Topics to be covered in Unit-06

• Fundamentals of Stress and Strain,

• Poisson Ratio,
• Elastic Constants,
• Thermal Strain and Stress,
• Bending of Beams, Bending Equation,
• Torsion equation, Torsion of Springs & Shafts.

Also, follow the blackboard discussion on numerical problems.

Practice numerical problems related to stress-strain, deformation, thermal stresses, bending of beams and
torsion of solid & hollow shafts and Springs.

References:
Strength of Materials: S S Bhavikatti
Any textbook on the Basics of Mechanical Engineering
2
 Stress and Strain
There are certain behaviours of all materials under the influence of an external force (load).
Stress and strain are one of the measures to show these behaviours.
Stress is a resistive force per unit area, which is developed internally to oppose the external force subjected to
the material.
The strain is a measure of the deformation of the material per unit dimensions.
Direct Stress: If the stress developed in the material is perpendicular to the cross-section, it is known as direct
stress.
Shear Stress: If the stress is tangential or parallel to the cross-section, it is known as shear stress.
Resistive force
Applied
(induced)
force/load

R R

Direct stress (normal to resisting area)

Shear stress (parallel to the resisting area)

3
 Normal and Shear Stress
Normal force
Resisting σ
area
τ
Shear
force

When the intensity of force is uniform across the cross-section:

P P

The units of direct stress are the units of force divided by area, i.e., N/m2, also known as Pascal (Pa).
4
 Tensile and compressive stresses

Resisting force (R)

Where σ is the compressive stress, and A is the

cross-sectional area.

It causes a shortening of the bar. Such forces which are

causing shortening are known as compressive forces and
Under this type of normal stress, the bar is being extended. Such corresponding stresses as compressive stresses.
stress, which causes the extension of the bar, is called tensile stress.
5
 Strain
✔ When changes in longitudinal direction are taking place,
changes in lateral direction also take place.
✔ The nature of these changes in the lateral direction is
exactly opposite to that of changes in the longitudinal
direction, i.e., if the extension is taking place in the
longitudinal direction, the shortening of lateral dimension
takes place, and if shortening is taking place in
longitudinal direction extension takes place in lateral
Cross-section directions.
✔ The lateral strain may be defined as changes in the lateral
When direct stress is applied to a body, it will cause the body dimension per unit lateral dimension.
to change its dimensions.

Direct strain, denoted by the symbol (epsilon ε or e ), is a

measure of this change and is defined as the ratio of the
change in length to the original length.
The change in length in the direction of applied load per unit
length is known as linear/longitudinal strain. Linear/longitudinal strain is in the direction of applied
force, and lateral strain is in the direction normal to the
applied force.

Because strain is a ratio of lengths, it has no units. 6

 Poisson’s Ratio
• When a material undergoes changes in length, it undergoes changes of opposite nature in lateral directions.
• For example, if a bar is subjected to direct tension in its axial direction, it elongates and at the same time, its sides
contract.
L
D
Tensile
force d
b' b

Within the elastic limit, there is a constant ratio between lateral strain and
linear strain. This constant ratio is called Poisson’s ratio (µ).

For most metals, its value is between 0.25 to 0.33

7
 Stress-strain relationship
The stress-strain relation of any material is obtained by conducting tension tests in the laboratories on standard
specimens. Different materials behave differently, and their behaviour in tension and compression differ slightly.

Tension test specimen and tension Stress-strain diagram of a ductile material (Mild Steel)
test specimen after breaking
8
 Salient points observed on the stress-strain curve
(a) Limit of Proportionality (A): It is the limiting value of the stress up to which stress is proportional to
strain.
(b) Elastic Limit: This is the limiting value of stress up to which if the material is stressed and then released
(unloaded), strain disappears completely, and the original length is regained. This point is slightly beyond the
limit of proportionality.
(c) Upper Yield Point (B): This is the stress at which the load starts reducing and the extension increases. This
phenomenon is called the yielding of material. At this stage, strain is about 0.125 per cent, and stress is about
250 N/mm2.
(d) Lower Yield Point (C): At this stage, the stress remains the same, but strain increases for some time.
(e) Ultimate Stress (D): This is the maximum stress the material can resist. At this stage, the cross-sectional
area at a particular section starts reducing very fast. This is called neck formation. After this stage, the load is
resisted, and hence, the stress developed starts reducing.
(f) Breaking Point (E): The stress at which the specimen fails is called breaking point.

9
Stress-strain relation in aluminium and high-strength steel
The stress p at which if unloading is made, there In brittle materials, there is no appreciable change in the
will be a 0.2 per cent permanent set known as 0.2 rate of strain. There is no yield point, and no necking
per cent proof stress, and this point is treated as a takes place. The ultimate point and breaking point are one
yield point for all practical purposes and the same. The strain at failure is very small.

Stress-strain relation in Aluminium and Stress-strain relation for brittle material

high-strength steel 10
Nominal/Engineering stress vs True stress

11
Engineering strain vs True strain

Instantaneous/
current length
(not original
length)

True strain is also known as

Logarithmic strain 12
 Hooke’s Law
• Robert Hooke, an English mathematician, conducted several experiments and concluded that stress is
proportional to strain up to the elastic limit. This is called Hooke’s law.

• Thus, Hooke’s law is up to the elastic limit.

• However, present-day sophisticated experiments have shown that for mild steel, Hooke’s law holds good up to
the proportionality limit, which is very close to the elastic limit.

σ∝ε

σ is direct stress, and ε is linear strain

σ =E ε

E is the constant of proportionality of the material, known as the Modulus of Elasticity or Young’s modulus,
named after the English scientist Thomas Young.

13
 Extension/Shortening of a Bar

P: Intensity of normal load

L: Length of bar/object
A: cross-sectional area normal to the loads
E: Young’s Modulus

Extension/Shortening (deformation) Important expression for solving numerical problems

14