GRAMMAR

Grammar is the key to attaining success in a competitive examination. If you want

success in a competitive exam, it is important to have a good command of grammar and
its applications. No matter how hard you prepare for your competitive exams, you can
never be too sure of your success.

Before sitting for an examination, it is important to evaluate yourself, where you stand
and how much chances of your success are. In the English section of a competitive
exam, the kind of questions likely to be asked can be categorized in three parts
(1) Fill in the blanks;
(2) Identifying errors in sentences and
(3) Correcting the sentences.

The questions can be dealt with easily and you can score well if you get your basics clear
and right.

NOUN
A Noun is a word used as a name of a person, place or thing. There are five kinds of

Noun -
(a) Proper Noun
(b) Common Noun
(c) Collective Noun
(d) Abstract Noun
(e) Material Noun.

Following are certain rules of grammar regarding nouns that would be useful in a
competitive exam:

1. Proper nouns are sometimes used as common nouns.

 For example :
(a) Amitabh is Gandhiji of our class. (Incorrect)
(b) Amitabh is the Gandhiji of our class, (Correct)

Following are rules regarding the number of the noun:

2. Some nouns have the same form both in singular as well as in plural.

For example :
(a) A deer was caught.
(b) Deer were caught.

For example :
(a) He paid eight hundred rupees for this pair of shoes.
(b) India again won the series.

3. Nouns denoting large numbers are used both in singular and plural form For
example:
(a) Three hundred people attended the function.
(b) Hundreds of people attended the party.

4. Tell which sentence is correct:

(a) Since long no news has been heard.
(b) Since long no news have been heard.

Sentence 𝑎 is correct. The reason is that some nouns are always used as singular
though they look like plural nouns. That's why we should never use the plural
verb with these words. Other similar words are politics, mathematics, physics,
gallows, means, billiards, ethics, summons, innings.

5. Tell which sentence is correct:

(a) The spectacles that you are wearing are really nice.
(b) The spectacles that you are wearing is really nice.
 Sentence a) is correct. The reason being that some noun words are always used
in the plural form.

6. Tell which sentence is correct:

(a) The cattle was grazing in the field.
(b) The cattle were grazing in the field.

Sentence (b) is correct. The reason being that some nouns are always used as
plurals though they look like singular. Other nouns like this are public, people,
folk, mankind, poultry, sheep, police, gentry, peasantry, bulk, majority, etc.

7. Tell which sentence is correct.

(a) This project will lead to lots of expenditures
(b) This project will lead to lots of expenditure.

Sentence (b) is correct. The reason is that some nouns are always used as
singular. Preceding adjectives or the verb form indicates the singularity or
plurality. Other nouns are expenditure, furniture, information, machinery, issue,
offspring, alphabet, scenery, poetry.

8. Meaning of some nouns in plural form is very different from the meaning of
nouns in singular form. Hence, that form should be used which will convey the
right meaning.
For example:
(a) I opened the letter and read its contents.
(b) Her mouth was fixed in a smile of pure content.

9. Please go through the following singulars and plurals as plural forms are
commonly known but their singular forms are not commonly known.

Singular Form Plural form

 Agendum Agenda
Alumnus Alumni
Index Indices
Phenomenon Phenomena
Criterion Criteria
Radius Radii
Formula Formulae
Memorandum Memoranda

10. Some noun words have two plurals with different meanings. So, that plural form
should be selected which will convey the right meaning.
For example :
(a) I have one brother and one sister (meaning- children of the same parents).
(b) Why should only select brethren be allowed to attend the meeting? (meaning
- members of the same society, organization)
(c) I took off my shoes and clothes (meaning- things that people wear).
(d) Cotton, Nylon, Silk are different kinds of cloths (meaning- kinds or pieces of
cloth).
Other nouns having two plurals with different meanings are:
 Singular Plural with different meaning

Die Dies - stamps

Dice - small cubes used in games

Genius Geniuses-persons of great talent

Genie-spirit

Quarter Quarter - fourth part

Quarter(s) - lodging

Manner Manner - Method

Manners - Correct behaviour

Pain Pain - Suffering

Pains - Careful efforts

Spectacle Spectacle - sight

Spectacles - eye-glasses

Penny Pence - indicate amount of money

Pennies - number of coins

Following are rules regarding gender of the noun:

11. Collective nouns, even when they denote living beings, are considered to be of
the neuter gender.
For example:
(a) Mr. Smith had a herd of cows. He kept a herdsman to look after her.
(b) Mr. Smith had a herd of cows. He kept a herdsman to look after it.
 Sentence b) is correct. Though herd consists of cows (females), herd is not a
feminine noun as it a collective noun.

12. Young children and the lower animals are also referred to as of the neuter
gender.
For example :
(a) The baby loves his toys. (Incorrect)
(b) The baby loves its toys. (correct)
(c) The mouse lost his tail when the cat pounced on him. (Incorrect)
(d) The mouse lost its tail when the cat pounced on it. (correct)

We are often uncertain regarding the gender of the animals. The mouse here
may be a male or a female. So, English language prefers the easy way out: treat it
as of the neuter gender.

13. When objects without life are personified they are considered of
(i) The masculine gender if the object is remarkable for strength and violence. Ex.
Sun, Summer, Winter, Time, Death etc.
(ii) The feminine gender if the object is remarkable for beauty, gentleness and
gracefulness. Ex: Earth, Moon, Spring, Nature, Mercy etc.
For example:
(a) The Sun came from behind the clouds and with her brilliance tore the veil of
darkness. (Incorrect)
(b) The Sun came from behind the clouds and with his brilliance tore the veil of
darkness. (Correct)
Convention does not see brilliance as a womanly quality, but a manly one.
(a) Nature offers his lap to him that seeks it. (Incorrect)
(b) Nature offers her lap to him that seeks it. (Correct)

The offering of a lap is usually the mother's role. Hence, Nature here should be
treated as a feminine noun.
 Tell which sentence is correct.
(a) The earth goes round the sun in 365 days. Can you calculate her speed?
(b) The earth goes round the sun in 365 days. Can you calculate its speed?
Sentence b is correct. The error being made here is that personification is being
brought where it does not exist. In the above statement the earth is being
treated as a body (a thing), not a person. The scientist here is not concerned with
the womanly qualities of the planet. So, neuter gender should be applied.

