THARAKA UNIVERSITY COLLEGE

EDCI 321: GENERAL METHODS AND PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING

This course forms the integral abilities and skills required for effective teaching and learning
process. It enhances confidence and competency to student teachers. As such, by the end of the
course the learner should be able to:
 Define the term teaching and learning.
 Describe the nature of learning / teaching processes
 Discuss the Approaches essentials for good teaching
 Discuss and describe the characteristics of effective classroom communication
 Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of various teaching methods
 Link the national goals of education to instructional objectives and lesson objective
 Prepare lesson plans and schemes of work
 State the methods of evaluation in class
 Micro teaching (Teach in small groups).

COURSE ASSESSMENT:
 Cat and work based assignment (WBA) will account for 30%
 Final examination 70%
 Total Mark 100%

Definition of terms
Teaching
Teaching is the art of sharing knowledge and experiences from one person (teacher) to another
(learner). It can also be a process in which teachers, learners, curriculum and other variables are
organised in a systematic and psychological way to attain some pre-determined goals. Through
teaching, learners acquire the desired knowledge, skills as well as desirable ways of living in the
society.

Learning
Learning is the acquisition of knowledge or skills through study, experience, or being taught. It is
the process or experience of gaining knowledge or skill. This is determined by a learner
understanding and remembering what they've been taught.

Evolution of the teaching Methods

Teaching can be traced to Confucious (561 B.C.), a famous private teacher from Greece who was
engaged privately to educate children during the ancient times. In early days, housewives and
ministers were the very first teachers. The first public school known as the Pilgrim School was
established in 1635. It was followed by Dame schools, ( A Dame school was a private elementary
school in English-speaking countries. The word "Dame" means a woman who has the title of a
Knight. The children were usually taught by women and did not learn very much. The schools were
most common from the 17th century to the 19th century.) primarily for women. Subsequently, Latin
grammar schools that offered a secondary education for boys were formed.
In 1800s laws were passed in Massachusetts and Virginia that for every 50 families, an elementary
school had to be built and a Latin grammar school for every 100 families. Later Massachusetts
required all towns with more than 500 families to have a high school for all students. In the schools,
learners were taught reading, writing and religion where much of the teaching was done by
requiring students to memorize subject matter.
In the 1900s, many men joined the teaching profession as conditions began to improve. By 1954, a
court order integrated all public schools throughout the United States which were earlier segregated.
The teaching profession emphasized improving teaching methods to accommodate the new
educational needs of a changing society.
Today, teaching has undergone metamorphosis into the television and computer age, which has
changed the emphasis in teaching. Giving students assignments on TV or the Internet has opened
new and different educational possibilities. This has seen Teaching become a fast-growing
profession and it is expected to continue to grow for many years.
However, this noble profession is compounded by problems that impede its growth such as low
salaries, overcrowding and limited funding.

Task: Describe how education has evolved in Kenya since the colonial times
 Traditional and Modern teaching methods
 Nature and components of teaching/ learning processes
The main components of teaching /learning process are;
 Stating instructional objectives – what is to be achieved by the end of the lesson
 Selecting appropriate teaching methods and technique
 Identifying suitable instructional resources – materials to be used
 Actual lesson presentation/teaching using the best technique and resources
 Testing and measuring how the extent of objectives met
 Getting feedback on objectives and resources
Therefore this can be summed up in four phases as;
 Curriculum planning
 Instructional phase
 Measurement phase
 Evaluation phase

 Teaching methods and approaches and essentials of good teaching

Teaching or instructional method is a means employed according to a plan in the teaching and
learning process. As such, a teaching method is the overall procedure used to teach a particular
lesson. A teacher is encouraged to use various teaching methods within a lesson for maximum
understanding of concepts by the leaners.
A teaching approach is any particular style, organization or procedure of practice applicable to the
process of teaching. Unfortunately, its success or failure is dependent on how the activities are
coordinated and performed.
Factors to consider in choice of techniques, methods and approaches
 Subject content
 Level of learners
 Entry level of learners/previous knowledge
 Learning activities involved
 Objectives of the lesson
 Space and materials available
 Physical setting of the class, classroom management and control
 Teachers own competence in various methods
Approaches to teaching
There are two main approaches to teaching learning;
i) Direct/teacher centred approach e.g. direct/individual teaching, team teaching and deductive
approach
ii) Indirect/learner centred approach e.g. peer teaching, individualized teaching, group teaching
and inductive approach
Task: Discuss the characteristics of the two approaches and the advantages and disadvantages of
each of the above examples

Types of teaching methods

There are many teaching methods that a teacher can use in a classroom set up. They include;
 Lecture method
 Discussion method,
 Demonstration method
 Field/study trips
 Project method

SPECIFIC TEACHING METHODS

We can now consider a number of specific methods which can be drawn from in the course of
classroom instruction. It is however, important to note that the choice of any form of methods
should not be arbitrary, but needs to be governed by the criteria we have already examined. At the
same time each method is not fool-proof, but has its own advantages and disadvantages. That is
why I would recommend the use of complementary methods rather than one method.
1. LECTURE METHOD
A lecture is an oral presentation of information by the instructor. It is the method of relaying factual
information which includes principles, concepts, ideas and all THEORETICAL KNOWLEDGE
about a given topic. In a lecture the instructor tells, explains, describes or relates whatever
information the trainees are required to learn through listening and understanding. It is therefore
teacher-centred. The instructor is very active, doing all the talking. Trainees on the other hand are
very inactive, doing all the listening. Despite the popularity of lectures, the lack of active
involvement of trainees limits its usefulness as a method of instruction.
The lecture method of instruction is recommended for trainees with very little knowledge or limited
background knowledge on the topic. It is also useful for presenting an organised body of new
information to the learner. To be effective in promoting learning, the lecture must involve some
discussions and, question and answer period to allow trainees to be involved actively.
PREPARATION AND DELIVERY OF A LECTURE
As stated earlier, during the lecture, the trainees merely listen to the instructor. It is therefore very
important to consider the attention span of trainees when preparing a lecture. The attention span is
the period of time during which the trainees are able to pay full attention to what the instructor is
talking about. It is estimated to be 15-25 minutes only. It is difficult to hold the trainees attention for
a long period of time and careful preparation of lectures is very necessary.
The instructor should have a clear, logical plan of presentation. He/she should work out the
essentials of the topic, organise them according to priorities and logical connections, and establish
relationships between the various items. Careful organisation of content helps the trainees to
structure and hence, to store or remember it. When developing a theme in a lecture, the instructor
should use a variety of approaches. A useful principle in any instruction is to go from the KNOWN
to UNKNOWN; from SIMPLE to COMPLEX, or from PARTS to a WHOLE.
Knowing the trainees and addressing their needs and interests is very important. For example, in
explaining technical processes the instructor should search for illustrations that will be familiar to
the trainees. Unfamiliar technical words should be introduced cautiously. New terminologies should
be defined and explained and examples given.
In order to gain and focus the attention of trainees, the instructor should be adequately prepared,
fluent in his/her presentation and should use various teaching aids and illustrations such as charts,
transparencies, codes and even the real objects during presentation. Question and Answer periods
should be included in the lecture.
QUALITIES OF A GOOD LECTURE
1. A good lecture should not be too long as to exceed the trainees attention span (up to 25 minutes).
2. A good lecture should address a single theme.
3. In a good lecture technical terms are carefully explained.
4. Familiar examples and analogies are given.
5. A good lecture establishes fluency in technical content.
6. A good lecture uses illustrations and examples.
7. A good lecture builds on existing knowledge.
8. A good lecture employs a variety of approaches.
USES THE LECTURE METHOD
1. To orient students.
2. To introduce a subject.
3. To give directions on procedures.
4. To present basic material.
5. To introduce a demonstration, discussion, or performance.
6. To illustrate application of rules, principles, or concepts.
7. To review, clarify, emphasise or summarise.
ADVANTAGES
1. Saves time.
2. Permits flexibility.
3. Requires less rigid space requirement.
4. Permits adaptability.
5. Permits versatility.
6. Permits better centre over contact and sequence.
DISADVANTAGES
1. Involves one way communication.
2. Poses problems in skill teaching.
3. Encourages student passiveness.
4. Poses difficulty in gauging student reaction.
5. Require highly skilled instructors.
2. THE DISCUSSION METHOD
Discussion involves two-way communication between participants. In the classroom situation an
instructor and trainees all participate in discussion. During discussion, the instructor spends some
time listening while the trainees spend sometimes talking. The discussion is, therefore, a more
active learning experience for the trainees than the lecture.
A discussion is the means by which people share experiences, ideas and attitudes. As it helps to
foster trainees involvement in what they are learning, it may contribute to desired attitudinal
changes. Discussion may be used in the classroom for the purpose of lesson development, making
trainees apply what they have learnt or to monitor trainees learning by way of feedback.
LESSON DEVELOPMENT
In areas in which trainees already have some knowledge or experience, discussion may be used to
develop the main points to be covered in a lesson. For example, in safety training many of the
procedures and behaviour that should be observed can be established through discussion with
trainees. Trainees can draw on their experience of working in workshops contract sites to contribute
to the discussion. In discussing some issues, differences of opinion arise. The discussion can help to
clarify the different points of view and may assist each trainee to define his or her own opinion.
Used in this way, discussion may be more effective in motivating trainees than lectures. Trainees
can see that some importance is attached to their contributions.
APPLICATION
Discussion may also be used, following a lecture or demonstration, to help trainees apply what they
have learned. The instructor can ask questions, that help trainees to relate concepts and principles to
contexts that are familiar to the trainees or in which they will ultimately be needed. For example
following a lecture on ―types of wood joint‖, the instructor may, lead a discussion directing trainees
attention to the places or pieces of furniture where each type is found, and the reasons for using one
type than the other. Used in this way discussion contributes to the transfer of learning.
FEEDBACK
The discussion method also provides an opportunity to monitor trainees learning. The answers
provided by trainees and the questions they ask, reveal the extent and quality of learning taking
place. Instructors can use this information to repeat or modify an explanation to improve learning.
They can also provide feedback to trainees, thereby helping to reinforce learning that has taken
place. Discussion used in this way should follow after other methods of classroom instruction such
as lectures, demonstration or practice sessions.
CONDUCTING A DISCUSSION
Discussion sessions can be led by the instructor, or can take place in groups. In either case, the goal
is to meet the lesson objectives by allowing the trainees to:-
a) Relate relevant personal experiences or events which have occurred in the work setting.
b) Contribute ideas or personal opinions.
c) Apply what has been learned to familiar situations or solving problems.
d) Express what had been learned.
Whether the discussion is instructor led or takes place in groups it must be guided by the instructor.
It must be focused on the objectives of the lesson: it is the instructors responsibility to see that the
objectives are met. If it is not properly guided, a discussion can degenerate into a consideration of
inappropriate or unimportant topics adding confusion rather than clarification to the lesson.
USES DISCUSSION METHOD
1. To develop imaginative solutions to problems.
2. To stimulate thinking and interest and to secure student participation.
3. To emphasise main teaching points.
4. To supplement lectures, reading, or laboratory exercises.
5. To determine how well student understands concepts and principles.
6. To prepare students for application of theory of procedure.
7. To summarise, clarify points or review.
ADVANTAGES
1. Increase students interest
2. Increases students acceptance and commitments.
3. Utilises student knowledge and experience.
4. Results in more permanent learning because of high degree of student participation.
DISADVANTAGES
1. Require highly skilled instructor.
2. Requires preparation by student.
3. Limits content.
4. Consumes time.
5. Restricts size of groups

