Satellite Communication - Quick Guide

Satellite Communication - Introduction

In general terms, a satellite is a smaller object that revolves around a larger
object in space. For example, moon is a natural satellite of earth.

We know that Communication refers to the exchange (sharing) of information

between two or more entities, through any medium or channel. In other words,
it is nothing but sending, receiving and processing of information.

If the communication takes place between any two earth stations through a
satellite, then it is called as satellite communication. In this communication,
electromagnetic waves are used as carrier signals. These signals carry the
information such as voice, audio, video or any other data between ground and
space and vice-versa.

Soviet Union had launched the world's first artificial satellite named, Sputnik 1 in
1957. Nearly after 18 years, India also launched the artificial satellite named,
Aryabhata in 1975.

Need of Satellite Communication

The following two kinds of propagation are used earlier for communication up to
some distance.

Ground wave propagation − Ground wave propagation is suitable for

frequencies up to 30MHz. This method of communication makes use of
the troposphere conditions of the earth.
Sky wave propagation − The suitable bandwidth for this type of
communication is broadly between 30–40 MHz and it makes use of the
ionosphere properties of the earth.

The maximum hop or the station distance is limited to 1500KM only in both
ground wave propagation and sky wave propagation. Satellite communication

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 overcomes this limitation. In this method, satellites provide communication for
long distances, which is well beyond the line of sight.

Since the satellites locate at certain height above earth, the communication
takes place between any two earth stations easily via satellite. So, it overcomes
the limitation of communication between two earth stations due to earth’s
curvature.

How a Satellite Works

A satellite is a body that moves around another body in a particular path. A
communication satellite is nothing but a microwave repeater station in space. It
is helpful in telecommunications, radio and television along with internet
applications.

A repeater is a circuit, which increases the strength of the received signal and
then transmits it. But, this repeater works as a transponder. That means, it
changes the frequency band of the transmitted signal from the received one.

The frequency with which, the signal is sent into the space is called as Uplink
frequency. Similarly, the frequency with which, the signal is sent by the
transponder is called as Downlink frequency. The following figure illustrates
this concept clearly.

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 The transmission of signal from first earth station to satellite through a channel
is called as uplink. Similarly, the transmission of signal from satellite to second
earth station through a channel is called as downlink.

Uplink frequency is the frequency at which, the first earth station is

communicating with satellite. The satellite transponder converts this signal into
another frequency and sends it down to the second earth station. This frequency
is called as Downlink frequency. In similar way, second earth station can also
communicate with the first one.

The process of satellite communication begins at an earth station. Here, an

installation is designed to transmit and receive signals from a satellite in an orbit
around the earth. Earth stations send the information to satellites in the form of
high powered, high frequency (GHz range) signals.

The satellites receive and retransmit the signals back to earth where they are

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 received by other earth stations in the coverage area of the satellite. Satellite's
footprint is the area which receives a signal of useful strength from the
satellite.

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Pros and Cons of Satellite Communication

In this section, let us have a look at the advantages and disadvantages of
satellite communication.

Following are the advantages of using satellite communication:

Area of coverage is more than that of terrestrial systems

Each and every corner of the earth can be covered
Transmission cost is independent of coverage area
More bandwidth and broadcasting possibilites

Following are the disadvantages of using satellite communication −

Launching of satellites into orbits is a costly process.

Propagation delay of satellite systems is more than that of conventional
terrestrial systems.
Difficult to provide repairing activities if any problem occurs in a satellite
system.
Free space loss is more
There can be congestion of frequencies.

Applications of Satellite Communication

Satellite communication plays a vital role in our daily life. Following are the
applications of satellite communication −

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 Radio broadcasting and voice communications
TV broadcasting such as Direct To Home (DTH)
Internet applications such as providing Internet connection for data
transfer, GPS applications, Internet surfing, etc.
Military applications and navigations
Remote sensing applications
Weather condition monitoring & Forecasting

Satellite Communication - Orbital Mechanics

We know that the path of satellite revolving around the earth is known as orbit.
This path can be represented with mathematical notations. Orbital mechanics is
the study of the motion of the satellites that are present in orbits. So, we can
easily understand the space operations with the knowledge of orbital motion.

Orbital Elements
Orbital elements are the parameters, which are helpful for describing the orbital
motion of satellites. Following are the orbital elements.

Semi major axis

Eccentricity
Mean anomaly
Argument of perigee
Inclination
Right ascension of ascending node

The above six orbital elements define the orbit of earth satellites. Therefore, it is
easy to discriminate one satellite from other satellites based on the values of
orbital elements.

Semi major axis

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 The length of Semi-major axis (a) defines the size of satellite’s orbit. It is half
of the major axis. This runs from the center through a focus to the edge of the
ellipse. So, it is the radius of an orbit at the orbit's two most distant points.

Both semi major axis and semi minor axis are represented in above figure.
Length of semi major axis (a) not only determines the size of satellite’s orbit,
but also the time period of revolution.

If circular orbit is considered as a special case, then the length of semi-major

axis will be equal to radius of that circular orbit.

Eccentricity

The value of Eccentricity (e) fixes the shape of satellite’s orbit. This parameter
indicates the deviation of the orbit’s shape from a perfect circle.

If the lengths of semi major axis and semi minor axis of an elliptical orbit are a &
b, then the mathematical expression for eccentricity (e) will be
−−−−−−
√a2 − b2
e=
a
The value of eccentricity of a circular orbit is zero, since both a & b are equal.
Whereas, the value of eccentricity of an elliptical orbit lies between zero and

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 one.

The following figure shows the various satellite orbits for different eccentricity
(e) values

In above figure, the satellite orbit corresponding to eccentricity (e) value of zero
is a circular orbit. And, the remaining three satellite orbits are of elliptical
corresponding to the eccentricity (e) values 0.5, 0.75 and 0.9.

Mean Anomaly

For a satellite, the point which is closest from the Earth is known as Perigee.
Mean anomaly (M) gives the average value of the angular position of the
satellite with reference to perigee.

If the orbit is circular, then Mean anomaly gives the angular position of the
satellite in the orbit. But, if the orbit is elliptical, then calculation of exact
position is very difficult. At that time, Mean anomaly is used as an intermediate
step.

Argument of Perigee

Satellite orbit cuts the equatorial plane at two points. First point is called as
descending node, where the satellite passes from the northern hemisphere to
the southern hemisphere. Second point is called as ascending node, where the
satellite passes from the southern hemisphere to the northern hemisphere.

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 Argument of perigee (ω) is the angle between ascending node and perigee. If
both perigee and ascending node are existing at same point, then the argument
of perigee will be zero degrees

Argument of perigee is measured in the orbital plane at earth’s center in the

direction of satellite motion.