Following are rules regarding apostrophe:

14. Rules regarding apostrophe S ('s):

(a) Singular noun: 's is added after the word.
(b) Singular noun: Only an apostrophe is added when there are too many hissing
sounds. For example: Moses' laws, for goodness' sake, For justice' sake.
(c) Plural nouns ending in s like boys, cows: only (') is added after the word
(d) Plural nouns not ending in s like men, children: ('s) is added after the word.
(e) 'S is added primarily after the living things and personified objects. For
example: Governor's bodyguard, horse's head, Nature's law, Fortune's favourite.
(f) 'S is not used with inanimate or non-living things. For example: leg of the
table, cover of the book.
(g) But in nouns that denote time, distance or weight, ('s) is used. For example: a
stone's throw, in a year's time, the earth's surface.
(h) Some other common phrases where ('s) is used are to his heart's content, at
his wit's end, out of harm's way.
(i) When a noun consists of several words, the possessive sign is attached only to
the last word.
For example:
(a) The Queen's of England reaction is important in the Diana episode. (Incorrect)
(b) The Queen of England's reaction is important in the Diana episode. (Correct)
Do not be mistaken that since it is the Queen's reaction, the ('s) should come
 after queen. You might think that putting it after England would make the
reaction England's and not the Queen's. This is short-sightedness. Do not see
Queen and England in isolation, Queen of England is one whole unit and the
apostrophe should come at its end.
(j) When two nouns are in apposition, the possessive sign is put to the latter
only.
For example :
(a) I am going to Stephen Hawking's the scientist's country. (Incorrect)
(b) I am going to Stephen Hawking the scientist's country. (Correct)
(k) When two or more nouns show joint possession, the possessive sign is put to
the latter only.
For example:
(a) Amitabh and Ajitabh are Bachchanji's sons. So Bachchanji is Amitabh's and
Ajitabh's father. (Incoreect)
(b) Amitabh and Ajitabh are Bachchanji's sons. So Bachchanji is Amitabh and
Ajitabh's father. (Correct)
(I) When two or more nouns show separate possession, the possessive sign is put
with both.
For example.
(a) The audience listened to Javed and Vajpayee's poems. (Incorrect)
(b) The audience listened to Javed's and Vajpayee's poems. (Correct)

PRONOUN
A pronoun is a word used instead of a noun.
Rules regarding personal pronouns:

1. Tell which sentence is correct-

(a) The presents are for you and me.
(b) The presents are for you and 𝐈.
 Sentence a is correct. Pronoun has to agree with the case. Here it is the objective
case. So, 'me' should be used instead of 'I'. For example : My uncle asked my
brother and me to dinner.

2. Tell which sentence is correct

(a) He loves you more than I.
(b) He loves you more than me.

Sentence a is correct 'Than' is a conjunction joining clauses. And the case of the
pronoun to be used may be found by writing the clauses in full. So, in sentence
a.) two clauses joined by 'than' are 'He loves you more' and 'I love you'. Being a
subjective case, 'I' should be used.
For example:
(a) He is taller than 𝐈(am).
(b) He loves you more than (he loves) me.

3. When a pronoun refers to more than one noun or pronouns of different persons,
it must be of the first person plural in preference to the second and of the
second person plural in preference to the third.
For example :
(a) You and I, husband and wife, have to look after your home. (Incorrect)
(b) You and I, husband and wife, have to look after our home. (Correct) Now,
common sense tells us that if we are a couple, wife and husband, the feeling of
togetherness is expressed by our home, not your home. And so does grammar.
Rule: 123. I stands for first person, 2 for second person and 3 for third person.
The order of precedence is: 1 before 2 and 2 before 3 . In the given example, we
have 2 and 1 . So I will apply; that is, first person. The number, of course, will be
plural.
Let us take another example.
(a) You and Hari have done their duty. (Incorrect)
(b) You and Hari have done your duty. (Correct)
 Applying 123 rule. You = 2 and Hari = 3. So, 2. Second person plural gives 'your'.
Similarly, when all the three persons are taken into account, it has to be I; that is,
first person plural.
(a) You, he and I have not forgotten your roots. (Incorrect)
(b) You, he and I have not forgotten our roots. (Correct)

4. Each, either and neither are always singular and are followed by the verb in the
singular.
For example :
(a) Neither of the accusations is true.
(b) Each boy took his turn.
(c) Each of the ladies performs her duty well.

5. (A) Please consider the following sentences.

(a) This is the boy. He works hard. (He subjective case)
(b) This is the boy. His exercise is done well. (His is possessive case)
(c) This is the boy. All praise him. (Him is objective case)

6. An apostrophe is never used in 'its', 'yours' and 'theirs'.

7. The complement of the verb be, when it is expressed by a pronoun, should be in

the nominative form.
For example.
(a) It was he (not him),
(b) It is I (not me) that gave the prizes away.
(c) It might have been he (not him).

8. The case of a pronoun following than or as is determined by mentally supplying

the verb.
For example :
(a) He is taller than 𝐈(𝐚𝐦).
 (b) I like you better than he (likes you).
(c) They gave him as much as (they gave) me.

9. A pronoun must agree with its Antecedent in person, number and gender. For
example:
(a) All passengers must show their (not his) tickets.
(b) I am not one of those who believe everything they (not I) hear

Rules regarding demonstrative pronouns :

10. That is used-

A. After adjectives in the superlative degree.

For example-
(a) This is the best that we can do.
(b) He is the best speaker that we ever heard.
B. After the words all, same, any, none, nothing, only.

For example:
(a) Man is the only animal that can talk.
(b) He is the same man that he has been.
C. After two antecedents, one denoting a person and the other denoting an
animal or a thing.
For example: The man and his pet that met with an accident yesterday died
today.