3. THE DEMONSTRATION LESSON

―The most effective way to teach an occupational skill is to demonstrate it... one of the two most
essential teaching skills is the ability to demonstrate; the other is the ability to explain. Both are
vital to the success of either an operation lesson or an information lesson‖. Weaver and Cencil in
Applied Teaching Techniques.
DEFINITION
Demonstration means any planned performance of an occupation skill, scientific principle or
experiment.
TEACHER PREPARATION
1. Rehearse your presentation in advance of the lesson.
2. Anticipate any difficult steps, possible interruptions e.t.c.
3. Obtain all materials, tools, equipment, visual and teaching aids in advance and check their useful
condition.
4. Have all materials within reach and conveniently arranged.
5. Time the demonstration NOT to exceed 15 minutes.
6. Remove all extraneous materials; check lighting, visibility, student grouping, and proximity to
electric, gas and water outlets.
7. Plan to use a skill or method to advantage; work from simple to complex, one step at a time.
PRESENTATION
1. Make sure all students can see and hear the lesson.
2. Be enthusiastic, professional, effective but not dramatic.
3. Relax; use any mishaps or humour to YOUR advantage.
4. Observe all safety rules and procedures.
5. Keep eye-contact with the class; ask and encourage class questions.
6. Explain WHY and HOW: use the techniques of SHOW and TELL.
7. Use a medial summary to strengthen your explanation.
PRECAUTIONS
1. Avoid interruptions; keep demonstration smooth and continuous.
2. Never demonstrate on a student‘s material.
3. Work towards one aim.
4. Allow time for possible student participation.

CARRYING OUT A DEMONSTRATION

1. Give a good performance. Remember that the trainees learn by your good example.
2. Explain each step or process as you proceed. Follow your lesson plan.
3. Make sure the trainees see the demonstration from the angle they will perform it themselves.
4. Be sure everyone can see and hear. Maintain eye contact.
5. Emphasise key points, and if possible prepare before hand ask key questions as you go along and
allow trainees to ask questions.
6. Observe all safety rules, precautions and procedures; and emphasise them.
7. Use proper instructions, aids such as chalkboard, charts, handouts e.t.c. to support your
demonstration.
8. Provide for trainees participation where possible, during and after demonstration.
9. Demonstrate the correct way only. First impressions are important, therefore, make them correct
ones.
10. Always summarise the steps and emphasise key points again.
AFTER DEMONSTRATION
1. Return all items used during demonstration to their storage places.
2. Make arrangements to have the trainees practice the skill as soon as possible in a practical class
session.
3. Observe and analyse trainee(s) performance and correct mistakes.
4. Offer reinforcement where necessary.
5. Coach weak or slow trainees.
6. Check trainee‘s completed work for accurate performance and record.
7. Allow sufficient time interval before demonstrating another operation.
USES DEMONSTRATION METHOD
1. To teach manipulative operations or procedures.
2. To teach troubleshooting.
3. To illustrate principles.
4. To teach operation or functioning of equipment.
5. To teach teamwork.
6. To set standards of workmanship.
7. To teach safety procedures.

ADVANTAGES
1. Minimise damage and waste
2. Saves time
3. Can be presented to large groups.

DISADVANTAGES
1. Require careful preparation and rehearsal.
2. Requires special classroom arrangements.
4. BUZZ GROUPS
Another method of instruction is the buzz group. During a longer session, the plenary group can
break into sub-groups to discuss one or two specific questions or issues. The room soon fills with
noise as each sub-group ‗buzzes‘ in discussion. If appropriate, after the discussion one member of
each group can report its findings back to the plenary. Buzz groups can be in pairs, trios, or more
depending on the activity. People turn to their neighbours for a quick buzz, or form larger groups of
three or more. This allows almost every one to express an opinion. While they are buzzing,
participants are able to exchange ideas and draw on their wide collective experience. It may provide
a good opportunity for trainees to reflect on the content of a lecture. A good buzz session will
generate many ideas, comments and opinion, the most important of which will be reported back.
5. BRAINSTORMING
The purpose of a brainstorming session is to discover new ideas and responses very quickly. It is
particularly a good way of getting bright ideas. It differs from the buzz groups discussion in that the
focus is on generating as many ideas as possible without judging them. In this technique, all ideas
are given equal credence.
Participants are encouraged to let ideas flow freely, building on and improving from previous ideas.
No idea, however crazy, should be rejected. These ideas are listed exactly as they are expressed on a
board or flipchart, or written on bits of paper. The combination of swiftly generated ideas usually
leads to a very animated and energising session. Even the more reserved participants should feel
bold enough to contribute. The purpose of listing responses is to collect existing experiences and
thoughts.
It is useful to collect answers to questions when you expect much repetition in the responses.
After a brainstorm session, the ideas can be discussed further and evaluated, for example listing the
best options in a systematic way. Ideas can be grouped and analysed so that they belong to the
group rather then individuals. Unlike a buzz session, a brainstorm session can work well with a
large group and usually takes less time. It is best to limit the time for plenary brainstorms, as you
might lose the attention of some participants.

USES OF BRAINSTORMING
1. Discover new ideas, thoughts and responses very quickly.
ADVANTAGES
1. Leads to a very animated and energising session.
2. More reserved participants feel free to contribute.
DISADVANTAGES
1. It takes time particularly if it is a large group.
2. May consume a lot of material e.g. flipcharts or writing materials.
3. Requires high level

6. ROLE PLAYS
In role plays, participants use their own experiences to play a real life situation. When done well,
role plays increase the participants self-confidence, give them the opportunity to understand or even
feel empathy for other people‘s viewpoints or roles, and usually end with practical answers,
solutions or guidelines.
Role plays are useful for exploring and improving interviewing techniques and examining the
complexities and potential conflicts of group meetings. They help participants to consolidate
different lessons in one setting and are good energisers.
However, role plays can be time-consuming and their success depends on the willingness of
participants to take active part. Some trainees may feel a role play is too exposing, threatening or
embarrassing. This reluctance may be overcome at the outset by careful explanation of the
objectives and the outcome. Some role plays can generate strong emotions amongst the participants.
It is therefore essential that a role play is followed by a thorough debriefing. This provides the
opportunity for the trainer and the participants to raise and assess new issues.

USES OF ROLE PLAYS

1. Exploring and improving interviewing techniques and examining complexities and potential
conflicts of groups.
2. To consolidate different lessons in one setting.
ADVANTAGES
1. Good energizers.
2. Promotes empathy of trainees for other situation.
3. Encourages creativity in learning.
DISADVANTAGES
1. Participants might be reluctant.
2. May not work with trainees who do not know each other well.

