SCIENCE PRE TEST (GED)

SCIENTIFIC METHOD
 Observation: Natural Fenomenal
 Hypothesis: Formed and explanations or prediction
 Experrimentation: Test the hypothesis
 Conclusion: Analyzing and interpreting the data from experimenting
 Conslusion: Is based on the results

DEPENDENT AND INDEPENDENT VARIABLES

 Independent: Is the variable that is manipulated or changed by the experimenter to observe (Couse
or predictor of the outcome)
 Dependent: The variable that is being measured or observed and is affected by the independent
variable (Effect of the outcome being measured)
PROPIERTIES OF LIFE AND CELLULAR BIOLOGY
 The 7 characteristics of living organism are
o Organizations
o Energy utilization/metabolism
o Homeostasis
o Growth and development
o Reproductions
o Adaptations
o Response to stimuli

ORGANELS OF A ANIMAL CELL

An animal cell contains several organelles, each with a specific function:

Nucleus – The control center of the cell, containing

DNA and directing cell activities.
 Cell Membrane – A protective barrier that controls
what enters and exits the cell.
 Cytoplasm – A jelly-like substance that holds
organelles in place and allows chemical reactions to
occur.
 Mitochondria – The powerhouse of the cell,
producing energy (ATP) through cellular respiration.
 Ribosomes – Small structures that make proteins for
the cell.
 Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER):
o Rough ER – Has ribosomes and helps in protein
production.
o Smooth ER – Lacks ribosomes and makes lipids (fats) and detoxifies substances.
 Golgi Apparatus – Packages and distributes proteins and other molecules throughout the cell.
  Lysosomes – Contain digestive enzymes that break down waste and harmful materials.
 Vacuoles – Store nutrients, water, and waste (smaller in animal cells compared to plant cells).
 Centrioles – Help with cell division (mitosis).

Each organelle works together to keep the cell functioning properly.

2. Blood cells of types

Blood cells have essential roles in the body:

 Red blood cells (erythrocytes) transport oxygen from the lungs to tissues and remove carbon dioxide.
A low count (anemia) can cause fatigue, weakness, and shortness of breath.
 White blood cells (leukocytes) are part of the immune system, helping fight infections.
o Granulocytes:
 Neutrophils fight bacterial infections (low levels = neutropenia, increasing infection risk).
 Basophils participate in inflammatory reactions.
 Eosinophils combat parasitic infections and allergic reactions.
o Monocytes aid immunity and recover first after neutropenia.
 Platelets (thrombocytes) help blood clotting. A low count (thrombocytopenia) increases bruising,
bleeding, and nosebleeds.

Since blood cells have a limited lifespan, they are constantly replenished by hematopoietic stem cells in the
bone marrow. While only white blood cells are part of the immune system, red blood cells and platelets are also
crucial for overall health monitoring.

GENETICS AND HEREDITY

1. Basics of Genetics

 Genetics is the study of how traits are passed from parents to offspring.
 DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid): The molecule that carries genetic instructions.
 Genes: Segments of DNA that determine traits.
 Chromosomes: Structures in the cell’s nucleus made of DNA; humans have 46 chromosomes (23 pairs).
 Alleles: Different forms of a gene (e.g., dominant vs. recessive).

2. Mendelian Genetics (Gregor Mendel’s Discoveries)

 Dominant alleles (A): Always show their trait if present.

 Recessive alleles (a): Only show if both alleles are recessive (aa).
 Genotype: The genetic makeup (AA, Aa, or aa).
 Phenotype: The physical trait expressed (brown eyes, blue eyes, etc.).

Punnett Squares:

 Used to predict possible genetic ou tcomes in offspring.

Example:
100% of offspring will show the dominant trait.

3. Types of Inheritance

 Complete Dominance: One dominant allele completely masks a recessive one.

 Incomplete Dominance: A mix of traits (e.g., red + white flowers = pink).
 Codominance: Both traits show up (e.g., AB blood type).
 Sex-linked Traits: Genes found on sex chromosomes (e.g., color blindness, hemophilia, more common in males).

4. Mutations and Genetic Disorders

 Mutations: Changes in DNA that can be beneficial, harmful, or neutral.

 Genetic disorders: Caused by mutations (e.g., Down syndrome, sickle cell anemia).

5. DNA and Protein Synthesis

 Replication: DNA copies itself before cell division.

 Transcription: DNA → RNA (mRNA carries instructions).
 Translation: RNA → Protein (ribosomes make proteins from amino acids).