11. What and That refer to persons as well as things.

Rules regarding Relative pronouns:

12. On combining each of the above pairs into one sentence

(a) This is the boy who works hard (Who in place of He)
(b) This is the boy whose exercise is done well. (Whose in place of His)
(c) This is the boy whom all praise. (Whom in place of Him)
 The above sentences show when to use who, whose and whom. Who is the
subjective case, Whose the possessive case and Whom the objective case.

13. Who is used for persons only. It may refer to a singular or plural noun. For
example :
(a) He who hesitates is lost.
(b) Blessed is he who has found his work.

14. Whose can be used for persons as well as things without life also.

For example :
(a) This is the hotel whose owner is a criminal.
(b) This is the person whose will power is extraordinary.

15. Which is used for inanimate things and animals. 'Which' is used for both singular
and plural nouns.
For example :
(a) I have found the book which I had lost last week.
(b) The horse, which won the race yesterday, is my favourite.

16. When 'which' is used for selection, it may refer to a person as well as things. For
example :
(a) Which of the packets is yours?
(b) Which of the boys has not done his homework?

17. Who, Which, Whom, That, Whose should be placed as near to the antecedent as
possible.
For example :
(a) I with my family reside in Delhi, which consists of my wife and parents.
This sentence is wrong as which relates to 'my' family'. So 'which' should be
placed as near to family' as possible. So, the correct sentence is
(b) I with my family which, consists of my wife and parents, reside in Delhi.
18. Who is used In the nominative cases and whom in the objective cases.

For example :
(a) There is Mr. Dutt, who (not whom) they say is the best painter in the town.
(b) The Student, whom (not who) you thought so highly of, has failed to win the
first prize.

19. When the subject of a verb is a relative pronoun, the verb should agree in
number and person with the antecedent of the relative.
For example :
(a) This is one of the most interesting novels that have (not has) appeared this
year. (Here, antecedent of relative pronoun that is novels and not one)
(b) This is the only one of his poems that is (not are) worth reading. (Here the
antecedent of that is one and not poems. Kindly note the difference between
sentence 𝐚 and )

Other Useful Rules :

20. None is used in the singular or plural as the sense may require.

For example:
(a) Each boy was accompanied by an adult but there were none, with the orphan
(Incorrect)
(b) Each boy was accompanied by an adult but there was none with the orphan.
(Correct)
(c) I am used to many guests everyday but there was none today. (Incorrect)
(d) I am used to many guests everyday but there were none today. (Correct)

21. When 'one' is used as pronoun, its possessive form 'one's' should follow instead
of his, her etc.
For example: One must put one's best efforts if one wishes to succeed.

22. With let objective case of the pronoun is used.

 For example: let you and me do it.

23. If a pronoun has two antecedents, it should agree with the nearer one. For
example :
(a) I hold in high esteem everything and everybody who reminds me of my
failures.
(b) I hold in high esteem everybody and everything, which reminds me of my
failures.

24. In referring to anybody, everybody, anyone, each etc., the pronoun of the
masculine or the feminine gender is used according to the context.
For example.
(a) I shall be glad to help everyone of my boys in his studies.
(b) I shall be glad to help everyone of my girls in her studies.
(c) I shall be glad to help everyone of my students in his studies. But when
gender is not determined, the pronoun of the masculine gender is used as in
sentence c.

25. (A) The pronoun one should be used throughout, if used at all. For example:
(a) One must use one's best efforts if one wishes to succeed.
(b) One should be careful about what one says.
(B) Plural is commonly used with none.

For example.
(a) None of his poems are well known.
(b) None of these words are now current.

26. Anyone should be used when more than two persons or things are spoken of.
For example: She was taller than anyone of her five sisters.

TENSES
Tense is the form taken by a verb to indicate time and continuance or
completeness of action. The continuance or completeness of action is denoted
by four subcategories.
(a) Simple Tense: It is need for habitual or routine actions in the Present Tense,
action which is over in the Past Tense & action to happen in the Future Tense.

The action is mentioned simply. Nothing is said about whether the action is
complete.
(b) Continuous Tense: The action is incomplete or continuous or going on.
(c) Perfect Tense: The action is complete, finished or perfect with respect to a
certain point of time.
(d) Perfect Continuous Tense: The action is going on continuously over a long
period of time and is yet to be finished.
 The different tenses and the verb forms used in each tense are given below:

Singular with meaning Plural with meaning

Name of Tenses Verb form used in Tenses

Present simple / indefinite Verb + s/es

Present continuous / Progressive Is/am/are + verb + ing

Present perfect Has / have + third form of verb

Present perfect continuous Has/have + been + verb + ing

Past simple / indefinite Second form of verb

Past continuous / Progressive Was/were + verb + ing

Past perfect Had + third form of verb

Past perfect continuous Had been + verb + ing

Future simple / indefinite Shall/ will + verb

Future continuous / Progressive Shall / will + be + verb + ing

Future perfect Shall/will + Have + past participle

Future perfect continuous Shall/will + have been + verb + ing

PREPOSITION
1. In is used with the names or countries and large towns; at is used when speaking
of small towns and villages. For example :
(a) I live in Delhi.
(b) I live at Rohini in Delhi.
2. In and at are used in speaking of things at rest; to and into are used in speaking
of things in motion. For example :
(a) He is in bed.
(b) He is at the top of the class.
(c) He ran to school.
(d) He jumped into the river.
(e) The snake crawled into its hole.

3. On is often used in speaking of things at rest; and upon for the things in motion.
For example:
(a) He sat on a chair.
(b) The cat sprang upon the table.

4. Till is used of time and to is used for place.

For example :
(a) He slept till eight o'clock.
(b) He walked to the end of the street.

5. With often denotes the instrument and by the agent. For example :
(a) He killed two birds with one shot.
(b) He was stabbed by a lunatic with a dagger.

6. Since is used before a noun or phrase denoting some point of time and is
preceded by a verb in the perfect tense.
For example :
(a) I have eaten nothing since yesterday.
(b) He has been ill since Monday last.

From is also used before a noun or phrase denoting some point of time but is
used with non-perfect tense.
For example :
 (a) I commenced work from 1st January.
(b) He will join school from tomorrow.

For is used with a period of time. For example :

(a) He has been ill for five days.
(b) He lived in Bombay for five years.

