MC Ch-2 (Wireless) Me

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(Wireless) Medium Access Control (MAC):

Wireless Medium Access Control (MAC) - Short Notes:

1. Purpose of MAC:
Coordinates access to the shared wireless medium to avoid collisions and ensure efficient
communication.
2. Challenges in Wireless MAC:
Limited bandwidth.
High error rates.
Hidden node and exposed node problems.
3. Hidden Node Problem:
Occurs when two nodes cannot hear each other but transmit to a common receiver, causing
collisions.
4. Exposed Node Problem:
A node refrains from transmitting even when it wouldn’t interfere, reducing efficiency.
5. Functions of MAC:
Packet framing.
Addressing and identification.
Collision detection and avoidance.
Scheduling transmissions.
6. Protocols for Wireless MAC:
ALOHA: Simplest, uses random access; suffers from high collision rates.
CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access): Senses the channel before transmitting.
CSMA/CA: Collision Avoidance; uses acknowledgments and backoff.
TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access): Divides time into slots; assigns specific slots to users.
FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple Access): Divides spectrum into frequency bands.
CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access): Users transmit simultaneously using unique codes.
7. IEEE 802.11 MAC (Wi-Fi):

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 Based on CSMA/CA.
Uses Request to Send (RTS) and Clear to Send (CTS) to prevent collisions.
Supports acknowledgments for reliability.
8. Importance of MAC in Wireless Networks:
Improves reliability and fairness.
Reduces collisions and packet loss.
Enhances throughput and efficiency.

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: Motivation for a specialized MAC (Hidden and

exposed terminals, Near and far terminals),

Motivation for a Specialized MAC in Wireless Networks

Wireless networks face unique challenges that demand specialized Medium Access Control (MAC)
mechanisms. Key reasons include the following:

1. Hidden Terminals

Problem:

Two nodes (A and C) are out of each other’s range but within the range of a common receiver (B).
When A and C transmit simultaneously to B, collisions occur.

Impact:

Increased collisions reduce efficiency and throughput.

Solution:

RTS/CTS Mechanism:
A sender (A) sends a Request to Send (RTS) packet.
The receiver (B) replies with a Clear to Send (CTS) packet.
Other nodes (like C) hearing CTS defer transmission, avoiding collisions.

2. Exposed Terminals

Problem:

A node (B) refrains from transmitting because it detects a nearby transmission (A to C), even
though its transmission would not interfere with A or C.

Impact:

Reduced network utilization and inefficiency.

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Solution:

Allow concurrent transmissions if interference won’t occur (handled by advanced MAC protocols
like CDMA).

3. Near and Far Terminals

Problem:

In wireless networks, nearby nodes (near terminals) have stronger signals compared to distant
nodes (far terminals).
The stronger signal from near terminals can overpower far terminals at the receiver, causing
unfairness (known as the capture effect).

Impact:

Far terminals may struggle to communicate.

Leads to reduced network fairness and efficiency.

Solution:

Power Control: Adjust transmission power to balance signal strength.

Scheduling: Prioritize or allocate slots to far terminals.

Why Specialized MAC is Essential:

Traditional MAC protocols like Ethernet (CSMA/CD) are ineffective in wireless environments due to
collision detection challenges.
Specialized MAC mechanisms (e.g., CSMA/CA, TDMA, and power control) address these issues,
ensuring fairness, reliability, and efficient use of the wireless medium.

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SDMA

Space Division Multiple Access (SDMA) - Short Notes

Definition:

SDMA is a multiple access technique used in wireless communication to allocate resources based on
spatial separation of users. It allows multiple users to simultaneously access the network by utilizing
different spatial regions.

Key Features:

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 1. Spatial Separation:
Users are distinguished by their physical locations or spatial characteristics.
Achieved using directional antennas or beamforming.
2. Enhanced Capacity:
Increases the system's capacity by reusing frequency bands in different spatial areas.
3. Dynamic Allocation:
Resources (like antennas or beams) are dynamically allocated to active users based on their
positions.

Working Principle:

1. Use of Directional Antennas:

Creates multiple spatial beams targeting specific users or areas.
2. Beamforming:
Signal strength is focused in desired directions, reducing interference between users in
different beams.
3. Spatial Reuse:
The same frequency or time slot can be reused in different spatial regions.

Advantages:

Increased Capacity: Efficiently uses spectrum by allowing spatial reuse.

Reduced Interference: Directs signals to specific users, minimizing interference.
Supports Multiple Users: Simultaneous communication with users in different locations.

Disadvantages:

Complexity: Requires advanced antenna technology and beamforming algorithms.

Cost: High cost of implementation due to directional antennas.
Dependency on User Location: Requires accurate location information for effective beamforming.

Applications:

1. Cellular Networks:
Used in 5G networks for massive MIMO (Multiple Input Multiple Output).
2. Satellite Communication:
Enables communication with multiple ground stations.
3. Wi-Fi:
Improves coverage and efficiency in high-density areas.

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FDMA

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Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA) - Short Notes

Definition:

FDMA is a multiple access technique where the total available frequency spectrum is divided into distinct
frequency bands, and each user is assigned a specific band for communication.

Key Features:

1. Frequency Allocation:
Each user gets an exclusive frequency band.
No overlap between users' frequency bands.
2. Continuous Transmission:
Users can transmit data continuously within their assigned frequency.
3. Fixed Bandwidth:
Each channel has a fixed bandwidth determined by system design.

