Computer Networks

1.1 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
 1-1 DATA COMMUNICATIONS
The term telecommunication means communication at a
distance. The word data refers to information presented
in whatever form is agreed upon by the parties creating
and using the data. Data communications are the
exchange of data between two devices via some form of
transmission medium such as a wire cable.

Topics discussed in this section:

▪ Components of a data communications system
▪ Data Flow

1.2
 Fundamental Characteristics
■ Delivery: Data must be received by intended
device, correct destination
■ Accuracy: No alterations in data during
transmission
■ Timeliness: minimal delay, real time
transmission
■ Jitter: It refers to variation in packet arrival
time. It is uneven delay in the delivery of audio
or video packets

1.3
 Figure 1.1 Components of a data communication system

5 components: Sender, Receiver, Protocol, Transmission

medium and Message

Without using protocol, two devices might be connected but not communicating, just
like someone speaking French might not be understood by someone speaking
Japanese.

1.4
 Data Formats

■ Text: different sets of bit patterns are

used to represent text symbols. Each
such set is called a code. Unicode (32
bits, most common), ASCII codes
■ Numbers
■ Images: matrix, RGB, CMY
■ Audio
■ Video
1.5
 Figure 1.2 Data flow (simplex, half-duplex, and full-duplex)

Unidirectional communication
Examples: Keyboards, traditional monitors

Each station can transmit and receive but not at the same time
Ex. Walkie Talkies, Citizen Band Radios

both station can transmit and receive simultaneously, channel shared

1.6 Ex. Telephone networks
 1-2 NETWORKS

A network is a set of devices (often referred to as nodes)

connected by communication links. A node can be a
computer, printer, or any other device capable of sending
and/or receiving data generated by other nodes on the
network. A link can be a cable, air, optical fiber, or any
medium which can transport a signal carrying
information.
Topics discussed in this section:
▪ Network Criteria
▪ Physical Structures
▪ Categories of Networks
1.7
 Network Criteria

■ Performance
■ Depends on Network Elements (number of users, h/w, s/w, medium)
■ Trasmit Time: amount of time for a message to travel from one
device to another
■ Response time: elapsed time between enquiry and response
■ Measured in terms of Delay and Throughput
■ Reliability
■ Failure rate of network components, time it takes a link to recover
from failure
■ Measured in terms of availability/robustness
■ Security
■ Data protection against corruption/loss of data due to:
■ Errors, Malicious users, data breaches, losses

1.8
 Physical Structures

■ Type of Connection
■ Point to Point - single transmitter and
receiver, dedicated link between devices,
microwave, satellite links, remote control

■ Multipoint - multiple recipients of single

transmission, channel is shared either
spatially or temporally

1.9
 Figure 1.3 Types of connections: point-to-point and multipoint

1.10
 Physical Topology-

■ The way in which network is laid out

physically
■ Connection of devices
■ Type of transmission - unicast, mulitcast,
broadcast

1.11
 Figure 1.4 Categories of topology

1.12
 Figure 1.5 A fully connected mesh topology (five devices)

• Dedicated point to point link Advantages:

• Total links: n(n-1)/2 • No traffic issues
• To accommodate these many links, • Robustness, failure of one link
every device on the network must does not affect the entire network
have n-1 I/O ports • Fault Identification and fault
isolation is easier
• Privacy and Security

Disadvantages:
• Amount of cabling and I/O ports required
• Installation & reconnection difficult
• Limited usage
• Expensive hardware

1.13
 Figure 1.6 A star topology connecting four stations

• Dedicated point to point link to central controller

• No direct traffic between devices
• Less expensive than mesh
• Only one link and one I/O port per device
• Installation & Reconfiguration easier
• Less cabling required
• Fault identification and isolation easy
• One link fails then only that link is affected

Disadvantages:
If hub goes down, entire system fails

Uses:
In LAN, High Speed LANs

1.14
 Figure 1.7 A bus topology connecting three stations

• Multipoint connections
• A long cable act as backbone to connect all devices
• Drop lines and taps to connect nodes with backbone
• Tap splices into the main cable and creates contact with the metallic core
• Signal travels in the backbone and becomes weaker as it goes farther & farther.
• There is limit on the number of taps that can be supported
• Easy installation, Less cabling required than mesh & star
• Difficult reconnection and fault isolation
• Signal reflection at taps degrade signal quality
• Fault in the bus spots the entire transmission
• Uses: in early LANs, Ethernet LANs

1.15
 Figure 1.8 A ring topology connecting six stations

• Signal regeneration at every node

• Easier installation and reconfiguration
• Media and traffic constraints
• Unidirectional traffic is unadvantgeous
• Break in the ring disables the network
• Wasused in earlier LANs- Token Ring

1.16
 Figure 1.9 A hybrid topology: a star backbone with three bus networks

1.17
 Categories of Networks

■ Local Area Networks (LANs)

■ Short distances
■ Designed to provide local interconnectivity, few kms only
■ Wide Area Networks (WANs)
■ Long distances
■ Provide connectivity over large areas
■ Metropolitan Area Networks (MANs)
■ Provide connectivity over areas such as a city, a campus
■ High speed connection
■ Cable TV networks

Standards: OSI and TCP/IP

1.18
 Figure 1.10 An isolated LAN connecting 12 computers to a hub in a closet

1.19
 Figure 1.11 WANs: a switched WAN and a point-to-point WAN

X.25, Frame Relay,

ATM

1.20
 Figure 1.12 A heterogeneous network made of four WANs and two LANs

1.21
 1-4 PROTOCOLS

A protocol is synonymous with rule. It consists of a set of

rules that govern data communications. It determines
what is communicated, how it is communicated and when
it is communicated. The key elements of a protocol are
syntax, semantics and timing

Topics discussed in this section:

▪ Syntax
▪ Semantics
▪ Timing

1.22
 Elements of a Protocol

■ Syntax
■ Structure or format of the data
■ Indicates how to read the bits - field delineation
■ Semantics
■ Interprets the meaning of the bits
■ Knows which fields define what action
■ Timing
■ When data should be sent and what
■ Speed at which data should be sent or speed at which it is being
received.