7. Use of in before a period of time means at the end of period, but use of within
before a period of time means before the end of period.
For example :
(a) I shall return in an hour. (means I shall return at the end of an hour).
(b) I shall return within an hour. (means I shall return before the end of an hour).

8. Scarcely should be followed by 'when' and not by 'but'.

For example: Scarcely had he gone, when (not than) a policeman knocked at the
door.

9. The phrase 'seldom or ever' is wrong 'Seldom or never' is right.

For example: Such goods are made for export, and are seldom or never used in
this country.

10. Examine the following sentence:

(a) This is as good, if not better than that. (Incorrect)
(b) This is as good as, if not better than, that. (Correct)
(c) This is as good as that, if not better. (Correct)

11. Beside means at the side of while besides means in addition to. For example :
(a) Beside the ungathered rice he lay.
(b) Besides being fined, he was sentenced to a term of imprisonment.

12. Above and below merely denote position while over and under also carry a
sense of covering or movement.
 (a) The bird flew above the lake.
(Incorrect)
(b) The bird flew over the lake.
(Correct)

Here over is used as besides denoting upward position, movement is also

involved.

13. During is used when reference is made to the time within which something
happens. For is used when we are talking about how long something lasts.
(a) There are few incidents of irregularity for the emergency years.
(Incorrect)
(b) There are few incidents of irregularity during the emergency years.
(Correct)

14. Compare is followed by to when it shows that two things are alike. It is followed
by with when we look at the ways in which two things are like and unlike each
other.
For example:
(a) Sanath Jayasuria's bowling may be compared to the sales of a useful book,
they score right from the beginning.
(Incorrect)
(b) Sanath Jayasuria's batting may be compared with the sales of a useful book;
they score right from the beginning.
(Correct)
(c) If we compare Delhi University with the regional ones, we find the former to
be much more efficient.
(Incorrect)
(d) If we compare Delhi University to the regional ones, we find the former to be
much more efficient.
 MODALS
The verbs like can, could, may, might, would, shall, should and ought are called
modal verbs or modals. They are used with ordinary verbs to express possibility,
permission, certainly, etc.

1. Can usually expresses ability or capacity

I can swim across the river

Can you lift this table?

2. Can is also used to express permission You can go now.

3. May is a more formal modal used to express permission:

You may come in.

May I leave the room now?

4. May is also used to suggest possibility in an affirmative sentence.

He may be at home.
It may rain tomorrow.

5. Can is used to suggest possibility in negative/interrogative sentence.

Can this be true?

It cannot be so.

6. May when used in a negative sentence suggests an improbability whereas can

suggests impossibility.
He may not come today.
She cannot sing.

7. Could and might are used as past forms of 'can' and 'may'. I could swim across
the river when I was young. I thought he might be at home.
8. Might suggests less possibility or probability than may. I might go to Bangalore
next week suggests the probability of going is less than a sentence with 'may' will
suggest.

9. Could is used as a polite form of seeking permission or making a request.

Could you pass me the plate?
Could I please talk to Mr. Grover?

10. Shall is used with first person and will in all the persons to express future.
I shall need the money tomorrow.
When will you come next?

11. Shall is used with the second and third person to express command, promise or
threat.
You shall never come near my child.
You shall be punished for this.
We shall go for a pienic this Sunday.

12. Will You? Indicates an invitation or request.

Will you dine with us tonight?

Will you lend me your car for a week?

13. Should and would are used as past forms of shall and will.

I expected that I would get a first class.

She would sit for hours listening to the radio.

14. Should is used to express duty or obligation.

We should obey the laws.

You should keep your premise.
15. Should is used to express a supposition If it should rain, they will not come.
16. Should can also be used to express probability. He should be in the library.
17. Must is used to express necessity.

You must improve your spelling.

18. Must is also need to express obligation, and is a stronger word than should.
We must follow the law.

19. Must is also used to express logical certainty.

Living alone in such a big city must be difficult.

20. Ought is used to express moral obligation and is stronger than both should and
must. We ought to love our parents.

21. Ought is also used to express probability sometime when the probability is very
strong. The book ought to be very useful.

ADJECTIVES
Adjectives are the words that describe the qualities of a noun or pronoun in a
given sentence.

CONSIDERTHE FOLLOWING

1. Tell which sentence is correct

(a) Flowers are plucked freshly.
(b) Flowers are plucked fresh.

Sentence (b) is correct as, adjective is correctly used with a verb when some
quality of the subject rather than verb is to be expressed. Here, fresh describes
the word Flowers (a noun) and not plucked (a verb).

DEMONSTRATIVE ADJECTIVE ANDITSRULES

2. This and that are used with the singular nouns and these and those are used
with plural nouns For example :
(a) This mango is sour.
(b) These mangoes are sour.
(c) That boy is industrious
(d) Those boys are industrious.

3. This and these indicate something near to the speaker while that and those
indicate something distant to the speaker.
For example :
(a) This girl sings.
(b) These girls sing.
(c) That girl sings.
(d) Those girls sing.

DISTRIBUTIVE ADJECTIVES AND ITS RULES

4. Each is used when reference is made to the individuals forming any group. Each
is also used when the number of the group is limited and definite.

For example :
(a) Five members were seated on each chair.
(b) I was in Shimla for five days and it rained each day.
Every is used when reference is made to total group or when the number is
indefinite.
For example :
(a) Every seat was taken.
(b) I go to the movies every week.
(c) Leap year falls in every fourth year.

5. Each, either, neither and every are always followed by the singular noun.
For example :
 (a) Each boy must take his turn.
(b) Every word of it is false.
(c) Neither accusation is true.

ADJECTIVES OF QUANTITY AND ITS RULES

6. Some is used in affirmative sentences to express quantity or degree.

For example: I shall buy some bananas.
Any is used in the negative or interrogative sentences to express quantity or
degree.
For example :
(a) I shall not buy any bananas.
(b) Have you bought any bananas?

But some is an exception to the above rule. Some is used in interrogative

sentences, which are commands or requests.
For example : Will you please lend me some money?

