BME101 / BME201: FUNDAMENTALS OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Unit -1: Normal and shear Stress, strain, Hookes’ law, Poisson’s ratio, elastic constants and their
relationship, stress-strain diagram for ductile and brittle materials, factor of safety.

1. Introduction
When a force is applied on a body it suffers a change in shape, that is, it deforms. A force to resist the
deformation is also set up simultaneously within the body and it increases as the deformation
continues. The process of deformation stops when the internal resisting force equals the externally
applied force. If the body is unable to put up full resistance to external action, the process of
deformation continues until failure takes place. The deformation of a body under external action
and accompanying resistance to deform are referred to by the terms strain and stress respectively.

Stress:-
Stress is defined as the internal resistance set up by a body per unit area when it is deformed. It is
measured in N/m2 and this unit is specifically called Pascal (Pa). A bigger unit of stress is the mega
Pascal (MPa).
1 Pa = 1N/m2, 1MPa = 106 N/m2 =1N/mm2, 1GPa = 109 N/m2

1.1. Three Basic Types of Stresses

Basically three different types of stresses can be identified. These are related to the nature of the
deforming force applied on the body. That is, whether they are tensile, compressive or shearing.

Tensile Stress-
Consider a uniform bar of cross sectional area ‘A’ subjected to an axial tensile force ‘P’. The stress at
any section x-x normal to the line of action of the tensile force P is specifically called tensile stress σt.

Since internal resistance R at x-x is equal to the applied force P, we have,

𝑰𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒂𝒕 𝒙 − 𝒙 𝑹 𝑷
𝝈𝒕 = = =
𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝒂𝒕 𝒙 − 𝒙 𝑨 𝑨
Under tensile stress the bar suffers stretching or elongation.
1
Compressive Stress:
If the bar is subjected to axial compression instead of axial tension, the stress developed at x-x is
specifically called compressive stress σc
𝑰𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒂𝒕 𝒙−𝒙 𝑹 𝑷
𝝈𝒄 = = 𝑨 = 𝑨.
𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝒂𝒕 𝒙−𝒙

Under compressive stress the bar suffers shortening.

1.1.1. Shear Stress- Consider the section x-x of the rivet forming joint between two plates subjected
to a tensile force P as shown in figure.

The stresses set up at the section x-x acts along the surface of the section, that is, along a direction
tangential to the section. It is specifically called shear or tangential stress at the section and is
denoted by (𝜏).

𝑰𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒂𝒕 𝒙 − 𝒙 𝑹 𝑷
𝝉= = =
𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝒂𝒕 𝒙 − 𝒙 𝑨 𝑨

Normal or Direct Stresses- When the stress acts at a section or normal to the plane of the section, it
is called a normal stress or a direct stress. It is a term used to mean both the tensile stress and the
compressive stress.

Simple and Pure Stresses- The three basic types of stresses are tensile, compressive and shear
stresses. The stress developed in a body is said to be simple tension, simple compression and simple
shear when the stress induced in the body is (a) single and (b) uniform.

If the condition (a) alone is satisfied, the stress is called pure tension or pure compression or pure
shear, as the case may be.

Volumetric Stress:
Three mutually perpendicular like direct stresses of same intensity produced in a body constitute a
volumetric stress.
For example, consider a body in the shape of a cube subjected equal normal pushes on all its six
faces. It is now subjected to equal tensile stresses ‘σ’ in all the three mutually perpendicular
directions. The body is now said to be subjected to a volumetric tensile stress ‘σv’.

