KAMPALA INTERNATIONAL UNIVERSITY

MODULE

INSTRUCTIONAL METHODS

By
GWOKYALYA EDITH

0
 Table of Content

COURSE TITLE: INSTRUCTIONAL METHODS

COURSE CODE: EDF2202
HOURS TAUGHT: 3 hrs per week
PREREQUISITES: None
PURPOSE OF COURSE
The purpose of this course is to help students establish a sound professional base on
which to build a successful teaching career. The course is divided into ten sections
each with sub sections. The paper discusses the basic concepts of teaching,
instructional objectives, commonly practiced methods of Teaching,
psychological/learning theories and implications for teachers; techniques of
teaching, planning for teaching and classroom control and management, etc.
EXPECTED LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of the course unit, students should be able to:
▪ Explain the difference between method, technique and skill.
▪ Explain the methods used in child centered learning and teacher-centered
teaching
▪ Enumerate the advantages of child centered methods in teaching
▪ State the techniques and skills needed for effective teaching
▪ Select the teaching methods, techniques and skills suitable for specific
classes and learning situations.
COURSE CONTENT
Basic Concepts of Teaching and Learning
• Teaching and Learning
• Strategy, Method, Technique.
• Learning theories and implications for teachers.
• Motivation and Reinforcement

• Individual Differences

• Criteria for successful and effective teaching Roles of teacher, teacher

characteristics, resourcefulness, organization

Instructional Objectives
• Bloom’s taxonomy
• Methods of writing instructional objectives.

KIU- Instructional Methods 1

Page
 • The use of objectives in instruction

Commonly Practiced Methods of teaching i.e. Teacher centered and Child

centered Method and their application and the 21st teaching approaches
• Criteria for selection of teaching methods

• Qualities of a good teaching method

• Methods Used for Teaching large and small Groups
• Dramatization advantages and disadvantages.
• Questioning technique
• Explanation
• Discussion (Socratic )
• Demonstration /Exhibition method
• Experimentation etc
The 21st teaching approaches
• Collaborative learning approach
• Inquiry based learning
• Experiential learning
• Project method

Need to discuss in details the applicability for each method for example; the
steps, when to use, how, where, why, the weaknesses and strength for each
method
Planning for Teaching
• Developing a Schemes of Work
• Salient Components of a Schemes of Work
• Format of a Schemes of Work
• Lesson Plan
• Developing a Lesson Plan
• Salient Components of a Lesson Plan

Records keeping
• Students records
• Class attendance records
• Class attendance records
• Class performance records etc

KIU- Instructional Methods 2

Page
Classroom Control and Management
• The teacher and classroom Management
• Factors affecting classroom management and discipline
• Strategies for classroom management

Measurement and Evaluation

o Types of instructional evaluation
o Method of evaluation
o Importance of lesson evaluation

READING MATERIALS
Aggarwal, J.C. (1996). Principles, methods and techniques of teaching. Vikas
publishing house. Pvtltd, New Delhi:
Aggarwal, J.C. (2001). Principles, methods and techniques of teaching. 2 nd Revised
Edition. Vikas publishing house. Pvtltd, New Delhi.
Brophy, E. & Good, T. (1994) Looking in Classrooms. 6th Edition. Harper Collins,
London.
Maritu, B. Mwangi and Scxhlette, R. (1995). Teach your best; a hand book for
University Lecturer, German Foundation for international Development
Nacino-Brown, Oke and Brown (1982). Curriculum and instruction: an introduction
to methods of teaching (McMillan).
Perrott, E. (1982). Effective teaching: a practical guide to improve your teaching
(Longman).
Ralph,C (1975). Aadio-visual handbook, university of London press ltd
Ssekamwa, J.C. (2004) Skills and Techniques of Teaching. Makerere University
school of Education, Kampala.
Bransford, J. D., Brown, A. L., & Cocking, R. R. (2000). How People Learn: Brain,
Mind, Experience, and School. National Academy Press.
Chichekian, T., & Shore, B. M. (2016). The Role of Inquiry in Learning: Making
Connections to Teaching. Educational Research Review, 19, 13-23.
Dewey, J. (1938). Experience and Education. Macmillan.
Harlen, W. (2013). Inquiry-Based Learning in Science and Mathematics Education.
OECD.
Kolb, D. A. (1984). Experiential Learning: Experience as the Source of Learning and
Development. Prentice Hall.

Beard, C., & Wilson, J. P. (2006). Experiential Learning: A Best Practice

Handbook for Educators and Trainers. Kogan Page.

KIU- Instructional Methods 3

Page
Moon, J. A. (2004). A Handbook of Reflective and Experiential Learning: Theory
and Practice. Routledge.

Boud, D., Cohen, R., & Walker, D. (1993). Using Experience for Learning. Open
University Press.

Silberman, M. (2007). The Handbook of Experiential Learning. John Wiley &

Sons.

KIU- Instructional Methods 4

Page
 Unit 1. THE NATURE OF TEACHING
1.0. INTRODUCTION

Teaching goes by several definitions, all of which tend to describe activities that are
designed and performed to produce a change in a learner’s (student) behaviors.
Broadly defined, it is an act of displaying something (knowledge, skill or attitude)
with the intention that somebody (a student) may learn it, or lean from it. It involves
directing, guiding, stimulating and encouraging learning.
Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavioral tendencies that occur as a
result of practice or observation. It must have an object because one must always
be learning a particular “something”. Such mastery however, must be a product of
the learner’s own past experience. Learning may occur without a student being
explicitly aware of it. In fact, learning deliberately or otherwise consciously goes on
throughout the life of an individual resulting in progressive understanding of,
adjustment to and control of environment and of oneself. But the kind of learning
which concerns us here, (and which a teacher is supposed to achieve), is essentially
in active process as opposed to passive absorption of knowledge, or mere reading of
books and listening to lectures, with the object of reproducing what has been read.
It is an enrichment of experience embodying interactions between the student and
the environment.
1.1. Phases of teaching
Effective teaching has three main phases: The preparation (or pre-teaching) phase,
the teaching (or interactive) phase and the post-teaching (or proactive) phase. These
phases can be represented as shown in the figure 3 below.

Teaching

Pre-teaching phase Interactive phase Proactive phase

(Planning stage) (Implementation stage) (Evaluation stage)

Figure 1: Phases of Teaching

KIU- Instructional Methods 5

Page
1.1.1 .Pre-Active Phase
This is also referred to as the planning phase. It entails all that the teacher does
before going to class to present his lesson. At this stage, the teacher performs such
a preparing schemes of work, lesson plans and lesson notes, selecting and arranging
teaching and learning resources, studying test reports, etc. Generally the teacher is
expected to:
1. Consider and select the most relevant and suitable methods, techniques and
strategies, and resources for the lesson.
2. Consider and decide how and what questions to ask during the lesson and
prepare these questions in advance.
3. Consider and decide on the kind of examples to give, and prepare them
(examples) in advance.
4. Think through the anticipated points of difficulties and how to overcome them.
5. Decide on whether there could be any digression from the main lesson and
how to handle it.
Most of the activities in the activities in the proactive phase are carried by the teacher
in the staff room or at home. This phase must be done properly because without
proper planning there can never be effective teaching. The pre-active phase is
basically about fixing up objectives and the content of the lesson and making
decisions about the teaching strategies to be used (see figure 4).
1.1.2. Interactive phase
Interactive phase is also referred to as the implementation phase. During this phase,
the teachers uses the available teaching and learning resources, and engages the
students in the appropriate teaching and learning activities to achieve the stated
lesson objectives. It is very important phase in teaching because if it is not
conducted, or conducted badly, no meaningful learning can occur. At this stage, the
teacher should be mainly concerned with the following;

1. Motivation: The teacher should create a pleasant environment that

encourages students to learn. He should interact with students with ease.
He should make the subject interesting, by giving real life examples,
discussing the applications of the topics / subject or daily life, or by using
any other means appropriate to the lesson.
2. Activity: The teacher should ensure that all students are active during the
lesson. He can do this through:

KIU- Instructional Methods 6

Page
 (i) Encouraging students to ask questions
(ii) Making students to draw diagrams.
(iii) Making students to take notes
(iv) If the students are working in group, each member of the group
must be given opportunity to participate actively.
3. Concreteness: The teacher should make his lessons as real as possible. He
should bring tangible objects such as models, specimen, charts, etc to enable
him teach abstract concepts and help the student internalize them.
4. Individualization. The teacher should not be carried away by the “class” to
forget that a class is made up of individual students with individual
differences. The teacher should take care of both the good and poor
students, by treating each individual student appropriately as each case may
dictate.
5. Corporation. Individualization of teaching should not be carried out at the
expense of cooperate learning. The teacher must teach individuals in the
class as well as the whole class. Students should work in-groups so that they
learn to share what they have including knowledge.
1.1.3. Pro-Active phase
This is the evaluation stage where the teacher assesses the effects of the teaching
and learning activities carried out during the interactive phase. At this stage, the
teacher tries to establish if the students have understood the facts presented to them
and decides whether to proceed to the next lesson or to re-teach the current one.
The main aim of this is to obtain feedback that can be used to improve the quality
of the subsequent lesson.
UNIT 2. PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING
For teaching to be effective, the teacher should keep in mind and use the following
principles.
Use of Already Acquired Experiences: Students learn from what they know to
what they do not know i.e from the known to the unknown. Any concept to be taught
should therefore proceed from what the students already know, because what they
can learn is greatly influenced by what they already know.
Readiness: Students cannot learn facts or concepts well unless they are ready for
them. Students should be ready, both mentally and physically, before any material
is introduced to them. Readiness can be achieved through proper ordering of
teaching and learning content and activities. Ordering should take into account the

KIU- Instructional Methods 7

Page
physical ages of the students, their mental abilities and the logical step-by-step
arrangement of the content and teaching activities.
Individual differences: Every student is totally unique from others and no any two
individuals are exactly identical. The teacher must bear in mind the fact that his
students are different in every aspect, and that the normal distribution rule exists
within the class. Students cannot all grasp the same(s) ideas at the same speed.
Each student should therefore be treated on his own merit.
Clearly defined objectives: Teaching can only be effective if the teacher plans his
lesson well in advance. This entails developing and stating clearly defined objectives.
Students should be aware of the objectives because this enables them to follow the
lesson more clearly and to work ahead of the teacher.
Applicability: Whatever it is that a teacher wants the students to learn must be
useful and applicable to the life of the student, now and after school. It is a bad
practice to teach irrelevant and useless concepts. Generally, any effective teaching
should:
- Proceed from known to the unknown.
- Proceed from simple to complex.
- Proceed from concrete to abstract.
- Proceed from specific to general.
- Proceed from inductive to deductive.
Unit 3. Factors influencing the teaching/learning process
It is important for a teacher to keep the following factors in mind because they affect
how the students respond to the sole lesson. These factors are also known as variable
of learning. They include:
3.1. Teacher-Student Relationship: There are three kinds of relationship that a
teacher may have with his students. These are authoritarian, democratic and laissez-
faire relationships.
An authoritarian teacher feels that he has the right to shape the behaviour of the
students. He is in total control of the class and students are mere passive recipients
of knowledge, who do not participate or contribute to the teaching-learning process.
Students only wait for what the teacher has to give to them and whatever they are
given is taken as gospel truth. The authoritarian teacher believes in strict discipline
and punishes students for whatever mistake they make. This relationship has the
disadvantage of killing creativity in students, and ends up producing students that
are just pass observers. It is not effective for most lessons.