THE PROGRAMMED INSTRUCTION METHOD

A method of self-instruction
USES
1. To provide remedial instruction.
2. To provide make-up instruction for late arrivals, absentees, or translents.
3. To maintain previously learned skills which are not performed frequently enough.
4. To provide retraining on equipment and procedures which have become obsolete.
5. To upgrade production.
6. To accelerate capable students.
7. To provide enough common background among students.
8. To provide the review and practice of knowledge and skills.
ADVANTAGES
1. Reduce failure rate.
2. Improves end-of-course proficiency.
3. Saves time.
4. Provides for self instruction.
DISADVANTAGES
1. Reduce failure rate.
2. Improves end-of-course proficiency.
3. Saves time.
4. Provides for self instruction.

THE STUDY ASSIGNMENT METHOD

A method in which the instructor assigns reading to books, periodicals, project or research papers or
exercises for the practice.
USES
1. To orient students to a topic prior to classroom or Laboratory work.
2. To set the stage for a lecture demonstration or discussion.
3. To provide for or capitalise on individual differences in ability, background, or experience
through differentiated assignments.
4. To provide for the review of material covered in class or to give practice.
5. To provide enrichment material.
ADVANTAGES
1. Increase coverage of material.
2. Reduce classroom time.
3. Permits individual attention.
DISADVANTAGES
1. Require careful planning and follow up.
2. Poses evaluation problem.
3. Produce non-standard results.

THE TUTORIAL METHOD

A method of instruction in which an instructor works
USES
1. To reach highly complicated skills operations or operations involving danger or expensive
equipment.
2. To provide individualised remedial assistance.
ADVANTAGES
1. Permits adaptive instruction.
2. Stimulates active participation.
3. Promotes safety
DISADVANTAGES
1. Requires highly competent instructor.
2. Demands time and money.

THE SEMINAR METHOD

A tutorial arrangement involving the instructor and groups, rather than instructor and individual.
USES
1. To provide general guidance for a group working on an advanced study or research project.
2. To exchange information on techniques and approaches being explored by members of a study or
research group.
3. To develop new and imaginative solutions to problems under study by the group.
ADVANTAGES
1. Provides motivation and report.
2. Stimulates active participation.
3. Permits adaptive instruction.
DISADVANTAGES
1. Requires highly competent instructor.
2. Poses evaluation problems.
3. Is more costly than most other methods.

COMMUNICATION PROCESS
Definition
Communication may be defined as a process concerning exchange of facts or ideas between persons
holding different positions in an organization to achieve mutual harmony. The communication
process is dynamic in nature rather than a static phenomenon. It is considered as a continuous and
dynamic inter-action, both affecting and being affected by many variables. Thus it is the process of
conveying information between two or more people. It may also be described as the steps we take in
order to achieve a successful communication. Therefore, communication may be defined as a
process concerning exchange of facts or ideas between persons holding different positions in an
organisation to achieve mutual harmony. The communication process is dynamic in nature rather
than a static phenomenon. It is considered as a continuous and dynamic inter-action, both affecting
and being affected by many variables.
Classroom communication is verbal or nonverbal:
In offering definitions of others, we find that the non-verbal elements of teacher communication are
more important than the verbal elements because learning is basically a visual activity.
Research has indeed shown that we learn through our senses with each sense accounting for a
different percentage of that learning as follows:
Taste accounts for 1%
Touch accounts for 1 ½%
Smell accounts for 3½%
Hearing accounts for 11%
Sight accounts for 83%
The onus is therefore on the teacher to try and reduce those barriers so that learning can
take place.

Note:
Nature does compensate those learners like the visually impaired and physically challenged, who
are not able to utilize all their senses. A mere utilization of the sense of sight will not
automatically guarantee one the attainment of the 83% learning efficiency because every
classroom communication situation has its own unique barriers otherwise referred to as noise.

Effective communication is essential for a well-run classroom. Although this sounds simple and
obvious, it requires much more than a teacher saying something out loud to a student. Communicate
Respectfully. Respect is the foundation of effective communication, especially in the classroom.

ELEMENTS OF COMMUNICATION
(1) Sender: This is the party that sends a message or the person who intends to convey the message
with the intention of passing information and ideas to others. He/she is known as the communicator.
(2) The message
This is the subject matter of the communication. The message may be an opinion, attitude, feelings,
views, orders, or suggestions. The subject matter of communication is theoretical and intangible in
that it is in the form of words, actions or pictures that must be encoded for understanding.
(3) Communication Channel
A channel of communication must also be selected, which is the manner in which the message is
sent. Channels of communication include speaking, writing, video transmission, audio transmission,
electronic transmission through emails, text messages and faxes and even nonverbal
communication, such as body language. Lindsey also needs to know the target of her
communication. This party is called the receiver.
(4) Receiver:
Receiver is the person who receives the message or for whom the message is meant for. It is the
receiver who tries to understand the message in the best possible manner in achieving the desired
objectives. The person who receives the message or symbol from the communicator tries to convert
the same in such a way so that he may extract its meaning to his complete understanding.
(5) Feedback:
 Feedback is the process of ensuring that the receiver has received the message and understood in the
same sense as sender meant it. Sometimes, a receiver will give the sender feedback, which is a
message sent by the receiver back to the sender. A receiver may provide feedback in the form of a
question to clarify some information received.

Communication in the Classroom

There are four major problems that have hindered our understanding of classroom
communication. According to Budd and Ruben (1979). these problems are:
(a) Its ubiquitousness. Being everywhere even in our own dreams, we find that as such
we cannot not communicate even if we tried not to.
(b) Lack of discipline. Communication is a field rather than a discipline.
Fields are less rigorous than disciplines and they also draw knowledge/ideas from disciplines.
The fact that communication draws ideas from fields creates for us a problem of understanding
because it has no theories of its own. It borrows theories from fields and different fields define
communication differently.
(c) Familiarity. Communication is a very familiar term to most people.
Familiar terms like slogans tend to loose their vigour and vitality whenever they are
overused. For example, the meaning of the word democracy depends on the person defining
it. Communication is that kind of a term.
(d) Approachable both operationally and scientifically. Communication can be
approached either as an operational or as a scientific phenomenon or both. That is,
communication is not only something that can be studied it is something most of us do.

Things we need to know about classroom communication

i. Information is not communication. Information can be defined as that which reduces
uncertainty in the learners. When a teacher dictates notes, for example to students he/she
has only transferred information from his/her notes to the students' exercise books. In that
sense, we cannot say with certainty that he or she has communicated.
ii. Not all information is relevant or useful. In other words, the learner must be able to
make use of the information as intended.
iii. Communication is incomplete unless it is received and understood. The implication of
this in teaching and learning is that the learner must be able to use the information passed on to
him/her to.
iv. We do not communicate meanings. Meanings are in us or are generated from within
each individual learner depending on the way he/she understands/interprets the
information passed on to him/her.
v. All classroom communication is verbal and nonverbal, situation dependent and
interdependent meaning what I do affects you and what you do affects me. But neither of us
determines the other's behaviour or feelings.
Interdependence does not mean linear causality. Therefore, my poor teaching does not cause a
specific response in you. I cannot for example, make you angry. You choose to be angry on the
basis of the things I have done to you. In the final analysis, you have many options open to you.

Barriers to Effective Classroom Communication

In dealing with communication barriers, the first thing is to recognize that communication does
not occur in a vacuum, rather, it always takes place within a context or situation. Moreover, each
situation comes with its own unique barriers which affect the quality of the communication
transaction. We generally speak of three broad categories of barriers which affect both verbal
and nonverbal communication.
(a) Physiological Barriers. These include all kinds of illnesses such as headache,
toothache, heartburn, hunger pangs, etc. Since these illnesses are confined in the learners, the
teacher is limited in the extent to which he/she can control them. It is nevertheless important
for the teacher to recognize that those barriers exist in any classroom and that they do
affect teaching and learning.
(b) Physical Barriers. Physical barriers are influential non-verbal cues and they are of two
types, namely: Those that use mostly teacher created such as physique or body appearance,
teacher's general attractiveness and even body odours. We may also add to this list fatigue and
stress which may be in either the teacher or his/her pupils. The second kind of physical barriers
are those that are environmentally determined such as: Furniture (desks; arrangement, lighting in
the room, lack of ventilation or stuffiness in the room and external noises. It is the responsibility
of every teacher to try and eliminate, any physical barrier that may emanate from him/her or
the classroom environment.
(c) Psychological Barriers. The psychological characteristics of a situation exist in the
mind of the teacher or pupil and can be controlled because they are external to the learning
situation. Some examples are attitudes, anxieties, mental anguish, strong opinions of any
land, prejudices, etc.
Like physiological barriers, psychological barriers too, are mostly confined inside the teacher or
learners. Unless they are spoken or written they remain primarily nonverbal in nature. The
important thing for the teacher to do is to be aware that psychological barriers exist and can
affect teaching and learning if not alleviated. Being aware means more than knowing what is
around us. It means being aware of our own awareness:
• Being able to question the consequences of our own choices.
• Being reflective. '
• Being able to empathize with the learners and
• Being an active listener.
• Active or emphatic listening is motivational in nature. A teacher should motivate learners
by giving them positive reinforcements which can be verbal, nonverbal, positive and negative.

