UNIT-II

1. Motivation for a Specialized MAC

The primary motivation for developing specialized Medium Access Control (MAC) protocols
stems from the inefficiencies and limitations of general-purpose MAC protocols when
applied to specific wireless environments or application requirements. Here's a more detailed
look at the driving forces:

• Resource Optimization: Wireless spectrum is a scarce and expensive resource.

Specialized MAC protocols are designed to utilize this resource more efficiently than
general-purpose ones by tailoring access mechanisms to the specific traffic
characteristics and network topology.

• Quality of Service (QoS) Requirements: Different applications have varying QoS

demands (e.g., delay, jitter, throughput, reliability). Standard MAC protocols like
CSMA/CA (used in Wi-Fi) offer best-effort service and may not be suitable for real-
time applications or those requiring guaranteed bandwidth. Specialized MACs can
incorporate mechanisms for prioritization, reservation, and traffic shaping to meet
these diverse needs.

• Power Efficiency: Many wireless devices are battery-powered. Specialized MAC

protocols can incorporate power-saving mechanisms by optimizing sleep cycles,
reducing idle listening, and minimizing transmission overhead, thereby extending
battery life. This is crucial for sensor networks, mobile ad hoc networks (MANETs),
and other power-constrained devices.

• Handling Specific Network Topologies: General-purpose MACs might not be

optimal for certain network structures like ad hoc networks, mesh networks, or sensor
networks. Specialized MACs can be designed to exploit the characteristics of these
topologies for improved routing, data aggregation, and overall network performance.

• Addressing Unique Application Needs: Emerging applications like industrial

automation, vehicular networks, and healthcare monitoring have unique
communication requirements (e.g., low latency, high reliability, security). Specialized
MAC protocols can be tailored to address these specific demands.

• Mitigating Wireless Channel Challenges: Wireless channels are inherently

unreliable and subject to fading, interference, and noise. Specialized MAC protocols
can incorporate mechanisms like adaptive modulation and coding, error control, and
interference mitigation techniques to improve robustness and reliability in challenging
wireless environments.

• Security Considerations: Certain applications require enhanced security measures.

Specialized MAC protocols can integrate security mechanisms like authentication,
encryption, and access control tailored to the specific security threats and
requirements of the application domain.
In essence, the motivation for specialized MAC protocols lies in the need to optimize
performance, efficiency, and reliability for specific wireless scenarios that cannot be
adequately addressed by general-purpose solutions.

2. Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) and Frequency Division Multiple Access
(FDMA)

Both TDMA and FDMA are channelization techniques that allow multiple users to share a
limited frequency spectrum. They achieve this by dividing the available resources in different
domains:

Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA):

• Concept: FDMA divides the total available frequency band into a number of non-
overlapping frequency channels. Each user is allocated a unique frequency channel
for the duration of their communication.

• Operation: When a user wants to transmit, they are assigned a specific frequency
band. They transmit and receive all their data within this assigned frequency.
Different users communicate simultaneously but on different frequencies.

• Advantages:

o Simple implementation.

o No strict time synchronization required between users.

o Well-suited for continuous transmission.

• Disadvantages:

o Spectrum inefficiency due to the need for guard bands between channels to
prevent interference.
o Limited flexibility in allocating bandwidth; a user is assigned a fixed channel
even if they don't need the full capacity.
o Number of users is limited by the number of available frequency channels.

Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA):

• Concept: TDMA divides the available time into discrete time slots. Each user is
allocated a specific time slot within a recurring frame to transmit and receive data.

• Operation: Users take turns transmitting and receiving. During their assigned time
slot, a user has access to the entire frequency band. Precise time synchronization is
crucial to ensure that users transmit and receive within their allocated slots and avoid
collisions.

• Advantages:
 o More efficient use of the frequency spectrum compared to FDMA as guard
bands are replaced by guard times (which are generally smaller).

o Flexibility in allocating different numbers of time slots to users based on their

data rate requirements.

o Easier to implement power control as each user transmits in bursts.

• Disadvantages:

o Requires complex timing synchronization between users.

o Performance can degrade if the number of users increases significantly,

leading to longer delays.

o Not ideal for applications requiring continuous transmission as data is sent in

bursts.