Inclination
The angle between orbital plane and earth’s equatorial plane is known as
inclination (i). It is measured at the ascending node with direction being east
to north. So, inclination defines the orientation of the orbit by considering the
equator of earth as reference.

There are four types of orbits based on the angle of inclination.

Equatorial orbit − Angle of inclination is either zero degrees or 180

degrees.
Polar orbit − Angle of inclination is 90 degrees.
Prograde orbit − Angle of inclination lies between zero and 90 degrees.

Retrograde orbit − Angle of inclination lies between 90 and 180

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 Retrograde orbit − Angle of inclination lies between 90 and 180
degrees.

Right Ascension of Ascending node

We know that ascending node is the point, where the satellite crosses the
equatorial plane while going from the southern hemisphere to the northern
hemisphere.

Right Ascension of ascending node (Ω) is the angle between line of Aries and
ascending node towards east direction in equatorial plane. Aries is also called as
vernal and equinox.

Satellite’s ground track is the path on the surface of the Earth, which lies
exactly below its orbit. The ground track of a satellite can take a number of
different forms depending on the values of the orbital elements.

Orbital Equations
In this section, let us discuss about the equations which are related to orbital
motion.

Forces acting on Satellite

A satellite, when it revolves around the earth, it undergoes a pulling force from
the earth due to earth’s gravitational force. This force is known as Centripetal
force (F1) because this force tends the satellite towards it.

Mathematically, the Centripetal force (F1) acting on satellite due to earth can
be written as

GM m
F1 =
R2
Where,

G is universal gravitational constant and it is equal to 6.673 x 10-11

N·m2/kg2.

M is mass of the earth and it is equal to 5.98 x 1024 Kg.

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 M is mass of the earth and it is equal to 5.98 x 1024 Kg.
m is mass of the satellite.
R is the distance from satellite to center of the Earth.

A satellite, when it revolves around the earth, it undergoes a pulling force from
the sun and the moon due to their gravitational forces. This force is known as
Centrifugal force (F2) because this force tends the satellite away from earth.

Mathematically, the Centrifugal force (F2) acting on satellite can be written as

mv2
F2 =
R
Where, v is the orbital velocity of satellite.

Orbital Velocity

Orbital velocity of satellite is the velocity at which, the satellite revolves around
earth. Satellite doesn’t deviate from its orbit and moves with certain velocity in
that orbit, when both Centripetal and Centrifugal forces are balance each other.

So, equate Centripetal force (F1) and Centrifugal force (F2).

GM m mv2
=
R2 R
GM
=> = v2
R
−−−−
=> v = √
GM
R

Therefore, the orbital velocity of satellite is

−−−−
v=√
GM
R

Where,

G is gravitational constant and it is equal to 6.673 x 10-11 N·m2/kg2.

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 M is mass of the earth and it is equal to 5.98 x 1024 Kg.

R is the distance from satellite to center of the Earth.

So, the orbital velocity mainly depends on the distance from satellite to center
of the Earth (R), since G & M are constants.

Satellite Communication - Kepler’s Laws

We know that satellite revolves around the earth, which is similar to the earth
revolves around the sun. So, the principles which are applied to earth and its
movement around the sun are also applicable to satellite and its movement
around the earth.

Many scientists have given different types of theories from early times. But, only
Johannes Kepler (1571-1630) was one of the most accepted scientist in
describing the principle of a satellite that moves around the earth.

Kepler formulated three laws that changed the whole satellite communication
theory and observations. These are popularly known as Kepler’s laws. These
are helpful to visualize the motion through space.

Kepler’s First Law

Kepler’s first law states that the path followed by a satellite around its primary
(the earth) will be an ellipse. This ellipse has two focal points (foci) F1 and F2
as shown in the figure below. Center of mass of the earth will always present at
one of the two foci of the ellipse.

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 If the distance from the center of the object to a point on its elliptical path is
considered, then the farthest point of an ellipse from the center is called as
apogee and the shortest point of an ellipse from the center is called as perigee.

Eccentricity "e" of this system can be written as −

−−−−−−
√a2 − b2
e=
a
Where, a & b are the lengths of semi major axis and semi minor axis of the
ellipse respectively.

For an elliptical path, the value of eccentricity (e) is always lie in between 0
and 1, i.e. 0 < e < 1 , since a is greater than b. Suppose, if the value of
eccentricity (e) is zero, then the path will be no more in elliptical shape, rather it
will be converted into a circular shape.

Kepler’s Second Law

Kepler’s second law states that for equal intervals of time, the area covered by
the satellite will be same with respect to center of mass of the earth. This can be
understood by taking a look at the following figure.

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 Assume, the satellite covers p1 and p2 distances in the same time interval.
Then, the areas B1 and B2 covered by the satellite at those two instances are
equal.

Kepler’s Third Law

Kepler’s third law states that, the square of the periodic time of an elliptical orbit
is proportional to the cube of its semi major axis length. Mathematically, it can
be written as follows −

T 2 α a3
4π 2
=> T = ( 2
) a3
µ
4π 2
Where, µ is the proportionality constant.

µ is Kepler’s constant and its value is equal to 3.986005 x 1014m3 /sec2

2π 2 a2
1=( ) ( )
T µ

a3
1=n ( ) 2
µ
µ
=> a3 =
n2

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 n
Where, ‘n’ is the mean motion of the satellite in radians per second.

Note − A satellite, when it revolves around the earth, undergoes a pulling force
from the earth, which is gravitational force. Similarly, it experiences another
pulling force from the sun and the moon. Therefore, a satellite has to balance
these two forces to keep itself in its orbit.

Earth Orbit Satellites

Satellite should be properly placed in the corresponding orbit after leaving it in
the space. It revolves in a particular way and serves its purpose for scientific,
military or commercial. The orbits, which are assigned to satellites with respect
to earth are called as Earth Orbits. The satellites present in those orbits are
called as Earth Orbit Satellites.

We should choose an orbit properly for a satellite based on the requirement. For
example, if the satellite is placed in lower orbit, then it takes less time to travel
around the earth and there will be better resolution in an onboard camera.
Similarly, if the satellite is placed in higher orbit, then it takes more time to
travel around the earth and it covers more earth’s surface at one time.

Following are the three important types of Earth Orbit satellites −

Geosynchronous Earth Orbit Satellites

Medium Earth Orbit Satellites
Low Earth Orbit Satellites

Now, let us discuss about each type of earth orbit satellites one by one.

Geosynchronous Earth OrbitSatellites

A Geo-synchronous Earth Orbit (GEO) Satellite is one, which is placed at an
altitude of 22,300 miles above the Earth. This orbit is synchronized with a side
real day (i.e., 23 hours 56 minutes). This orbit can have inclination and
eccentricity.