Volumetric stress produces a change in volume of the body without producing any distortion to the
shape of the body.
2
2. Strains:

Strain is defined as ratio of change in dimension to original dimension of a body when it is

deformed. The strain is a dimensionless quantity as it just defines the relative change in shape.
𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒅𝒊𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏
𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏 = 𝑰𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝒅𝒊𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏
2.1. Linear Strain
Linear strain of a deformed body is defined as the ratio of the change in length of the body due to
the deformation to its original length in the direction of the force applied.
If l is the original length and δl the change in length occurred due to the deformation, the linear
strain e induced is given by
𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝑳𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 𝜹𝒍
𝑳𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒂𝒓 𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏(𝝐) = =
𝑶𝒓𝒊𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝑳𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 𝒍

Linear strain may be a tensile strain, εt or a compressive strain εc accordingly as δl refers to an

increase in length or a decrease in length of the body. If we consider one of these as +ve then the
other should be considered as –ve, as these are opposite in nature.
2.2. Lateral Strain
Lateral strain of a deformed body is defined as the ratio of the change in transverse dimension
(breadth/thickness of a rectangular bar or diameter of a circular bar) of the body due to the
deformation to its original transverse dimension (breadth/thickness of a rectangular bar or
diameter of a circular bar).

𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒔𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒔𝒆 𝒅𝒊𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝜹𝒃 𝜹𝒅

𝑳𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒍 𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏(𝝐) = = =
𝑶𝒓𝒊𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒔𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒔𝒆 𝒅𝒊𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒃 𝒅
2.3. Volumetric Strain
Volumetric strain of a deformed body is defined as the ratio of the change in volume of the body to
the deformation to its original volume. If V is the original volume and δV the change in volume
occurred due to the deformation, the volumetric strain ev induced is given by
𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝜹𝑽
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒄 𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏(𝝐𝒗 ) = =
𝑶𝒓𝒊𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝑽
2
Consider a uniform rectangular bar of length l, breadth b and depth d as shown in figure. Its volume
V is given by,

V =lxbxd
δV = δl bd + δb ld + δd lb
δV /V = (δl / l) + (δb / b) + (δd / d)
𝝐𝒗 = 𝝐𝒙 + 𝝐𝒚 + 𝝐𝒛
This means that volumetric strain of a deformed body is the sum of the linear strains in three mutually
perpendicular directions.
2.4. Shear Strain
Shear strain is the strain accompanying a shearing action. It is the angle in radian measure through
which the body gets distorted when subjected to an external shearing action. It is denoted by Ф.
Consider a cube ABCD subjected to equal and opposite forces across the top and bottom forces AB

and CD. If the bottom face is t 1

D 1.
Shear strain in a cube(φ)= tan φ  φ = CC1 / CB

3. Poisson’s Ratio- It is the ratio of lateral (transverse) strain to longitudinal strain in the direction
of force applied.
𝑳𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒍 𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏 𝝐𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒍
𝑷𝒐𝒊𝒔𝒔𝒐𝒏′ 𝒔𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐 (𝝂)𝒐𝒓(µ)𝒐𝒓 𝟏/𝒎 = =
𝑳𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒂𝒓 𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏 𝝐𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒂𝒓

Value of the Poisson’s ratio for most materials lies between 0.25 and 0.33.

3
 Biaxial strain:

4. Relationship between Stress and Strain

Relationship between Stress and Strain are derived on the basis of the elastic behaviour of material
bodies. A standard mild steel (ductile) specimen is subjected to a gradually increasing pull by
Universal Testing Machine. The stress-strain curve obtained is as shown below.

Ductility: It is the ability of solid material to plastically deform to a larger extent before fracture
when it is subjected to external tensile loading.

Brittle: It is the tendency of solid material to undergo a negligible plastic deformation before
fracture when it is subjected to external loading.

Ductile Fracture: A ductile fracture is a type of material failure characterized by significant

plastic deformation before ultimate rupture. Ductile fractures are typically associated with
materials that can absorb a considerable amount of energy through plastic d eformation.

4
Brittle Fracture: A brittle fracture is a type of material failure characterized by little to no
plastic deformation before rupture. Unlike ductile fractures, brittle fractures occur abruptly
and without significant warning, often with minimal deformation of the material.

Brittle materials typically have low ductility and low energy absorption capacity, leading to
sudden and catastrophic failure.

Proportional Limit (A): This limit is represented by point A on the graph. Up to this limit, the
stress and the strain induced in the specimen are directly proportional to each other, i.e. the
specimen obeys Hooke’s law. Beyond this point, the stress is not proportional to the strain.