KIU- Instructional Methods 8

Page
The democratic teacher has mutual respect for his students who also have the
same respect for him. The learning climate is conducive and is characterized by
discussion, sharing and exchanging of ideas. The teacher is mainly a guide, a director
and a facilitator of learning, not a custodian of knowledge.
The laissez-faire teacher is not concerned with the students in regard to what
they do in class. The students are free to do what they want, whether it leads to
learning or not. This relationship does not facilitate structured learning.
Effective teaching would require a teacher to exercise a balance of these
characteristics effectively as the situation may dictate. No one-relationship model
should be used exclusively in isolation all the time. The teacher should act
authoritatively to ensure that students take their work seriously, and democratically
to ensure students participate actively and maximally contribute to the learning
process.
3.2.The Nature of the Task: Another factor (variable) that affects the learning is
the nature of the task (or concept or knowledge or topic) to be learnt. Some topics
(or tasks) are motivating, interesting or pleasant while some are difficult and require
more time and patience. Some tasks are openly meaningful. The students can readily
recognize the value of such topics to their lives, while some are abstract and
withdrawn from the daily experiences of the students. Such tasks would require more
time and a different approach in presentation. The nature of the task will dictate how
students will respond to the lesson. The teacher must consider the nature of the task
for him to be able to teach effectively.
3.4. Methodology: The teaching method is also another factor (variable) that
affects how students learn. The teacher should select and use that method that will
best maximize the desired learning outcomes. The most popular teaching methods
used today include experimentation, demonstration, discussion, explanation,
lecture, excursions, etc. these are described in details in chapter two.
3.5. The learner: The students themselves also affect the teaching and learning
process. Different students have different abilities, maturation and motivation levels.
An individual student may also have different abilities, intelligence, maturation and
motivation at different times or in different topics. These will influence how they
respond to a lesson.
The learner may influence the teaching and learning in two other different ways: (i)
by his interests, needs and wants and (ii) by his previous experience.
i) Interests, Needs and Wants of the Learner

KIU- Instructional Methods 9

Page
 The teacher should consider the interests, needs and wants of the student
because these (interests, needs, wants) greatly affect the motivation of
the student to learn.
The concept of interest has two dimensions. It suggests that:
The teacher is concerned with providing what is good for the student in the opinion
of the teacher (or what is in the interest of the student). It is the teacher who decides
what the student should be interested in. This is referred to as the valuative sense
of interest. The student may or may not necessarily be interested, but the teacher
feels it is in the interest of the student. He therefore includes it in his teaching
content.
The teacher is concerned with what the student is interested in. The teacher wants
to teach only those things that the student has expressed interest in while whatever
the student has not shown interest in is ignored even if it is useful. This is referred
to as the psychological sense of interest.
As far as possible, the teacher should try to follow the interest of the students.
However, in this endeavour, he should be guided by two main principles:
The fact that a “student is interested in something” does not mean that “the
something is in the interest of the student”.
The fact that a “student is not interested in something” does not mean that “the
something is not in the interest of the student”.
The teacher must strike a balance between the two concept of interest: he should
use what the students are interested in to influence them to develop interests in
what is in their interests.
The concept of need suggests a lack of something which is useful or desirable. There
are four main types of needs:
These needs will influence students’ participation and concentration in class.
The concept of want has to do with desire. It is simply an expression of interest in
something. In analyzing the wants of the students, the teacher would be guided by
two main principles:
1.The fact that a student “wants something” does not mean that the student “needs
that something”.
2.The fact that a student “does not want something” does not mean that the student
“does not need that something”.
The relationship between interests, needs and wants described above can be
illustrated as shown in figure below.

KIU- Instructional Methods 10

Page
 1.
Interest/wants

4
3. Educational objectives
2. Needs

Fig2 The relationship between needs, interests, wants and motivation

3. Educational needs e.g. aims, goals and objectives of teaching i.e what the teacher
wants to teach.
4. Needs which are not wants. Here the teacher has a problem of motivation, because
the students do not want what they need; yet what they need is educationally
desirable.
5. Wants, needs and interests are complacent, Motivation is achieved and there is
no problem to teaching and learning. What students want is also what they need,
and both their needs and wants are educationally desirable.
Sometimes, and quite often, the needs, interests and wants of the students are
different and irrelevant to the pre-determined educational objectives. It is the
responsibility of the teacher to positively influence such irrelevant needs, wants and
interests so that they are complacent (merge) and result in motivation.
b) Previous experience of the learner
This is also another way by which the student influences teaching and learning. Every
student comes into the class with a wide verity of experiences, some of which are
irrelevant to the learning situation. These past experiences (good or bad) keep
influencing how students respond to new information. For example, a student who
has been maimed as a result of a motor vehicle accident will most certainly respond
negatively to a lesson on locomotion.
It is necessary for the teacher to find out what the students already know (entering
behaviour), before he can proceed to teach a new thing. The teacher can establish
what the students already know through:
i. Asking oral questions related to the new topic.
ii. Giving written examinations

KIU- Instructional Methods 11

Page
 iii. Asking students to tell their experiences related to the given lesson topic.
For example, before embarking on a lesson on communication, the
teacher may ask students to describe the different ways by which they
may talk to a relative in a faraway town without having to travel there.
It is the duty of the teacher to ensure that firmly held but erroneous facts are
eliminated and replaced with accepted scientific facts.
3.6. Socio-cultural experiences: Social and cultural practices of a particular
society or family directly influence how students respond to new concepts. The
teacher needs to understand the social and cultural practices of the society around
the school so as to be able to interpret fully and correctly the behavior (responses)
of his students to particular topics. He should be able to use established facts to
change wrongly held traditional practices.
3.7. Teaching and learning resources: These are the materials and equipment
that are needed to facilitate teachings and learning. Science subjects for example
are about investigation and as such, they require a wide collection of resources to
facilitate their effective learning. The resources used in the teaching and learning
may include:
- Real specimen e.g. plants, fish, insects, etc
- Pictorials e.g. charts, diagrams, photographs, etc.
- Models, e.g. human skeleton, shapes, etc.
- Textbooks.
- Resource persons and time
- Equipment e.g. burettes, microscopes, etc
The unavailability of adequate and relevant resources could hinder the effective
teaching and learning. The role of the teacher is to select and provide the necessary
resources for each lesson. Such resources should be adequate, suitable and relevant
for the particular lesson.
3.8. The teacher: The teacher must be skilled and knowledgeable in imparting
knowledge to the students. His ability to teach directly influences the attitude of the
students towards a subject. How a teacher plans and delivers his lesson, how he
controls his class determines how the students will respond to it. The teacher must
therefore be knowledgeable both in the content and the methodology of teaching.

Unit 4: Qualities of a good teacher

4.0. Introduction

KIU- Instructional Methods 12

Page
Every teacher would like to be recognized as a ‘good teacher’, by both his colleagues
and students. But there are several factors that hinder teachers from achieving this
goal. It is obvious that colleges of education do not produce teachers who can handle
every aspect of the school curriculum. They only lay the foundation upon which
teachers are required to build on when they go the field. There is a school of thought
that says the best teachers are those with humility, ability and capacity to learn from
their failures and successes who accept criticisms and who can criticize without being
sorry himself/herself. There are several other factors that go into making a good
teacher. These may be summarized under the subsections described below. A good
teacher is one who:
4.1. Has a good moral conduct: A good teacher is expected to be a living example
to the society. He does not only have a strong love for the people and the students,
who are his immediate clients, he is also prepared to accept truth under all
circumstances.
4.2. Remains a student throughout his teaching career. It is the only way
through which a teacher can become an educated person. Good and professional
teaching fails as soon as one ceases to renew his knowledge. Knowledge is dynamic
and increases daily. A good teacher improves his methods of teaching as new
knowledge and technology becomes available.
4.3. Adaptability: A good teacher adapts to new situations as soon as they come.
He is willing to conform and solve new issues as they come using the resources
available. And as the curriculum changes, he adapts his knowledge to handle it.
4.4. Courage: A good teacher is courageous. He takes control of situations as they
come. For example, if posted to a school where there are no sufficient resources, he
faces it head-on and makes the best out of it.
4.5. Recognizes individual differences among his students, and treats every
student as an individual, because each student is different from others. He
recognizes slow and fast learners in the class and meets their individual needs by
organizing different and similar activities suitable for each category.
4.6. Causes the student to learn: A good teacher is one who tries to make the
student learn by himself. He does not just fill the mind of the students with
information but helps them to learn by themselves.
4.7. Provides Activity and keep the students active throughout the lesson by
asking questions, giving notes, drawing diagrams, discussions, etc.