It may not be circular. This orbit can be tilted at the poles of the earth. But, it
appears stationary when observed from the Earth. These satellites are used for

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 satellite Television.

The same geo-synchronous orbit, if it is circular and in the plane of equator, then
it is called as Geostationary orbit. These Satellites are placed at 35,900kms
(same as Geosynchronous) above the Earth’s Equator and they keep on rotating
with respect to earth’s direction (west to east).

The satellites present in these orbits have the angular velocity same as that of
earth. Hence, these satellites are considered as stationary with respect to earth
since, these are in synchronous with the Earth’s rotation.

The advantage of Geostationary orbit is that no need to track the antennas in

order to find the position of satellites.

Geostationary Earth Orbit Satellites are used for weather forecasting, satellite
TV, satellite radio and other types of global communications.

The following figure shows the difference between Geo-synchronous and Geo-
stationary orbits. The axis of rotation indicates the movement of Earth.

Note − Every Geostationary orbit is a Geo-synchronous orbit. But, the converse

need not be true.

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 Medium Earth Orbit Satellites
Medium Earth Orbit (MEO) satellites will orbit at distances of about 8000 miles
from earth's surface. Signals transmitted from a MEO satellite travel a shorter
distance. Due to this, the signal strength at the receiving end gets improved.
This shows that smaller and light weight receiving terminals can be used at the
receiving end.

Transmission delay can be defined as the time it takes for a signal to travel up
to a satellite and back down to a receiving station. In this case, there is less
transmission delay. Because, the signal travels for a shorter distance to and from
the MEO satellite.

For real-time communications, the shorter the transmission delay, the better
will be the communication system. As an example, if a GEO satellite requires
0.25 seconds for a round trip, then MEO satellite requires less than 0.1 seconds
to complete the same trip. MEOs operate in the frequency range of 2 GHz and
above.

These satellites are used for High speed telephone signals. Ten or more MEO
satellites are required in order to cover entire earth.

Low Earth Orbit Satellites

Low Earth Orbit LEO) satellites are mainly classified into three categories. Those
are little LEOs, big LEOs, and Mega-LEOs. LEOs will orbit at a distance of 500 to
1000 miles above the earth's surface. These satellites are used for satellite
phones and GPS.

This relatively short distance reduces transmission delay to only 0.05 seconds.
This further reduces the need for sensitive and bulky receiving equipment.
Twenty or more LEO satellites are required to cover entire earth.

Little LEOs will operate in the 800 MHz (0.8 GHz) range. Big LEOs will operate in
the 2 GHz or above range, and Mega-LEOs operates in the 20-30 GHz range.

The higher frequencies associated with Mega-LEOs translates into more

information carrying capacity and yields to the capability of real-time, low delay
video transmission scheme.

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 The following figure depicts the paths of LEO, MEO and GEO

Orbital Slots
Here, a question may arise that with more than 200 satellites that are in
geosynchronous orbit, how do we keep them from running into each other or
from attempting to use the same location in space?

To answer this problem (question), international regulatory bodies like the

International Telecommunications Union (ITU) and national government
organizations like the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) designate the
locations on the geosynchronous orbit, where the communications satellites can
be located.

These locations are specified in degrees of longitude and are called as orbital
slots. The FCC and ITU have progressively reduced the required spacing down
to only 2 degrees for C-band and Ku-band satellites due to the huge demand for
orbital slots.

Look Angles & Orbital Perturbations

Earth station will receive the maximum signal level, if it is located directly under

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 the satellite. Otherwise, it won’t receive maximum signal level and that signal
level decreases as the difference between the latitude and longitude of earth
station increases.

So, based on the requirement we can place the satellite in a particular orbit.
Now, let us discuss about the look angles.

Look Angles
The following two angles of earth station antenna combined together are called
as look angles.

Azimuth Angle
Elevation Angle

Generally, the values of these angles change for non-geostationary orbits.

Whereas, the values of these angles don’t change for geostationary orbits.
Because, the satellites present in geostationary orbits appear stationary with
respect to earth.

These two angles are helpful in order to point at the satellite directly from the
earth station antenna. So, the maximum gain of the earth station antenna can
be directed at satellite.

We can calculate the look angles of geostationary orbit by using longitude &
latitude of earth station and position of satellite orbit.

Azimuth Angle

The angle between local horizontal plane and the plane passing through earth
station, satellite and center of earth is called as azimuth angle.

The formula for Azimuth angle (α ) is

α = 1800 + T an−1 ( )
T anG
T anL

Where,

L is Latitude of earth station antenna.

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 L is Latitude of earth station antenna.
G is the difference between position of satellite orbit and earth station
antenna.

The following figure illustrates the azimuth angle.

Measure the horizontal angle at earth station antenna to north pole as shown
in figure. It represents azimuth angle. It is used to track the satellite
horizontally.

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 Elevation Angle

The angle between vertical plane and line pointing to satellite is known as
Elevation angle. Vertical plane is nothing but the plane, which is perpendicular to
horizontal plane.

The formula for Elevation angle (β ) is

cosG. cosL − 0.15

β = T an−1 ( −−−−−−−−−−−−− )
√1 − cos2 G. cos2 L
We can calculate the elevation angle by using above formula. The following
figure illustrates the elevation angle.

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 Measure the vertical angle at earth station antenna from ground to satellite as
shown in the figure. It represents elevation angle.

Orbital Perturbations
Following are the orbital perturbations due to gravitational and non-gravitational
forces or parameters.

Irregular gravitational force around the Earth due to non-uniform mass

distribution. Earth’s magnetic field too causes orbital perturbations.
Main external perturbations come from Sun and Moon. When a satellite is
near to these external bodies, it receives a stronger gravitational pull.
Low-orbit satellites get affected due to friction caused by collision with
atoms and ions.
Solar radiation pressure affects large GEO satellites, which use large
solar arrays.

Self-generated torques and pressures caused by RF radiation from the

antenna.

Most satellites use a propulsion subsystem in order to maintain a proper spin

axis direction and control the altitude of the satellite against perturbation forces.

Satellite Communication - Launching

Satellites stay in space for most of their life time. We know that the environment
of weightlessness is present in the space. That’s why satellites don’t require
additional strong frames in space. But, those are required during launching
process. Because in that process satellite shakes violently, till the satellite has
been placed in a proper orbit.

The design of satellites should be compatible with one or more launch vehicles
in order to place the satellite in an orbit.

We know that the period of revolution will be more for higher apogee altitude
according to Kepler’s second law. The period of geostationary transfer orbit is
nearly equal to 16 hours. If perigee is increased to GEO altitude (around 36,000
km), then the period of revolution will increase to 24 hours.

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 Launching of Satellites
The process of placing the satellite in a proper orbit is known as launching
process. During this process, from earth stations we can control the operation
of satellite. Mainly, there are four stages in launching a satellite.