7. Few is used for countable objects and little is used for non-countable objects.

8. Little means not much. So use of the word little has a negative meaning.
For example :
(a) There is little hope of his recovery.
(b) He has little appreciation of hard work. A little means some though not much.
So, use of a little has a positive meaning.
For example :
(a) There is a little hope of his recovery.
(b) He has a little appreciation of hard work.

The little means not much but all there is.

For example :
(a) The little information he had was quite reliable.
 (b) The little knowledge of management he possessed was not sufficient to stand
him in good stead.

9. Few means not many. So use of the word few has a negative meaning.
For example: Few men are free from faults.
A few means some. So use of word a few has a positive meaning.
For example: A few men are free from faults. The few mean not many, but all
there are. For example: The few remarks that he made were very good.

10. Only uncountable nouns follow much, little, some, enough, sufficient and whole.
For example :
(a) I ate some rice.
(b) There are not enough spoons.

INTERROGATIVE ADJECTIVE AND ITS RULES

11. What is used in the general sense and which is used in a selective sense.
For example :
(a) Which of you haven't brought your book?
(b) What manner of man is he?

DEGREES OF COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES AND ITS RULES

12. The comparative form ending in ' e ' is used when we are comparing one quality
in two persons. For example: Anjali is wiser than Rahul. But if we wish to
compare two qualities in the same person then the comparative form ending in
'er' is not used.
For example: Anjali is wiser than brave.

13. When two objects are compared with each other, the latter term of comparison
must exclude the former.
 For example :
(a) Delhi is bigger than any other city in India. If we say
(b) Delhi is bigger than any city in India.

Then we are saying Delhi is bigger than Delhi, as any city in India includes Delhi
also. And this is obviously wrong.

14. In a comparison by means of a superlative the latter term should include the
former.
For example :
(a) Delhi is the biggest of all cities in India.
(b) Of all men he is the strongest.

Kindly note the difference in this and previous rule.

15. Later and latest refer to time.

For example :
(a) He is later than I expected.
(b) This is the latest news.

Latter and last refer to position.

For example :
(a) The last player could not bat as he was injured.
(b) The latter chapters are very interesting. Latter is used when there are two
only, last when there are more than two.
For example :
(a) OfManohar, Syam and Joshi, the latter is a driver.
(Incorrect)
(b) Of Manohor, Syam and Joshi, the last is a driver.
(Correct)
16. Elder and eldest are used only of persons (usually members of the same family).
For example :
(a) My elder sister is doing MBA from IIM Ahemdabad.
(b) My eldest brother is getting married today. Older and oldest are used of both
persons and things.
For example :
(a) This is the oldest building in the city.
(b) Anthony is the oldest boy in the class.

17. Further means more distant or advanced whereas farther means additional.
For example :
(a) No one discussed the topic further.
(b) Kolkatta is farther from the equator than Colombo.

18. The comparative degree is generally followed by 'than', but comparative

adjectives ending in is or are followed by the preposition 'to'.

For example :
(a) Kashan is inferior to Aamir in intelligence.
(b) Aamir is superior to Akshay in intelligence.
(c) He is junior to me.
(d) Who was captain prior to Azhar?

19. Adjectives such as square, round, perfect, eternal, universal, unique do not
admit of different degrees. So they cannot be compared. Thus strictly speaking
we cannot say that a thing is more square more round or more perfect. But
sometimes we do make exceptions to this rule.
For example: This is the most perfect specimen I have seen.

20. When the comparative form is used to express selection from two of the same
kind or class, it is followed by 'of' and preceded by 'the'. For example :
(a) Ramesh is stronger of the two boys.
21. When than or as is followed by the third person pronoun, the verb is to be
repeated. For example : Ram is not as clever as his brother is.

22. When than or as is followed by first or second person pronoun, the verb can be
omitted. For example : He is more intelligent than you.

23. In comparing two things or classes of things the comparative should be used.
For example :
(a) Of two evils choose the lesser (not least).
(b) Which is the better (not best) of the two?

24. A very common form of error is exemplified in the following sentence.

(a) The population of London is greater than any town in India.
(b) The population of London is greater than that of any town in India.
Sentence (b) is correct as the comparison is between the population of London
and the population of any town in India.

25. Double comparatives and superlatives should be avoided.

For example :
(a) Seldom had the little town seen a more costlier funeral.
(Incorrect)
(b) Seldom had the little town seen a costlier funeral.
(Correct)
(c) Seldom had the little town seen a more costly funeral.
(Correct)

26. Preferable has the force of comparative and is followed by to. Phrase 'more
preferable' should not be used.
For example :
(a) Coffee is more preferable to tea. (Incorrect)
(b) Coffee is preferable to tea. (Correct)
27. Less refers to quantity whereas fewer refers to number.
For example :
(a) No fewer than fifty miners were killed in the explosion.
(b) We do not sell less than ten kg of tea.

28. Certain adjectives do not really admit of comparison because their meaning is
already superlative. Such words are unique, Ideal, perfect, complete, universal,
entire, extreme, chief, full, square, round. Therefore phrases like most unique,
more round, fullest, chiefest, etc.
-are wrong.

29. If there is a gradual increase it is generally expressed with two comparatives and
not with positives.
For example :
(a) It grew hot and hot. (Incorrect)
(b) It grew hotter and hotter. (Correct)

QUESTION TAGS

Consider the following examples

(1) You wanted that, didn't you?

(2) He is coming tonight, isn't he?
(3) You wouldn't report me, would you?

Now, look at the last part of all the above sentences preceded by the comma.
These are very small questions added to the sentence and are called question
Tags. Remember only the question tag is a question and not the entire sentence.
So, one can say that a Question Tag is an added brief question to a statement.
Usually a question tag consists of two words- an auxillary verb in the positive or
negative form and a pronoun.
How to form question tags?
Three things are to be kept in mind while making a question tag :
(a) The right auxiliary verb to be used in the question.
(b) The right pronouns to be used in the tag. Both (a) and (b) should be in
agreement with the verb and noun in the main statement.
(c) Whether the verb in the question tag should be positive or negative.

Rules to form Question Tags

I. If the main statement is positive, the auxiliary verb will be negative and vice-
versa e.g.

 He saw that, didn't he?

 But he isn't going to England, is he ?