KIU- Instructional Methods 13

Page
4.8. Is kind and sympathetic to students and always tries to create an
environment of acceptance, sympathy and understanding. He tries to understand
the background of his students and how it affects their participation in class. A good
teacher does not condemn his students.
4.9. Reduces the distance between himself and the students. He is the one
who comes out of the ivory tower to be close to the students, as much as possible,
without losing his status as a teacher. He has a cordial relationship with the students.
This will make the students free to ask questions and to volunteer information that
can make the teacher understand and help them better.
4.9. Is flexible in terms of the teaching methods that he uses. A good teacher
does not use only one method for every lesson or subject but uses a verity of
methods, which are adapted to the local situations.
4.10. Plans His work: Good teaching should be planned and should proceed
systematically and sequentially, from simple to complex and from known to
unknown. Lack of planning implies lack of preparation. Without adequate
preparation, effective teaching cannot occur.
4.11. Has a Good Mastery of the Content: A good teacher must have sufficient
and adequate knowledge of the subject or topic or concept he intends to teach. One
cannot teach what he does not know. Good teaching must be preceded by thorough
and insightful study of the topic at hand.
It follows therefore, that a good teacher needs to have both intellectual and
pedagogical (methodological) preparation. He should:
i. Have a fairly wide range of skills in his subject.
ii. Have some knowledge of the history and theory of his subject.
iii. Have some knowledge of philosophy, psychology and classroom
procedures of education.
iv. Have a fairly wide general education so that he can present the subject,
not in isolation, but as an integral part of the whole education system.
v. He should be a well-educated person outside his subject as well as in it.

Unit 5. Learning
‘Learning’ is a relatively permanent change in behavior which comes as a result of
practice of an activity. It is “having an experience that can be remembered”. This
definition regards learning as a product.

KIU- Instructional Methods 14

Page
The use of the term "permanent" excludes behavior that is temporary, e.g.
drunkenness and behavior due to illness. The use of the term "behavior" implies that
learning is not directly observable, but manifests itself in one’s behavior. "Practice"
is used in the definition to exclude change in behavior that is due to maturation,
disease or physical change.

Learning is also defined as a process by which we acquire knowledge, form attitudes

and develop skills that cannot be attributed to inherited behavior patterns or physical
growth.

As ye grow older we learn by experience, we are exposed to a wide variety of events

in our social environment and learn something during each encounter. We learn by
interacting with people, places and things. Some things are learned accidentally, e.g.
we touch a hot object and get burned so we learn that hot objects should not be
touched with bare hands. Later, this knowledge is applied in the kitchen, industries,
etc.

The tempo of learning can be accelerated by arranging contrived situation in which

the learner is exposed to stimuli that would not normally be experienced during the
process of maturation. The contrived situation becomes the formal learning process.

(b) What does a formal learning process consist of?

A formal learning process comprises:

➢ A teacher
➢ A set of behavioral objectives
➢ Elements of instruction and interaction between the teacher and the learner
➢ Responses and reinforcement
➢ Means of testing and evaluating outcome.
The teacher is responsible for providing a set of conditions under which learning may
occur, while the learner must display willingness to participate actively in the
process.

(c) What factors contribute to an efficient learning process?

For efficient learning to occur the following conditions are necessary:

KIU- Instructional Methods 15

Page
 ➢ A clear objective of what is to be learnt. This helps the learners to attend to
the right -stimulus without delay.
➢ Readiness on the part of the learners in terms of intellectual ability and
physical, emotional or social maturation.
➢ Use of communication methods that are appropriate to the age and
language code of the learner.
➢ Careful guidance throughout the learning process.
➢ Preliminary recall of the previously acquired knowledge that is relevant to
the material being learnt so as to form association links.
➢ Application of full attention to what is being learnt and maintenance of
concentration throughout the learning process.
➢ Strong motivation to learn.
➢ Active involvement of the learner in the learning process.
➢ Feedback to the learner to indicate the success he/she is making in
learning.
d) How would a teacher tell whether some learning has taken place or not?

A teacher would be in a position to tell whether learning has occurred by:

➢ Asking oral questions before and at the end of a learning process, and if
pupils show improved and positive response, the teacher can tell they have
learnt.
➢ Observing pupils’ participation in learning tasks.
➢ Asking pupils questions several days later to assess the retention of what
was previously learnt.
Learning is often categorized in three major domains according to Bloom's
taxonomy:

i) Cognitive domain

ii) Psychomotor domain

iii) Affective domain.

a) Explain what each domain of learning involves (cognitive learning,

psychomotor learning and effective learning):

KIU- Instructional Methods 16

Page
 i) Cognitive learning involves mental operations or thinking. It can take
place at the following levels:
➢ Knowledge — recall
➢ Comprehension
➢ Application
➢ Analysis
➢ Synthesis
➢ Evaluation
ii) Psychomotor learning—refers to a form of learning’s which requires the
coordination of muscles and the brain, for example, writing skills,
balancing on a bicycle and most of the physical activities. It occurs at
the levels of:
➢ Observing
➢ Imitating
➢ Practicing
➢ Adapting.
(iii) Affective learning—refers to a form of learning whereby an individual’s feelings,
attitudes and values are changed. This in turn influences the individual’s personality.

It is at the level of:

➢ Receiving
➢ Responding
➢ Valuing
➢ Organization
➢ Characterization
(b) What implications do these domains of learning have to a teacher?

➢ A teacher should structure the instructional objectives in the cognitive

domain when he/she wants to emphasize recall, reasoning, concept
formation and creative thinking.
➢ He/she should formulate objectives in the psychomotor domain when
he/she wants to emphasize coordination of muscles and the brain in
developing motor skills and in the acquisition of practical skills.
➢ He/she should consider levels of the effective domain when he/she wants to
emphasize emotive qualities, attitudes, values and emotional appeal.

KIU- Instructional Methods 17

Page
Unit 6. Formulating Behavioral Objectives
6.0. Introduction
For a course, it is useful to draw up aims and goals which it is hoped the students
will achieve by the end of the period of instruction. In any lesson a teacher must
have an even clearer and more precise idea of what he plans to achieve through
instruction in terms of changed student behavior. In other words, it is necessary for
the teacher to clarify his unit or lesson objectives and he can best do this by writing
them down.
In the past, teachers have tended to state their objectives in terms of their own
activities. For example:
1. The teacher will explain what was meant by indirect rule in Nigeria under the
colonial administration.
2. The teacher will demonstrate combustion to the class.
3. The teacher will clearly illustrate examples of pronouns to the class.
4. The teacher will draw a diagram of a cockroach and point out its main features.
What is lacking in all of these statements is any direct mention of the students. What
are they doing while the teacher is explaining, demonstrating or drawing? The
implication is that they are somewhat passively listening, watching or drawing.
Objectives stated in such ways that there is no mention of the ultimate behavior
expected of the students (or if it is mentioned there is no statement on how it will
be measured) are called non-behavioral objectives.
6.1. What are behavioral objectives?
Behavioral objectives are those stated in terms of measurable student terminal
behavior. In other words the teacher should plan and state in his objectives what
specific measurable student learning or changes in student behavior will take place
as a result of instruction.
Behavioral objectives are very specific. Aims or goals for courses which last for some
length of time are usually general, and general aims can be broken down into more
specific behavioral objectives covering the units or lessons of the course.
General aims are expressed in such terms as, 'the students will understand,
appreciate, enjoy, know', which in themselves are not directly measurable. We
cannot measure what a student knows or understands unless we ask him to write
down, recall or apply what he has learned.

KIU- Instructional Methods 18

Page
An example of a general aim or goal is: 'The students will be able to under¬stand
the difference between common and proper nouns, adjectives and adverbs, by the
end of the term.'
Behavioural objectives make use of verbs like recite, identify, pick out, apply, add
and subtract, write down, deduce and so on. An example of a behavioral objective
is: 'By the end of the lesson the students will be able to correctly pick out and write
down lists of the common and proper nouns, adverbs and adjectives, from an
appropriate passage.'
In the behavioral objective the students' performance is immediately measurable in
that he has a definite task to achieve, in this case: picking out and writing down lists.
Here are some examples of aims and behavioral objectives. Try to identify those
which are aims and those which are behavioral objectives.
1. The students will learn to appreciate poetry.
2. The students will learn the main physical and chemical properties of metals.
3. The students will develop an understanding of the concept of speed.
4. The students will be able to correctly write down the formulae of the ten chemical
compounds mentioned in the chapter they are studying.
5. The students will be able to express correctly, twenty numbers of 4 or more digits
to 3 significant figures.
6. The students will be able to identify and tell the teacher the nouns, verbs,
adjectives and adverbs in a given passage in. the English language.
7. The students will be able to correctly identify the main parts of a flower, using a
specimen from the school garden.
6.2. How to state behavioral objectives
The essential difference between behavioral and non-behavioral objectives is the
statement in a behavioral objective of the terminal behavior expected of the student
at the end of the lesson or unit, and an explanation of how this will be measured.
Here are two examples which should help pin-point the difference between a
behavioral and non-behavioral objective.
A behavioral objective: By the end of the lesson the students will be able to correctly
calculate the areas of circles, using the circle radii and 1f, in nine out of ten cases.
A non-behavioral objective: The students will learn how to calculate the areas of
circles.
According to Mager (1975) there are four essential parts to any behavioral objective.
Each should state:

KIU- Instructional Methods 19

Page
(i) Who will perform the behavior (in most cases this is the student).
(ii) The measurable student terminal behavior; some observable and therefore
measurable behavior that the students will be able to perform at the end of the
period of instruction.
(iii) The standard of performance expected of the students.
(iv) The conditions under which learning will take place.
Behavioural objectives are best stated in a form which covers all these four
criteria. In the case of the behavioral objective given in the example above, (i) is the
students themselves, (ii) is the students being able to calculate the areas 0f circles,
(iii) is their being able to calculate correctly in nine out of ten cases, (iv) are the time
limit (by the end of the lesson) and the use of the radii and 1f.
Here are two additional examples of behavioral objective containing the four
essential parts:
By the end of the laboratory exercise the students will be able to correctly measure
the focal length of any of the (given concave mirrors with 1 cm accuracy).
At the end of the lesson the students will be able to name the State capitals and
main sources of revenue of each East African Countries with not more than two
mistakes.
Advantages of behavioral objectives.
a) They can serve as guides for teachers and curricular developers who are
involved in designing courses.
b) They can force teachers to come down to earth and b( realistic, making them
plan in specific terms objective~ that are attainable by most of the students.
c) When objectives are stated in a behavioral form i1 makes it easier to judge
the success or failure of a lesson
d) When lessons have been conducted using behavioral objectives it is easy to
set tests and examinations questions being set that are based on the objectives.
6.3. Classification of behavioral objectives.
Behavioral objectives can be classified according to Bloom, (1956) as belonging to
the cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains.
6.3.1. The cognitive domain deals exclusively with the mind and mental activities
or skills. At the lower level of the domain are the knowing and understanding skills
of knowledge and comprehension. Knowledge of facts does not mean that those facts
are understood. Hence the simplest cognitive skill is knowledge, and comprehension
is above it.