First Stage − The first stage of launch vehicle contains rockets and fuel
for lifting the satellite along with launch vehicle from ground.
Second Stage − The second stage of launch vehicle contains smaller
rockets. These are ignited after completion of first stage. They have their
own fuel tanks in order to send the satellite into space.
Third Stage − The third (upper) stage of the launch vehicle is connected
to the satellite fairing. This fairing is a metal shield, which contains the
satellite and it protects the satellite.
Fourth Stage − Satellite gets separated from the upper stage of launch
vehicle, when it has been reached to out of Earth's atmosphere. Then,
the satellite will go to a “transfer orbit”. This orbit sends the satellite
higher into space.

When the satellite reached to the desired height of the orbit, its subsystems like
solar panels and communication antennas gets unfurled. Then the satellite takes
its position in the orbit with other satellites. Now, the satellite is ready to provide
services to the public.

Satellite Launch Vehicles

Satellite launch vehicles launch the satellites into a particular orbit based on the
requirement. Satellite launch vehicles are nothing but multi stage rockets.
Following are the two types of satellite launch vehicles.

Expendable Launch Vehicles (ELV)

Reusable Launch Vehicles (RLV)

Expendable Launch Vehicles

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 Expendable launch vehicles (ELV) get destroyed after leaving the satellites in
space. The following image shows how an ELV looks.

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 The ELV contains three stages. First and second stages of ELV raise the satellite
to an about 50 miles and 100 miles. Third stage of ELV places the satellite in
transfer orbit. The task of ELV will be completed and its spare parts will be fallen
to earth, when the satellite reached to transfer orbit.

Reusable Launch Vehicles

Reusable launch vehicles (RLV) can be used multiple times for launching
satellites. Generally, this type of launch vehicles will return back to earth after
leaving the satellite in space.

The following image shows a reusable launch vehicle. It is also known as space
shuttle.

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 The functions of space shuttle are similar to the functions of first and second
stages of ELV. Satellite along with the third stage of space shuttle are mounted
in the cargo bay. It is ejected from the cargo bay when the space shuttle reaches
to an elevation of 150 to 200 miles.

Then, the third stage of space shuttle gets fired and places the satellite into a
transfer orbit. After this, the space shuttle will return back to earth for reuse.

Satellite Communication - Subsystems

In satellite communication system, various operations take place. Among which,

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 the main operations are orbit controlling, altitude of satellite, monitoring and
controlling of other subsystems.

A satellite communication consists of mainly two segments. Those are space

segment and earth segment. So, accordingly there will be two types of
subsystems namely, space segment subsystems and earth segment subsystems.
The following figure illustrates this concept.

As shown in the figure, the communication takes place between space

segment subsystems and earth segment subsystems through communication
links.

Space Segment Subsystems

The subsystems present in space segment are called as space segment

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 subsystems. Following are the space segment subsystems.

AOC Subsystem
TTCM Subsystem
Power and Antenna Subsystems
Transponders

Earth Segment Subsystems

The subsystems present in the ground segment have the ability to access the
satellite repeater in order to provide the communication between the users.
Earth segment is also called as ground segment.

Earth segment performs mainly two functions. Those are transmission of a signal
to the satellite and reception of signal from the satellite. Earth stations are the
major subsystems that are present in earth segment.

We will discuss about all these subsystems of space segment and earth segment
in following chapters.

Satellite Communication - AOC Subsystem

We know that satellite may deviates from its orbit due to the gravitational forces
from sun, moon and other planets. These forces change cyclically over a 24-hour
period, since the satellite moves around the earth.

Altitude and Orbit Control (AOC) subsystem consists of rocket motors, which are
capable of placing the satellite into the right orbit, whenever it is deviated from
the respective orbit. AOC subsystem is helpful in order to make the antennas,
which are of narrow beam type points towards earth.

We can make this AOC subsystem into the following two parts.

Altitude Control Subsystem

Orbit Control Subsystem

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 Now, let us discuss about these two subsystems one by one.

Altitude Control Subsystem

Altitude control subsystem takes care of the orientation of satellite in its
respective orbit. Following are the two methods to make the satellite that is
present in an orbit as stable.

Spinning the satellite

Three axes method

Spinning the satellite

In this method, the body of the satellite rotates around its spin axis. In general,
it can be rotated at 30 to 100 rpm in order to produce a force, which is of
gyroscopic type. Due to this, the spin axis gets stabilized and the satellite will
point in the same direction. Satellites are of this type are called as spinners.

Spinner contains a drum, which is of cylindrical shape. This drum is covered with
solar cells. Power systems and rockets are present in this drum.

Communication subsystem is placed on top of the drum. An electric motor drives

this communication system. The direction of this motor will be opposite to the
rotation of satellite body, so that the antennas point towards earth. The
satellites, which perform this kind of operation are called as de-spin.

During launching phase, the satellite spins when the small radial gas jets are
operated. After this, the de-spin system operates in order to make the TTCM
subsystem antennas point towards earth station.

Three Axis Method

In this method, we can stabilize the satellite by using one or more momentum
wheels. This method is called as three-axis method. The advantage of this
method is that the orientation of the satellite in three axes will be controlled and
no need of rotating satellite’s main body.

In this method, the following three axes are considered.

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 Roll axis is considered in the direction in which the satellite moves in
orbital plane.
Yaw axis is considered in the direction towards earth.
Pitch axis is considered in the direction, which is perpendicular to orbital
plane.

These three axes are shown in below figure.

Let XR, YR and ZR are the roll axis, yaw axis and pitch axis respectively. These
three axis are defined by considering the satellite’s position as reference. These
three axes define the altitude of satellite.

Let X, Y and Z are another set of Cartesian axes. This set of three axis provides
the information about orientation of the satellite with respect to reference axes.
If there is a change in altitude of the satellite, then the angles between the
respective axes will be changed.

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 In this method, each axis contains two gas jets. They will provide the rotation in
both directions of the three axes.

The first gas jet will be operated for some period of time, when there is
a requirement of satellite’s motion in a particular axis direction.
The second gas jet will be operated for same period of time, when the
satellite reaches to the desired position. So, the second gas jet will stop
the motion of satellite in that axis direction.

Orbit Control Subsystem

Orbit control subsystem is useful in order to bring the satellite into its correct
orbit, whenever the satellite gets deviated from its orbit.

The TTCM subsystem present at earth station monitors the position of satellite. If
there is any change in satellite orbit, then it sends a signal regarding the
correction to Orbit control subsystem. Then, it will resolve that issue by bringing
the satellite into the correct orbit.

In this way, the AOC subsystem takes care of the satellite position in the right
orbit and at right altitude during entire life span of the satellite in space.