1.23
 2-2 THE OSI MODEL
Established in 1947, the International Standards
Organization (ISO) is a multinational body
dedicated to worldwide agreement on
international standards. An ISO standard that
covers all aspects of network communications is
the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model. It
was first introduced in the late 1970s.

Topics discussed in this

section:
Layered Architecture
Peer-to-Peer Processes
Encapsulation

2.24
 Note

ISO is the organization.

OSI is the model.

2.25
 Figure 2.2 Seven layers of the OSI model

2.26
 Figure 2.3 The interaction between layers in the OSI model

2.27
 Figure 2.4 An exchange using the OSI model

2.28
 2-3 LAYERS IN THE OSI MODEL

In this section we briefly describe the functions

of each layer in the OSI model.

Topics discussed in this

section:
Physical Layer
Data Link Layer
Network Layer
Transport Layer
Session Layer
Presentation Layer
Application Layer

2.29
 Figure 2.5 Physical layer

2.30
 Figure 2.6 Data link layer

2.31
 Figure 2.7 Hop-to-hop delivery

2.32
 Figure 2.8 Network layer

2.33
 Figure 2.9 Source-to-destination delivery

2.34
 Figure 2.10 Transport layer

2.35
 Note

The transport layer is responsible for the delivery

of a segment from one process to another.

2.36
 Figure 2.11 Reliable process-to-process delivery of a message

2.37
Figure 2.12 Session layer

2.38
 Note

The session layer is responsible for dialog

control and synchronization.

2.39
 Figure 2.13 Presentation layer

2.40
 Note

The presentation layer is responsible for translation,

compression, and encryption.

2.41
 Figure 2.14 Application layer

2.42
 Note

The application layer is responsible for

providing services to the user.

2.43
 Figure 2.15 Summary of layers

2.44
 The TCP/IP Reference Model

■ The TCP/IP reference model.

45
 2-4 TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE
The layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite do not
exactly match those in the OSI model. The
original TCP/IP protocol suite was defined as
having four layers: host-to-network, internet,
transport, and application. However, when TCP/IP
is compared to OSI, we can say that the TCP/IP
protocol suite is made of five layers: physical,
data link, network, transport, and application.
Topics discussed in this
Physical and section:
Data Link Layers
Network Layer
Transport Layer
Application Layer
2.46
 Figure 2.16 TCP/IP and OSI model

2.47
 Full Forms: TCP/IP and OSI model

■ SMTP – Simple Mail Transfer Protocol

■ FTP – File Transfer Protocol
■ HTTP – Hyper Text Transfer Protocol
■ DNS – Domain Name Server
■ SNMP – Simple Network Management Protocol
■ SCTP - Stream Control Transmission Protocol
■ TCP – Transmission Control Protocol
■ UDP – User Datagram Protocol
■ ARP - Address Resolution Protocol
■ RARP - Reverse Address Resolution Protocol
■ ICMP - Internet Control Message Protocol
■ IGMP - Internet Group Management Protocol
■ IP – Internet Protocol

2.48
 Multiplexing and
Demultiplexing

2.49
 2-5 ADDRESSING
Four levels of addresses are used in an internet
employing the TCP/IP protocols: physical, logical,
port, and specific.

Topics discussed in this

section:
Physical Addresses
Logical Addresses
Port Addresses
Specific Addresses

2.50
 Figure 2.17 Addresses in TCP/IP

2.51
 Figure 2.18 Relationship of layers and addresses in TCP/IP

2.52
 Example 2.2

As we will see in topics ahead, most local-area networks

use a 48-bit (6-byte) physical address written as 12
hexadecimal digits; every byte (2 hexadecimal digits) is
separated by a colon, as shown below:

07:01:02:01:2C:4B

A 6-byte (12 hexadecimal digits) physical address.

2.53
 Example 2.3

Figure 2.20 shows a part of an internet with two routers

connecting three LANs.
Each device (computer or router) has a pair of addresses
(logical and physical) for each connection.

In this case, each computer is connected to only one link

and therefore has only one pair of addresses.

Each router, however, is connected to three networks

(only two are shown in the figure). So each router has
three pairs of addresses, one for each connection.
2.54
 Figure 2.20 IP addresses

2.55
 Example 2.4

Figure 2.21 shows two computers communicating via the

Internet. The sending computer is running three
processes at this time with port addresses a, b, and c. The
receiving computer is running two processes at this time
with port addresses j and k. Process a in the sending
computer needs to communicate with process j in the
receiving computer. Note that although physical
addresses change from hop to hop, logical and port
addresses remain the same from the source to
destination.

2.56
 Figure 2.21 Port addresses

2.57
 Note

The physical addresses will change from hop to hop,

but the logical addresses usually remain the same.

2.58
 Example 2.5

As we will see in Chapter 23, a port address is a 16-bit

address represented by one decimal number as shown.

753

A 16-bit port address represented

as one single number.

2.59
 Note

The physical addresses change from hop to hop,

but the logical and port addresses usually remain the same.

2.60