Non-mendelian genetics involves the pattern of inheritance that does not follow Mendel’s

laws. It describes the inheritance of traits linked to a single gene on chromosomes.

When scientists began exploring more and more test crosses, they observed that there
are several traits that do not match up with Mendel’s laws.
Let us have a detailed look at the different types of non-mendelian inheritance patterns.
Variations Involving Single Genes

 Incomplete Dominance
In incomplete dominance, the traits blend together producing an intermediate
phenotype. If two flowers are crossed together, a hybrid will be produced that is in
between both the parents. For eg., in snapdragon plant, if a homozygous white flower is
crossed with a homozygous red flower, a pink flower is obtained.

 Codominance
When the two alleles present, are simultaneously expressed, it is known as codominance.
For eg., in some varieties of chicken, the alleles for black feathers are codominant with
alleles for white feathers. If a black chicken is crossed with a white chicken, a chicken with
both white and black feathers are obtained.
Types of Codominance
 Multiple alleles: Some populations have multiple alleles of a given gene. For eg.,
the gene for coat colour in rabbits has four common alleles: C, cch, ch, and c.
 Pleiotropy: When one gene affects multiple characteristics, it is known as
pleiotropy.
For eg., Marfan Syndrome results in several symptoms such as very tall height, thin fingers,
heart problems, dislocation of lens, etc. These symptoms are not related directly, but are
caused by the mutation of a single gene.
 Lethal alleles: A few genes have alleles that affect the survival of the organisms.
For eg., lethal yellow occurs due to a mutation in mice that turns its coat yellow.
Mice with homozygous alleles die during embryonic development. Lethal alleles can be
dominant or recessive and can be expressed in homozygous or heterozygous conditions.
Polygenic Inheritance
There are a few traits that are controlled by many genes. For eg., our height is controlled
by more than 400 genes. Skin pigmentation is the result of several genes.

Extranuclear Inheritance
It is the transmission of genes that occurs outside the nucleus. Mitochondrial DNA is
passed on from mother to offspring. It usually occurs in cytoplasmic organelles such as
mitochondria and chloroplast.
It is a form of non-Mendelian inheritance discovered by Carl Correns.
The mitochondrial diseases are also passed on to the offspring. This does not follow
Mendel’s laws.
For more information on non-Mendelian inheritance or other related topics, keep visiting
BYJU’S website or download BYJU’S app for further reference.
Frequently Asked Questions
Q1

What is the difference between Mendelian and non-Mendelian inheritance?

The Mendelian traits are determined by dominant and recessive alleles of one gene. On
the contrary, non-Mendelian traits are not determined by dominant and recessive alleles
and can be governed by more than one gene.
Q2
What is codominance?
In codominance, the heterozygous alleles in a gene pair are simultaneously expressed.
The trait is neither dominant nor recessive.
Q3
What is polygenic inheritance?

There are a few traits that are controlled by a number of genes. This is known as polygenic
inheritance. For eg., skin pigmentation.
Q4
What is a non-Mendelian trait?
A non-Mendelian trait is the one that does not pass on to successive generations. For eg.,
blood types, hair colour, height, etc.
Multiple Allele in a Population
Heterozygous means a person has two different alleles, whereas homozygous means they
only have one type of allele. There may be many mutant alleles in a population. They arise
from an unintentional mutation in both the wild type and the mutant alleles. Multiple
alleles exist in a population when there are many variations of a gene present. In diploid
organisms, each organism has the ability to express two alleles at the same time. Haploid
organisms and cells only have one copy of a gene, but the population can still have many
alleles.
Mutations and Multiple Alleles
Mutations can cause a different sequence of nucleic acid bases in the DNA, either in a
simple or drastic way. Mutations can lead to novel forms of protein, which can allow
organisms to develop new pathways, structures, and functions. Humans have over 3
billion base pairs, and mutations in any base pair can cause a new allele. Multiple alleles
combine in different ways in a population, producing different phenotypes. This is the
basis of natural selection, where new mutations arise and new lines of genetics are born.