KIU- Instructional Methods 20

Page
As a person increases in understanding he becomes able to apply and analyze the
knowledge acquired using the cognitive skills of application and analysis.
At the highest level of the -domain are the skills of synthesis and evaluation. As each
succeeding mental skill level is attained, with reference to specific concepts or
generalizations, it is implied that all the preceding levels are contained in the higher
level. Thus if someone is able to apply what he has learned he must have had the
requisite knowledge and comprehension. If he is able to evaluate the knowledge he
has acquired then he can see its value with reference to other facts, concepts or
generalizations apart from knowing, comprehending, and being able to apply,
analyze and synthesize that knowledge.
6.3.2. The affective domain, according to Bloom, concerns the emotional aspect of
a person’s make-up. This influences his attitudes, interests, appreciation and values.
6.3.3. The psychomotor domain deals with reflex, visual, tactile, and auditory skills
in discriminating, and physical abilities.
It is now recognized that there is a need to set objectives with reference to the
affective and psychomotor domains. The development of proper attitudes, interests
and values in students is extremely important as is the development of physical
skills.
To help the reader understand better how to set objectives in each of the three
domains here are some examples.
Two examples of cognitive domain objectives
By the end of the unit on the calculation of areas of different shapes the students
will successfully apply their knowledge to the calculation of the areas of a football
field, running track and floor plan of a house, given relevant dimensions.
By the end of the unit on the study of nutrition the students will be able to design
four balanced diets from a list of appropriate foodstuffs.
Two examples of affective domain objectives
By the end of the unit the students will be able to select from a series of twenty
sentences the five which most represent expressions of good citizenship.
From a description of five persons' living habits the students will be able to recognize
the two with the most acceptable and the two with the least acceptable types of
behavior according to established values of the society.
Examples of psychomotor domain objectives
By the end of the laboratory unit the students should be able to:
(a) Operate a bunsen burner

KIU- Instructional Methods 21

Page
(b) Boil water in a test tube
(c) Pour liquids from acid and base bottles into test tubes (d) place solids in test
tubes using a spatula without any mishap or accident.
By the end of the lesson, the business education students will be able to phrase and
correctly type a well-constructed letter to the local bank manager asking for a loan
to set up a small business.
Review questions
i. What is the difference between an aim or goal and a behavioral
objective?
ii. Construct 3 behavioral objectives, containing the four essential
elements described by Mager, and discuss them in the class with your
colleagues and lecturer
Unit 7. Methods of Teaching
7.0 Introduction
The term method refers to the orderly arrangement or pattern of structuring the
teaching/learning activities. For example, if you prepare to teach a class, the
arrangement of your lesson activities should be such that all pupils learn as a class.
If in handling a particular topic you choose to rely a lot more on talking, asking a
few questions, as you write your points and pupils’ answer on the chalkboard, we
can say that you are using the talk-and-chalk method of teaching.
7.1. Factors influence a choice of teaching methods

Several factors should be put into consideration before a teacher choose a method
of teaching
These include:-
7.1.1. Type and level of learners

Learning can occur in different level e.g. memory, understanding etc and each type
of learning can be effectively brought about by a particular method.
The level of learners is important because some methods are good for lower level
and others for higher level
A teacher should choose a method he or she understands better.
7.1.2. Facilities and resources available

These include, the physical, capital and time

KIU- Instructional Methods 22

Page
The resources should be available and relevant the method of teaching should not
be used
7.1.3. The nature of learning

For example, the objectives expected at the end of the lesson

7.1.4. Size of the class

Some methods can do well in smaller classes and could not be applied to bigger
classes
To apply a method includes designing a teaching plan that suits that method and
creating favorable conditions for directing actions towards achievement of specific
and clear teaching/learning objectives For example if you want to encourage pupils
to discover knowledge by themselves, you will arrange the class in small groups,
plan the tasks, provide enough and suitable learning materials for each group or
each individual in each group, discuss with the pupils as you guide them on what to
do and then allow them more freedom to work on their own. In this case, your role
as a teacher will be more of a guide, co-coordinator and facilitator. Your pupils will
be the main actors in the lesson! This is what we call child-centered learning.
7.2. CHILD-CENTRED METHODS

A child-centered method of teaching is that method in which children are more active
than the teacher. It is a type of method which places the child at the centre of the
educational process. The main emphasis is on how the child grows and develops into
a mature, well-rounded
7.2.1 Principles of child-centered methods
Child-cent red methods are guided by the following principles.
1. Children’s needs should determine what they learn at school:
2. Effective teaching and learning should recognize, identify and cater for
children’s needs at different age levels.
3. Children should learn skills which are within the capabilities of their stage of
mental, emotional and physical development.
4. Use strong incentives and rewards which stimulate and control children’s
natural learning.
5. Selection of content and method of teaching and learning should be based
on understanding the nature, needs and interests of the child.

KIU- Instructional Methods 23

Page
It is important to note that heredity and environment as the major factors affecting
the child’s growth and development. You saw that the child’s family, the peers,
society an various social institutions play a very important role in shaping of chi1d’s
learning experiences Child-centered methods of teaching bring all experiences
originating from all these factors to focus on the child for his benefit.
7.2.2. Aims of chi1d-centred methods.
Child-centred teaching aims at helping the child to:
1. be happy and interested in his or her work.
2. Develop from day to day with a feeling of achievement.
3. Be involved in his or her own learning
4. Feel that other people understand and appreciate his or her efforts.
5. Feel his or her worth
6. Get the Opportunity for creative work and self-expression
7. Develop a sense of responsibility
8. Use his or her leisure time profitably.
Therefore, in child-centered approaches the teacher aims at developing the whole
child, ibis enables the child to grow into a decent, .worthwhile citizen
7.2.3. Classroom situation

A classroom where the child centered method of teaching is taking place should have
the following characteristics.
I. The entire learning atmosphere should be relaxed and pleasant. The teacher, for
example, should not use commands Statement like, ‘john, would you do this
number?’ should be more common than statement like, “John, do this number”. The
children’s interest should also be aroused and sustained
2. There should be more activity for the pupils. That is, they should actively
participate in their own learning.
3. There should be group work to cater for exchange of views, individual differences
and needs.
4. The teacher should know his or her children as individuals, with all their difficulties
and talents
5. Plenty of teaching aids should be used during the teaching and learning process.
6. Children’s work should be displayed in the class.
7. There should be more positive and encouraging rewards, than corporal
punishments.

KIU- Instructional Methods 24

Page
8. The teacher acts as a guide and facilitator of learning by creating suitable leaning
conditions.
9. There should be no meaningless memorization of facts.
Examples of Child-Centered Methods
The way children learn in any child-centred method is through activities. Keeps the
following point in mind as you learn about different methods arid activities that can
be used in your classroom.
An activity is something that is done. The one doing the activity becomes active. You
may have heard of the saying that children learn by doing and also find interest and
enjoyment in activity. During activity, children are given chance to explore and
discover knowledge as they interact with a variety of materials provided to enhance
their learning.
The major purpose of activity methods is to enable children actively participate in
their own learning. This participation enhances and sticks in the learner’s mind what
is learnt. With the guidance of the teacher, the learner gets actively involved in the
learning process as a participant, not a passive listener. Materials are very important
in activity methods. Children get actively involved in using different materials as they
learn what is intended for them to learn by using the materials. The success of the
teaching is evaluated by judging performance, looking at finished work exhibited,
reading and listening to outcomes of group discussions, etc.
Play methods
Play provides opportunities for experimentation in the process of learning. It serves
a number of useful functions to the child. It enables children to
1. Exercise and improve their competence. For example a child playing with
tins and water pours water from one tin to the other. The competence being
developed is counting, approximating; understanding capacity, etc.
2. Improve imagination. For example, children involved and play of the chief in
the village, have to think about what the chief ought to be, words to say,
etc. The -child’s sense of imagination is stimulated.
3. Play roles beyond their level of development, to practice adult behavior). A
child can play the role of a chief, a parent, a teacher or a policeman.

Play will enable the child to:

1. Develop psychomotor skills.
2. Imitate features of the real world in secure surroundings.

KIU- Instructional Methods 25

Page
3. Create competition between individuals or groups. In this play cultivates a healthy,
competitive spirit.
4. Taste new kinds of relationships without any lasting commitment. In this way,
play is co-operative
5. Develop social skills. They learn to share, co-operate, communicate and follow
rules.
Most p lay among children reflects the characteristics of their adult society. Thus, if
those societies are gentle and peace loving, children’s play generally possesses those
qualities too. Whereas in societies whose character is aggressive children’s, play is
more expressive of violence. You in just have seed children play with ‘guns’ during
the times of wars.
Discovery or inquiry method
1. How the discovery or the inquiry method works
This is the type of teaching in which the learner is provided with or exposed to a
variety of learning materials with which to interact and discover specific knowledge
sometimes it gives rise to insight learning where the learner finally says, “Ah! This
is how it works.’ The major purpose of this mode of teaching is to enable children to
develop new insights about their environment.
It helps them to correct wrong concepts, refine imperfect ones and finally stamp in
correct knowledge. Imagine we gave a child keys to open a lock. He will try all the
keys and when one finally opens, s/he will then say,” Ah! this is the one that opens.’
The teacher, in this model of teaching acts as a guide. As teachers we’ have to
organize.
Materials which lead children under our guidance, to discover (acquire) specific
knowledge.
The learner performs specific activities that are guided by the teacher and acquires
specific knowledge. This method of teaching as we have seen above, involves the
use of a variety of materials. We need to clearly state our objectives for specific
learning situations. These objectives will then guide us on the selection of specific
materials to be used in order to achieve these objectives Our responsibilities during
the lessons will involve posing guiding questions, giving instructions and correcting
misconceptions The best way to evaluate learning in this method of teaching is by
examining the conclusions arrived at in relation to the stated objectives.
Planning for discovery method
1. The problem must be clearly and explicitly defined.