Types of Teacher Reinforcements

There are four types of reinforcements
(a) Positive Verbal Reinforcements. These include statements a teacher makes to the
learner that serve to reinforce the later positively.
Examples
- Good, very good
- Right, great
- Good trial attempt
- Excellent
- That is correct
- Well done, etc
(b) Positive Nonverbal Reinforcement. Since these are nonverbal, they are not verbalized;
rather, they are made through body language or kinesic behavior.
- Nodding affirmatively
- Smiling
- Eye contact
- Writing the learner's answer on the board
- Moving closer to the learner
- Giving positive hand gestures, etc.
(c)Negative Verbal Reinforcements. These come about when we disconfirm others.
Disconfirmation means communicating as if the other person does not exist. There are two Ways-
through which we disconfirm others namely;
 By being impervious. Imperviousness in communication means speaking for the
other person. It comes when we assume that we know what the leaner is thinking or feeling.
Imperviousness also comes with some accompanying statements like:
- You are disappointing;
- Where were you when I taught this?
- You are wasting your parents money.
 By Disqualification. This is responding in a manner that is totally irrelevant to the
other's prior utterance. It is refusing to respond or acknowledge the learner's statement.
Once a teacher disqualifies a learner through this behaviour he/she is denying the legitimacy
of the learner's contribution to the learning process. He/she is in a sense communicating
rejection.

(d) Negative Nonverbal Reinforcements. This is the situation where a teacher refuses
to audibly express his/her feelings but does it nonverbally albeit negatively. It includes
behaviours like:
- Deliberate lack of eye contact.
- Grimacing of the face (frowning).
- Silence or failure to reinforce.
- Ignoring the learner's contribution in class.

Consequences of Negative Reinforcements

When a teacher constantly discourages his/her learners through negative reinforcements the
consequences are that he/she creates:
- non-listeners.
- the impatient types.
- the negative personalities,
- the know it-all types of learners.
To be an Effective Teacher/Communicator, one has to;
(a) Listen to confirm. Both verbally and non-verbally by saying I may not agree or accept
your point of view, but I care about what you are saying - I care about your
learning.
(b) Listen to understand. The key characteristic of listening to understand is that it is
primarily verbal. As a teacher you must verbalize your positive feelings/reinforcements.
(c) Listen to diminish defensiveness. Defensiveness occurs when a teacher perceives threat.
Such a teacher therefore listens not to understand but to prepare Himself/herself to tear down
the learner's argument - to belittle the learner.

Question
Discuss the qualities of a good teacher
TEACHERS’ PROFESSIONAL DOCUMENTS
1. SCHEMES OF WORK
Purpose of Schemes of Work
The scheme of work helps the teacher to:
i) Break the syllabus into units easy to teach
ii) Rearrange the content so that closely related topics are put together and in a logical order
iii) Shows in advance what will be taught, and when it can be taught
iv) Helps the teacher to anticipate and prepare the necessary teaching and learning
resources.
v) Helps the teacher to anticipate and provide for possible learning difficulties
vi) Is the road map guiding the teacher towards effective coverage of the syllabus
vii) Helps the school administration to budget for and provide relevant support
The scheme of work has the following columns:
i) Week
It indicates the weeks in a term or year.
ii) Lesson
This shows the lessons to be taught within a week as per the syllabus
iii) Topic
Topic covers the broad content of the content; For example in a form 1 Mathematics, the teacher
might indicate: The Topic as: Numbers
iv) Sub topic
Sub topic covers the specific content; For example in a form 1 Mathematics lesson, the teacher
might indicate sub topic as: Pre numbers
v) Objectives
Objectives State the behavioural change the teacher expects in the learner by the end of the
lesson. They should address the three domains of development: ―By the end of the lesson, the
learner should be able to:
―State the parts of the digestive system.‖ (Cognitive Domain)
―Develop and demonstrate attitudes of co-operation, as they work together in groups.‖
(Affective Domain)
―Develop and demonstrate observation and recording skills as they complete the floating and
sinking experiments.‖ (Psycho-motor Domain)
vi) Teaching and learning activities
These are activities which the teacher hopes to use to stimulate, encourage and challenge the
learners. The type of teacher activity will depend on the teaching approach he/she prefers which in
effect affects the classroom processes. While most teachers have established traditions of
teaching it is important to reflect on the effectiveness of the preferred teaching approach for the
current content. In filling the teacher activity column one should reflect on the extent to which the
planned activities will assist in achieving the set objectives. A teacher may ask the following
questions
 How do I facilitate my pupils to engage, grapple with and understand this concept?
 What do my pupils need to see, hear, feel, talk about, and experience in order to
understand this concept?
 What advise will they need?
 What classroom management challenges could I anticipate
 What precautions might be necessary?
 What should I not do?
 The last question is necessary because it allows the teacher to avoid falling back on
tradition and limiting the pupils learning opportunity.
Detail the activities you propose to engage the learner in during the lesson. A lot of careful thought
should be given to this column. The teacher should ask these questions
 What should the learner do within the given time frame to master the intended knowledge
and skill?
 Should the learner perform the tasks alone, in pairs, in a group or as a class?
 What resources will they need?
 What learning challenges/disabilities may limit the full participation of some/all learners
in the designated activity?
 Are there alternative activities

Active learning seeks to prevent learners from becoming mere passive listeners to the teacher‘s
oratory skills
vii) References
This column has the list of books that teachers and learners use during the classroom learning
 viii) Remarks
This section is filled after every lesson to account for the way the lesson was conducted

An example of schemes of work

Week Lesson Topic Subtopic Objectives Teaching/LearningReferences Remarks

Activities
3 1 Listening PRONUNCIATIOBy the end of the lesson-pronunciation -NIE BK 3 pg.
and N the learners should be -Reading 135-136
speaking Homophones, able to: -Writing -Teachers
homonyms, and - Use homophones, book pg 69-72
silent Homonyms and silent
consonants consonants correctly in a
sentence construction.
-Identify homophones,
homonyms and silent
consonants in a passage.

2. LESSON PLAN
A Lesson plan may be defined as ―a set of learning/teaching activities for pupils to be carried out
within a defined time frame‖. A lesson plan usually covers a single or double lesson and the
learning activities are arranged in a chronological pattern with clearly defined steps.

Importance of a lesson plan

 Remind the teacher of the lesson‘s objectives and the learning materials required
 Identify what the children should learn during the lesson.
 Help the teacher to address the learning needs of the individual pupils in a more systematic way.
 To guide the teacher on how to introduce the lesson
 To remind the teacher of the sequence of stages of the lesson thereby providing for the efficient
management of class time
 To assist the teacher to plan in advance for such things as the most effective methods for
engaging pupils in the lesson, most suitable location for the class, most appropriate sitting plan and
grouping of pupils as well as pre-lesson assignments for pupils.
 To guide the teacher on how best to conclude the lesson.
 Structure of a Lesson Plan
1. Administrative information (date, class, subject, time, and roll
2. Topic
3. Sub-topic
4. Objectives
5. References and resources
6. Lesson development (duration, teacher‘s activities, and learners activities)
7. Lesson evaluation
8. Take away
9. Conclusion

(i) Lesson objectives

Without clearly stated lesson objectives, it is difficult to measure the level of achievement of the
learners. Lesson objectives are derived from the scheme of work you prepared earlier. They
reflect what should be achieved by the end of the lesson e.g.
‗By the end of this lesson the learner will be able to recognize the numerals the parts of a
dissected insect‘
In preparing the lesson objectives the teacher focuses on the anticipated behavioral change of
individual learners, hence the need to state the objectives in the singular form of the noun- learner.

NB

The objectives must be derived from a course, a syllabus stated in a textbook, taken from a

curriculum guide or developed by the teacher. Every activity has an objective. Objectives are

unifying statements for our daily and future activities. Objectives may be imposed on or even

offered to us by someone and may even be of our own making. They may be conceived as points

marking the achievements of some effort, ambition, or accomplishment. All objectives rest upon

an assumption or underlying complex of value. They lie at the very heart of a planning process.

Planning objectives enables the teacher to command the future rather than be commanded by

it. Planning a head makes it possible anticipate and hopefully avoid unforeseen classroom
difficulties.

Importance of Stating Objectives

Stating the objectives require the teacher to analyse and understand the following questions.

What do you hope to accomplish by the end of the instruction and how much time do you need to

present the lesson effectively and successfully? Above all limit your objectives and content on

the available time.

As a teacher, you must know' your instructional objectives thoroughly in order to make the correct

selection and judgments of media and methods to be used. Your objectives will undoubtedly dictate

your choice of media and the sequence of learning activities.

To create a conducive and relevant learning environment in which specific objectives can be

reached i.e. to solve quadratic equations correctly within five minutes; to change a flat tyre within

seven minutes. The learning environment here must include a sum to be solved, time probably a

stopwatch, and a car with a flat tyre.