II. If there is a single subject/noun/pronoun in the main sentence, the
corresponding pronoun/same pronoun will be used in the question tag. e.g.,
- You are coming with us, aren't you?

 Reena is leaving tonight, isn't she?

III. If there are more than one noun/pronoun in the main sentence then the
corresponding pronoun to the active subject will be used in the question tag.
e.g.

 After all this time you'd think he'd have forgotten, wouldn't you?

 You would'nt refuse me, would you?

IV If the verb in the main sentence is an active verb without any auxillary verb,
then the verb used in the question tag will be the form of verb 'do' that
corresponds with the tense in the main sentence.

 He knows it's true, doesn't he?

 You wanted to come with me, didn't you?

 I told you so, didn't I ?

She never informed us, did she?
V If the main sentence has an auxillary then it is used in the question tag, but with
opposite affirmation, i.e., a positive auxiliary in the main sentence transforms to a
negative auxiliary in the question tag and vice-versa e.g.

 He will be coming, won't he?

 You were there at the party, weren't you?

 You would appear for this exam, wouldn't you?

 He didn't call us, did he?

 She doesn't live here anymore, does she?

VOICE TRANSFORMATION

Compare the following sentences

 Ram helps Hari.

 Hari is helped by Ram.

While both sentences express the same meaning, there is a difference in their
construction, the difference of voice.
In sentence I, the subject Ram is the doer of the action and thus it is in Active voice,
the verb is in the Active Voice.
In sentence II, the subject is Hari to whom the action is done and thus the verb is in
the Passive Voice. Following are some examples of active and passive voice
sentences
 Active Voice Passive Voice

The peon opened the The gate was op ened by

→
gate. the peon.

Some boys were The old man was being

→
helping the old man. helped by some boys.

He will finish the work The work will be finished

→
in a fortnight. by him in a fortnight.

Why did your brother Why was such a letter

→
write such a letter? written by y our brother ?

A chair was handed to her

→ He handed her a chair.
by him.

Following are the rules for transformation of voice.

 Tense Active voice Passive Voice

Simple present take/takes is/am/are taken

Present is/am/are is/am/are being

continuous taking taken

has/have has/have been

Present perfect
taken taken

Simple past took was/were taken

was/were was/were being

Past continuous
taking taken

had been
Past perfect had taken
taken

will/shall will/shall be
Simple future
take taken

→ When changing a passive voice sentence to an Active voice sentence if the

agent is absent in the given sentence you can use any vague agents such as
someone, they, people etc. e.g.,
→ My pen has been stolen. (Passive)
→ Someone has stolen my pen. (Active)
→ I was asked my name. (Passive)
→ They asked me my name. (Active)
→ English is spoken all over the world. (Passive)
→ People speak English all over the world. (Active)

PRACTICE EXERCISES
 EXERCISE 1: SPOTTING ERRORS
DIRECTIONS: In each of these questions, a sentence has been divided into four
parts and marked (a), (b), (c) and (d). One of these parts contains a mistake in
grammar, idiom or syntax. Identify that part and mark it as the answer.

1. (a) She was as pretty

(b) if not prettier than
(c) any other girl who had come
(d) to participate in the meeting

2. (a) If one reads the newspaper regularly

(b) you will be surprised at the improvement
(c) in your overall reading skills
(d) day by day

3. (a) After finding the problem

(b) the mechanic cleaned the carburetor
(c) started the engine
(d) and found it working smoothly

4. (a) The only persons in the theatre

(b) on that stormy night
(c) were the staff of the theatre
(d) and me

5. (a) She was wearing a wig that was

(b) far more attractive than
(c) the other women who had
(d) their own natural hair

6. (a) Lawyers these days can practice

(b) civil law, criminal law
 (c) or the law of the Constitution
(d) or all of them together

7. (a) Sunita is more talkative than

(b) anybody in the class because
(c) he is not afraid of the teacher
(d) who is his own brother

8. (a) There is only the banana

(b) and one apple in the refrigerator
(c) so let us go to the market
(d) and buy some more fruits

9. (a) Like his brother who did not wear his helmet
(b) and was injured in the accident
(c) Rajan was always careful
(d) and wore his helmet without fail

10. (a) It is futile to discuss this further

(b) since neither him nor you
(c) are going to agree
(d) with each other on this issue

11. (a) Preetam asked her sister

(b) why had she not gone to the school
(c) the previous day
(d) or applied for leave

12. (a) If anyone had doubts about

(b) this lesson or the previous lesson
(c) they can meet me at my house
(d) either today or tomorrow
13. (a) In tropical climate, it is necessary
(b) that a person drink
(c) several cups of water daily
(d) if he wishes to remain healthy

14. (a) Pollution effects more people

(b) today than it ever did in the past
(c) because more people live near industrial units
(d) and inhale noxious gases from the atmosphere

15. (a) We were not worried about being late

(b) since we knew that our other friends
(c) would have been caught in a worse traffic jam
(d) than us

EXERCISE 2 : SPOTTING ERRORS

DIRECTIONS: In each of these questions, a sentence has been divided into four
parts and marked (a), (b), (c) and (d). One of these parts contains a mistake in
grammar Idiom or syntax. Identify that part and mark it as the answer.

