust=1725381770920000&source=images&cd=vfe&opi=89978449&ved=0CBQQjRxq
FwoTCMjChJPapIgDFQAAAAAdAAAAABAJ

69
Research Gate. (n.d.). A schematic view of bridge construction by incremental ResearchGate.
https://www.researchgate.net/figure/A-schematic-view-of-bridge-construction-by-incremental-
launching-method-ILM_fig1_281627983

ResearchGate. (n.d.). Figure 6. Promising bridge SHM methods. https://www.

researchgate.net/figure/Promising-bridge-SHM-methods_fig5_330831101

SAPTV, L. L. P. (2023, August 29). Bridging the Gap: How Norway is Using Digital Twins to
Maintain Its Bridges. https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/bridging-gap-how-norway-using-digital-
twins

Scottish government. (2017). Queensferry Crossing official opening. Www.gov.scot.

https://www.gov.scot/news/queensferry-crossing-official-opening/

Selby, R. (2017, July 10). Scotland’s Queensferry Crossing Construction Supported by Liebherr
Cranes. Crane Network News. https://cranenetworknews.com/liebherr-cranes-support-
queensferry-crossing/#:~:text=The%20three%20Liebherr%20630%20EC,a%barge%20in%20the
%20river.

Sharma, P. (2023, August 9). Application of BIM for road and bridge construction projects.
NOVATR. https://www.novatr.com/blog/using-bim-for-construction-of-roads-and-bridges#1

Simex. (2022, January 3). Bridge Construction Methods and the Principle Factors in 2022 |
SIMEX Bangladesh. SIMEX Bangladesh. https://simex.com.bd/bridge-construction-methods/

Structurae. (n.d.). Incremental launching using match cast method. Structurae. https://structurae
.net/en/structures/bridges/incremental-launching-using-match-cast-method

Surveyors, M. E. &. (2024, January 18). Innovations in bridge Engineering: Forging the path to
the future. MFS Engineering. https://www.mfsengineers.com/news/2024/innovations-in-bridge-
engineering-forging-the-path-to-the-future

Team, M. (n.d.). Dynamic analysis of Fan, Semi-Fan and Harp type of Cable-Stayed bridges.
https://www.midasbridge.com/en/blog/bridgeinsight/dynamic-analysis-of-fan-semi-fan-and-harp-
type-of-cable-stayed-bridges

70
Tee. (2024). BTBE2053 Advanced Building Construction Technology. Modern Formwork
Systems Lecture Notes. Pg 21

The Construction. (2012, January 17). INCREMENTAL LAUNCHING METHOD OF BRIDGE

CONSTRUCTION. theconstructor.org. https://theconstructor.org/structures/incremental-
launching-method-of-bridge-construction/6126/

The Construction. (2018b, August 4). Different cast-in-situ methods of bridge construction.
theconstructor.org. https://theconstructor.org/structures/different-cast-in-situ-methods-bridge-
construction/6140/

The Three Bridge. (2017). Queensferry Crossing. The Three Bridges.

https://www.thethreebridges.com/queensferry-crossing/

Theconstructor.org. (2018, August 4). Different cast-in-situ methods of bridge construction.

https://theconstructor.org/structures/different-cast-in-situ-methods-bridge-construction/6140/

Think Reliability. (n.d.). I-35 Bridge Collapse | ThinkReliability, case studies. ThinkReliability.
https://www.thinkreliability.com/case_studies/root-cause-analysis-of-the-i-35-bridge-collapse/

TKCompanies. (n.d.). Deck Barges. TK Comapnies. https://tkcompanies.com/tk-boats/deck-

barges/

Transport Scotland (2013). FRC Project Update October 2013. In Transport Scotland,
Scotland.https://www.transport.gov.scot/media/35835/frc-project-update-october-2013.pdf

Transport Scotland. (2014). Rise of the towers. Theforthbridges.org. https://www.theforth

bridges.org/about-the-forth-bridges/queensferry-crossing/queensferry-crossing-history/
queensferry-crossing-construction-blog/rise-of-the-towers/

Transport Scotland. (2008a). FRC project update April 2008. Transport Scotland.
https://www.transport.gov.scot/progress-update/frc-project-update-april-2008/

Transport Scotland. (2008b). FRC project update September 2008. Transport Scotland.
https://www.transport.gov.scot/progress-update/frc-project-update-september-2008/

71
Transport Scotland. (2009). FRC project update April 2009. Transport Scotland.
https://www.transport.gov.scot/progress-update/frc-project-update-april-2009/

Transport Scotland. (2012a). FRC project update August 2012. Transport Scotland.
https://www.transport.gov.scot/progress-update/frc-project-update-august-2012/

Transport Scotland. (2012b). FRC project update February 2012. Transport Scotland.
https://www.transport.gov.scot/progress-update/frc-project-update-february-2012/

Transport Scotland. (2014). FRC project update May 2014. Transport Scotland.
https://www.transport.gov.scot/progress-update/frc-project-update-may-2014/

Transport Scotland. (2015). Forth replacement Crossing. https://www.transport.gov

.scot/media/35842/frc-project-update-september-2015.pdf

Transport Scottland (2011). Preparation. Queensferry Crossing ARC.

https://www.queensferrycrossingarc.co.uk/build-story/preparation

Victor, O. (2023, March 19). Construction of concrete bridges| Precast. STRUCTURES

CENTRE. https://structurescentre.com/construction-of-concrete-bridges-precast/

Wagner, E. (2017, August 20). The Brooklyn Bridge’s builders fought fire, flood, and death. The
Daily Beast. https://www.thedailybeast.com/the-brooklyn-bridges-builders-fought-fire-flood-
and-death

Wang (no date) Anka Inclined Hoist Bridge Pylon/Dam Construction Building Curve Passenger
Hoist, Made-In-China. Anka Hoist. Available at: https://potential168.en.made-in-china.com/
product/mBwEjVFMEopx/China-Anka-Inclined-Hoist-Bridge-Pylon-Dam-Construction-
Building-Curve-Passenger-Hoist.html

Woods, C. (2024). Bridge Construction: How Bridges Are Built. Boomandbucket.com.

https://www.boomandbucket.com/blog/bridge-construction

72
Zigurat. (2020, June 12). BIM for new bridge construction - Engineers & Architects Blog.
Retrieved September 2, 2024, from https://www.e-zigurat.com/en/blog/bim-new-bridge-
construction-engineers-architects/

73