Characteristics of Multiple Alleles

 When there are more than two different variants of a gene at a certain locus,
multiple alleles, a type of genetic diversity, appear.
 Multiple alleles can result in a variety of combinations, as opposed to two alleles,
where there are only two possible combinations.
 This opens up the possibility for a broad variety of phenotypic features, including
blood type, eye colour, and hair colour.
 The ABO blood type system used by people is one of the most well-known
examples of multiple alleles.
 Three alleles, A, B, and O, make up the ABO system. Specific glycoproteins found
on the surface of red blood cells are encoded by these alleles.
 The O allele does not code for any antigen, while the A allele does for the A
antigen, the B allele does for the B antigen, and so on. Because the A and B alleles
are codominant, both antigens will be expressed on a person’s red blood cells if
they inherit one of each.
Pleiotropy
Pleiotropy refers to the phenomenon in which one gene influences several attributes,
wherein one allele may cause a variety of phenotypic features in several alleles. This is
possible because a gene may produce a protein or RNA molecule that functions in several
cellular or metabolic pathways. As a result, modifications to the gene sequence may affect
a variety of biological functions, producing pleiotropic effects.

The gene that causes sickle cell anaemia is one instance of pleiotropy. This gene produces
the haemoglobin protein, which is in charge of transporting oxygen in red blood cells.
However, a gene mutation causes an abnormal form of haemoglobin to be produced in
people with sickle cell anaemia. A number of health issues might result from the red blood
cells’ irregular shape and adhesion due to this aberrant haemoglobin. It is believed that
this mutation survives in some groups because it also confers some resistance to malaria.

Multiple Alleles in Animals

There are at least four alleles in the multiple allele system that determines the coat colour
of rabbits: CC (full colour), cch (chinchilla), chd (Himalayan), and cc (albino).
 Rabbits who have two copies of the C allele, which is dominant over all other
alleles, have full-colour coats.
 Individuals with one copy of each of the codominant cch and chd alleles have coats
that are flecked with both chinchilla and Himalayan colours.
 All other alleles are recessive to the c gene, which results in albino coats. As a
result, those with two copies of gene c have albino coats.
 The rabbit population can have a vast variety of coat colours and patterns because
of this multiple allele system.
Multiple Alleles in Humans

The complicated and poorly known multiple gene systems governing eye colour. At least
two genes, OCA2 and HERC2, are known to affect eye colour, and it is known that these
genes interact with one another and with other genes to cause distinct eye colours. The
HERC2 gene controls the expression of OCA2, and the OCA2 gene generates a protein that
aids in the transfer of melanin, the pigment that gives the eyes their colour. The quantities
and kinds of melanin produced by various variants of these genes can result in a variety
of eye colours.
A collection of genes known as the HLA genes are essential for the immune system to
identify and react to foreign invaders like viruses and bacteria.
 Each HLA gene can have several alleles, and there are numerous distinct HLA
genes.
 An individual’s capacity to identify and react to various kinds of foreign substances,
as well as their susceptibility to particular diseases, can be affected by different
combinations of these alleles.
For instance, autoimmune disorders like type 1 diabetes and rheumatoid arthritis are
more likely to occur in people with specific combinations of HLA alleles.
As a whole, these illustrations highlight the significance and adaptability of numerous
alleles in determining the genetic diversity and variety of populations of plants, animals,
and people. A population with several alleles can exhibit a wide range of phenotypic
variation, which can be useful for coping with environmental change and preserving
genetic variety. The intricate nature of genetic inheritance and the necessity for continued
study are further highlighted by the intricacy and diversity of multiple allele systems.
What Is Sex-linked Inheritance?
Sex-linked inheritance is a biological process which involves the transmission of traits or
characters from parents to offspring. X and Y are two sex chromosomes that carry alleles
at their gene loci. These traits that are being transferred from one generation to the next
generation are present on autosomes or sex chromosomes, i.e., the X chromosome or the
Y chromosome.
Sex-linked genes are located on the X chromosome result in X-linkage. Similarly, Y-linkage
refers to the gene which is present on the Y chromosome. Since females are homogametic
with XX chromosome and males have XY chromosome, the Y-linked traits are transmitted
via males only.