KIU- Instructional Methods 26

Page
 2. The study should be related to what is already known by finding out what is
unknown about the problem.
3. Consideration is made of the related facts.
4. Generalizations are proposed.
5. Information is collected to test the hypothesis.
6. Findings are interpreted and conclusions are made.

Strengths Weaknesses
The thrill of discovery is a wonderful It is time consuming
stimulus to confidence as well as Costly materials required may not be
knowledge available

Role playing
This is a method in which learners act specific roles in society. These roles may
include those of a mother, father, president, minister, chief, elder, etc. Through role
playing children acquire knowledge of the roles of important persons in society and
strive to become these persons. In a role play the actors improvise (make up their
own actions and words), based on a description of who they are, and what the
situation is. They do not memorize their words
1. Choose six children to pretend (act the roles):one is the mother, one is a naughty
boy, two more are friends of the boy, one sells sweets in a small stall and one sells
matches and kerosene.
2. Explain the situation: Mother is trying to cook the food but she needs matches
and kerosene, She gives 1000 shillings to her son (the naughty boy) and tells him
to go buy it and to hurry straight back. On the way he meets two friends who beg
him to go with them to see something interesting. They also ask him to buy them all
some sweets.
3. What happens? Act out the whole story.
Dramatization
Dramatization is one in which the learner or the teacher role-acts specific situations,
scenes or topics in order to teach meaning, consolidate or reinforce mastery of
specific content learnt. The major advantages of dramatization include the following.
l. The performers learn to express themselves vividly through both. Verbal and non-
verbal techniques.

KIU- Instructional Methods 27

Page
2. Increase in vocabulary on the part of the performers as they perform using certain
words, concepts, ideas, and in meaningful situations.
3. Presenting fuller life experiences by enabling the actor to understand, experience
and experiences the actions,; thoughts, feelings and experiences of others
4. The audience learns new vocabulary in a meaningful context.
5 Developing confidence and pronunciation ability in the learner
6. Developing imagination which is necessary for internalizing abstract concepts.
3.THE PROJECT METHOD IN TEACHING
A project may be defined in general terms as a scheme of work in which the
pupils work singly or in groups, extending over period of time-varying from a
few days to several weeks, and in which pupils attempt to discover more
about a topic, preferably one in which they are already interested. It is a
sustained and often wide investigation of a topic, often extending outside the
bounds of the school.
Virtues of the method:
1. Students are active and involved.
2. Students are encouraged to use their initiative.
3. It widens the students’ knowledge, often in many fields.
4. It tends to break down the barriers between subjects and as an opportunity
for cooperation between staff.
5. It often provides opportunity for extending learning outside the school and
linking with the outside world.
6. It tends to unify a course of study over a period of time and reduce the
fragmentation of separate lessons taken in isolation.
7. Students are able to work at their own pace; and to have more individual
attention from staff; also to follow their interests.
8. Students are trained in working as a team and in working towards an aim.
Example of an ambitious project for S.l.
A project study of the local area around the school, involving all the S.l. classes,
lasting perhaps half a term and using several staff “Project” is timetabled, for
triple periods to allow plenty of field work, and if used may include drama, group
work1 use of library, field work, and methods of drawing and modeling tape-
recording, etc. The whole to culminate in an Exhibition to which the whole school
(and perhaps the local community) will be united. The range of subjects covered
could include:

KIU- Instructional Methods 28

Page
 Biology - plants and animal life.
Geography - physical features, maps, population, etc.
History -historical background of tribe, village, town, etc, and their
development.
R.E. - churches, local beliefs, human problems.
Art and Music - models and paintings, local crafts, local songs and
instruments.
Mathematics - statistics, survey, and map work. -
Science - minerals, local resources.
English - written work, plays, old records, etc.
Choice of Topic
1. Make sure it is relevant.
2. Decide how wide it is to be. -
3. Try to make sure it is interesting and that the pupils will be able to sustain it.
Preparation:
1. Make sure the Aim is clear.
2. Check with the Headmaster and staff, getting cooperation and support.
3. Discuss and shape the project carefully with the pupils - let as many ideas as
possible come from them.
4. Decide clearly on what form the culmination will take and when it will be.
5. Decide on how much the teacher need to provide by way of background
materials, instructions, etc.
6. Prepare any duplicated material, instruction sheets, etc., which are required.
7. Plan a detailed programme and organize the staff involvement.
8. Decide on the timing - should it pan the holidays? Come at the beginning of
term? If too long it will bore the pupils and the staff - if too short it will be too
rushed. How many pupils involved? Are they to be divided into groups?
4. Discussion method: Discussion refers to a thoughtful consideration of the
relationship involved in a topic or in a problem under study. It is concerned with
analysis, comparison, evaluation and conclusions of the relationship.
Discussion aims at a solution of a problem and encourages students to think towards
a problem.
When should we use discussion?
Discussion is good for a class which is not too big; it is good when the teacher wants
to share information after class experience. It I good for classifying ideas and making

KIU- Instructional Methods 29

Page
decision for future works. It is good for a class which is active and ready to contribute
towards a problem.
How to carry on discussion
A well organized discussion should have the following aspects.
A leader- who is usual a teacher sometimes the teacher may appoint leaders for
small groups but he remains the overall in charge.
Participants: These are the students and each student must participate
A problem or a topic under discussion. This must be clear and well explained to the
teacher or you as a teacher should know that students have past experiences on the
students should have prior knowledge about the gender discussion.
Topic under discussion
Evaluation- to asses the effectiveness of a discussion, it is usual measured by a
change in ideas, attitudes, behavior etc among the students.
The teacher as the leader of the discussion must direct the discussion effectively. He
must prepare each and everything needed for it and he must select environment
conclusive for discussion. He must select students for discussion. He must make or
write summary points on board.
Steps to conduct on effective a discussion
1. Introduce the topic of the problem by giving guiding points or explanation to
serve as the basis for the discussion.
2. The teacher invites students to discuss either in groups or as a class.
3. The teacher should note down the main points givens
4. The teacher should summarize all the points by students as he or she corrects
the mistakes that could have been done by students.
5. Students take notes and correct mistakes as guided by the teacher.
Strength and weakness
Strength
1. It stimulates and develops mental activities
2. It develops fluency and easy expression trains students to present ideas and
facts
3. It develops reflective thinking
4. It encourages team spirits
Weakness
1. It is not suitable for all topics e.g. topics which are too abstract and those
which are new to students

KIU- Instructional Methods 30

Page
 2. It is likely to be dominated by a few students, however this can be avoidable
by the teacher by giving responsibility to each and every member of the group
3. It is likely to go off track if it is not properly controlled.
5. Explanation method
Explanation implies making ideas, concepts, facts or actions clear. It involves using
words such as how and why in relation to the event. They phrases used in
explanation are;
“Therefore, in order to, that is why?
Note: when explaining something its important for the teacher to use simple and
clear words instead of long and complex sentences.
The effectiveness of explanation is greatly affected by the continuity and simplicity
of ideas expressed.
Continuity is affected by the sequence and fluency of ideas explained
Fluency will depend upon the mastery of the content.
The ability of the teacher to communicate ideas etc.
The ideas under explanation should be in order. It should progress systematically
from known to unknown or from simple to complex.
How to conduct an effective explanation
To conduct effective explanation
The teacher should have;
1. An aim so as to keep focus
2. Divide the theme
3. Give attention to the ability of the student i.e. their mental ability physical
ability etc.
4. Write the main points on the chalk board
5. Ask relevant and timely questions see whether students are following
6. Summary of the main points as you end the lesson
Advantages

Weakness
1. It could make your class a teacher centered class
2. It can not be used if a teacher do not have a full mastery of the content
6.Demonstration method
This is where a teacher, students or a group of students present a pre arranged
series of event to a group of students to observe.

KIU- Instructional Methods 31

Page
It is usually accompanied by explanation and it is a small scale investigation
It is used as a method where actual investigation would have been an ideal.
It is useful method of teaching because it creates a relationship between theory and
practice.
When to use demonstration
It is useful when resources are few and the teacher wants to show what exactly
happened
Where resources are available but they delegate and expensive and the teacher does
not want to risk giving the students
Where resources are available students can handle them but the teacher wants show
something but ensure that the whole have seen the same thing
Where resources are available but dangerous (pronouns, explosive) that can not be
trusted to the students
Steps for carrying out a demonstration method
To carryout an effective demonstration, the teacher should;
1. Plan all activities relating to the demonstration in great detail
2. Ensure that all the necessary and relevant materials and equipment are
available.
3. Break the demonstration into suitable steps so that students can understand
them easily.
4. Proceed with the demonstration slowly so that all students can grasp the
necessary details
5. Give a verbal explanation where necessary
6. Involve students in the demonstration as much as possible
Strength of Demonstration
1. It is quicker and saves time
2. It is more effective than describing how something is done
3. It is applicable in all subjects
Weaknesses of demonstration: It may cause a problem of close control
7. Experimentation
An experiment is a scientific test carried out in order, under a carefully controlled
condition to determine what happened
The purpose of carrying out an experiment is to have an investigation that would
enable the students to establish clear information between the cause and the effect

KIU- Instructional Methods 32

Page
How to carry out an Experimentation
1. When planning the experiment, the teacher should ensure that all resources
are available (apparatus, materials, chemicals, specimen)
2. The teacher should try the experiment first before he gives it to the student
to do
3. If possible, prepare and give a worksheet. A worksheet is a paper with
instructions which the students are required to record or report their finding
It could be a paper with all the guideline or procedures of the experiment
A well-developed worksheet.
During the experiment, students should understand the problem to be investigated
Students should understand the safety or precaution
Every member should be involved.
Students should understand the instructions to follow, the procedures
Observations and conclusion must be made as soon as the answer is got
Students should consult the teacher; the teacher should therefore be there to guide
the students all the time.
Aster the experiment, the teacher should have time to discuss the findings with
students
Strength
1. It develops problem solving skills
2. It develops ownership of the results
3. It increases retention of knowledge
4. It trains students to work together
Weaknesses
1. It is expensive, it requires resources such as apparatus, chemical
2. The chemical could be dangerous to the health of students
3. It requires a lot of time for preparation and practice