6. Selective Breeding and Genetic Engineering

 Selective breeding: Choosing organisms with desired traits to reproduce (e.g., dog breeding).
 Genetic engineering: Altering DNA (e.g., GMOs, gene therapy).

EVOLUTIONS AND NATURAL SELECTIONS

1. Evolution Basics

 Evolution is the process by which species change over time due to genetic variations.
 It explains the diversity of life on Earth.
 Common ancestor: All living organisms share a common origin.

2. Natural Selection (Darwin’s Theory)

 "Survival of the fittest": Organisms with traits that help them survive and reproduce pass those traits to
their offspring.
 Natural Selection: Is the process by which individuals with certain trait are more likely to survive and
reproduce than individual without these traits
 Four key principles:
1. Variation: Individuals in a population have differences (e.g., fur color, beak shape).
2. Overproduction: More offspring are produced than can survive.
3. Adaptation: Traits that help survival become more common over generations.
4. Descent with modification: Over time, successful traits spread, changing the species.
3. Evidence for Evolution

 Fossil records: Show changes in species over time.

 Comparative anatomy: Similar body structures in different species suggest a common ancestor (e.g.,
human arm, whale flipper).
 Genetics and DNA: More similarities in DNA mean closer relationships between species.
 Embryology: Early development stages of different species look similar.

4. Other Mechanisms of Evolution

 Mutation: Random changes in DNA can introduce new traits.

 Genetic drift: Chance events change traits in small populations.
 Gene flow: Movement of genes between populations (migration).

5. Speciation (How New Species Form)

 Geographic isolation: When populations are separated, they evolve differently.

 Reproductive isolation: Even if they live in the same area, differences in behavior or traits prevent
interbreeding.

6. Artificial Selection vs. Natural Selection

 Artificial selection: Humans breed organisms for specific traits (e.g., dog breeds, crops).
 Natural selection: Happens naturally based on survival advantages.

ECOLOGY AND CLASSIFICATION

1. Ecology Basics

 Ecology: The study of interactions between organisms and their environment.

 Biotic factors: Living things (plants, animals, bacteria).
 Abiotic factors: Non-living things (sunlight, water, soil, temperature).

2. Levels of Organization

From smallest to largest:

1. Organism – A single living thing.

2. Population – Group of the same species in an area.
3. Community – Different populations interacting in an area.
4. Ecosystem – Community + abiotic factors.
5. Biome – Large regions with similar climate and life (e.g., desert, rainforest).
6. Biosphere – All life on Earth.

3. Energy Flow in Ecosystems

 Producers (Autotrophs): Make their own food (plants, algae).

 Consumers (Heterotrophs): Eat other organisms.
o Herbivores: Eat plants.
o Carnivores: Eat animals.
 o Omnivores: Eat both plants and animals.
 Decomposers: Break down dead organisms (bacteria, fungi).

Food Chains vs. Food Webs

 Food chain: A single path of energy flow (e.g., grass → rabbit → fox).
 Food web: A network of food chains (more realistic).

Energy Pyramid

 Only 10% of energy is passed to the next level; the rest is lost as heat.

4. Symbiotic Relationships (Species Interactions)

 Mutualism (+/+): Both species benefit (e.g., bees & flowers).

 Commensalism (+/0): One benefits, the other is unaffected (e.g., barnacles on whales).
 Parasitism (+/-): One benefits, the other is harmed (e.g., ticks on dogs).

5. Classification of Life (Taxonomy)

 Taxonomy: Science of naming/classifying organisms (Heps us to understand the evolutionary history

and relationships among organisms).
 Binomial Nomenclature: Scientific names use Genus + species (e.g., Homo sapiens for humans).

Levels of Classification (from broadest to most specific):

"Dear King Philip Came Over for Good Soup"

1. Domain (Bacteria, Archaea, Eukarya)

2. Kingdom (Animalia, Plantae, Fungi, Protista, etc.)
3. Phylum
4. Class
5. Order
6. Family
7. Genus
8. Species (smallest, most specific group)

6. Environmental Issues

 Biodiversity: Variety of life; important for ecosystem health.

 Deforestation: Cutting down trees affects ecosystems.
 Climate Change: Human activities (burning fossil fuels) cause global warming.
 Pollution: Harmful substances in air, water, or land.

HUMAN ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HEALTH

1. Human Body Organization

 Cells: The basic unit of life.