To help assure proper evaluation. The teacher will not know if the learners have achieved the

objective unless proper evaluation is done. Without explicit objectives, students will not know

what is expected of them.

Objectives must dictate the choice of media and the learning sequence (activities)
To enable teaching and learning environment become objectively oriented. Before we conclude

this step, it is imperative to say that a statement of objective is a type of contract between the

teacher and the learner.

Note:

 Objectives state what learning goals each learner is expected to reach.

 What new capability should the learner possess at the completion of instruction. Thus,

objectives are not statements of what the teacher plans to put into' the lesson, but, rather, of what

the learner ought to get out of the lesson. Hence, statements of objectives must be:

* Specific. The required responses must be acceptable as adequate. Attempts to describe in

the clearest term possible, exactly what a student will think, act, or feel at the end of a learning

experience.

* Measurable in Behavioural Terms: Must show details of desired behaviour,

* Achievable. Just like goals describe destinations or events, so, objectives (specific)

describes an activity that the learner will be able to do in order to demonstrate mastery.

* Relevancy. Objectives must demonstrate to be related to the real world and to the

problems at hand. Such abstracts, and isolated activities, which are unrelated to human concerns,

are likely to be regarded as irrelevant, unless steps are taken to demonstrate their utility.

* Time bound Must have specific time: say 30/40 minutes

Objectives therefore give clarifications to the intentions for a learning situation.

Characteristics of a well stated objective

A well stated objective starts:

 By naming the audience or the learners for whom the objective is intended. The teacher must

give major focus on what the learner is doing rather than what the teacher is doing. In this way,

learning is most likely to take place when the learner is active, mentally processing an idea, and

physically practicing a skill. This is because, accomplishment of an objective depends upon what

the learner does, but not what the teacher do. All specific objectives must begin by stating whose

capability is going to be changed.

 To specify the behavior or capability to be learned and the conditions under which capability

will be observed. Objectives must be stated in observable and in behavioural terms. What will the

learner be able to do by the end instruction?

Vague terms like understand, know, and appreciate do not communicate the aim clearly.

Behaviours, which denote observable performance, are Recall, Revise, Demonstrate, Generate,

Define, Categorize. Apply, Plot, Select, Illustrate, Solve, Devise, Categorize, Compute, Write,

Describe, Devise, Label, and Classify etc are action oriented. Hence, recommended for writing

objectives.

Conditions: Any statement of the objective must include conditions under which performance is

to be observed. Given a political map of East Africa, the learner will be able to mark the major

coal mining areas without referring to the atlas.

(ii) Teaching and learning resources/ materials

These are activities that actually make the lesson and are drawn from the scheme of work
prepared earlier. They are influenced by the lesson objectives, the teaching aid/materials available
and the teaching method you choose.
The test of whether a lesson is learner centred or not lies in the way the teacher proposes
responsibilities and activities under this section. In learner centred lesson plans the teacher will
aim at assigning responsibility and activities to learners either individually, in pairs or groups.
The teacher will also pay attention to the materials required in order to involve the learner in the
designed learning tasks. The teacher should consider the improvisation necessary if the materials
cannot be easily found within the immediate vicinity of the classroom.

Ordinarily, most lesson plans follow these steps:

1. Introduction
This is to find out what the learners know, remind them of what they have learned or set the
scene for the whole lesson
2. Lesson development/Presentation
These are the steps where the main teaching and learning activities occur.
3. Summary/Recapitulation
This is an important step in which the main points of the lesson is re-enforced through revision and
question and answer. Always give assignments to link the lesson with others to follow it. Even
in a thematic lesson, we use these steps, but we blend them together so as to blur any
distinction between them.
4. Lesson Evaluation
It is important to determine whether the lesson objectives were achieved and the materials used
were appropriate. The evaluation also helps you to establish whether the content was appropriate
for this level of learners and whether remedial classes will be necessary and which pupils will need
them. Finally, it helps you to seek solutions to any difficulties faced during the lesson by either
you
or your pupils. The evaluation need not be done only after the lesson. As the lesson goes on, you
will determine the level of engagement of the majority of learners and the possible
inhibitions to their full participation. These will help you to evaluate your lesson and make
suitable adjustments to future classroom management procedures.

3. CLASS TIME TABLE

A time table is a schedule showing the type of experiences that children are supposed to be involved
in every day. It is both a planning as well as an organizing tool in a school. Planning involves
specification of events that are set ahead of time. Organization on the other hand involves placing
both human and material resources in an orderly way for the smooth running of events. The
timetable should be well displayed for all to see

Purpose of a time table

A time table has the following uses:
i. It indicates who should perform a certain task in order to accomplish the objectives set.
ii. Determines when teaching is to be done.
iii. As an organizing tool, it enables division of labour, that is, a clear distribution of the tasks
to be undertaken.
iv. It ensures allocation of the teaching load fairly to each member of staff according to
qualification, competence and areas of interest.
v. It coordinates the teaching in each subject in a given class to avoid any clash or
vi. Overloading in timing of various activities of a particular class.

4. RECORD OF WORK
A record of work is a document showing the work covered in every subject by the subject teacher.
It has the following advantages;
i) It indicates accountability and transparency of work covered by the teacher.
ii) It ensures that there is continuity of teaching of a particular class.
iii) It enables a new teacher traces where to start teaching a class.
iv) It acts as a an evaluation tool of the teaching content

Other documents include:

5. SYLLABUS
6. LESSON NOTES
7. CLASS REGISTER AND
8. STUDENTS’ PROGRESS RECORDS

TESTS AND EVALUATION

Educational evaluation involves the systematic assessment of educational activities. Objects
of evaluation include instructional programs, school initiatives and education goals. Everything
related to school activities and education can be evaluated. e.g.
Objectives
The scope of the content
The quality of personnel in chools
Student performance
The relative importance of various school subjects
The equipment and materials for instruction

Function
Educational evaluation strives to assess the merits and the impacts of educational programs
and initiatives.

Methods
Educational evaluation uses many of the research methods employed by education and social
science researchers. Evaluation involves data collection and analysis, using quantitative
and qualitative methods.

Benefits
Evaluation can help educators determine the success of their programs and pinpoint efforts
to improve student achievement. It also can help school systems identify the characteristics
of successful programs.

Assessment
The purpose of assessment practices in education depends on the theoretical framework of the
practitioners and teachers, their assumptions and beliefs about the nature of human mind,
the origin of knowledge and the process of learning.

There are three levels of assessment. These include:

i) Testing the knowledge acquired,
ii) Application of the skills learnt,
iii) Ability to use the same information effectively over
time

Assessment helps teachers to:

i) Know or find out how much of what learners are supposed to learn have actually been
learnt,
ii) Identify learning weakness of individual pupils;
iii) Maintain education standards,
iv) Keep track of their own teaching,
v) Measure specific abilities and identifying children‘s different abilities,
vi) Classify pupils for learning organizations, and
vii) Enables pupils of one class move to the next at the end of the year.

Importance of evaluation:
i) Determine whether the lesson objectives were
achieved
ii) Determine whether the syllabus objectives have
been met
iii) Determine whether the content was appropriate
iv) Determine whether there is a need for remedial
lessons.
v) Determine whether resources used were appropriate.
vi) Determine the effectiveness of the teaching approaches employed

Formative and Summative Assessments

In a balanced assessment system, both summative and formative assessments are an integral
part of information gathering.

Summative Assessments are given periodically to determine at a particular point in time what
students know and do not know. Many associate summative assessments only with
standardized tests such as state assessments, but they are also used at and are an important part
of district and classroom programs. Summative assessment at the district/classroom level is an
accountability measure that is generally used as part of the grading process. The list is long,
but here are some examples of summative assessments:
i) Benchmark assessments
ii) End-of-unit or chapter
tests
iii) End-of-term or semester
exam
iv) Scores that are used for accountability for schools and students (report card grades).

The key is to think of summative assessment as a means to gauge, at a particular point in

time, student learning relative to content standards. Although the information that is gleaned
from this type of assessment is important, it can only help in evaluating certain aspects of
the learning process. Because they are spread out and occur after instruction every few
weeks, months, or once a year, summative assessments are tools to help evaluate the
effectiveness of programs, school improvement goals, alignment of curriculum, or student
placement in specific programs. Summative assessments happen too far down the learning
path to provide information at the classroom level and to make instructional adjustments
and interventions during the learning process. It takes formative assessment to accomplish
this.

Formative Assessment is part of the instructional process. When incorporated into classroom
practice, it provides the information needed to adjust teaching and learning while they
are happening. In this sense, formative assessment informs both teachers and students about
student understanding at a point when timely adjustments can be made. These adjustments help
to ensure students achieve, targeted standards-based learning goals within a set time frame.
Although formative assessment strategies appear in a variety of formats, there are some
distinct ways to distinguish them from summative assessments.