Working Principle:

1. Divide Spectrum:
Total spectrum is split into smaller, non-overlapping frequency bands.
2. Assign Bands:
Each band is assigned to a specific user or communication link.
3. Guard Bands:
Small frequency gaps (guard bands) are added between channels to prevent interference.

Advantages:

Simple Design: Easy to implement and manage.

No Interference: Users operate on separate frequency bands.
Low Latency: Continuous transmission reduces delay.

Disadvantages:

Inefficient for Low Traffic: Unused frequencies cannot be reallocated dynamically.

Guard Band Overhead: Wastes some spectrum to avoid interference.
Limited Scalability: Fixed frequency bands restrict the number of simultaneous users.

Applications:

1. Analog Cellular Systems:

Used in 1G systems like Advanced Mobile Phone System (AMPS).
2. Satellite Communication:
Allocates frequency bands to different users or ground stations.
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 3. Radio Broadcasting:
Assigns specific frequencies to radio stations.

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TDMA

Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) - Short Notes

Definition:

TDMA is a multiple access technique where the available time on a communication channel is divided
into time slots, and each user is allocated a unique slot for communication.

Key Features:

1. Time Sharing:
Multiple users share the same frequency channel by transmitting in different time slots.
2. Synchronization:
Precise synchronization is required to ensure users transmit in their allocated time slots.
3. Efficient Utilization:
Time slots can be dynamically allocated based on demand.

Working Principle:

1. Divide Time:
Total transmission time is divided into small slots.
2. Assign Slots:
Each user is assigned a specific time slot for transmission.
3. Sequential Transmission:
Users take turns transmitting their data in a cyclic manner.

Advantages:

Efficient Use of Bandwidth: Multiple users share the same frequency channel.
Reduced Interference: Each user transmits in their own time slot.
Dynamic Allocation: Time slots can be reallocated based on user activity.

Disadvantages:

Synchronization Complexity: Requires precise timing for slot allocation.

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 Idle Slots: If a user has no data to send, their time slot is wasted.
Latency: Users may experience delays while waiting for their turn.

Applications:

1. Cellular Networks:
Widely used in 2G systems like GSM.
2. Satellite Communication:
Allocates time slots to ground stations or terminals.
3. Wireless LANs:
Time slots can be used to reduce collisions in dense networks.

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TDMA

Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) - Short Notes

Definition:

TDMA is a communication technique that divides a channel into time slots, allowing multiple users to
share the same frequency band by transmitting at different times.

Key Concepts:

1. Time Division:
The available time is divided into non-overlapping time slots.
Each user gets a dedicated time slot for communication.
2. Sequential Transmission:
Users transmit in a cyclic order during their allocated time slots.
3. Synchronization:
Precise timing is required to ensure users send and receive data only in their slots.

Advantages:

Efficient Use of Spectrum: Multiple users share a single frequency channel.

No Interference: Users do not overlap as transmissions occur in distinct time slots.
Dynamic Allocation: Slots can be adjusted based on demand.

Disadvantages:

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 Synchronization Requirements: Accurate synchronization is critical.
Idle Time Slots: Unused slots lead to inefficiency.
Delay: Users must wait for their turn to transmit.

Applications:

1. GSM (Global System for Mobile Communication):

Used in 2G mobile networks.
2. Satellite Communication:
Allocates time slots for data uplinks and downlinks.
3. Digital Cordless Phones:
Employ TDMA for user separation.

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Wireless
LAN/(IEEE 802.11)

Wireless LAN (WLAN) / IEEE 802.11 - Short Notes

Definition:

Wireless LAN is a wireless communication system that enables devices to connect and communicate
over a local network without physical cables. IEEE 802.11 is the standard governing WLAN technologies.

Key Features of IEEE 802.11:

1. Wireless Connectivity:
Uses radio waves to connect devices within a limited area (e.g., home, office).
2. Access Method:
Employs CSMA/CA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance) to manage
shared medium access.
3. Modes of Operation:
Infrastructure Mode: Devices communicate through an Access Point (AP).
Ad-Hoc Mode: Devices communicate directly without an AP.

Standards and Data Rates:

1. 802.11a: Operates at 5 GHz, up to 54 Mbps.

2. 802.11b: Operates at 2.4 GHz, up to 11 Mbps.
3. 802.11g: Operates at 2.4 GHz, up to 54 Mbps.
4. 802.11n: Operates at 2.4/5 GHz, up to 600 Mbps (MIMO).
5. 802.11ac: Operates at 5 GHz, up to several Gbps (MU-MIMO).

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CSMA/CA in IEEE 802.11:

Avoids collisions by sensing the channel before transmission.

Uses RTS/CTS (Request to Send / Clear to Send) for collision prevention.

Advantages:

Mobility: Users can connect from anywhere within the network range.
Easy Installation: No need for cables.
Scalability: Easily expands the network by adding devices.

Disadvantages:

Security Issues: Prone to unauthorized access without proper encryption (e.g., WPA3
recommended).
Interference: Performance can be affected by other devices using the same frequency (e.g.,
Bluetooth, microwaves).
Range Limitation: Limited coverage compared to wired LAN.

Applications:

1. Home Networks: Wireless internet for personal devices.

2. Enterprise Networks: Connectivity in offices and campuses.
3. Public Hotspots: Wi-Fi in cafes, airports, and public places.

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