 Tissues: Groups of similar cells working together (e.g., muscle, nerve, connective tissues).
 Organs: Structures made of different tissues (e.g., heart, lungs, brain).
 Organ Systems: Groups of organs that perform specific functions.
2. Major Human Body Systems

1. Circulatory System (Cardiovascular)

 Function: Transports oxygen, nutrients, and waste.

 Main organs:
o Heart: Pumps blood.
o Blood vessels:
 Arteries (carry blood away from heart).
 Veins (carry blood to the heart).
 Capillaries (smallest blood vessels).
 Blood Components:
o Red blood cells (carry oxygen).
o White blood cells (fight infections).
o Platelets (help clot blood).

2. Respiratory System

 Function: Provides oxygen and removes carbon dioxide (To exchange gases with the environment)
 Main organs:
o Lungs: Where gas exchange happens.
o Trachea (windpipe).
o Diaphragm: Muscle that helps with breathing.

3. Digestive System

 Function: Breaks down food for nutrients.

 Main organs:
o Mouth → Esophagus → Stomach → Small intestine (absorbs nutrients) → Large intestine
(absorbs water) → Rectum.

4. Nervous System

 Function: Controls body functions and responses.

 Main organs:
o Brain: Control center.
o Spinal cord: Sends messages.
o Nerves: Carry signals.

5. Muscular & Skeletal Systems

 Function: Movement, support, and protection.

 Bones: Provide structure and produce blood cells.
 Muscles: Allow movement.

6. Immune System

 Function: Defends the body against infections.

 Main parts: White blood cells, lymph nodes.
7. Endocrine System

 Function: Produces hormones that regulate body functions.

 Main organs: Glands (pituitary, thyroid, adrenal, pancreas).

8. Integumentary System

 Function: Protecting the body for the external damages and regulating tempeture
 Main organs:
o Ephidermis: Outer Layer
o Dermis: Middle Layer
o Hypodermis: Deepest layer
o Hair: Helps with sensory input.
o Nails Made of keratin.
o Sebaceous: Moisturize and protects the skin

9. Reproductive System

 Function: Produces offspring.

 Main organs:
o Males: Testes (produce sperm).
o Females: Ovaries (produce eggs).

3. Human Health and Diseases

1. Non-Communicable Diseases

 Not spread from person to person.

 Examples: Diabetes, heart disease, cancer.

2. Communicable Diseases

 Spread by pathogens (viruses, bacteria, fungi, parasites).

 Examples: Flu, COVID-19, tuberculosis.
 Prevention: Vaccines, hygiene, antibiotics (for bacterial infections).
 The difference between a virus and a bacterium: A Bacteria can reproduce outside of a host organism, while
viruses cannot.

3. Lifestyle and Health

 Balanced diet: Important for body function.

 Exercise: Keeps heart and muscles strong.
 Sleep: Essential for brain function and recovery.
 Avoiding harmful substances: Smoking, excessive alcohol, and drugs harm the body.

MATTER: PROPERTIES, STATES AND PHASE CHANGES

1. Properties of Matter
  Physical Properties: Can be observed without changing the substance (e.g., color, density, mass,
volume, boiling/melting point).

 Density: Mass / Volume

 Chemical Properties: Describe how a substance reacts (e.g., flammability, reactivity, ability to rust).

2. States of Matter

1. Solid – Definite shape and volume; particles are tightly packed.

2. Liquid – Definite volume, but takes the shape of its container; particles move more freely.
3. Gas – No fixed shape or volume; particles move fast and spread out.
4. Plasma – High-energy state where electrons are free (found in stars, lightning)

3. Phase Changes (Changes of State)

 Melting (Solid → Liquid)

 Freezing (Liquid → Solid)
 Evaporation (Liquid → Gas, slow process)
 Boiling (Liquid → Gas, occurs at boiling point)
 Condensation (Gas → Liquid)
 Sublimation (Solid → Gas, like dry ice)
 Deposition (Gas → Solid, like frost forming)

Key Fact: Phase changes are physical changes because the substance stays the same.

4. Laws Related to Matter

 Law of Conservation of Mass: Matter cannot be created or destroyed, only changed.

 Law of Conservation of Energy: Energy is not lost, only transformed during phase changes.

ATOMIC THEORY, STRUCTURE AND THE PERIODIC

TABLE
1. Atomic Theory

 Atoms are the smallest units of matter.