There are certain diseases which are linked to the X chromosome but are recessive, where
females act as a carrier if they have only one copy of defective genes, such as colour
blindness, haemophilia, etc. Males are heterozygous; hence, they are more prone to get
sex-linked disorders because only one defective copy of genes is sufficient to cause
diseases.
Types of Sex-linked Inheritance

As described earlier, there are two types of sex-linked inheritance: X-linked and Y-linked
inheritance.

X-linked Inheritance
The X chromosome is larger than the Y chromosome. Any disorder or trait that is
transmitted from the X chromosome is termed an X-linked inheritance. X-linked
inheritance can either be recessive or dominant.
Y-linked Inheritance
If the mutated gene is present in the Y chromosome, then this is referred to as Y-linked
inheritance. Since the Y chromosome is present in males only, Y-linked disorders are
passed from fathers to male offspring. Hypertrichosis (presence of long dark hair on the
ears) is an example of Y-linked inheritance.
Characteristic of Sex-linked Inheritance
 Males are more affected by sex-linked traits in comparison to females because
they are heterozygous.
 The female passes the X-linked inheritance to both son and daughter, as they are
homozygous to the X chromosome and pass the X chromosome to both offspring.

Sex-linked Inheritance Disorders

Some common examples include:

Haemophilia – It is a recessive sex-linked disorder which is also termed Bleeder’s

disease. It is the inability to clot the blood, which results in uncontrolled bleeding. Read
our article on Haemophilia to know more about the disorder.

Colour blindness – Yet again, a recessive sex-linked inheritance where the affected
person fails to identify blue, red and green colours. You can learn more about it in our
article on colour blindness.

The genetic conditions that are caused by damage, addition or loss of sex chromosomes
are known as sex chromosome abnormalities. According to statistics, 1 in 400 males and
1 in 650 females show some form of sex chromosome abnormality. However, the outcome
of such defects is much less pronounced when compared to autosomal defects. The four
major sex chromosome abnormalities that occur in humans are listed below.
1. Klinefelters’s Syndrome

It is seen in males where they gain an extra X-chromosome and their genotype becomes
XXY. The male is infertile and has small, non-functioning testicles. The affected males
silence one of their X chromosomes like normal females and thus the effect of such
abnormality is less pronounced.
Gynecomastia, a partial development of breasts, may be seen in some males. When the
defect is more evident, other symptoms like greater stature, weak motor control, less
body hair and less interest in sex are observed.
2. Turner’s Syndrome
Turner’s syndrome is seen in females. It is a condition that arises due to the absence of an
X chromosome, the genotype becoming XO. The affected female is short statured, has a
webbed neck, small jaws and swollen feet and hands. They do not have secondary sexual
characteristics like a XX female.
They have small breasts, non-ovulating ovaries, and do not menstruate. Affected females
usually have a normal intelligence level, but some may be retarded and may have some
vision and hearing problems.
3. Triple-X Syndrome
Triple-X syndrome, also known as trisomy is demonstrated by the genotype XXX. It is a
relatively common occurrence in women where they gain an extra copy of the X
chromosome. Affected females show physical disabilities such as incurved and little
fingers (clinodactyly), wide-spaced eyes (hypertelorism), learning difficulties, early
menopause and increased height. They have normal secondary sexual characertistics but
may have some problem in ovarian maturation.

4. XYY Syndrome
XYY syndrome, also known as Jacob’s syndrome is a sex chromosome abnormality seen in
males. The male gains an extra Y chromosome that is presented with a few symptoms.
The affected males are known as super-males. They have an increased height, acne and
live a normal fertile life.
We know that DNA is a self-replicating structure and DNA replicates semi-conservatively.
However, DNA replication is catalyzed by a set of enzymes. Let’s learn about the DNA
replication process and the role of enzymes involved in DNA replication.
DNA Replication
In the process of DNA replication, the DNA makes multiple copies of itself. It is a biological
polymerisation, which proceeds in the sequence of initiation, elongation, and
termination. It is an enzyme-catalysed reaction. DNA Polymerase is the main enzyme in
the replication process.