Elastic Limit (B): This limit is represented by point B on the graph. Upto this limit, the material is
said to be elastic. This implies that the material regains its original shape and dimensions after the
removal of the external load. There are no residual deformations seen in the specimen, on removal of
the load. After this point, the material is said to become plastic.

Yield Point(C-D): Contrary to what the name suggests, this is a region rather than a point. It is
limited by the upper yield point ‘C’ and the lower yield point ‘D’. The stress – strain curve in this part
of the graph is almost horizontal, which implies that there is an appreciable increase in strain for a
negligible increase in stress. Yielding starts at ‘C’ and ends at ‘D’. After the point ‘D’, the material, due
to strain hardening again starts taking load and the curve rises, as seen in the figure. The material now
is said to be plastic and the deformation is of nearly permanent nature.

Yielding is the result of movement of dislocation defect at a specific stress in the crystal lattice.

Ultimate Stress(E): This is shown by the point ‘E’ on the graph. It represents the maximum stress
that a material can take before it fails. The specimen however does not fail at this point. After this
point, the curve starts dropping.

5
Breaking Point(F): This is the point at which the specimen fails. After the ultimate stress point,
necking of the specimen takes place, which causes a loss in the load carrying capacity of the specimen
and ultimately causes it to fail. This point is represented on the curve, by point ‘F’

Factor of Safety(FoS): It is the ratio between the maximum strength of material, or component to
the actual load or stress it is expected to experience during normal use.

It is a measure of how much stronger a system is than required for its intended load.

𝑴𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒎 𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔
𝑭𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝑺𝒂𝒇𝒆𝒕𝒚 =
𝑾𝒐𝒓𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔

Hooke’s Law: Hooke’s Law states that the strain of the material is proportional to the applied
stress within the elastic limit of that material.If ‘σ’ is the stress induced in a material and ‘e’ the
corresponding strain, then according to Hooke’s law,
σ∝ε
σ / ε = E, Proportionality constant.
This constant E is called the Modulus of elasticity or Young’s Modulus.

Elastic Constants
Elastic constants are used to express the relationship between stresses and strains.
Hooke’s law, is stress/strain = a constant, within a certain limit. It follows that there can be three
different types of such constants. (Which we may call the elastic constants or elastic module)
corresponding to three distinct types of stresses and strains. These are given below.

(i) Modulus of Elasticity or Young’s Modulus (E)- Modulus of Elasticity is the ratio of direct
stress to corresponding linear strain within elastic limit. If σ is any direct stress below the elastic
limit and ε the corresponding linear strain, then

Modulus of Elasticity or Young’s Modulus (E) = σ / e.

(ii) Modulus of Rigidity or Shear Modulus (G)- Modulus of Rigidity is the ratio of shear stress
to shear strain within elastic limit.
the corresponding shear strain, then

Modulus of Elasticity or Young’s Modulus (G) = τ / φ.

(iii) Bulk Modulus (K)- Bulk Modulus is the ratio of volumetric stress to volumetric strain within
the elastic limit. If σv is the volumetric stress within elastic limit and εv the corresponding volumetric
strain, we have Bulk Modulus (K) = σv / εv.

6
Engineering Stress Vs True Stress:

8. Relationship among the elastic constants

8.1. Relationship between Modulus of Elasticity E and Bulk Modulus K

Consider a cube element subjected to volumetric tensile stress σ in X, Y and Z directions. Stress in
each direction is equal to σ. ie σx = σy = σz =σ
Consider strains induced in X-direction by these stresses.
σx induces tensile strain , while σy and σz induces compressive strains. Therefore,
𝜎𝑥 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑧
𝜀𝑥 = − 𝜇 − 𝜇
𝐸 𝐸 𝐸
𝜎
𝜀𝑥 = 𝐸 (1 − 2𝜇) (∴ σx = σy = σz =σ)

Due to the perfect symmetry in geometry and stresses εY = (σ/E)[1-2 μ]

εZ = (σ/E)[1-2 μ]
K = σ / eυ =σ/(ex+ey+ez) K= σ/[3(σ/E)(1-2 μ)]

E = 3K (1-2 μ) is the required relationship.