 The atomic theory developed over time:
o Dalton: Atoms are tiny, indivisible particles.
o Thomson: Discovered electrons (Plum Pudding Model).
o Rutherford: Discovered the nucleus (Gold Foil Experiment).
o Bohr: Electrons orbit in specific energy levels.
o Modern Model: Electrons move in a cloud around the nucleus.

2. Atomic Structure

 Protons (+) → Found in the nucleus, determine atomic number.

 Neutrons (0) → Found in the nucleus, add mass.
 Electrons (−) → Move around the nucleus in energy levels.
 Atomic Number = Number of protons.
 Mass Number = Protons + Neutrons.
3. The Periodic Table

 Organizes elements by atomic number and properties.

 Groups (Columns 1-18): Elements in a group have similar properties.
 Periods (Rows 1-7): Show increasing atomic number.
 Metals (Left side): Good conductors, shiny, malleable.
 Nonmetals (Right side): Poor conductors, brittle.
 Metalloids (Along staircase): Have properties of both metals & nonmetals.

4. Important Groups

 Group 1 (Alkali Metals): Highly reactive.

 Group 2 (Alkaline Earth Metals): Reactive, but less than Group 1.
 Group 17 (Halogens): Very reactive nonmetals.
 Group 18 (Noble Gases): Unreactive, full outer electron shells.

5. Chemical Symbols & Notation

 Element Symbol: Shortened name (e.g., H for Hydrogen, O for Oxygen).

 Isotopes: Atoms of the same element with different neutrons (e.g., Carbon-12 vs. Carbon-14).
 Ions: Atoms that gain or lose electrons to become charged.

CHEMICAL BONDING, REACTIONS AND STOICHIOMETRY

1. Chemical Bonding

Atoms bond to achieve a stable electron configuration (full outer shell).

Types of Chemical Bonds:

1. Ionic Bonds – Formed when electrons are transferred from one atom to another.
o Occurs between metals and nonmetals (e.g., NaCl – table salt).
o Forms positive (cation) and negative (anion) ions.
2. Covalent Bonds – Formed when electrons are shared between atoms.
o Occurs between two nonmetals (e.g., H₂O – water, CO₂ – carbon dioxide).
3. Metallic Bonds – Found in metals, where electrons move freely between atoms.

2. Chemical Reactions

A chemical reaction occurs when substances change into new substances with different properties.

Signs of a Chemical Reaction:

 Color change
 Gas production (bubbles)
 Temperature change
 Precipitate formation (solid forming in a liquid)

Types of Chemical Reactions:

1. Synthesis (Combination) – Two or more substances combine.

 o A + B → AB
2. Decomposition – A compound breaks down.
o AB → A + B
3. Single Replacement – One element replaces another.
o A + BC → AC + B
4. Double Replacement – Two compounds swap elements.
o AB + CD → AD + CB
5. Combustion – A substance reacts with oxygen, releasing energy (burning).
o Fuel + O₂ → CO₂ + H₂O

3. Balancing Chemical Equations

 The Law of Conservation of Mass states that matter cannot be created or destroyed, so equations must
be balanced.
 Example:
o Unbalanced: H₂ + O₂ → H₂O
o Balanced: 2H₂ + O₂ → 2H₂O

4. Stoichiometry (Basic)

 Stoichiometry deals with the amounts of reactants and products in a reaction.

 Mole concept: 1 mole = 6.022 × 10²³ particles (Avogadro’s number).
 Molar ratios: Used to determine how much product/reactant is needed in a reaction.

Example:
If you have the equation 2H₂ + O₂ → 2H₂O, you can use stoichiometry to determine how many moles of
water (H₂O) are produced from a given amount of hydrogen or oxygen.

THERMDINAMICS AND HEAT TRANSFER

1. Thermodynamics Basics

 Thermodynamics is the study of heat, energy, and work.

 Temperature measures the average kinetic energy of particles in a substance.
 Heat is the transfer of thermal energy from a hotter object to a colder one.
 Energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transferred or converted (Law of Conservation of
Energy).

Laws of Thermodynamics

1. First Law (Law of Energy Conservation): Energy is conserved; it can change forms but cannot be
created or destroyed.
2. Second Law: Heat always flows from hot to cold, and entropy (disorder) increases over time.
3. Third Law: As temperature approaches absolute zero (0 K), molecular motion stops.

2. Methods of Heat Transfer

1. Conduction – Transfer of heat through direct contact.

o Example: A metal spoon heating up in a hot pot.
2. Convection – Transfer of heat through fluid movement (liquids & gases).
o Example: Boiling water, warm air rising.
 3. Radiation – Transfer of heat through electromagnetic waves.
o Example: The Sun’s heat warming the Earth.