8. Questioning technique
Questioning is one of the most readily available techniques in the hands of the
teacher. Questions are a fundamental tool of teaching and lie at the very heart of
developing critical thinking abilities in pupils. Unfortunately, questioning is often
badly used. When well used, it provides a ladder upon which the pupils climb towards
fuller deeper understanding. This technique is designed to help you, the
teacher, improve the use of questions in your teaching. It gives information and

KIU- Instructional Methods 33

Page
examples on how to improve your question and to build or develop responses of your
pupils. The content of this sub-topic will offer you a means of creating and presenting
purposeful questions so that learning goals will be achieved.
In the classroom, questions serve a number of purposes. By understanding the range
of purposes, you can expand your use of questioning in instruction. Among other
purposes, questions can be Ito:
1. Develop the process of thinking and guide inquiry and decision- making.
2. Acquire and clarify information, and develop skills.
3. Determine the knowledge pupils bring to the class and thus prepare lessons
to meet the needs.
4. Provide motivation by encouraging active participation in learning.
5. Lead students to consider new ideas and make use of ideas already learned.
6. Help students to clarify their ideas, and learn about things that interest them.
7. Encourage students to ask their own questions.
8. Gain information from pupils on which to judge their performance and
understanding.
9. Provide the chance for students and teachers to share the ideas they have.
10. Challenge beliefs and guide reconsideration of the values which people hold.
11. Help teachers assess the effectiveness of their own teaching.
All these reveal that questions are useful to us as teachers because we can use them
in: teaching; drilling or practicing; guidance or leading; stimulating or motivating
and evaluating.
(ii) Types of questions
The effectiveness of teaching can be measured by the teacher’s ability to ask the
right questions. Questioning is a major classroom teaching technique. Questions can
be framed in different ways and for different purposes and can be grouped into the
following types.
Cognitive questions
Cognitive questions are concerned with knowledge and understanding. The teacher’s
interest is directed towards the student’s ability to recall and use ideas and
information presented. Cognitive questions help the teacher find out how well a
student understood a reading passage, or another kind of activity. The questions can
require the student to use only lower level thinking skills (such as recall of facts) or
higher level skills of making comparisons, evaluating, predicting, relating, etc.

KIU- Instructional Methods 34

Page
Examples of questions that require lower order thinking skills are those’ that ask for
recall of facts recently presented: Who, What, Where When, How? Examples of
questions that require higher order thinking skills require the student to use the
facts. Compare and tell Likenesses and differences.
Evaluate: “Which is better?”
Predict: “What will happen next?”
Support belief: “Why do you think that?”
Draw inferences: “Why did he do that?”
Refocusing questions
These are asked by a teacher whose pupils give several right answers which are not
exactly what the teacher wants. The teacher refocuses pupils’ attention on the
related issue. To refocuses involves only one person. For example:
Q. Where do we get milk from?
Ans. From the diary.
Q. From what animal?
Ans. Cow
Here the teacher at the very beginning wanted the pupil to answer cow. But the
pupils gave the first answer which was not wrong but not exactly what the teacher
wanted.
Prompting questions
The teacher phrases a question by breaking up the idea to lead to the final answer
he/she expects. Here the teacher gives the pupils a hint to help them go on and
answer the question. For example:
Teacher: What is photosynthesis?
Answer?
Teacher: What is photo?
Answer: light
Teacher: What is synthesis?
Answer: a process of
Teacher: Photosynthesis is
Answer: A process involving light.
Probing questions
These are follow-up questions designed to improve a pupil’s initial response to a
teacher’s question. Probing questions enable the pupil to give a more complete and
specific answer to the initial question.

KIU- Instructional Methods 35

Page
Functions of questions in lesson development
Questions can be used at each phase of a lesson. When used, they help us achieve
a number of functions.
Introduction
Questions asked during the introductory phase of a lesson help the teacher to:
1. Establish contact with the learners.
2. Assist in establishing inductive devices
3. Discover what the pupils know to serve as background to wb they are going
to learn.
4. Revise previous work.
5. Pose problems which lead to the subject of the lesson.
Presentation
In presenting your lesson content, you can use questions to:
1. Maintain interest and alertness.
2. Encourage reasoning and logical thinking.
3. Discover if pupils understand what is going on.
Application (sharing of experience)
Application of what is learnt is very important in a lesson. You can u questions to:
1. Lead the students to make observations and inferences for themselves.
2. Clear up difficulties and misunderstandings.
3. Suggest further problems and related ideas.
4. Break up the lesson into consumable portions.
Conclusion
Questions in a lesson conclusion help you and the class to:
1. Revise the main points of the lesson.
2. Test the results of the lesson in order to determine the content and pace of
the next lesson.
3. Test the extent of pupils’ understanding and assimilation.
4. Suggest further problems and solutions to these problems.
5. Consolidate newly learnt experiences.
With experience teachers develop the flexibility to create, rephrase, or eliminate
questions or build upon the pupils’ ideas. The skill of questioning lies in your:
1. Ability to use the right kind of questioning for specific tasks.
2. Ability of the teacher to probe or use further questions to elicit right responses
from the pupils.

KIU- Instructional Methods 36

Page
 3. Ability to redirect questions to other pupils to widen participation without
making the pupils whose answers have been inadequate feel their
contribution is of little value.
While responding to pupils’ answers, you should: / handling students’
answers.
➢ Insist that students answer is in complete thought units as well as in good
English. This should provide them with opportunities to practice their oral
expression.
➢ Accept all genuine answers sincerely. However only correct ones should be
approved. If the answer is partly correct / partly wrong, then acknowledge
that portion that is correct and point out or comment on the wrong part. Do
not ignore any wrong answer given. If you do so, students might mistake
them to be the right answer.
➢ Students should not be made to feel afraid to make mistakes, but they not
be encouraged to guess or to bluff. Insulting, reprimanding or mocking
students because of wrong answers will discourage them from trying,
especially when they are not very sure of their responses.
➢ If a student seems not to be answering to the best of his ability, follow up
questions may push him to try and do better. Usually, he will sense that you
mean business, and that he is not ‘getting off the hook’ that easily.
➢ Refrain from repeating or re-phrasing students’ answers, except for purposes
of emphasis or clarification of points. The habit of restating the correct answer
for the benefit of the whole class tends to encourage attention.
➢ Answering in unison as a class should not be allowed too often or for too long.
This may help enliven the class, or encourage shy ones to participate, but
these apparent advantages are outweighed by some inherent disadvantages.
These are;
It discourages students from thinking
It gives excellent opportunity for the lazy child to do nothing or to do
something else
It gives the teacher no opportunity to evaluate an individual student’s
progress.
➢ If the question elicits blank stares, bewildered looks or bowed heads, then
the question needs to be reconsidered. The best thing to do is back-track a
little and ask questions that may provide additional background for the

KIU- Instructional Methods 37

Page
 original question. In addition, it may be broken down into component parts,
each part being answered one at a time, until the original question is fully
understood.
➢ Make sure that the answers are heard by the whole class.
Questioning can help us achieve your lesson objectives. We should therefore, take
careful note of the questions we ask, how we ask them and how we respond or utilize
the answers given. It pays to prepare your question as you plan your lesson.
Characteristics of good questions
Generally speaking, the best questions are usually those which were carefully
thought of in advance. Specifically, good questions possess the following
characteristics. They should be:
(1) Clear, brief, concise and direct. They should ask something that is definite,
in simple, clear and straightforward language. They are therefore, free from
any ambiguity that may be caused by complex and confusing construction or
by the use of vocabularies beyond the level of understanding of the students.
Double-barreled questions or tricky questions should therefore be avoided.
(2) Thought provoking. Questions that require students to think are challenging
and therefore superior to questions that call for repetition of facts. Good
questions are those which encourage students to manipulate or apply
knowledge learned, rather than those only requiring either 'yes' or 'no'
answers, or single-word responses. Words, such as why, how, explain,
describe, compare tend to encourage thinking on the part of students, as
well as triggering a higher level discussion. In addition, such questions do
not give much opportunity for students to guess the right answer, or bluff
their way out.
(3) Suited to the age, abilities and interests of the pupils to whom it is addressed.
Questions intended for more advanced students should be more challenging
than those for the slower ones. It is not wise to formulate a question and
call a student whom you know very well cannot answer it. This practice can
do more damage than good, especially to the slow learners. The vocabulary
used as well as the construction of the question should be within the level of
understanding of the students. To students there are no more difficult
questions than those they could not understand.
Handling students' questions

KIU- Instructional Methods 38

Page
Some teachers, especially the insecure ones, feel offended, threatened or
challenged every time students ask questions. However, you should be
pleased if your students start firing questions at you, no matter what their
reasons are. This gives an indication that they are reacting and, therefore,
are actively involved. In addition, the questions students raise give you
insight into their thinking which will guide you in planning and organizing
future learning activities for them.
The following are some of the most important points to consider in dealing
with students' questions.
(1) Students should be encouraged to ask questions. The questions they ask
can be a good demonstration of their intelligence, evidence that could be of
great help to the teacher in his attempt to know individual students better.
(2) All sincere questions should be handled with appropriate consideration no
matter how silly they may be. Questions that may seem stupid or trivial to
you may be genuinely important to the student who asked them.
(3) When students start questioning authority, they are best answered using
logic and reason, coupled with much patience and tact. After all, as the
teacher you are supposed to be in good if not complete control of the
situation to be able to prove your point.
(4) When a student starts asking questions just to show off or to prove to his
classmates or even to you that he is smart, his questions are best thrown
back to him tactfully usually, he gets the point.
(5) Sometimes, it is best to turn a question to the whole class for discussion.
(6) If you do not know the answer to a question, it is best to admit your
inability rather than 'be caught lying or bluffing. You can always promise to
give the correct answer as soon as you have done your research.
THE 21ST TEACHING APPROACHES

Experiential Learning Approach

Experiential learning is a teaching method that emphasizes learning through direct

experience. Rather than passively absorbing information, students actively engage
in hands-on activities that allow them to connect theory with practice. This approach
is grounded in the idea that people learn best when they have the opportunity to
experience, reflect, and apply knowledge in real-world situations.