Satellite Communication - TTCM Subsystem

Telemetry, Tracking, Commanding and Monitoring (TTCM) subsystem is present
in both satellite and earth station. In general, satellite gets data through
sensors. So, Telemetry subsystem present in the satellite sends this data to
earth station(s). Therefore, TTCM subsystem is very much necessary for any
communication satellite in order to operate it successfully.

It is the responsibility of satellite operator in order to control the satellite in its

life time, after placing it in the proper orbit. This can be done with the help of
TTCM subsystem.

We can make this TTCM subsystem into the following three parts.

Telemetry and Monitoring Subsystem

Tracking Subsystem

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 Commanding Subsystem

Telemetry and Monitoring Subsystem

The word ‘Telemetry’ means measurement at a distance. Mainly, the following
operations take place in ‘Telemetry’.

Generation of an electrical signal, which is proportional to the quantity to

be measured.
Encoding the electrical signal.
Transmitting this code to a far distance.

Telemetry subsystem present in the satellite performs mainly two functions −

receiving data from sensors, and

transmitting that data to an earth station.

Satellites have quite a few sensors to monitor different parameters such as

pressure, temperature, status and etc., of various subsystems. In general, the
telemetry data is transmitted as FSK or PSK.

Telemetry subsystem is a remote controlled system. It sends monitoring data

from satellite to earth station. Generally, the telemetry signals carry the
information related altitude, environment and satellite.

Tracking Subsystem
Tracking subsystem is useful to know the position of the satellite and its current
orbit. Satellite Control Center (SCC) monitors the working and status of space
segment subsystems with the help of telemetry downlink. And, it controls those
subsystems using command uplink.

We know that the tracking subsystem is also present in an earth station. It

mainly focusses on range and look angles of satellite. Number of techniques that
are using in order to track the satellite. For example, change in the orbital

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 position of satellite can be identified by using the data obtained from velocity
and acceleration sensors that are present on satellite.

The tracking subsystem that is present in an earth station keeps tracking of

satellite, when it is released from last stage of Launch vehicle. It performs the
functions like, locating of satellite in initial orbit and transfer orbit.

Commanding Subsystem
Commanding subsystem is necessary in order to launch the satellite in an orbit
and its working in that orbit. This subsystem adjusts the altitude and orbit of
satellite, whenever there is a deviation in those values. It also controls the
communication subsystem. This commanding subsystem is responsible for
turning ON / OFF of other subsystems present in the satellite based on the data
getting from telemetry and tracking subsystems.

In general, control codes are converted into command words. These command
words are used to send in the form of TDM frames. Initially, the validity of
command words is checked in the satellite. After this, these command words can
be sent back to earth station. Here, these command words are checked once
again.

If the earth station also receives the same (correct) command word, then it
sends an execute instruction to satellite. So, it executes that command.

Functionality wise, the Telemetry subsystem and commanding subsystem are

opposite to each other. Since, the first one transmits the satellite’s information to
earth station and second one receives command signals from earth station.

Power & Antenna Subsystems

In this chapter, let us discuss about Power systems from which various
subsystems of satellite gets power and Antenna subsystems one by one.

Power Systems
We know that the satellite present in an orbit should be operated continuously
during its life span. So, the satellite requires internal power in order to operate
various electronic systems and communications payload that are present in it.

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 Power system is a vital subsystem, which provides the power required for
working of a satellite. Mainly, the solar cells (or panels) and rechargeable
batteries are used in these systems.

Solar Cells

Basically, the solar cells produce electrical power (current) from incident
sunlight. Therefore, solar cells are used primarily in order to provide power to
other subsystems of satellite.

We know that individual solar cells generate very less power. So, in order to
generate more power, group of cells that are present in an array form can be
used.

Solar Arrays
There are two types of solar arrays that are used in satellites. Those are
cylindrical solar arrays and rectangular solar arrays or solar sail.

Cylindrical solar arrays are used in spinning satellites. Only part of the
cylindrical array will be covered under sunshine at any given time. Due to
this, electric power gets generated from the partial solar array. This is the
drawback of this type.
The drawback of cylindrical solar arrays is overcome with Solar sail. This
one produce more power because all solar cells of solar sail are exposed
to sun light.

Rechargeable Batteries
During eclipses time, it is difficult to get the power from sun light. So, in that
situation the other subsystems get the power from rechargeable batteries.
These batteries produce power to other subsystems during launching of satellite
also.

In general, these batteries charge due to excess current, which is generated by

solar cells in the presence of sun light.

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 Antenna Subsystems
Antennas are present in both satellite and earth station. Now, let us discuss
about the satellite antennas.

Satellite antennas perform two types of functions. Those are receiving of

signals, which are coming from earth station and transmitting signals to one or
more earth stations based on the requirement. In other words, the satellite
antennas receive uplink signals and transmit downlink signals.

We know that the length of satellite antennas is inversely proportional to the

operating frequency. The operating frequency has to be increased in order to
reduce the length of satellite antennas. Therefore, satellite antennas operate in
the order of GHz frequencies.

Satellite Antennas
The antennas, which are used in satellite are known as satellite antennas. There
are mainly four types of Antennas. They are:

Wire Antennas

Horn Antennas
Array Antennas
Reflector Antennas

Now, let us discuss about these antennas one by one.

Wire Antennas

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 Wire antennas are the basic antennas. Mono pole and dipole antennas come
under this category. These are used in very high frequencies in order to provide
the communication for TTCM subsystem.

The length of the total wire, which is being used as a dipole, if equals half of the
wave length (i.e., l = λ/2), such an antenna is called as half-wave dipole
antenna.

Wire antennas are suitable for covering its range of access and to provide
signal strength in all directions. That means, wire antennas are Omni-directional
antennas.

Horn Antennas

An Antenna with an aperture at the end can be termed as an Aperture

antenna. The edge of a transmission line when terminated with an opening,
radiates energy. This opening which is an aperture, makes it as an aperture
antenna.

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 Horn antenna is an example of aperture antenna. It is used in satellites in
order to cover more area on earth.

Horn antennas are used in microwave frequency range. The same feed horn
can be used for both transmitting and receiving the signals. A device named
duplexer, which separates these two signals.

Array Antennas
An antenna when individually can radiate an amount of energy, in a particular
direction, resulting in better transmission, how it would be if few more elements
are added it, to produce more efficient output. It is exactly this idea, which lead
to the invention of Array Antennas or Antenna arrays. Array antennas are used
in satellites to form multiple beams from single aperture.

Reflector Antennas

Reflector antennas are suitable for producing beams, which have more signal
strength in one particular direction. That means, these are highly directional
antennas. So, Parabolic reflectors increase the gain of antennas in satellite

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 communication system. Hence, these are used in telecommunications and
broadcasting.