One distinction is to think of formative assessment as "practice." We do not hold

students accountable in "grade book fashion" for skills and concepts they have just been
introduced to or are learning. We must allow for practice. Formative assessment helps
teachers determine next steps during the learning process as the instruction approaches the
summative assessment of student learning. A good analogy for this is the road test that is
required to receive a driver's license. What if, before getting your driver's license, you
received a grade every time you sat behind the wheel to practice driving? What if your final
grade for the driving test was the average of all of the grades you received while practicing?
Because of the initial low grades you received during the process of learning to drive, your
final grade would not accurately reflect your ability to drive a car. In the beginning of
learning to drive, how confident or motivated to learn would you feel? Would any of the
grades you received provide you with guidance on what you needed to do next to improve
your driving skills? Your final driving test, or summative assessment, would be the
accountability measure that establishes whether or not you have the driving skills necessary
for a driver's license—not a reflection of all the driving practice that leads to it. The same
holds true for classroom instruction, learning, and assessment.

Another distinction that underpins formative assessment is student involvement. If students are
not involved in the assessment process, formative assessment is not practiced or
implemented to its full effectiveness. Students need to be involved both as assessors of their
own learning and as resources to other students. There are numerous strategies teachers can
implement to engage students. In fact, research shows that the involvement in and ownership
of their work increases students' motivation to learn. This does not mean the absence of
teacher involvement. To the contrary, teachers are critical in identifying learning goals,
setting clear criteria for success, and designing assessment tasks that provide evidence of
student learning.

One of the key components of engaging students in the assessment of their own learning is
providing them with descriptive feedback as they learn. In fact, research shows descriptive
feedback to be the most significant instructional strategy to move students forward in their
learning.
Descriptive feedback provides students with an understanding of what they are doing well, links
to classroom learning, and gives specific input on how to reach the next step in the
learning progression. In other words, descriptive feedback is not a grade, a sticker, or
"good job!" A significant body of research indicates that such limited feedback does not lead to
improved student learning.

There are many classroom instructional strategies that are part of the repertoire of good
teaching. When teachers use sound instructional practice for the purpose of gathering
information on student learning, they are applying this information in a formative way. In
this sense, formative assessment is pedagogy and clearly cannot be separated from
instruction. It is what good teachers do. The distinction lies in what teachers actually do with
the information they gather. How is it being used to inform instruction? How is it being
shared with and engaging students? It's not teachers just collecting information/data on
student learning; it's what they do with the information they collect.

Some of the instructional strategies that can be used formatively include the following:

a) Criteria and goal setting with students engages them in instruction and the learning
process by creating clear expectations. In order to be successful, students need to
understand and know the learning target/goal and the criteria for reaching it. Establishing and
defining quality work together, asking students to participate in establishing norm
behaviors for classroom culture, and determining what should be included in criteria for
success are all examples of this strategy. Using student work, classroom tests, or
exemplars of what is expected helps students understand where they are, where they need to
be, and an effective process for getting there.
 b) Observations go beyond walking around the room to see if students are on task or need
clarification. Observations assist teachers in gathering evidence of student learning to
inform instructional planning. This evidence can be recorded and used as feedback for
students about their learning or as anecdotal data shared with them during conferences.
c) Questioning strategies should be embedded in lesson/unit planning. Asking
better questions allows an opportunity for deeper thinking and provides teachers with
significant insight into the degree and depth of understanding. Questions of this nature
engage students in classroom dialogue that both uncovers and expands learning. An "exit
slip" at the end of a class period to determine students' understanding of the day's lesson or
quick checks during instruction such as "thumbs up/down" or "red/green" (stop/go) cards are
also examples of questioning strategies that elicit immediate information about student
learning.
Helping students ask better questions is another aspect of this formative assessment strategy.
d) Self and peer assessment helps to create a learning community within a classroom.
Students who can reflect while engaged in metacognitive thinking are involved in their
learning. When students have been involved in criteria and goal setting, self-evaluation is a
logical step in the learning process. With peer evaluation, students see each other as
resources for understanding and checking for quality work against previously established
criteria.
e) Student record keeping helps students better understand their own learning as evidenced
by their classroom work. This process of students keeping ongoing records of their work not
only engages students, it also helps them, beyond a "grade," to see where they started and the
progress they are making toward the learning goal.

All of these strategies are integral to the formative assessment process, and they have been
suggested by models of effective middle school instruction.

Balancing Assessment
As teachers gather information/data about student learning, several categories may be included.
In order to better understand student learning, teachers need to consider information about
the products (paper or otherwise) students create and tests they take, observational notes,
and reflections on the communication that occurs between teacher and student or among
students.
When a comprehensive assessment program at the classroom level balances formative and
summative student learning/achievement information, a clear picture emerges of where a
student is relative to learning targets and standards. Students should be able to articulate
this shared information about their own learning. When this happens, student-led
conferences, a formative assessment strategy, are valid. The more we know about individual
students as they engage in the learning process, the better we can adjust instruction to
ensure that all students continue to achieve by moving forward in their learning.

Student Tests - Bloom's Taxonomy

Bloom's Taxonomy -- In 1956, Benjamin Bloom wrote that over 95 % of the test questions
students encounter require them to think only at the lowest possible level, the recall of
information. Bloom identified six levels within the cognitive domain, from the simple
recollection of facts, knowledge -- the lowest level, through increasingly more complex and
abstract mental levels to the highest order, classified as evaluation. Bloom and established a
hierarchy of educational objectives, generally referred to as Bloom's Taxonomy, an attempt to
divide cognitive objectives into subdivisions. The taxonomy provides a useful structure in
which to categorize test questions, since professors will characteristically ask questions
within particular levels.
Verbs -- Like writing instruction objectives, writing test questions involves verb selection.
Listed below are examples of verbs often used in test questions. Using Bloom's Taxonomy as a
guide, the verbs below have been categorized according to the intellectual activity they
represent, ranked here from the highest to the lowest level.

evaluation appraise, argue, assess, attach, choose, compare, defend,

estimate, predict, rate, core, select, support, value, evaluate
[Do you agree ...]

synthesis arrange, assemble, collect, compose, construct, create,

develop, formulate, manage, organize, plan, prepare, set up,
write
[What might happen if ...]

analysis calculate, categorize, compare, contrast, criticize,

differentiate, discriminate, distinguish, examine, question,
test
[Classify ... according to ...]

application apply, choose, demonstrate, dramatize, employ, illustrate,

interpret, operate, practice, schedule, sketch, solve, use,

Write [How is ..., Why is ...]

comprehension classify, describe, discuss, explain, express, identify,

indicate, locate, recognize, report, restate, review, select,
translate
[Which picture depicts ...]

knowledge arrange, define, duplicate, label, list, memorize, name, order,

recognize, relate, recall, repeat, reproduce, state
[Name the ...]
Examples
The sample questions below demonstrate the use of these verbs, from the most simple to the
highest knowledge level:

 Knowledge: Who fought in the War of 1812?

 Comprehension: Name the states in the Confederacy.
 Application: Why was the Boston Tea Party a significant act for the settlers?
 Analysis: How does the American Civil War compare with the French Civil War?
 Synthesis: If you can only take 10 cultural items to a new world, what will you take?
 Evaluation: Do you agree with the main precepts of the Green Party? Why or why not?

MICROTEACHING
Teacher training plays a vital role in the successful implementation of the teaching learning
process. It prepares teachers for actual classroom teaching. As such, in training, micro lessons
are undertaken to give trainee teachers the much needed experience. The micro-lessons are
focused IT-based instructional components that are developed to teach specific objectives within
a lesson. The micro-lessons could consist of instructional activities, simulations, games,
problem-solving activities, mother-tongue materials, and teacher-presentation materials. They
are developed to fit the instructional needs of teachers and students and their production is based
on sound Instructional Design principles. Therefore, Micro-teaching is a teacher training and
faculty development technique whereby the teacher reviews a recording of a teaching session, in
order to get constructive feedback from peers and/or students about what has worked and what
improvements can be made to their teaching technique. It is advantageous in that;
i) It focuses on sharpening and developing specific teaching skills and eliminating errors.
ii) It enables understanding of behaviours important in classroom teaching.
iii) It increases the confidence of the learner teacher

MICRO-LESSONS
Micro-lessons are IT-based instructional materials that are used to teach specific objectives.
They are small and specific units of instruction for teachers to use within lessons. The micro-
lessons developed span many curricular content areas, and are suitable for supporting a wide
variety of learning outcomes. The majority of the micro-lessons are student-centered materials
that incorporate various computer features (e.g. animation, graphics, sound, interactivity) that
will enhance the teaching-learning process.
In the first generation micro-lessons, the projects were mainly student-centered projects
adopting a direct instructional approach. Most of the micro-lessons developed under this
phase adopted one of these common modes of instruction: tutorial(teach some content and
then test the students' understanding of the content), drill or informational multimedia.
These are mainly used for transmission of knowledge in curricular areas. Multimedia
features are also used in these micro-lessons to help enhance the learning process.
In the second generation micro-lessons, the learning paradigm has shifted from knowledge
transmission (as in the 1st Generation lessons) to one which allows students to explore,
construct and create knowledge through various computer-based learning activities.
Generally, these micro-lessons consist of two parts.
In the first part, students are presented with some multimedia instructional materials and
these could be in the form of an ill-defined problem, a case study, a scenario, or a situation.
In the second part, the students may access some linked documents that requires them to be
involved in some form of higher order activities such as generating possible solutions,
solving complex problems, accessing the web to collect information, exploring a simulation
or to collaborate on a piece of work. In a nutshell, a micro-lesson is a short recorded audio
or video presentation on a single, tightly defined topic. It is usually used as a component of
online or face-to-face teaching. The time of the micro-lesson is often controlled at about 10
minutes