In summary: FDMA separates users in the frequency domain, while TDMA separates them
in the time domain. Both techniques aim to enable multiple access to a shared resource but
have different trade-offs in terms of efficiency, complexity, and suitability for various
applications.

3. Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) and Space Division Multiple Access (SDMA)

CDMA and SDMA offer alternative approaches to allowing multiple users to share the same
frequency band, but they do so using different principles:

Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA):

• Concept: CDMA allows multiple users to transmit simultaneously over the same
frequency band. Each user's signal is encoded with a unique spreading code. At the
receiver, the desired user's signal is recovered by correlating the received signal with
the same unique code. Signals from other users appear as noise due to their different
codes.

• Operation:

o Each user is assigned a unique pseudo-random noise (PN) code or spreading

code.

o The data signal is multiplied by this code, spreading its spectrum over a wider
bandwidth.

o Multiple encoded signals are transmitted simultaneously over the same

frequency band.

o At the receiver, the received signal is correlated with the desired user's unique
code. The correlation process despreads the desired signal (making it narrow
and high power) while spreading the signals of other users (making them
appear as low-power noise).
 • Advantages:

o Increased capacity compared to FDMA and TDMA as multiple users can share
the same frequency band.

o Soft handover capability, where a mobile device can communicate with

multiple base stations simultaneously, leading to better call quality and fewer
dropped calls.

o Resistance to narrowband interference.

o Improved security due to the spreading codes.

• Disadvantages:

o Requires tight power control to prevent near-far problem (where a strong

signal from a nearby user overwhelms a weak signal from a distant user).

o Complex receiver design due to the need for correlation.

o Capacity is limited by the orthogonality of the spreading codes and the level of
interference.

Space Division Multiple Access (SDMA):

• Concept: SDMA exploits the spatial dimension to separate users. It utilizes

directional antennas or beamforming techniques at the base station to focus the
transmitted and received signals towards specific users. This allows multiple users to
operate on the same frequency and time slots without causing significant interference
because their signals are spatially separated.

• Operation:
o Base stations use smart antennas or antenna arrays that can adaptively shape
the radiation pattern of the transmitted and received signals.

o By focusing beams towards individual users, the interference to other users is

minimized.

o This allows for spatial reuse of frequency and time resources, increasing the
overall system capacity.

• Advantages:

o Significant increase in system capacity by reusing frequency and time

resources in different spatial locations.

o Improved signal quality and reduced power consumption by focusing energy

towards the intended user.

o Reduced interference levels in the network.

• Disadvantages:
 o Requires sophisticated antenna systems and signal processing at the base
station.

o Performance can be affected by user mobility and changes in the propagation

environment.

o More complex implementation compared to FDMA and TDMA.

In summary: CDMA separates users by assigning them unique codes, allowing simultaneous
transmission over the same frequency band. SDMA separates users by directing signals
spatially using smart antennas, enabling spatial reuse of resources.

4. Explanation of GSM Architecture with Neat Sketch

The Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM) is a widely adopted second-
generation (2G) mobile network technology. Its architecture can be broadly divided into three
main subsystems:
1. Mobile Station (MS): This is the mobile phone or user equipment used by the
subscriber to communicate. It consists of the mobile equipment (ME) and the
Subscriber Identity Module (SIM) card.

2. Base Station Subsystem (BSS): This subsystem is responsible for managing the
radio interface between the MS and the core network. It comprises:

o Base Transceiver Station (BTS): Contains the radio transceivers and

antennas needed for communication with the MS in a specific cell. It handles
radio transmission and reception.

o Base Station Controller (BSC): Controls one or more BTSs. It manages

radio resources, performs handover, and controls the power levels of BTSs and
MSs.
3. Network Switching Subsystem (NSS) or Core Network (CN): This is the central
part of the GSM network, responsible for call control, mobility management, and
subscriber management. Key components include:
o Mobile Switching Center (MSC): The heart of the NSS. It sets up and tears
down calls, handles mobility management (location updates, handovers), and
provides connections to other networks (e.g., PSTN, ISDN).

o Visitor Location Register (VLR): A temporary database associated with each

MSC. It stores information about visiting subscribers who are currently in the
MSC's service area.