DNA Replication Steps

Following are the important steps involved in DNA replication:
Initiation
DNA replication demands a high degree of accuracy because even a minute mistake would
result in mutations. Thus, replication cannot initiate randomly at any point in DNA.
For the replication to begin there is a particular region called the origin of replication. This
is the point where the replication originates. Replication begins with the spotting of this
origin followed by the unwinding of the two DNA strands.
Unzipping of DNA strands in their entire length is not feasible due to high energy input.
Hence, first, a replication fork is created catalysed by the helicase enzyme, which unzips
the DNA strand.
Elongation
As the strands are separated, the polymerase enzymes start synthesising the
complementary sequence in each of the strands. The parental strands will act as a
template for newly synthesising daughter strands.
It is to be noted that elongation is unidirectional i.e. DNA is always polymerised only in
the 5′ to 3′ direction. Therefore, in one strand (the template 3‘→5‘) it is continuous, hence
called continuous replication while on the other strand (the template 5‘→3‘) it is
discontinuous replication. They occur as fragments called Okazaki fragments. The
enzyme called DNA ligase joins them later.
Termination
Termination of replication occurs in different ways in different organisms. In E.coli like
organisms, chromosomes are circular. And this happens when the two replication forks
between the two terminals meet each other.
Role of Enzymes in DNA Replication
DNA replication is a highly enzyme-dependent process. There are many enzymes involved
in DNA replication, which includes the enzymes, DNA-dependent DNA polymerase,
helicase, ligase, etc. Among them, DNA-dependent DNA polymerase is the main enzyme.
DNA-dependent DNA polymerase
It helps in the polymerisation, catalyses and regularises the whole process of DNA
replication with the support of other enzymes. Deoxyribonucleoside triphosphates are
the substrate as well as the energy provider for the replication process. DNA polymerase
is of three types:
DNA Polymerase I
It is a DNA repair enzyme. It is involved in three activities:

 5′-3′ polymerase activity

 5′-3′ exonuclease activity
 3′-5′ exonuclease activity
DNA Polymerase II
It is responsible for primer extension and proofreading.

DNA Polymerase III

It is responsible for in vivo DNA replication.
Helicase
Helicase is the enzyme, which unzips the DNA strands by breaking the hydrogen bonds
between them. Thus, it helps in the formation of the replication fork.
Ligase

Ligase is the enzyme which joins together the Okazaki fragments of the discontinuous DNA
strands.

Primase
This enzyme helps in the synthesis of RNA primer complementary to the DNA template
strand.
Endonucleases
These produce a single-stranded or a double-stranded cut in a DNA molecule.
Single-stranded Binding Proteins

It binds to single-stranded DNA and protects it from forming secondary structures.

Also Read: Difference between Replication and Transcription
DNA Replication Process in Prokaryotes
The DNA replication in prokaryotes takes place in the following place:
1. The two strands of DNA unwind at the origin of replication.

2. Helicase opens the DNA and replication forks are formed.

3. The DNA is coated by the single-strand binding proteins around the replication fork
to prevent rewinding of DNA.
4. Topoisomerase prevents the supercoiling of DNA.
5. RNA primers are synthesised by primase. These primers are complementary to the
DNA strand.
6. DNA polymerase III starts adding nucleotides at the end of the primers.
7. The leading and lagging strands continue to elongate.

8. The primers are removed and the gaps are filled with DNA Polymerase I and sealed
by ligase.

DNA Replication in Eukaryotes

The DNA replication in eukaryotes is similar to the DNA replication in prokaryotes.
However, the initiation process is more complex in eukaryotes than prokaryotes. In
eukaryotes, there are multiple origins of replication present. A pre-replication complex is
made with other initiator proteins. The process is entirely the same but the enzymes used
are different. E.g. in eukaryotes, the polymerisation process is carried out by the enzyme
Pol δ, whereas in prokaryotes it is done by DNA Pol III.
RNA REPLICATION
RNA is a ribonucleic acid that helps in the synthesis of proteins in our body. This nucleic
acid is responsible for the production of new cells in the human body. It is usually obtained
from the DNA molecule. RNA resembles the same as that of DNA, the only difference
being that it has a single strand unlike the DNA which has two strands and it consists of
an only single ribose sugar molecule in it. Hence is the name Ribonucleic acid. RNA is also
referred to as an enzyme as it helps in the process of chemical reactions in the body.