We can now classify these micro-lessons into five types:

1) Resource-based
In this approach, various links to the WWW can be established and students will access the web
sites to collect information, facts, opinions and then synthesize them or compare the We can now
classify these micro-lessons into five types:
2) Problem-based
Micro-lessons can now be used to present "instructional problems" in a multimedia fashion
through which activities can be formulated and where students can be engaged in the process of
investigation and problem-solving. For example, a video-clip of a water shortage problem in
Singapore can be presented and students would be made to undergo a scientifically sound
investigative process where possible causes and solutions found.
3) Case-based
Another more generic approach besides the problem-based method is for a "case" or scenario to
be presented to students through the micro-lessons. Through such an approach, students would
have to consider the learning situations and the problems associated with it. From the
considerations of problem-identification, students can then be made to determine the possible
solutions and alternatives. Through the process, students need to access other resources most
possibly from the www.
4) Collaborative-based
In this approach, students can be asked to work collaboratively or in pairs to undergo an
instructional activity presented intentionally in the micro-lessons to be jointly worked through.
For example, tasks can be assigned to different individuals and they work on different pieces of
the "puzzle" and later come together to co-construct the entire "jig-saw puzzle". Because micro-
lessons can be linked to other applications, the possibilities of different kinds of co-construction
tasks can be varied and many-fold.
5) Simulation-based
Micro-lessons can also be used to create simulations where students can observe particular
phenomena and learn from the processes and the variables that will affect the simulated actions.
Again, because micro-lessons can be linked to Java applets (for example) and other applications
such as the geo-meter sketchpad, simulations become a reality.

PEER TEACHING
Peer teaching is an activity that occurs when students teach other students. It involves one or
more students teaching other students in a particular subject area and builds on the belief that ―to
teach is to learn twice‖ (Whitman, 1998). It is an important exercise undertaken by teacher
trainees in that;
i) Students learn a great deal by explaining their ideas to others and by participating in
activities in which they can learn from their peers.
ii) They develop skills in organizing and planning learning activities, working
collaboratively with others,
iii) Helps learners to give and receive feedback from peers
iv) It assists them to self-evaluate their own teaching.
Advantages of peer teaching
a) Learning occurs across different domains
 b) Great transferability in that this teaching style can be used in all lessons
c) Pupils gain more feedback as they are working with a tutor to reinforce points.
d) Specific development in cognitive, psychomotor and affective domain.
e) Tutors gain some training to teach- teaching and communication students use in this can
act as experience for later life
f) Teacher trainees begin to rely more on each other rather than the teacher
g) Gives students importance within in the lesson- keeping them in charge if they have
something they must complete
h) Learner may listen to their friends better than their teacher.

Disadvantages of peer teaching

a) Students may go off task as they are working with their friends
b) Social development could lack if people only work with the same person every time.
c) Individuals may not learn as much because other learners are not as experienced as the
teacher.
d) Does not promote positive relationship between pupils and teacher if they are only
working with other pupils
e) People who are normally the leaders within the student group may take charge too much,
meaning others do not get a chance to take part in the teaching side

SET INDUCTION
INTRODUCTION
Set induction is about preparation, usually for a formal lesson. When the students are set, they
are ready to learn ('are you set?'). Set induction is thus about getting them ready, inducing them
into the right mind-set. Thus, set is a mental state of readiness and induction brings it on

Set Induction or Anticipatory Set gets learners thinking and ready for the lesson

Set induction should:

 Contain a statement of the learning
 Relate the objective
 Involve the learner in the learning

Anticipatory set provides a reference point between what the student knows and the new
material, thus creating a link from one lesson, objective to the next. It involves:
 Techniques for Involvement of the Learner in the Learning
 Questions
 Activity
 Pictures
 Objects
 Cartoons
 Stories
 AOutlines
 Transparencies
 Summarizing

Anticipatory sets are of two types:

a) Facilitating Sets
 Used to summarize information presented in previous lessons
 Used to summarize information that will occur
 Emphasizes the cognitive aspects of a new lesson by reviewing or summarizing

b) Motivating Sets
They are used to:
 Catch the students attention
 Arouses curiosity
 Poses interesting questions
 Uses dramatic appeal
 Creates a need or interest
 Induces an affective or emotional response Summary
 It is best to provide both motivating and facilitating sets
 Monitor behavior by involving students in overt behavior

How sets are used before any new activity, from introduction of a new concept to giving
homework is important as in each set both create clarity about what is expected happen (both
what you will do and what they should do), and to create motivation for this to occur, with
students being fully engaged in the learning.

Set induction can be done by:

 Explaining potential benefits to the learner
 Giving clear instructions
 Describing what is going to happen.

The STEP acronym may be used to help remember what to do:

 Start: Welcome the students, settle them down and gain attention.
 Transact: Understand their expectations and explain yours. Link with previous learning.
 Evaluate: Assess the gap between their expectations and current reality. Clarify any
discrepancies for them.
 Progress: Move on to the main body of learning.

Perrott (1982) identified four purposes of set induction.

1. Focusing attention on what is to be learned by gaining the interest of students.
2. Moving from old to new materials and linking of the two.
3. Providing a structure for the lesson and setting expectations of what will happen.
4. Giving meaning to a new concept or principle, such as giving examples.

ACTIVITY
1. If you are teaching, think about and prepare carefully how to get your students in the right
state of mind to be ready to understand and learn.

SKILLS IN QUESTIONING IN TEACHING

Skills in questioning are very useful in many applications, including interviewing, teaching,
designing questionnaires and interpersonal relations. They also are useful in asking oneself and
others various questions to help them reflect on their experiences and to learn.

Traits of Destructive Questions

Before suggesting guidelines to conduct supportive questioning, it is important for you to know
what types of questions to avoid. Consider these guidelines:
1. Avoid asking questions that can be answered simply with yes and no. Instead, consider
questions that start with ―What, How, When and Where.
2. Avoid leading questions. Leading questions are questions that are asked to lead another to a
certain pre-determined conclusion or insight. Eg You did what I suggested, right?
3. Avoid those questions that can be perceived by the other as manipulative and dishonest. Eg
Those types of questions can leave others feeling defensive, as if they are to be accountable to
you to justify their actions. That feeling of defensiveness can damage feelings of trust and
openness between you and your employees.
4. Avoid frequently asking questions that begin with Why.

Skills in questioning are very useful in many applications, including interviewing, coaching,
designing questionnaires and interpersonal relations. They also are useful in asking oneself and
others various questions to help them reflect on their experiences and to learn.

Traits of Useful Questions

Consider these guidelines:
1. Where possible, use open-ended questions. Open-ended questions are those that are not
answered with ―yes‖ or ―no.‖ They generate thinking and reflection on the part of the person
you are coaching. They also ensure that the person keeps focused in the lesson.
2. Focus questions on the here-and-now .The goal of practicing teaching is to help the person to
go forward by changing how he/she looks at the problem, identifying realistic actions to take,
and learning from those actions.
3. Ask questions to clarify what the other is saying. Clarifying questions help you and the
person you are teaching to understand the key point or ―bottom line‖ of what he/she is saying.
They often lead to discovering the root cause of issues.
4. Ask questions about the person‗s perspectives, assumptions and actions . Adults can learn a
great deal by closely examining their own thinking. Often, they struggle because of inaccurate
perceptions or assumptions. Therefore, ask questions about their thinking, assumptions and
beliefs about current priorities. Do not ask lots of questions about other people - you cannot
coach people who are not with you.
Powerful Questions
A fundamental skill in the teaching learning process is the ability to ask powerful questions.
Powerful questions evoke clarity, introspection, lend to enhanced creativity and help provide
solutions. Questions are powerful when they have an impact on the client which causes them to
think. Learning to ask powerful questions will help you augment your personal communication.
The most effective powerful questions begin with ―What‖ or ―How‖, are short and to the point.

When questioning, be genuinely curious about the person you are speaking to.
Here are some powerful questions that can help you be more effective in many situations.

1. What do you want?

2. What will that give you?
3. What is important about that?
4. What is holding you back?
5. What if you do nothing?
6. What is this costing you?
7. How much control do you have in this situation?
8. What do you need to say ―no‖ to?
9. How can you make this easy?
10. What options do you have?
11. What will you do? By when?
12. What support do you need to assure success?
13. How will you know you have been successful?
14. What are you learning from this?
Traits of Strategic Questions
A strategic question (from "Strategic Questioning" by Peavey, in In Context, No. 40):
1. Creates motion -- Gears to "How can we move?"
2. Creates options -- Instead of "Why don't you ..?", asks "Where would you ...?"
3. Digs deeper -- "What needs to be changed?" "What is the meaning of this?"
4. Avoids "why."
5. Avoids "yes" and "no" questions -- These leave the presenter in a passive or uncreative state.
6. Empowers -- "What would you like to do?"
7. Asks the un-ask-able questions.