o Home Location Register (HLR): A central database containing permanent

information about all subscribers of a GSM network, including their service
profiles, current location, and authentication keys.
 o Authentication Center (AuC): Generates the security keys used for
authentication and encryption.

o Equipment Identity Register (EIR): A database that stores information about

the validity of mobile equipment (IMEI). It can be used to prevent calls from
stolen or unauthorized devices.

o Short Message Service Center (SMSC): Handles the sending and receiving
of short messages (SMS).
o Gateway MSC (GMSC): An MSC that acts as an interface to other networks
(e.g., PSTN). Calls originating from or terminating in other networks pass
through the GMSC.

Neat Sketch of GSM Architecture:

Other Networks
(PSTN, ISDN, Internet)
|

+-------+

| GMSC |

+-------+

+-------+ Um Interface +-------+ Abis Interface +-------+

| MS |<--------------------->| BTS |<--------------------->| BSC |
+-------+ +-------+ +-------+

| A Interface

+-------+ +-------+ +-------+ +-------+ +-------+ +-------+

| MSC/ |<---->| VLR |<---->| HLR |<---->| AuC |<---->| EIR |<---->| SMSC |
| VLR | +-------+ +-------+ +-------+ +-------+ +-------+

+-------+

Explanation of Interfaces:

• Um Interface (Air Interface): The radio interface between the Mobile Station (MS)
and the Base Transceiver Station (BTS).
 • Abis Interface: The interface between the Base Transceiver Station (BTS) and the
Base Station Controller (BSC).

• A Interface: The interface between the Base Station Controller (BSC) and the Mobile
Switching Center (MSC).

• Interfaces between NSS Components: Standard signaling protocols (e.g., MAP) are
used for communication between the MSC, VLR, HLR, AuC, EIR, and SMSC.

This architecture provides the framework for mobile communication, including voice calls,
SMS, and data services, by managing the radio resources, handling user mobility, and
connecting calls to the appropriate destinations.
5. Write about UMTS with Neat Sketch

Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS) is a third-generation (3G) mobile

telecommunications system that evolved from GSM. It aims to provide higher data rates,
improved security, and support for a wider range of multimedia services. The core network of
UMTS is based on the GSM core network but with enhancements to support packet-switched
data. The radio access network in UMTS is called UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access
Network (UTRAN).

The main components of the UMTS architecture are:

1. User Equipment (UE): This is the mobile device used by the subscriber. It is
analogous to the MS in GSM but supports higher data rates and new functionalities.

2. UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access Network (UTRAN): This is the radio access
network of UMTS and consists of:

o Node B: Similar to the BTS in GSM, the Node B is the base station in UMTS.
It handles radio transmission and reception with the UEs in its cell.
o Radio Network Controller (RNC): Controls one or more Node Bs. It is
responsible for radio resource management, handover control, quality of
service (QoS) management, and security functions within the UTRAN. The
RNC connects to the core network.

3. Core Network (CN): The UMTS core network is an evolution of the GSM core
network. It is divided into two main domains:

o Circuit-Switched (CS) Domain: Handles voice calls and circuit-switched

data, similar to GSM. Key components include the Mobile Switching Center
(MSC) and Gateway MSC (GMSC). Enhanced versions like MSC Server and
MGW (Media Gateway) are often used.

o Packet-Switched (PS) Domain: Designed for packet data services, such as

internet access. Key components include:
 ▪ Serving GPRS Support Node (SGSN): Responsible for packet
routing and transfer, mobility management (for packet data), session
management, and authentication for the PS domain.

▪ Gateway GPRS Support Node (GGSN): Acts as a gateway between

the UMTS/GPRS network and external packet data networks (e.g., the
Internet). It performs IP address allocation, routing, and policy
enforcement.

o Home Location Register (HLR): Similar to GSM, it stores permanent

subscriber information.

o Visitor Location Register (VLR): Stores temporary information about

visiting subscribers.

o Authentication Center (AuC): Handles authentication and security key

generation.

o Equipment Identity Register (EIR): Stores information about mobile

equipment.