If a Parabolic Reflector antenna is used for transmitting a signal, the signal

from the feed, comes out of a dipole or a horn antenna, to focus the wave on to
the parabola. It means that, the waves come out of the focal point and strikes
the Paraboloidal reflector. This wave now gets reflected as collimated wave front.

If the same antenna is used as a receiver, the electromagnetic wave when hits
the shape of the parabola, the wave gets reflected onto the feed point. The
dipole or the horn antenna, which acts as the receiver antenna at its feed,
receives this signal, to convert it into electric signal and forwards it to the
receiver circuitry.

Satellite Communication - Transponders

The subsystem, which provides the connecting link between transmitting and
receiving antennas of a satellite is known as Transponder. It is one of the most
important subsystem of space segment subsystems.

Transponder performs the functions of both transmitter and receiver (Responder)

in a satellite. Hence, the word ‘Transponder’ is obtained by the combining few
letters of two words, Transmitter (Trans) and Responder (ponder).

Block diagram of Transponder

Transponder performs mainly two functions. Those are amplifying the received
input signal and translates the frequency of it. In general, different frequency
values are chosen for both uplink and down link in order to avoid the
interference between the transmitted and received signals.

The block diagram of transponder is shown in below figure.

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 We can easily understand the operation of Transponder from the block diagram
itself. The function of each block is mentioned below.

Duplexer is a two-way microwave gate. It receives uplink signal from

the satellite antenna and transmits downlink signal to the satellite
antenna.
Low Noise Amplifier (LNA) amplifies the weak received signal.

Carrier Processor performs the frequency down conversion of received

signal (uplink). This block determines the type of transponder.
Power Amplifier amplifies the power of frequency down converted
signal (down link) to the required level.

Types of Transponders
Basically, there are two types of transponders. Those are Bent pipe
transponders and Regenerative transponders.

Bent Pipe Transponders

Bent pipe transponder receives microwave frequency signal. It converts the

frequency of input signal to RF frequency and then amplifies it.

Bent pipe transponder is also called as repeater and conventional

transponder. It is suitable for both analog and digital signals.

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 Regenerative Transponders

Regenerative transponder performs the functions of Bent pipe transponder. i.e.,

frequency translation and amplification. In addition to these two functions,
Regenerative transponder also performs the demodulation of RF carrier to
baseband, regeneration of signals and modulation.

Regenerative transponder is also called as Processing transponder. It is suitable

only for digital signals. The main advantages of Regenerative transponders are
improvement in Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR) and have more flexibility in
implementation.

Earth Segment Subsystems

The earth segment of satellite communication system mainly consists of two
earth stations. Those are transmitting earth station and receiving earth station.

The transmitting earth station transmits the information signals to satellite.

Whereas, the receiving earth station receives the information signals from
satellite. Sometimes, the same earth station can be used for both transmitting
and receiving purposes.

In general, earth stations receive the baseband signals in one of the following
forms. Voice signals and video signals either in analog form or digital form.

Initially, the analog modulation technique, named FM modulation is used for

transmitting both voice and video signals, which are in analog form. Later, digital
modulation techniques, namely Frequency Shift Keying (FSK) and Phase Shift
Keying (PSK) are used for transmitting those signals. Because, both voice and
video signals are used to represent in digital by converting them from analog.

Block Diagram of Earth Station

Designing of an Earth station depends not only on the location of earth station
but also on some other factors. The location of earth stations could be on land,
on ships in sea and on aircraft. The depending factors are type of service
providing, frequency bands utilization, transmitter, receiver and antenna
characteristics.

The block diagram of digital earth station is shown in below figure.

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 We can easily understand the working of earth station from above figure. There
are four major subsystems that are present in any earth station. Those are
transmitter, receiver, antenna and tracking subsystem.

Transmitter

The binary (digital) information enters at base band equipment of earth station
from terrestrial network. Encoder includes error correction bits in order to
minimize the bit error rate.

In satellite communication, the Intermediate Frequency (IF) can be chosen as

70 MHz by using a transponder having bandwidth of 36 MHz. Similarly, the IF
can also be chosen as 140 MHz by using a transponder having bandwidth of
either 54 MHz or 72 MHz.

Up converter performs the frequency conversion of modulated signal to higher

frequency. This signal will be amplified by using High power amplifier. The earth
station antenna transmits this signal.

Receiver

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 During reception, the earth station antenna receives downlink signal. This is a
low-level modulated RF signal. In general, the received signal will be having less
signal strength. So, in order to amplify this signal, Low Noise Amplifier (LNA) is
used. Due to this, there is an improvement in Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR) value.

RF signal can be down converted to the Intermediate Frequency (IF) value,

which is either 70 or 140 MHz. Because, it is easy to demodulate at these
intermediate frequencies.

The function of the decoder is just opposite to that of encoder. So, the decoder
produces an error free binary information by removing error correction bits and
correcting the bit positions if any.

This binary information is given to base band equipment for further processing
and then delivers to terrestrial network.

Earth Station Antenna

The major parts of Earth station Antenna are feed system and Antenna
reflector. These two parts combined together radiates or receives
electromagnetic waves. Since the feed system obeys reciprocity theorem, the
earth station antennas are suitable for both transmitting and receiving
electromagnetic waves.

Parabolic reflectors are used as the main antenna in earth stations. The gain
of these reflectors is high. They have the ability of focusing a parallel beam into
a point at the focus, where the feed system is located.

Tracking Subsystem

The Tracking subsystem keeps track with the satellite and make sure that the
beam comes towards it in order to establish the communication. The Tracking
system present in the earth station performs mainly two functions. Those are
satellite acquisition and tracking of satellite. This tracking can be done in one of
the following ways. Those are automatic tracking, manual tracking & program
tracking.

Examples of Earth Stations

In this chapter, let us discuss about two examples of earth stations: Receive-

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 only Home TV system and Community Antenna TV system.

Receive Only Home TV System

If broadcasting takes place directly to home TV receivers, then that type of
service is called as Direct Broadcast Satellite (DBS) service.

A mesh type reflector can be used for focusing the signals into a dual feed-
horn. It is having two separate outputs. From one output will get C-band signals
and from other output will get Ku-band signals.

Television programming mostly originates as first generation signals. These

signals are transmitted through satellite to network main end stations in C band.
These signals are compressed and transmitted in digital form to cable and DBS
providers.

C-band users can subscribe to pay TV channels. These subscription services are
cheaper when compared to cable because of the availability of multiple-source
programming.

The block diagram of DBS TV receiver is shown in below figure.

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 Outdoor Unit

Outdoor unit mainly consists of receiving antenna and Low Noise Converter
(LNC). Low Noise Converter (LNC) is nothing but the combination of Low Noise
Amplifier (LNA) followed by a converter. The receiving antenna is directly fed into
LNC.