Key Features of Experiential Learning

KIU- Instructional Methods 39

Page
 1. Active Engagement
o Students learn by doing, experimenting, and exploring. They
participate in activities that are interactive, practical, and relevant to
their interests or future careers.
o Examples: conducting science experiments, participating in
internships, or creating art projects.
2. Real-World Application
o Learning is connected to real-life contexts, making it more
meaningful and engaging. Students can see the relevance of what
they are learning and how it applies outside the classroom.
o Examples: business simulations, community service projects, field
trips, or role-playing exercises.
3. Reflection and Feedback
o Students are encouraged to reflect on their experiences, which helps
them make sense of what they learned, identify challenges, and
understand how to improve.
o Teachers provide constructive feedback, guiding students to deepen
their understanding and apply lessons learned in future activities.
4. Personalized Learning
o Experiential learning allows for different learning styles and
preferences. Students can choose projects or tasks that align with
their interests, strengths, and goals.
o Encourages autonomy, creativity, and a sense of ownership over the
learning process.
5. Problem-Solving and Critical Thinking
o Students are often faced with real-world problems that require them
to think critically, analyze information, and find solutions.
o This builds problem-solving skills, resilience, and the ability to adapt
to new situations.

David Kolb, a key figure in the development of experiential learning theory, proposed
a four-stage learning cycle that helps explain how this approach works:

1. Concrete Experience:
o Students engage in a new activity or experience that serves as a
foundation for learning.
o Example: participating in a lab experiment, fieldwork, or a hands-on
workshop.
2. Reflective Observation:
o After the experience, students reflect on what happened, their
feelings, and what they observed.
o This stage involves questioning, analyzing, and understanding the
experience.
3. Abstract Conceptualization:
o Students draw conclusions from their reflections and develop
theories or ideas.
o They connect the experience to existing knowledge and concepts,
forming new understandings.
4. Active Experimentation:
o Students apply their new knowledge or skills to different situations,
testing out their ideas.
o This leads to new experiences, restarting the learning cycle.
KIU- Instructional Methods 40
Page
Examples of Experiential Learning Activities

1. Internships and Apprenticeships

o Students gain hands-on experience in a professional environment,
applying skills they learned in the classroom.
2. Field Trips and Study Tours
o Visits to museums, historical sites, nature reserves, or factories allow
students to explore subjects outside the classroom.
3. Simulations and Role-Playing
o Activities where students take on roles (e.g., running a business,
participating in a mock trial) to understand real-world processes.
4. Service Learning
o Combines community service with learning objectives, helping
students address real community needs while developing skills and
knowledge.
5. Outdoor Education
o Activities like camping, hiking, or environmental conservation
projects help students learn through interaction with nature.

Merits of Experiential Learning

1. Deepens Understanding:
o Students are more likely to remember concepts when they learn
through direct experience.
2. Builds Practical Skills:
o Enhances skills such as communication, teamwork, leadership, and
problem-solving, which are essential for personal and professional
development.
3. Encourages Lifelong Learning:
o By fostering curiosity and a love for exploration, experiential learning
promotes an attitude of continuous learning and self-improvement.
4. Enhances Student Engagement:
o Active, hands-on experiences keep students more engaged,
motivated, and interested in learning.

Challenges of Experiential Learning

1. Time and Resource Intensive:

o Requires careful planning, resources, and sometimes additional
funding to implement effectively.
2. Assessment Difficulties:
o Measuring the success of experiential learning can be challenging
because it often involves skills and experiences that are not easily
quantifiable.
3. Requires Adaptability:

Teachers must be flexible and prepared to guide students through Inquiry-Based

Learning (IBL) is an educational approach that focuses on stimulating students'
curiosity and encouraging them to ask questions, investigate, and discover answers
on their own. Rather than passively receiving information, students actively engage
in the learning process by exploring topics, conducting research, and forming their

KIU- Instructional Methods 41

Page
own understanding. This method nurtures critical thinking, problem-solving skills,
and a love for lifelong learning.

Key Features of Inquiry-Based Learning

1. Student-Centered Approach
o Unlike traditional teaching methods where the teacher directs the
lesson, IBL shifts the focus to the students. They take the lead in
asking questions, exploring topics, and finding solutions.
o Teachers act as facilitators, guiding students and providing support
as they investigate.
2. Curiosity and Questioning
o Inquiry starts with a question or problem that sparks curiosity.
Students are encouraged to ask "why," "how," and "what if"
questions, leading to deeper exploration.
o Developing the skill of asking meaningful questions is a crucial part
of IBL.
3. Active Exploration and Investigation
o Students gather information, conduct experiments, analyze data,
and explore resources. This hands-on, exploratory process helps
them build a deeper understanding of the subject matter.
o They can use various tools and methods such as research, fieldwork,
interviews, and digital resources.
4. Collaboration and Communication
o IBL often involves group work, where students collaborate, share
ideas, and learn from each other.
o Encourages communication skills as students present their findings,
debate, and discuss various viewpoints.
5. Reflection and Critical Thinking
o Reflection is an integral part of the inquiry process. Students reflect
on their findings, analyze results, and draw conclusions.
o They learn to critically evaluate information, identify biases, and
make informed decisions based on evidence.

The Inquiry-Based Learning Process

The IBL approach can be broken down into several stages, which may vary
depending on the context and subject. Here is a typical process:

1. Engage: Identifying a Problem or Question

o The inquiry process begins with identifying a question, problem, or
topic that sparks interest.
o Example: “Why does the sky change colors at sunset?” or “How can
we reduce plastic waste in our community?”
2. Explore: Research and Investigation
o Students explore the topic by gathering information, conducting
experiments, and observing phenomena.
o They may use books, online resources, interviews, surveys, or
hands-on experiments to collect data.
3. Explain: Developing Understanding
o After gathering information, students analyze and synthesize their
findings.
KIU- Instructional Methods 42
Page
 o They start to form explanations, draw connections, and develop a
deeper understanding of the topic.
4. Elaborate: Applying Knowledge
o Students apply their new knowledge to solve problems, create
projects, or explore new questions that arise from their inquiry.
o They may create presentations, models, reports, or other projects
that showcase their findings.
5. Evaluate: Reflection and Assessment
o Students and teachers reflect on the inquiry process. What worked?
What challenges did they face? What new questions emerged?
o Assessment may include self-assessment, peer reviews, and teacher
feedback, focusing on both the process and the outcomes.

Types of Inquiry-Based Learning

1. Structured Inquiry
o The teacher provides a question and a clear path for investigation,
but students carry out the investigation and draw their own
conclusions.
o Suitable for beginners who are still learning how to conduct research
and inquiry.
2. Guided Inquiry
o The teacher provides the initial question, but students have more
freedom in designing their investigations and deciding how to
approach the problem.
o Encourages independence while still offering some structure and
support.
3. Open Inquiry
o Students formulate their own questions and have complete
autonomy in how they conduct their investigation and draw
conclusions.
o Best suited for advanced learners who are comfortable with the
inquiry process and can work independently.

Benefits of Inquiry-Based Learning

1. Encourages Deep Understanding

o IBL allows students to engage with content on a deeper level,
leading to a more thorough understanding of the subject matter.
2. Develops Critical Thinking and Problem-Solving Skills
o Students learn to analyze information, think critically, and approach
problems creatively.
3. Promotes Independence and Responsibility
o Students take ownership of their learning, fostering independence
and self-motivation.
4. Enhances Research and Communication Skills
o IBL helps students become better researchers and communicators,
as they must gather information, synthesize it, and present their
findings.
5. Fosters Curiosity and Lifelong Learning
o By encouraging students to ask questions and explore, IBL nurtures
curiosity and a desire to learn that extends beyond the classroom.
KIU- Instructional Methods 43
Page
Challenges of Inquiry-Based Learning

1. Time-Consuming
o The process of investigation, research, and exploration can be time-
intensive, requiring careful planning and patience.
2. Requires Teacher Adaptability
o Teachers must be flexible and ready to adapt to unexpected
directions that students may take during their inquiry.
3. Assessment Difficulties
o Measuring the success of IBL can be challenging because it focuses
on the process of learning, not just the final product. Assessments
must be designed to evaluate critical thinking, problem-solving, and
the ability to conduct effective inquiry.

Examples of Inquiry-Based Learning Activities

1. Science Experiments

Students might investigate the effects of different variables on plant growth or

explore chemical reactions, designing their own experiments to find answers.

2. Research Projects

In history or social studies, students might research a historical event or societal

issue, formulating questions and gathering information to develop their
conclusions.

3. Field Studies Students could investigate local ecosystems, collect data,

and analyze patterns, leading to discussions on environmental conservation.
4. Design Challenges

In a STEM class, students might be tasked with designing a prototype to solve a

particular problem, such as creating a water filter or building a bridge.

Unpredictable or unexpected outcomes during hands-on activities.

2. Group teaching
This is a flexible kind of classroom arrangement for adjusting the curriculum to the
needs and abilities of the class members. Pupils learn more effectively than they
would if a class was taught as a unit, Pupils are grouped in different ways for different
activities. In primary classes, the following are some of the kinds of grouping.
1. Ability grouping (homogeneous).
2. Mixed ability grouping (heterogeneous).
3. Social or natural grouping.
4. Interest grouping.
5. Sex grouping.

KIU- Instructional Methods 44

Page
6. Grouping according to needs.
7. Random grouping.
Group teaching:
1. Helps you to make teaching student/child-center and thus encourages you to
think of each student, instead of a mass of students.
2. Promotes positive competition among groups. For example, you can ask,
“Which group was best last week?”
3. Enables the teacher to easily notice each child’s needs, problems and
progress since the teacher will be dealing with these children in each group. So the
teacher can distribute help to these children accordingly
4. Creates and sustains the child’s attention, and allows pupils to think
independently.
5. Enables Learners to develop qualities of leadership as they work through
their learning.
Revision Questions
1. a) Differentiate between a method, technique and skill.
b) How do you select appropriate teaching methods, techniques and skills?
2. Using relevant examples, briefly explain the following.
a) Child-centred teaching.
b) Teacher-centred teaching.
c) Activity method.
d) Discovery method.
e) Feedback.
f) Modeling.
3. a) List five purposes of questions in a teaching-learning situation.
b) Describe the teaching situation that can lead the teacher to;
(i) redirect questions.
(ii) refocus questions.
(iii) ask prompting questions.