3. Specific Heat Capacity

 Specific heat is the amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of 1 gram of a substance by 1°C.
 Water has a high specific heat, meaning it takes longer to heat up and cool down.

4. Phase Changes and Heat

 Endothermic (absorbs heat): Melting, boiling, evaporation.

 Exothermic (releases heat): Freezing, condensation.
 Heat does not increase temperature during a phase change; it is used to change states.

WAVES, ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM

1. Waves

 Waves transfer energy without transferring matter.

 Two Main Types of Waves:
1. Mechanical Waves – Require a medium (solid, liquid, gas) to travel through.
 Examples: Sound waves, water waves.
 Types:
 Transverse Waves – Move perpendicular to the direction of the wave (e.g.,
light waves).
 Longitudinal Waves – Move parallel to the direction of the wave (e.g., sound
waves).
2. Electromagnetic Waves – Do not need a medium; can travel through space.
 Examples: Light, radio waves, X-rays.

Wave Properties:

 Wavelength – Distance between two crests or troughs.

 Frequency – How many waves pass a point per second (measured in Hertz, Hz).
 Amplitude – Wave height, related to energy.
 Speed – How fast the wave moves (depends on the medium).

2. Electricity

 Electricity is the movement of electrons.

 Charge:
o Protons (+) and Electrons (−) create electric forces.
o Opposite charges attract, like charges repel.

Current, Voltage, and Resistance

 Current (I) – Flow of electric charge (measured in Amperes, A).

 Voltage (V) – Electrical potential energy (measured in Volts, V).
 Resistance (R) – Opposes current flow (measured in Ohms, Ω).
 Ohm’s Law: V = I × R
Types of Circuits:

1. Series Circuit – One path for current; if one component fails, all stop working.
2. Parallel Circuit – Multiple paths; if one fails, others continue working.

3. Magnetism

 Magnets create a magnetic field and have North (N) and South (S) poles.
 Opposite poles attract, like poles repel.

Electromagnetism

 Moving electric charges create a magnetic field.

 Electromagnets: Made by running electric current through a wire coil around iron.
 Generators convert mechanical energy into electricity.
 Motors convert electricity into mechanical energy.

MECHANICS, FLUID DYNAMICS AND PROPERTIES OF

GAS
1. Mechanics (Forces and Motion)

 Force: A push or pull on an object (measured in Newtons, N).

 Newton’s Laws of Motion:
1. First Law (Inertia): An object at rest stays at rest, and an object in motion stays in motion
unless acted on by an outside force.
2. Second Law (F = m × a): Force = Mass × Acceleration. More force = more acceleration.
3. Third Law (Action-Reaction): For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.
 Speed vs. Velocity vs. Acceleration:

1. Speed = Distance ÷ Time.

2. Velocity = Speed with direction.
3. Acceleration = Change in velocity over time.

 Momentum = Mass × Velocity (Objects in motion resist stopping).

 Work = Force × Distance (Measured in Joules, J).
 Power = Work ÷ Time (Measured in Watts, W).

2. Fluid Dynamics (Liquids and Gases in Motion)

 Fluids (liquids and gases) flow and take the shape of their container.

Key Principles:

1. Archimedes' Principle (Buoyancy) – Objects in a fluid experience an upward force equal to the weight
of the fluid displaced.
o Example: Why boats float.
2. Pascal’s Principle – Pressure applied to a confined fluid is transmitted equally in all directions.
o Example: Hydraulic systems (car brakes, lifting equipment).
3. Bernoulli’s Principle – Faster-moving fluid creates lower pressure.
 o Example: Airplane wings (lift force), how perfume sprays.

3. Properties of Gases

 Gases have no fixed shape or volume and expand to fill their container.
 Pressure (P) – Force exerted by gas particles colliding with surfaces (measured in Pascals, Pa).
 Temperature (T) – Higher temperature = faster-moving gas particles.
 Volume (V) – The space gas occupies.

Gas Laws:

1. Boyle’s Law (P ↑, V ↓) → If pressure increases, volume decreases (inverse relationship).

2. Charles’ Law (T ↑, V ↑) → If temperature increases, volume increases (direct relationship).
3. Ideal Gas Law: PV = nRT (relates pressure, volume, temperature, and number of gas particles).