Neat Sketch of UMTS Architecture:

External Networks

(Internet, PSTN)

| |
+-------+ +-------+

| GGSN | | GMSC |
+-------+ +-------+

| |

Iu-PS Interface Iu-CS Interface

| |

+-------+ +-------+
| SGSN |-------------------| MSC/ |

+-------+ | VLR |

| +-------+

Iur Interface (Optional)

\ /
 \ /

+-------+ Iub Interface +-------+

| RNC |<--------------------->| Node B|

+-------+ +-------+
|

Iu Interface

+-------+

| UE |

+-------+

+-------+ +-------+ +-------+

| HLR |<---->| AuC |<---->| EIR |

+-------+ +-------+ +-------+

Explanation of Interfaces:

• Iu Interface: Connects the UTRAN (RNC) to the Core Network (SGSN for PS
domain, MSC for CS domain).

• Iub Interface: Connects the Node B to the RNC.

• Iur Interface: An optional interface between two RNCs, used for soft handover and
other inter-RNC communication.

• Iu-PS Interface: Specifically connects the RNC to the SGSN in the PS domain.

• Iu-CS Interface: Specifically connects the RNC to the MSC in the CS domain.

UMTS significantly enhanced mobile communication by introducing wideband CDMA

(WCDMA) as the radio access technology, enabling higher data rates and supporting a wider
range of services like video calls, mobile broadband internet access, and multimedia
streaming.

6. Describe how to determine the total number of channels and solve the problem.

Determining the Total Number of Channels:

The total number of channels available in a cellular system depends on the total allocated
bandwidth and the bandwidth required for each channel (including any guard bands). The
formula is generally:
Total Number of Channels=Channel BandwidthTotal Bandwidth

Where:

• Total Bandwidth: The entire frequency spectrum allocated to the cellular system.

• Channel Bandwidth: The bandwidth occupied by a single communication channel,

including any guard bands necessary to prevent interference between adjacent
channels.

Solving the Problem:

Given:

• Total bandwidth allocated = 33 MHz = 33×106 Hz

• Each full-duplex voice channel requires two simplex channels of 25 kHz each. So, the
bandwidth per full-duplex voice channel = 2×25 kHz = 50 kHz = 50×103 Hz.

• We need to compute the number of channels available per cell for different cell reuse
factors (N): a. N=4, b. N=7, c. N=12.

• 1 MHz of the allocated spectrum is dedicated to control channels.

Step 1: Calculate the total number of full-duplex channels.

First, let's determine the bandwidth available for voice channels after allocating 1 MHz for
control channels:

Bandwidth for voice channels = Total bandwidth - Bandwidth for control channels
Bandwidth for voice channels = 33 MHz - 1 MHz = 32 MHz = 32×106 Hz
Now, calculate the total number of full-duplex voice channels:
Total number of voice channels = $\

Check completed • Understand the results

6. Describe how to determine total number of channels ?

Problem : If a total of 33MHz of bandwidth is allocated to particular FDD cellular telephone

which is uses two 25kHz simples channels to provide full duplex voice a control channels ,

compute the number of channels available per cell system uses

a.

Four-cell reuse,

b. Seven-cell reuse , and

c. 12-cell reuse
d. If 1MHz of allocated spectrum is dedicated to control channels, determine an equitable
distribution of control channels and voice channels in each cell for each of the three

systems.

7. Explain about DECT?

8. With a neat sketch Explain about Global System For Mobile Communication?
9. Compare TDMA, FDMA, CDMA?

10. Explain the Digital Enhanced Cardless Tele-Communication ?

Let's continue with your questions on wireless communication.

6. Describe how to determine the total number of channels?

The total number of channels in a cellular system is determined by dividing the total available
bandwidth by the bandwidth required for each channel. This bandwidth per channel includes
the actual signal bandwidth and any guard bands needed to prevent interference between
adjacent channels.
Total Number of Channels=Bandwidth per ChannelTotal Allocated Bandwidth

For a Frequency Division Duplexing (FDD) system where full-duplex communication is

achieved using two separate simplex channels (one for uplink and one for downlink), the
bandwidth per full-duplex channel is the sum of the bandwidths of the two simplex channels.
Solving the Problem:

Given:

• Total allocated bandwidth = 33 MHz = 33×106 Hz

• Bandwidth per simplex channel = 25 kHz = 25×103 Hz

• Bandwidth per full-duplex channel = 2×25 kHz = 50 kHz = 50×103 Hz

First, let's calculate the total number of full-duplex channels available in the entire system:

Total Number of Full-Duplex Channels=50×103 Hz33×106 Hz=660 channels

Now, let's consider the cell reuse factor (N). In a cellular system with a reuse factor of N, the
total number of channels is divided among the N cells in a cluster. The number of channels
available per cell is:

Channels per Cell=NTotal Number of Channels

a. Four-cell reuse (N=4):

Channels per Cell=4660=165 channels

b. Seven-cell reuse (N=7):
Channels per Cell=7660≈94.29 channels Since the number of channels must be an integer, we
would typically round down to 94 channels per cell.
c. Twelve-cell reuse (N=12):

Channels per Cell=12660=55 channels

d. Equitable distribution of control and voice channels:

1 MHz of the 33 MHz bandwidth is dedicated to control channels. The bandwidth for voice
channels is 33 MHz−1 MHz=32 MHz.

First, let's find the number of full-duplex channels that can be accommodated within the 1
MHz control channel bandwidth. Assuming control channels also use a 50 kHz full-duplex
bandwidth:

Number of control channels (total system) = 50×103 Hz1×106 Hz=20 channels

Number of voice channels (total system) = 50×103 Hz32×106 Hz=640 channels

Now, let's distribute these channels per cell for each reuse factor:

For N=4:
• Control channels per cell = 420=5 channels

• Voice channels per cell = 4640=160 channels

• Total channels per cell = 5+160=165 channels

For N=7:

• Control channels per cell = 720≈2.86≈2 or 3 channels (depending on the distribution

strategy, could be non-uniform)

• Voice channels per cell = 7640≈91.43≈91 channels

• Total channels per cell ≈2 or 3+91=93 or 94 channels

A more equitable distribution would aim to have a roughly proportional number of control
channels in each cell. We can't have fractions of channels, so some cells might have slightly
more or fewer control channels. A possible approach is to allocate 2 control channels to 6
cells and 3 control channels to 1 cell (6×2+1×3=15+3=18, not 20. Let's try again: 4 cells with
3, 3 cells with 2 gives 12+6=18. This is becoming complex without a specific allocation
strategy defined. A simpler approach is to provide an average.)
Average control channels per cell ≈20/7≈2.86. We can say approximately 2-3 control
channels per cell. Average voice channels per cell ≈640/7≈91.43≈91 voice channels.

• Estimated distribution for N=7: 2 or 3 control channels, approximately 91 voice

channels.

For N=12:
• Control channels per cell = 1220≈1.67≈1 or 2 channels
• Voice channels per cell = 12640≈53.33≈53 channels
 • Total channels per cell ≈1 or 2+53=54 or 55 channels

Again, equitable distribution would mean approximately 1-2 control channels per cell.

7. Explain about DECT?

Digital Enhanced Cordless Telecommunications (DECT) is a standard primarily used for

creating cordless telephone systems, particularly in homes and offices. It operates in the 1.88
to 1.90 GHz frequency band (in Europe; frequencies may vary in other regions). DECT is
designed for short-range wireless communication and offers several advantages:

• High Voice Quality: DECT uses digital transmission, providing clear and crisp voice
quality, superior to older analog cordless phone systems.

• Security: DECT incorporates authentication and encryption mechanisms to enhance

security and prevent eavesdropping.

• High Capacity: DECT uses Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) to allow
multiple handsets to share a limited number of radio channels from a single base
station. Typically, a base station can support up to 12 simultaneous voice calls.
• Low Interference: Operating in a dedicated frequency band minimizes interference
from other wireless devices like Wi-Fi or Bluetooth, which operate in the 2.4 GHz
band.

• Mobility: DECT allows users to move within a limited range of the base station while
maintaining a connection.

• GAP (Generic Access Profile): This is a common standard supported by most DECT
manufacturers, allowing handsets and base stations from different brands to
interoperate for basic call functionality.
• Low Power Consumption: DECT devices are designed for relatively low power
consumption, contributing to longer battery life for handsets.