Examples of Powerful Questions

1. How important is this?
2. Where do you feel stuck?
3. What is the intent of what you're saying?
4. What can we do for you?
5. What do you think the problem is?
6. What's your role in this issue?
7. What have you tried so far? What worked? What didn't?
8. Have you experienced anything like this before? (If so, what did you do?)
9. What can you do for yourself?
10. What do you hope for?
11. What's preventing you from ..."
12. What would you be willing to give up for that?
13. If you could change one thing, what would it be?
14. Imagine a point in the future where your issue is resolved. How did you get there?
15. What would you like us to ask?
16. What have you learned?

FIVE BASIC TYPES OF QUESTIONS

The art of asking questions is an ancient part of good teaching and one of the basic skills all
teachers should be able to master. Socrates believed that knowledge and awareness were an
intrinsic part of each learner. Thus, in exercising the craft of good pedagogy a skilled educator
must reach into learners‗ hidden levels of knowing and awareness in order to help the them reach
new levels of thinking through thoughtfully developed questions.
1. Factual - Soliciting reasonably simple, straight forward answers based on obvious facts or
awareness. These are usually at the lowest level of cognitive (thinking) or affective (feeling)
processes and answers are frequently either right or wrong.
Example: Name the Shakespeare play about the Prince of Denmark?

2. Convergent - Answers to these types of questions are usually within a very finite range of
acceptable accuracy. These may be at several different levels of cognition. Comprehension,
application, analysis, or ones where the answerer makes inferences or conjectures based on
personal awareness, or on material read, presented or known. While these types of questions are
valuable in exercising mid-level cognitive thinking skills, it is quite easy to expand students‗
cognitive processes even higher by adding another layer to these questions whereby teachers ask
students to justify their answers in light of the evidence offered or the inferences made.
Example: On reflecting over the entirety of the play Hamlet, what were the main reasons why
Ophelia went mad? (This is not specifically stated in one direct statement in the text of Hamlet.
Here the reader must make simple inferences as to why she committed suicide.)

Divergent - These questions allow students to explore different avenues and create many
different variations and alternative answers or scenarios. Correctness may be based on logical
projections, may be contextual, or arrived at through basic knowledge, conjecture, inference,

3. Projection, creation, intuition, or imagination. These types of questions often require students
to analyze, evaluate, or synthesize a knowledge base and then project or predict different
outcomes. Answering these types of questions may be aided by higher levels of affective
thinking as well — such as valuing, organization, or characterization. Responses to these types
of questions generally fall into a wide array of acceptability. Often correctness is determined
subjectively based on the possibility or probability of the proposed answer. The intent of these
types of questions is to stimulate imaginative, creative, or inventive thought, or investigate
―cause and effect‖ relationships. Example: In the love relationship of Hamlet and Ophelia, what
might have happened to their relationship and their lives if Hamlet had not been so obsessed with
the revenge of his father‗s death?

4. Evaluative - These types of questions usually require sophisticated levels of cognitive and/or
emotional (affective) judgment. In attempting to answer these types of questions, students may
be combining multiple cognitive and/or affective processes or levels, frequently in comparative
frameworks. Often an answer is analyzed at multiple levels and from different perspectives
before the answerer arrives at newly synthesized information or conclusions.
Examples:
a. Compare and contrast the death of Ophelia with that of Juliet?
b. What are the similarities and differences between Roman gladiatorial games and modern
football?
c. Why and how might the concept of Piagetian schema be related to the concepts presented in
Jungian personality theory, and why might this be important to consider in teaching and
learning?

5. Combinations - These are questions that blend any combination of the above. You can easily
monitor what types of questions you are asking your students through simple tallies and
examining degrees of difficulty.

Therefore, questions can be factual, conceptual or provocative

Factual questions
Factual questions are the ones that are easily answered with definitive, and comparatively simple
answers. These are the questions that you find on the show Jeopardy. Unfortunately they are also
too common in schools and on tests.

Conceptual questions
Conceptual questions might be ones that are convergent, divergent, or evaluative in construction
— ones that delve deeper and require more sophisticated levels of cognitive processing and
thinking.

Provocative questions
Provocative questions are ones that entice, and ones that cannot be answered easily. They are
questions that can be used to motivate and frame content or ones that could be classified as
Essential questions. In the initial categorization above they would be either complex divergent
questions or more sophisticated combination questions like divergent/evaluative ones.

ACTIVITY
1. What are essential questions, discuss them
2. Skills in questioning are very useful in many applications, including interviewing, teaching,
designing questionnaires and interpersonal relations.
3. They also are useful in asking oneself and others various questions to help them reflect on
their experiences and to learn.
4. Discuss traits of useful questions

The Value of questions

"Asking good questions is productive, positive, creative, and can get us what we want". Most
people believe this to be true and yet people do not ask enough good questions. Perhaps one
of the reasons for this is that effective questioning requires it be combined with effective
listening.
Effective questions help you:
 Connect with your clients in a more meaningful way
 Better and more fully understand your client's problem
 Have clients experience you as an understanding, competent lawyer
 Work with your staff more effectively
 Help your staff take responsibility for their actions and solve problems within the
workplace more easily
 Cross examine more effectively
 Take revealing depositions
 Gather better information
 Do more solution oriented problem solving
 Improve your negotiating skills
 Reduce mistakes
 Take the sting out of feedback
 Defuse volatile situations
 Get cooperation
 Plant your own ideas
 Persuade people

Effective Questions
Effective questions are questions that are powerful and thought provoking. Effective questions
are open-ended and not leading questions. They are not "why" questions, but rather "what" or
"how" questions.
"Why" questions are good for soliciting information, but can make people defensive so be
thoughtful in your use of them. When asking effective questions, it is important to wait for the
answer and not provide the answer.
When working with people to solve a problem, it is not enough to tell them what the problem is.
They need to find out or understand it for themselves. You help them do this by asking them
thought provoking questions. Rather than make assumptions find out what the person you are
talking to knows about the problem.
For example: "What do you think the problem is?"

Behind effective questioning is also the ability to listen to the answer and suspend judgment.
This means being intent on understanding what the person who is talking is really saying. What
is behind their words? Let go of your opinions so that they don't block you from learning more
information. Pay attention to your gut for additional information.

NATIONAL GOALS OF EDUCATION IN KENYA

Education in Kenya aims to;

1. Foster nationalism, patriotism and promote national unity

2. Promote social, economic, technological and industrial needs for national development
o Social needs: Prepare children for the changes in attitudes and relationships which
are necessary for the smooth process of a rapidly developing modern economy
o Economic needs: Produce citizens with skills, knowledge, expertise and personal
qualities that are required to support a growing economy
o Technological and industrial needs: Provide the learners with the necessary skills
and attitudes for industrial development
 3. Promote individual development and self-fulfillment
4. Promote sound moral and religious values
5. Promote social equality and Responsibility
6. Promote respect for and development of Kenya's rich and varied cultures
7. Promote international consciousness and foster positive attitude towards other nations
8. Promote positive attitudes towards good health and environmental protection

To achieve the national goals, the Kenyan Secondary education (Goals of Secondary education
in Kenya) is expected to provide the learner with opportunities to:

1. Acquire necessary knowledge, skills and attitudes for the development of the self and the
nation
2. Promote love for and loyalty to the nation
3. Promoter harmonious co-existence among the peoples of Kenya
4. Develop mentally, socially, morally, physically and spiritually
5. Enhance understanding and respect for own and other people's cultures and their place in
contemporary society
6. Enhance understanding and appreciation of interrelationships among nations
7. Promote positive environmental and health practices
8. Build a firm foundation for further education and training
9. Develop ability for enquiry, critical thinking and rational judgment
10. Develop into a responsible and socially well adjusted person
11. Promote acceptance and respect for all persons
12. Enhance enjoyment in learning
13. Identify individual talents and develop them
14. Build a foundation for technological and industrial development
15. Develop into a self-disciplined individual who appreciates work and manages time
properly

REFERENCES
 Cohen, L.M. Morrison, K. ( 2007). A guide to Teaching Practice. London: RoutledgeFalmer
Publishers.
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 Nacino-Brown R; Oke, F.E. & Brown, D.P. (1982).Curriculum and Instruction.Macmillan
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 Nasibi, W.M. w. (2003). Instructional Methods. Nairobi: Strongwall Africa.
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Publishers.
 Perrott, E. ((1982). Effective Teaching: A Practical Guide to Improving Your Teaching,
New York: Longman
 Erickson, H. L. (2007Concept-based curriculum and instruction for the thinking classroom.
Thousand Oaks, CA. Corwin Press.
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classroom. Thousand Oaks, CA. Corwin Press.