1. (a) On entering the meeting hall

(b) loud cheers greeted the Prime Minister
(c) who acknowledged them with a smile
(d) and waved back happily at the gathering

2. (a) The set of enactments passed by the assembly

(b) have been sent to the council
(c) for consideration by its members
(d) before being notified in the gazette

3. (a) Much of the students in the class

(b) are weak in Mathematics and therefore
 (c) the Headmaster has arranged for special tuition
(d) in the evening after class-hours

4. (a) I am sure that if you were me

(b) and had been talked to in a similar manner
(c) you would also have lost your temper
(d) and talked back as I did

5. (a) The speaker gave a lucid exposition of

(b) the butterfly, its evolution
(c) its growth, its varieties
(d) and how it is used to eat

6. (a) His father advised him to forget the past

(b) and stop crying on split milk
(c) and work hard in the future
(d) avoiding the mistakes earlier committed

7. (a) He is so versatile
(b) that he is capable of beating
(c) all his other classmates
(d) both in studies, public speaking and sports

8. (a) He would not listen to us at all

(b) and it was quite apparent that
(c) he had other different sources of information
(d) than what we were relying on

9. (a) We were shown two houses yesterday

(b) by the broker who is helping us in this regard
(c) but we found that none of them was suitable
(d) for our specific requirements
10. (a) He declined our offer of help
(b) saying that he is very proud to accept
(c) money from neighbours like us
(d) whom he has known just for a week

11. (a) It was the drug and not the disease

(b) that killed him
(c) he would have been alive today
(d) if he did not take the drug

12. (a) Neither the warning of his father

(b) nor the punishment by his teacher
(c) have had any effect on Ramu, who
(d) continues to be absent from classes frequently

13. (a) Although politicians may be dishonest

(b) in their professional life
(c) it is probably unfair to brand them
(d) as dishonest in their private dealings too

14. (a) One of the costliest projects undertaken

(b) a lot of money has been spent on Antarctica expedition
(c) though its ultimate utility to the country
(d) is certainly open to debate

15. (a) Which of the three puppies

(b) do you like better
(c) the white, the black
(d) or the brown one?

EXERCISE 3: SENTENCE IMPROVEMENT

DIRECTIONS: In each of these questions, in the given sentences, a part of the
sentence is underlined. Beneath each sentence, four different ways of phrasing the
underlined part are indicated. Choose the best alternative.

1. Expect for you and I, everyone brought a present to the party.

(a) With the exception of you and I, everyone brought
(b) Except for you and I, everyone had brought
(c) Except for you and me, everyone brought
(d) Except for you and me, everyone had brought

2. Although I calculate that he will be here any minute, I cannot wait much longer
for him.
(a) Although I reckon that he will be here
(b) Although I think that he will be here
(c) Because I am confidant that he will be here
(d) Because I calculate that he will be here

3. We want the teacher to be him who has the best

rapport with the students.
(a) We want the teacher to be he
(b) We want him to be the teacher
(c) We desire the teacher to be him
(d) We anticipate the teacher to be him

4. Today this is a totally different world than we have seen in the last decade.
(a) than what we seen
(b) then we have seen
(c) from what we seen
(d) from what we have seen

5. Although he was the most friendly of all present and different from the others,
he hadn't hardly any friends except me.
(a) different from the others, he hardly had any friends except I
 (b) different than the others, he hardly had any friends except me
(c) different than the others, he hardly had any friends except I
(d) different from the others, he hardly had any friends except me

6. Since we are living in Bombay for five years, we are reluctant to move to another
city.
(a) Being that we living
(b) Since we were living
(c) Since we have been living
(d) Being that we have been living

7. As a child, my parents took me to Jammu to visit my grandmother.

(a) When I was a child, my parents took me to Jammu to visit my grandmother
(b) My parents took me, as a child, to Jammu to visit my grandmother
(c) My parents took me to Jammu to visit my grandmother as a child.
(d) A child, my parents took me to Jammu to visit my grandmother

8. Anyone interested in the use of computer can learn much if you have access to a
state-of-thean microcomputer.
(a) if he has access to
(b) if access is available to
(c) by access to
(d) from access to

9. Start the motor, and then you should remove the blocks.
(a) Start the motor, then removing the blocks
(b) Starting the motor, the blocks should then be removed
(c) Start the motor and then remove the blocks
(d) Starting the motor remove the blocks

10. The Vice President of the local bank spoke for a half an hour and told his
colleague that he, his colleague, must consider finding a new job, or accept a
reduction in salary.
 (a) for a half hour and told his colleague that he must consider to find a new job
(b) for half an hour and told his colleague that the colleague must get employed
by a new bank
(c) for half an hour and told his colleague to consider finding, a new job
(d) no change

11. He does not smoke, nor he drinks.

(a) nor he does drink
(b) neither he does drink
(c) nor does he drink
(d) no change

12. She wished that her career could be as glamorous as the other women but not
willing to work as they had.
(a) as glamorous as the other women's
(b) more glamorous than the career of the other women/
(c) glamorous
(d) no change

13. Although he is liable to make political enemies with the decision, the Finance
Minister will propose severe tax cuts that may both stimulate business and
reduce the availability of loans.
(a) liable from
(b) able to
(c) of a mind to
(d) no change

14. No matter what experience you have had with forest fires, if you would have
witnessed the fire roaring down through the canyon, you would have been
terrified.
(a) if you witnessed
(b) if you had witnessed
 (c) if you could witness
(d) no change

15. Eaten in Portugal only, the Indians viewed the potato with suspicion for they
assumed it had poisonous properties since only the white skinned people
consumed it.
(a) Indians viewed the potato with suspicion for they
(b) Indians were suspicious of the potato and they
(c) potato was viewed with suspicion by Indians who
(d) potato was suspicious to Indians, and it was

EXERCISE 4: FILL IN THE BLANKS

DIRECTIONS: Select the correct word or phrase to complete a grammatical
sentence. In case of more than one blank, the different words given in the
options shall fill in the corresponding order.

1. The patient was cheered by the news that she was likely to be discharged in a
day or two.
(a) on
(b) up
(c) out
(d) down

2. The thieves had driven ten miles before the police caught
(a) on with
(b) upon
(c) up to
(d) up with

3. As soon as the visitor's dishonest purpose was discovered he was the door.
(a) show with
(b) shown to
 (c) shown
(d) shown out of

4. As soon as my attention was the dangerous state of the staircase, I got it

repaired.
(a) drawn for
(b) drawn upon
(c) drawn near
(d) drawn to

5. ........ pompous, he was an entertaining companion.

(a) Before
(b) Never
(c) Though
(d) Despite

6. I wish my brother ........ here to listen to this entertaining lecture.

(a) would be
(b) has been
(c) is
(d) were

7. Did you think you somewhere before?

(a) have seen me
(b) saw me
(c) had seen me
(d) would see me

8. John is great organizing meetings.

(a) for
(b) to
(c) at
(d) in
9. He has ........, he deals both in books and curies.
(a) two bows to his string
(b) two strings to his bow
(c) two arrows to his bow
(d) two bows and strings.