EARTH AND SPACE SCIENCE

1. Earth's Structure and Systems

 Layers of Earth:
1. Crust – Thin outer layer (solid rock).
2. Mantle – Semi-solid rock that moves (convection currents cause plate movement).
3. Outer Core – Liquid iron and nickel.
4. Inner Core – Solid iron and nickel (hottest layer).
 Plate Tectonics:

1. Earth’s crust is divided into tectonic plates that move, causing:

 Earthquakes (faults and plate movement).
 Volcanoes (magma reaches the surface).
 Mountain formation (plates collide).

 Rock Cycle:

1. Igneous Rocks – Formed from cooled lava/magma.

2. Sedimentary Rocks – Formed from compressed layers of sediment.
3. Metamorphic Rocks – Formed under heat and pressure.

 Weathering and Erosion:

1. Weathering – Breaking down of rocks.

2. Erosion – Movement of rock particles by wind, water, or ice.

2. Earth's Atmosphere and Weather

 Atmosphere Layers:
1. Troposphere – Weather occurs here.
2. Stratosphere – Contains the ozone layer.
3. Mesosphere – Burns up meteors.
4. Thermosphere – Aurora borealis (Northern Lights) occurs here.
5. Exosphere – Outermost layer, blends into space.
 Weather vs. Climate:
 1. Weather – Short-term atmospheric conditions (rain, temperature).
2. Climate – Long-term weather patterns in an area.

 Water Cycle:
1. Evaporation – Water turns into vapor.
2. Condensation – Water vapor cools into clouds.
3. Precipitation – Rain, snow, sleet, or hail falls.
4. Runoff/Infiltration – Water moves across or into the ground.

3. Solar System and Space

 The Sun:
o A star that provides heat and light.
o Energy comes from nuclear fusion (hydrogen fusing into helium).
 Planets in Order (from Sun):

o Mercury
o Venus
o Earth
o Mars
o Jupiter
o Saturn
o Uranus
o Neptune
(Mnemonic: "My Very Educated Mother Just Served Us Nachos")

 Moon Phases:
o Caused by the Moon’s orbit around Earth.
o New Moon → Waxing Crescent → First Quarter → Waxing Gibbous → Full Moon →
Waning Gibbous → Last Quarter → Waning Crescent.
 Eclipses:
o Solar Eclipse – Moon blocks the Sun (daytime).
o Lunar Eclipse – Earth’s shadow covers the Moon (nighttime).
 Tides:
o Caused by the Moon’s gravity pulling on Earth’s oceans.
o High tide and low tide occur in cycles.
 Galaxies and Universe:
o Milky Way – Our galaxy.
o Big Bang Theory – The universe began expanding from a single point.

ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND SUSTAINABILITY

1. Ecosystems and Biodiversity

 Ecosystem – A community of living (biotic) and non-living (abiotic) things interacting.

 Biodiversity – The variety of life in an ecosystem; high biodiversity = healthier ecosystems.
 Food Chains & Food Webs:
o Producers (Plants) → Primary Consumers (Herbivores) → Secondary Consumers
(Carnivores) → Decomposers (Bacteria, fungi).
o Energy decreases as it moves up the food chain.
2. Human Impact on the Environment

 Deforestation – Cutting down forests reduces biodiversity and increases carbon dioxide.
 Pollution – Harmful substances in air, water, and land.
o Air Pollution: Burning fossil fuels releases CO₂ (causes climate change) and pollutants (causes
smog, acid rain).
o Water Pollution: Chemicals, plastics, and waste harm marine life.
o Soil Pollution: Pesticides and waste reduce soil fertility.
 Climate Change – Caused by greenhouse gases (CO₂, methane) trapping heat in Earth’s atmosphere.
 Ozone Depletion – Caused by CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons), allowing more UV radiation to reach Earth.

3. Natural Resources and Sustainability

 Renewable Resources – Can be replenished (e.g., solar, wind, water, trees).

 Nonrenewable Resources – Limited supply (e.g., fossil fuels, coal, oil).
 Sustainability – Using resources wisely so future generations have access to them.

Ways to Promote Sustainability:

1. Reduce – Use fewer resources.

2. Reuse – Find new uses for old materials.
3. Recycle – Process materials to make new products.
4. Conserve Energy – Use renewable energy sources (solar, wind).
5. Protect Ecosystems – Prevent habitat destruction and conserve biodiversity.

4. Waste Management

 Landfills – Most common waste disposal but can cause pollution.

 Recycling – Reduces waste and conserves materials.
 Composting – Organic waste breaks down into nutrient-rich soil.