In general, the parabolic reflector is also used with the receiving horn antenna
for more focusing of the beam.

Indoor Unit

In general, the signal fed to the indoor unit is a wideband signal. The frequency
of this signal lies between 950 MHz and 1450 MHz. In indoor unit, this signal
gets amplified by using an amplifier.

The amplified signal is applied to a tracking filter and down converter. It selects
the desired channel and converts its frequency to an Intermediate Frequency
(IF) of 70 MHz.

IF amplifier amplifies the signal strength in order to demodulate it properly.

The baseband (demodulated) signal is used to generate a Vestigial Single Side
Band (VSSB) signal. This signal is fed into one of VHF/UHF channels of a
standard TV set.

Frequency Modulation (FM) is used in DBS TV. Whereas, Amplitude Modulation

(AM) in the form of VSSB is used in conventional TV. This is the major
difference between DBS TV and conventional TV.

Community Antenna TV System

The Community Antenna TV (CATV) system uses a single outdoor unit and
multiple feeds. These feeds are available separately for each sense of
polarization. Due to this, all channels will be available at the indoor receiver,
simultaneously.

The block diagram of indoor unit of CATV system is shown in below figure.

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 In this case, there is no need of separate receiver to each user. Because, all the
carriers are demodulated in a common receiver-filter system. After that, the
channels are combined into a multiplexed signal. This signal is then transmitted
through a cable to the subscribers (users).

Satellite Communication - Link Budget

In satellite communication systems, there are two types of power calculations.
Those are transmitting power and receiving power calculations. In general, these
calculations are called as Link budget calculations. The unit of power is
decibel.

First, let us discuss the basic terminology used in Link Budget and then we will
move onto explain Link Budget calculations.

Basic Terminology
An isotropic radiator (antenna) radiates equally in all directions. But, it doesn’t
exist practically. It is just a theoretical antenna. We can compare the

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 performance of all real (practical) antennas with respect to this antenna.

Power flux density

Assume an isotropic radiator is situated at the center of the sphere having

radius, r. We know that power flux density is the ratio of power flow and unit
area.

Power flux density,Ψi of an isotropic radiator is

ps
Ψi =
4πr2
Where, Ps is the power flow. In general, the power flux density of a practical
antenna varies with direction. But, it’s maximum value will be in one particular
direction only.

Antenna Gain

The gain of practical antenna is defined as the ratio of maximum power flux
density of practical antenna and power flux density of isotropic antenna.

Therefore, the Gain of Antenna or Antenna gain, G is

Ψm
G=
Ψi
Where, Ψm is the maximum power flux density of practical antenna. And, Ψi is
the power flux density of isotropic radiator (antenna).

Equivalent Isotropic Radiated Power

Equivalent isotropic radiated power (EIRP) is the main parameter that is used in
measurement of link budget. Mathematically, it can be written as

EIRP = G Ps

We can represent EIRP in decibels as

[EIRP ] = [G] + [Ps ] dBW

Where, G is the Gain of Transmitting antenna and Ps is the power of transmitter.

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 Transmission Losses

The difference between the power sent at one end and received at the receiving
station is known as Transmission losses. The losses can be categorized into 2
types.

Constant losses
Variable losses

The losses which are constant such as feeder losses are known as constant
losses. No matter what precautions we might have taken, still these losses are
bound to occur.

Another type of loses are variable loss. The sky and weather condition is an
example of this type of loss. Means if the sky is not clear signal will not reach
effectively to the satellite or vice versa.

Therefore, our procedure includes the calculation of losses due to clear weather
or clear sky condition as 1st because these losses are constant. They will not
change with time. Then in 2nd step, we can calculate the losses due to foul
weather condition.

Link budget calculations

There are two types of link budget calculations since there are two links namely,
uplink and downlink.

Earth Station Uplink

It is the process in which earth is transmitting the signal to the satellite and
satellite is receiving it. Its mathematical equation can be written as

( ) = [EIRP ]U + ( ) − [LOSSES ]U
C G
N0 U T U
−K
Where,

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 [ NC0 ] is the carrier to noise density ratio

[G
T
] is the satellite receiver G/T ratio and units are dB/K

Here, Losses represent the satellite receiver feeder losses. The losses which
depend upon the frequency are all taken into the consideration.

The EIRP value should be as low as possible for effective UPLINK. And this is
possible when we get a clear sky condition.

Here we have used the (subscript) notation “U”, which represents the uplink
phenomena.

Satellite Downlink
In this process, satellite sends the signal and the earth station receives it. The
equation is same as the satellite uplink with a difference that we use the
abbreviation “D” everywhere instead of “U” to denote the downlink phenomena.

Its mathematical equation can be written as;

[ ] = [EIRP ] D + [ ] − [LOSSES]D
C G
N0 D T D
−K
Where,

[ NC0 ] is the carrier to noise density ratio

[G
T
] is the earth station receiver G/T ratio and units are dB/K

Here, all the losses that are present around earth stations.

In the above equation we have not included the signal bandwidth B. However, if
we include that the equation will be modified as follows.

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 [ ] = [EIRP ] D + [ ] − [LOSSES]D
C G
N0 D T D
−K−B

Link Budget

If we are taking ground satellite in to consideration, then the free space

spreading loss (FSP) should also be taken into consideration.

If antenna is not aligned properly then losses can occur. so we take AML
(Antenna misalignment losses) into account. Similarly, when signal comes from
the satellite towards earth it collides with earth surface and some of them get
absorbed. These are taken care by atmospheric absorption loss given by “AA”
and measured in db.

Now, we can write the loss equation for free sky as

Losses = F SL + RF L + AM L + AA + P L

Where,

RFL stands for received feeder loss and units are db.

PL stands for polarization mismatch loss.

Now the decibel equation for received power can be written as

PR = EIRP + GR + Losses

Where,

PR stands for the received power, which is measured in dBW.

Gr is the receiver antenna gain.

The designing of down link is more critical than the designing of uplink. Because
of limitations in power required for transmitting and gain of the antenna.

Multiple Access Techniques

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 Sometimes a satellite’s service is present at a particular location on the earth
station and sometimes it is not present. That means, a satellite may have
different service stations of its own located at different places on the earth. They
send carrier signal for the satellite.

In this situation, we do multiple access to enable satellite to take or give signals

from different stations at time without any interference between them. Following
are the three types of multiple access techniques.

FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple Access)

TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access)
CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access)

Now, let us discuss each technique one by one.

FDMA
In this type of multiple access, we assign each signal a different type of
frequency band (range). So, any two signals should not have same type of
frequency range. Hence, there won’t be any interference between them, even if
we send those signals in one channel.

One perfect example of this type of access is our radio channels. We can see
that each station has been given a different frequency band in order to operate.