Unit 9. Syllabus
9.0. Introduction
A syllabus is a list of related topics to be covered in a course/ subject in a given time.
It is a condensed outlining statement of all the main topics of the subject to be
covered in a specific time.

KIU- Instructional Methods 45

Page
 9.1. Content of the syllabus
A teaching syllabus should indicate the following;
General objectives of the subject/ course
Outline of the content of the subject i.e. major topics + sub topics to be covered
Time to be spent on each part of the syllabus
NB these are just guidelines and the teacher can modify the time depending on the
present circumstances
It may also indicate instructional objectives topic by topic
It includes the assessment methods for the subject
Advantages
It guides the teacher and students on the topic to be covered in a particular subject.
It guides the teacher to formulate specific instructional materials
It aids scheming and lesson planning
It could help the head teacher to monitor the coverage of the subject
It could help the ministry of education and sports to keep the standard of education
uniform throughout the country.
Arrangement of the teaching syllabus
National goals of education

General objectives of the subject

Specific objectives of teaching a subject

Content (topics and sub topics)

Assessment methods recommended for the subject

9.2. Scheme of work

A scheme of work is the break down of the teaching syllabus into teachable topics.
Week Lesson Main Sub topic Content Objectives Methods Teaching References Remarks
time + topic Aids
period
1 2 Ppn Ppn Define By the end
8:45 Double Distribution Factors of the
Types lesson

KIU- Instructional Methods 46

Page
 pupils
should be
able to:
Define
State

COMPETENCE BASED SCHEME OF WORK

SAMPLE SCHEME OF WORK FOR A COMPETENCY BASED CURRICULUM

SCHOOL: ----------------------------------------------------

NAME OF TEACHER: ------------------------------------ CLASS: ------------------

-------------------

SUBJECT: --------------------------------------------------- TERM: ----------------

-----------------------

THEME/TOPIC: ACIDS AND ALKALIS

COMPETENCY: The learner should be able to appreciate the properties and

importance of acids, alkalis/bases and salts in everyday life.

WE PERIODS LEARN POSSIBLE POSSIBLE ASSESSME REFF REMARKS

EK ING ACTIVITIES INPUTS NT EREN
OUTCO FOR CES
MES TEACHING
AND
LEARNING

1 2 Appreci • Carry out • Material • Converse A new

ate that hands on s such with the certifi
metals activities as learners cate
vary in by testing water, to assess Chem
their common commo their istry-
chemica materials n salt, ability to Atkins
l which oranges differenti on
reactivit have the , ate
A new
y and acid taste lemons, between
certifi
can be or alkaline papaw an acidic
cate
arrange test.(use sap, and
chemi
d in a materials toothpa alkaline
stry-
reactivit that are ste, taste.
Lamb
y series safe to baking observati
ert
(k, u, s) taste and soda ons.
emphasis Chem
• knowl
e that istry
edge tasting is book
about
not the 2
the
KIU- Instructional Methods 47
Page
 defini best way Learn
tion to identify ers’
of acids and Book-
acids bases). Star
and Publis
alkali hers
s

•
under
stand
ing of
the
chara
cteris
tics of
some
famili
ar
subst
ances
from
perso
nal
exper
ience
so as
to
differ
entiat
e
betwe
en
acids
and
alkali
s

• Gen
eric
skill
s

▪ W
o
r
k
w
i
t
KIU- Instructional Methods 48
Page
 h
o

1 -do- Carry out a • Commo Observe the

hands on n learners’
activity to material ability to
extract an s such manipulate
indicator as red the
from plant cabbage apparatus
extracts and or and obtain
use it to hibiscus the expected
differentiate flower, results
between mortar
Assess the
acids and and
product for
alkalis. pestle,
ability to test
beaker,
for acids and
ethanol,
bases.
pipette

9.3. Lesson Planning.

LESSON PLAN TEMPLATE FOR LOWER SECONDARY (UGANDA)

Part A:
School: Date:
Subject: Time:
Teacher: Duration:
Class: Number of Learners: Boys:
Term: Girls:
Number of Learners with special education needs Boys:
Girls:

Theme: Introduction to chemistry and experimental techniques

Topic/Subtopic: Chemistry and Society

Competency: The learner is able to assess the application of chemistry in our

everyday life and its contribution to our economy.

KIU- Instructional Methods 49

Page
Learning Outcome(s): understand why chemistry is studied and how it overlaps with other
subjects such as biology, physics, mathematics, and geology (k, u)
Key concepts • Reasons for studying chemistry
• Relationship between chemistry and other science subjects
Inputs for facilitating learning • Internet or suitable text books, projector, computer.
Prerequisite Knowledge Learners already have basic knowledge of science from primary level.
They are also familiar with industrial products used in everyday life.
References: Resource Books, • Star Chemistry learners book 1
online resources like websites, • Childs, A. (2000). MacMillan Secondary Chemistry. Edinburg:
journals, newspapers, offline Macmillan.
digital content • Johnson, K., Adamson, S., Williams, G., & Ry an, L. (2003).
Spotlight Science
• 8. Delta Place: Nelson Thornes Ltd.
• McMonagale, D. (2015). Chemistry for Cambridge O Level.
London: Cambridge University Press.

Stage/Ti Teacher’s Activities: Learners’ Activity: Anticipated

me activity
outcomes
Introductio Teacher introduces the lesson by Learners individually respond Learner is able
n reviewing the previous lesson. He to the teacher by suggesting to complete the
5 minutes provides a summary write-up of the the words to use in summary by
previous learning with gaps for learners
completing the write-up. suggesting the
to fill. He projects the write up and
learners contribute by suggesting the missing words.
missing words from the write-up. This helps to
establish
whether the
learner
understood the
previous
information
and can build
on it in the
current lesson.

Lesson • Teacher asks learners to use 15 • Learners work in groups, Learners share
Developme minutes to discuss their individual discuss and harmonize their correct findings
nt findings from the research assignment findings from the research. from the
provided in the previous lesson. • They respond to oral tasks
research giving
25 minutes • Observe the learners as they discuss by the teacher during
and assess how share their ideas. discussions. reasons why
• Converse with the learners and ask • They prepare a report to chemistry is
them to explain their findings from the present to the rest of the studied.
research. class.
They also
identify careers

KIU- Instructional Methods 50

Page
 • Allow the learners to present the final • Each group is presents its related too the
report from their discussion and findings to the rest of the study of
reinforce their findings. class. chemistry.
• Listen carefully and assess the .
learners for communication and
systematic delivery of their report.
• Look out for coherence and accuracy • Learners are
of the presented report. able to
cooperate
and work well
together

• Learners able
to use their
critical
thinking in
explaining the
concepts. .

Reflection Use question and answer technique and • Learners respond to the Learners are
05 minutes ask learners to: tasks able to give
• Explain why chemistry is studied correct
• Identify different careers related to the
responses for
study of chemistry.
the tasks.

Conclusion • Teacher summarizes the key points • Learners note down the key Learners have
10 min learnt and clears misconceptions. points they didn’t have in a summary of
utes • Provides learners with a research their report. the responses
activity for the next lesson on the • Learners write down the
on all the key
importance of chemistry and relate research activity for the
knowledge of chemistry to relevant next lesson. learning points.
careers (u)

Part B:

Lesson Evaluation:
Teacher reflects on his performance in terms of pedagogy, materials, and assessment
He also reflects on learner participation and involvement in the lesson

KIU- Instructional Methods 51

Page
9.4. RECORD KEEPING
A teacher should always keep records about the class. These records help them in:
1. Continous assessment of the class
2. Evaluation of lesson progress
3. Assessment of learners’ progress.
4.Avoiding missing topics or repeating the already taught in case of leave of absence
or breaking the teaching service or even when class teacher is taking over from a
teacher trainee on school practice.
To achieve the above, the teacher should have more than one book in which to
record. These include:
(i) A register which keeps records of daily attendance by the learners.
(ii) A book for topics taught for smooth hand-over when one teacher is
replacing the o other.
(iii) Marks scored from the work given to learners on regular basis.
The maximum scored should be indicated as well as learner‘s individual score for
example 10/20, 5/10 etc.
The final score say at the end of the term or year should also be recorded. Definitely,
a name list of learners is very important, which should follow alphabetically.
Unit 10.LEARNING ENVIROMENT
10.0: Introduction
This is the surrounding of teaching/learning process. This surrounding is normally
referred to as a conducive learning environment.
10.1. Characteristics
A conducive learning environment does not only mean physical surrounding, rather
it includes whole atmosphere, the attitudes and discipline of the learners. First
characteristic is discipline, the second is the order. Hence discipline and order form
the characteristics of learning environment.
A teacher therefore, is disciplined by creating an atmosphere of:
• Motivation
• Co-operation and sense of direction by learners.
What to do
• Prepare the class before learners come
• Have materials needed in class prepared early.

KIU- Instructional Methods 52

Page
 • Create an order to be followed daily on how to distribute and collect
materials within the class.
• Involve the learners in keeping and working in this order
• Let learners keep active right from the time they enter the class
• Keep records of routine work
• Learners should learn and practice a system of moving into different
activities.
• Let them also learn to listen and follow instructions.
Note: It is important that these activities become automatic. In so doing, learners
will be motivated to learn, have a sense of direction and cooperate in their\
classroom.
Components of a conducive learning environment are;
➢ Physical (clean classroom, displays)

➢ Social (encourage friendships and mentoring, prevent bullying…)

➢ Emotional (display learners’ work, praise, encourages questions…)

➢ Inspirational (teacher expectations).

Unit 11. CLASSROOM AND BEHAVIOUR MANAGEMENT

Definitions of classroom management
Four rules of classroom management-get them in, get them out, get on with it, and
get on with them
Pre-planning
Routines
Classroom organization strategies- storage, displays, material, desk arrangement,
learning centres, labeling and seat arrangement.
Classroom management tips.
BEHAVIOUR MANAGEMENT
➢ types of misbehaviour

➢ Reasons for misbehaviour

➢ Behaviour management strategies

➢ Rational for behaviour management strategies

➢ Reprimand strategies

KIU- Instructional Methods 53

Page
➢ Teacher authority

➢ Rationale for teacher authority

➢ Positive behaviour theories

➢ Sanctions as a means of behaviour management.

KIU- Instructional Methods 54

Page