How DECT Works:

1. Frequency Bands and Channels: DECT operates in specific frequency bands

allocated for cordless communications. These bands are divided into multiple radio
frequency (RF) carriers.

2. TDMA Frame Structure: DECT uses a TDMA scheme where each RF carrier is
divided into time slots. A standard DECT frame has 24 time slots, 12 for the base
station to transmit to handsets and 12 for handsets to transmit to the base station,
providing 12 full-duplex channels per carrier frequency.

3. Dynamic Channel Selection (DCS): DECT base stations and handsets can
automatically scan for and select the least congested radio channel, minimizing
interference and ensuring good communication quality.
 4. Handset Registration: To use a DECT system, handsets need to be registered with
the base station. This process typically involves a simple procedure to associate the
handset with the base unit.

5. Call Establishment: When a call is initiated, the handset requests a communication

channel from the base station. The base station assigns an available time slot on a
suitable RF carrier.

6. Handover: In multi-cell DECT systems (like those used in larger offices), a handset
can seamlessly move between the coverage areas of different base stations (cells)
without interrupting the call. This is known as handover.

Applications of DECT:

While primarily known for cordless telephones, DECT technology is also used in other
applications such as:

• Wireless Private Branch Exchange (PBX) Systems: Providing wireless extensions

for office phone systems.

• Wireless Microphone Systems: Offering secure and high-quality audio transmission.

• Baby Monitors: Providing reliable and secure audio and sometimes video
monitoring.

• Industrial Applications: In some niche applications requiring reliable short-range

wireless communication.

8. With a neat sketch Explain about Global System For Mobile Communication?

I already provided a detailed explanation and a neat sketch of the GSM architecture in point
number 4. Would you like me to reiterate or focus on a specific aspect of it?

9. Compare TDMA, FDMA, and CDMA?

Here's a comparison of TDMA, FDMA, and CDMA:

Feature FDMA TDMA CDMA

Frequency: Divides
Principle of Time: Divides each Code: Uses unique codes
the spectrum into
Separation channel into time slots to distinguish users
channels

Multiple users
Users transmit in Multiple users transmit
Simultaneous transmit
allocated time slots, simultaneously over the
Transmission simultaneously on
not simultaneously same frequency band
different frequencies
 Variable bandwidth
Bandwidth Fixed bandwidth per Entire bandwidth is
allocation (number of
Allocation user available to all users
slots)

Guard Requires guard bands Requires guard times Requires minimal guard
Bands/Times between frequencies between time slots bands/times

Requires precise power

Strict time
Less critical control and
Synchronization synchronization
synchronization orthogonal/pseudo-
required
orthogonal codes

Relatively simple More complex due to Most complex due to

Complexity
implementation timing requirements coding and power control

Higher capacity than

Limited by the Potentially highest
FDMA due to time
Capacity number of frequency capacity due to code
sharing and efficient
channels reuse
spectrum use

Adjacent channel Slot overlap can cause

Multi-user interference is
Interference interference is a interference if not
the primary limitation
concern synchronized

More flexible in
Less flexible in Highly flexible; soft
Flexibility allocating capacity to
bandwidth allocation capacity limits
users

Hard handover Hard handover (break- Soft handover (make-

Handover
(break-before-make) before-make) before-break) capability

Can be affected by Can be affected by Generally good, resistant

Voice Quality narrowband bursty transmission if to narrowband
interference not handled well interference

Older systems, IS-95, CDMA2000,

Applications satellite GSM, IS-136 WCDMA (UMTS), LTE
communication (for control plane)

10. Explain the Digital Enhanced Cordless Tele-Communication?

"Digital Enhanced Cardless Tele-Communication" is simply another name for Digital
Enhanced Cordless Telecommunications (DECT). The term "cardless" emphasizes that it's
a system for cordless phones, where the handset communicates wirelessly with a base station
without needing a physical card or wire connection to the network for basic operation (though
SIM cards might be present for other functionalities in some advanced DECT systems
integrated with cellular networks).
So, the explanation for DECT provided in point number 7 fully covers "Digital Enhanced
Cardless Tele-Communication." It's the same technology known for its high voice quality,
security, capacity, and low interference in cordless phone applications.