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 Let’s take three stations A, B and C. We want to access them through FDMA
technique. So we assigned them different frequency bands.

As shown in the figure, satellite station A has been kept under the frequency
range of 0 to 20 HZ. Similarly, stations B and C have been assigned the
frequency range of 30-60 Hz and 70-90 Hz respectively. There is no interference
between them.

The main disadvantage of this type of system is that it is very burst. This type
of multiple access is not recommended for the channels, which are of dynamic
and uneven. Because, it will make their data as inflexible and inefficient.

TDMA
As the name suggests, TDMA is a time based access. Here, we give certain time
frame to each channel. Within that time frame, the channel can access the entire
spectrum bandwidth

Each station got a fixed length or slot. The slots, which are unused will remain in
idle stage.

Suppose, we want to send five packets of data to a particular channel in TDMA

technique. So, we should assign them certain time slots or time frame within
which it can access the entire bandwidth.

In above figure, packets 1, 3 and 4 are active, which transmits data. Whereas,
packets 2 and 5 are idle because of their non-participation. This format gets
repeated every time we assign bandwidth to that particular channel.

Although, we have assigned certain time slots to a particular channel but it can

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 also be changed depending upon the load bearing capacity. That means, if a
channel is transmitting heavier loads, then it can be assigned a bigger time slot
than the channel which is transmitting lighter loads. This is the biggest
advantage of TDMA over FDMA. Another advantage of TDMA is that the power
consumption will be very low.

Note − In some applications, we use the combination of both TDMA and

FDMA techniques. In this case, each channel will be operated in a particular
frequency band for a particular time frame. In this case, the frequency selection
is more robust and it has greater capacity over time compression.

CDMA
In CDMA technique, a unique code has been assigned to each channel to
distinguish from each other. A perfect example of this type of multiple access is
our cellular system. We can see that no two persons’ mobile number match with
each other although they are same X or Y mobile service providing company’s
customers using the same bandwidth.

In CDMA process, we do the decoding of inner product of the encoded signal and
chipping sequence. Therefore, mathematically it can be written as

Encoded signal = Orginal data × chipping

sequence
The basic advantage of this type of multiple access is that it allows all users to
coexist and use the entire bandwidth at the same time. Since each user has
different code, there won’t be any interference.

In this technique, a number of stations can have number of channels unlike

FDMA and TDMA. The best part of this technique is that each station can use the
entire spectrum at all time.

Satellite Communication - Services

The services of satellite communication can be classified into the following two
categories.

One-way satellite communication link service

Two-way satellite communication link service

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 Two-way satellite communication link service

Now, let us discuss about each service one by one

One-way Satellite Communication Link Service

In one-way satellite communication link service, the information can be
transferred from one earth station to one or more earth stations through a
satellite. That means, it provides both point to point connectivity and point to
multi point connectivity.

Below figure shows an example of one-way satellite communication link service.

Here, the communication takes place between first earth station (transmitter)
and second earth station (receiver) on earth’s surface through a satellite in one
direction.

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 Following are some of the one-way satellite communication link services.

Broadcasting satellite services like Radio, TV and Internet services.

Space operations services like Telemetry, Tracking and Commanding
services.
Radio determination satellite service like Position location service.

Two-way Satellite Communication Link Service

In two-way satellite communication link, the information can be exchanged
between any two earth stations through a satellite. That means, it provides only
point to point connectivity.

The following figure shows an example of two-way satellite communication link

service.

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 Here, the communication takes place between first earth station (transmitter)
and second earth station (receiver) on earth’s surface through a satellite in two
(both) directions.

Following are some of the two-way satellite communication link services.

Fixed satellite services like Telephone, Fax and Data of high bit rate
services.

Mobile satellite services like Land mobile, Maritime and Aero mobile
communication services.

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 Global Positioning System
Global Positioning System (GPS) is a navigation system based on satellite. It
has created the revolution in navigation and position location. It is mainly used
in positioning, navigation, monitoring and surveying applications.

The major advantages of satellite navigation are real time positioning and
timing synchronization. That’s why satellite navigation systems have become an
integral part in most of the applications, where mobility is the key parameter.

A complete operational GPS space segment contains twenty-four satellites in

MEO. These satellites are made into six groups so that each group contains four
satellites. The group of four satellites is called as one constellation. Any two
adjacent constellations are separated by 60 degrees in longitude.

The orbital period of each satellite is approximately equal to twelve hours.

Hence, all satellites revolve around the earth two times on every day. At any
time, the GPS receivers will get the signals from at least four satellites.

GPS Codes and Services

Each GPS satellite transmits two signals, L1 and L2 are of different frequencies.
Trilateration is a simple method for finding the position (Latitude, Longitude,
Elevation) of GPS receiver. By using this method, the position of an unknown
point can be measured from three known points

GPS Codes

Following are the two types of GPS codes.

Coarse Acquisition code or C/A code

Precise code or P code

The signal, L1 is modulated with 1.023 Mbps pseudo random bit sequence. This
code is called as Coarse Acquisition code or C/A code and it is used by the
public.

The signal, L2 is modulated with 10.23 Mbps pseudo random bit sequence. This

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 code is called as Precise code or P code and it is used in military positioning
systems. Generally, this P code is transmitted in an encrypted format and it is
called as Y code

The P code gives better measurement accuracy when compared to C/A code,
since the bit rate of P code is greater than the bit rate of C/A code.

GPS Services
Following are the two types of services provided by GPS.

Precise Positioning Service (PPS)

Standard Positioning Service (SPS)

PPS receivers keep tracking of both C/A code and P code on two signals, L1
and L2. The Y code is decrypted at the receiver in order to obtain P code.

SPS receivers keep tracking of only C/A code on signal, L1.

GPS Receiver
There exists only one-way transmission from satellite to users in GPS system.
Hence, the individual user does not need the transmitter, but only a GPS
receiver. It is mainly used to find the accurate location of an object. It performs
this task by using the signals received from satellites.

The block diagram of GPS receiver is shown in below figure.

The function of each block present in GPS receiver is mentioned below.

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 Receiving Antenna receives the satellite signals. It is mainly, a
circularly polarized antenna.
Low Noise Amplifier (LNA) amplifies the weak received signal
Down converter converts the frequency of received signal to an
Intermediate Frequency (IF) signal.
IF Amplifier amplifies the Intermediate Frequency (IF) signal.
ADC performs the conversion of analog signal, which is obtained from IF
amplifier to digital. Assume, the sampling & quantization blocks are also
present in ADC (Analog to Digital Converter).
DSP (Digital Signal Processor) generates the C/A code.
Microprocessor performs the calculation of position and provides the
timing signals in order to control the operation of other digital blocks. It
sends the useful information to Display unit in order to display it on the
screen.

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