Basic Structure of RNA

The basic structure of RNA is shown in the figure below-

The ribonucleic acid has all the components same to that of the DNA with only 2 main differences
within it. RNA has the same nitrogen bases called the adenine, Guanine, Cytosine as that of the
DNA except for the Thymine which is replaced by the uracil. Adenine and uracil are considered as
the major building blocks of RNA and both of them form base-pair with the help of 2 hydrogen
bonds.

RNA resembles a hairpin structure and like the nucleotides in DNA, nucleotides are formed in this
ribonucleic material(RNA). Nucleosides are nothing but the phosphate groups which sometimes
also helps in the production of nucleotides in the DNA.
Functions of RNA
The ribonucleic acid – RNA, which are mainly composed of nucleic acids, are involved in a
variety of functions within the cell and are found in all living organisms including bacteria,
viruses, plants, and animals. These nucleic acid functions as a structural molecule in cell
organelles and are also involved in the catalysis of biochemical reactions. The different
types of RNA are involved in various cellular process. The primary functions of RNA:
 Facilitate the translation of DNA into proteins
 Functions as an adapter molecule in protein synthesis
 Serves as a messenger between the DNA and the ribosomes.
 They are the carrier of genetic information in all living cells

 Promotes the ribosomes to choose the right amino acid which is required in
building up of new proteins in the body.
RNA Types
There are various types of RNA, out which most well-known and most commonly studied
in the human body are :
 tRNA – Transfer RNA
The transfer RNA is held responsible for choosing the correct protein or the amino
acids required by the body in-turn helping the ribosomes. It is located at the endpoints of
each amino acid. This is also called as soluble RNA and it forms a link between the
messenger RNA and the amino acid.
 rRNA-Ribosomal RNA
The rRNA is the component of the ribosome and are located within the in the cytoplasm
of a cell, where ribosomes are found. In all living cells, the ribosomal RNA plays a
fundamental role in the synthesis and translation of mRNA into proteins. The rRNA is
mainly composed of cellular RNA and are the most predominant RNA within the cells of
all living beings.
 mRNA – Messenger RNA.
This type of RNA functions by transferring the genetic material into the ribosomes and
pass the instructions about the type of proteins, required by the body cells. Based on the
functions, these types of RNA is called the messenger RNA. Therefore, the mRNA plays a
vital role in the process of transcription or during the protein synthesis process.
What Are Mutations?
The DNA sequence is specific to each organism. It can sometimes undergo changes in its
base-pairs sequence. It is termed as a mutation. A mutation may lead to changes in
proteins translated by the DNA. Usually, the cells can recognize any damage caused by
mutation and repair it before it becomes permanent.
A mutation is a sudden, heritable modification in an organism’s traits. The term “mutant”
refers to a person who exhibits these heritable alterations. Mutations usually produce
recessive genes.
Classification & Types of Mutations
The mutation is caused due to the following reasons:
Internal Causes
Most of the mutations occur when the DNA fails to copy accurately. All these mutations
lead to evolution. During cell division, the DNA makes a copy of its own. Sometimes, the
copy of the DNA is not perfect and this slight difference from the original DNA is called a
mutation.
External Causes
When the DNA is exposed to certain chemicals or radiations, it causes the DNA to break
down. The ultraviolet radiations cause the thymine dimers to break resulting in a
mutated DNA.
Effects of Mutation
There are several mutations that cannot be passed on to the offsprings. Such mutations
occur in the somatic cells and are known as somatic mutations.
The germline mutations can be passed on to successive generations and occur in the
reproductive cells.