8.2. Relationship between modulus of elasticity and modulus of rigidity

Consider a square element ABCD of side ‘a’ subjected to simple shear of intensity ‘τ’ as shown in
figure.
Let ‘τ ' be the shear stress produced in the faces AB and CD due to this shear force. The
complementary shear stress consequently produced in the vertical faces AD and BC is also equal to
same and shown in figure as ‘τ’.
Due to the pure shearing force, the cube is deformed ABCD to ABC'D'. The point D moved to D' and
point C moved to C' as shown in fig.

7
 The shear strain = the angle of distortion (ø = CC'/ BC) --…………………- (1)
Shear strain = Shear stress /Rigidity modulus (ø = CC'/ BC = τ/G)
From C, drop a perpendicular CC” onto distorted diagonal AC'
The normal strain experienced by the diagonal AC is (ε AC) = C’C”/AC (Considering that AC” ≈ AC)
(ε AC) = C’C”/AC
= (CC′/cos 45o)/(BC/cos 45o) = CC′/(2BC)
Substitute (CC'/BC) form equation (1) in the above expression,
𝑪𝑪′ 𝝉
The normal strain of the diagonal AC (𝜺𝑨𝑪 = = ) ……………………….(2)
𝟐𝑩𝑪 𝟐𝑮

Due to the action of pure shear stress in the block ABCD, the diagonal AC is subjected to Direct
Tensile Stress σ1 and the diagonal BC is subjected to Direct Compressive Stress σ2. Both these
stresses are equal to shear stress τ.

From Geometry:
If the Poisson's ratio is µ, the net Strain in the diagonal AC
𝜎1 𝜎2
𝜀𝐴𝐶 = − 𝜇
𝐸 𝐸
But the normal stress σ1 = + τ and σ2 = - τ
𝜏 (−𝜏)
∴ 𝜀𝐴𝐶 = − 𝜇
𝐸 𝐸
8
 𝜏
𝜀𝐴𝐶 = 𝐸 (1 + 𝜇)…………...(3)
The equation (2) and equation (3) are same, then we equate the both
𝜏 𝜏
∴ 𝜀𝐴𝐶 = = (1 + 𝜇)
2𝐺 𝐸

E = 2G (1+ µ) This is the required relationship between E and G.

8.3. Relationship among the constants

From above,
E = 2G[1+ μ)] and E = 3K[1-2 μ]
E = 3K[1-2(E/2G -1)] = 3K[1-E/G +2]
9K = E[1+(3K/G)] = E[(N+3K)/G]
E = 9GK/(G+3K)
Numericals

Q:1 At an axial load of 22 kN , a 45 mm wide by 15 mm thick polymide polymer bar elongates 3

mm while the bar width contracts 0.25 mm . The bar is 200 mm long . At the 22 kN load, the
stress in the polymer bar is less than its proportional limit . Determine
1. The modulus of elasticity
2. Poisson’s ratio
3. The change in the bar thickness. (22-23_Odd_AKTU)

Q:2 Following data relate to a bar subjected to a tensile test: (2022-23 Even AKTU)
Diameter of the bar = 30 mm
Tensile Load=54 KN
Gauge Length = 300 mm
Extension of the bar=0.112 mm
Change in Diameter=0.00366 mm
Calculate Poisson’s ration , modulus of elasticity , modulus of rigidity and bulk modulus.

Q:3 What is the shape of cross section obtained after yielding in cases of brittle material. Explain
in brief. (2023-24 Odd AKTU)

Q: 4 A metallic wire (Y= 20 X 10 10 N/ m2 and µ =0.26) of length 3 m and diameter 0.1 cm is

stretched by a load of 10 Kg. Calculate the decrease in diameter of the wire. (2023-24 Odd AKTU)

Q:5 A vertical circular copper bar 20 mm diameter and 3 m long carries a tensile load of 200 N.
Calculate the elongation, modulus of rigidity and decrease in diameter and volumetric strain.
Take E = 100 GPa, Poisson’s ratio =0.25 (2023-24 Even AKTU)