10. The way he is currying favour ........ his rich neighbour is sickening.
(a) of
(b) with
(c) for
(d) to

11. Because of his distrust........ every one, he could never gain any good friend.
(a) by
(b) of
(c) with
(d) in

12. The new Twenty Point Programme is designed to be a renewed assault ........
poverty.
(a) for
(b) into
(c) on
(d) upon

13. If you have a good project but are lacking ........finance, you should enter into
partnership ........an affluent person.
(a) of, with
(b) for., with
(c) in, with
(d) in, of
14. He was operated ........ an abscess in his leg.
(a) for
(b) against
(c) on for
(d) on against

15. Living a simple life ........ one's won resources is preferable ........ leading a
luxurious life on borrowed funds.
(a) with, than
(b) within, to
(c) within, against
(d) on, from

EXERCISE 5: FILL IN THE BLANKS

DIRECTIONS: Select the correct word or phrase to complete a grammatical and
idiomatic sentence.

1. The match having ended in a draw, the first prize was shared
(a) between Usha and I
(b) by Usha and
(c) by Usha and me
(d) among me and Usha.

2. It is not time for the cinema to begin ?

(a) so far, is it?
(b) yet, isn't it?
(c) already, is it?
(d) before, isn't it?

3. If you are really not feeling well. you a doctor.

(a) should better see(b) may see
 (c) had better see
(d) would rather see

4. If only I his address, I would most certainly have told you.

(a) know
(b) knew
(c) had known
(d) off

5. The marathon race is intended to test one's endurance more

(a) than his speed
(b) than how fast one runs
(c) than one's speed
(d) lain off

6. She expects me to type the letter in five minutes .......... is impossible.

(a) that
(b) which
(c) what
(d) but

7. Remember to switch .......... the lights before you leave the room.
(a) on
(b) down
(c) off
(d) off

8. Because of the power cut, many workers were.

(a) laid of
(b) lay out
(c) laid off
(d) would have known
9. Heis handsome boy that he is very popular with girls.
(a) such a
(b) a such
(c) such
(d) rather than the speed

10. We hope to complete the job...........

(a) around a week or more
(b) within a week or more
(c) within a week or two
(d) before a week or two

11. He is of the doctor not to smoke.

(a) in strict orders
(b) under strict orders
(c) over strict orders
(d) with orders

12. The police arrived .......... the scene half an hour after the accident.
(a) on
(b) to
(c) into
(d) in

13. If only you had spoken clearly, you

(a) would not be misunderstood.
(b) would not have been misunderstanding.
(c) would not have been misunderstood.
(d) would not have misunderstood.

14. He agreed .......... my plan in general, but objected .......... some details.
(a) onto, to
(b) for, for
 (c) with, about
(d) with, to

15. Do not stand .......... the rail: the paint is .wet.

(a) against, still
(b) on, yet
(c) at, very
(d) onto, not

EXERCISE 6: FILL IN THE BLANKS

DIRECTIONS: Select the correct word or phrase to complete a grammatical
sentence. In case of more than one blank, the different words given in the
options shall fill in the corresponding order.

1. If I were you, I............... be careful with my words.

(a) will
(b) would
(c) shall
(d) should

2. Of the two assistants we employed last month, I find

Raman hard working.
(a) most
(b) more
(c) least
(d) only

3. She is so fastidious that of the three houses was liked by her.

(a) neither
(b) either
(c) none
(d) no one
4. a very long time this city has been prosperous.
(a) Since
(b) For
(c) From
(d) Till

5. The mother of the dead child was overwhelmed grief.

(a) by
(b) with
(c) from
(d) for

6. William Shakespeare was greatest playwright of his time.

(a) a
(b) an
(c) the
(d) thee

7. There is no use discussing .............. prohibition.

(a) on
(b) about
(c) of
(d) for

8. It is earth's gravity which .............. people their weight.

(a) gives
(b) give
(c) giving
(d) given

9. Total weight of all the ants in the world is much greater than
(a) to all human beings
(b) that of all human beings
 (c) is of all human beings
(d) that of the all human beings

10. It is good form to use the name of the person

(a) who are greeting

(b) you are greeting
(c) which you are greeting
(d) greeting for you

11. that increasing numbers of compact disc players will be bought by consumers in
the years to come.
(a) They are anticipated
(b) In anticipation
(c) Anticipating
(d) It is anticipated

12. business, a merger is a combination of two or more corporations under one

management.
(a) At
(b) In
(c) The
(d) On

13. A. firms are having trouble with industrial relations.

(a) considerable amount of
(b) great deal of
(c) large part of
(d) great many

14. He was frightened

(a) to be killed
(b) to being killed
 (c) for being killed
(d) of being killed

15. Capitalist society profit as a valued goal.

(a) which regards
(b) regarding
(c) regards
(d) was regarded

EXERCISE 7 : VOICE TRANSFORMATION

1. He teaches us Grammar.
(a) Grammar is taught to us by him.
(b) We are being taught Grammar by him.
(c) Grammar is being taught us by him.
(d) We are taught Grammar by him.

2. The French surrendered Quebec to the English in 1759.

(a) Quebec was surrendered by the French to the English in 1759.
(b) Quebec was surrendered to the English in 1759 by the French.
(c) The English were surrendered Quebec in 1759 by the French.
(d) Quebec was surrendered in 1759 by the French to the English.

3. A stone struck me on the head.

(a) I was struck by a stone on the head.
(b) My head was struck by a stone.
(c) I had been struck by a stone on the head.
(d) I was struck on the head by a stone.

4. My uncle promised me a present.

(a) A present was promised by my uncle to me.
(b) I was promised a present by my uncle.
 (c) I had been promised a present by my uncle.
(d) I was promised by my uncle a present.

5. Mona was writing a letter to her father.

(a) A letter was written to her father by Mona.
(b) A letter has been written to her father by Mona.
(c) A letter was being written by Mona to her father.
(d) A letter was written by Mona to her father.

6. His pocket has been picked.

(a) They have his pocket picked.
(b) Picking has been done to his pocket.
(c) Picked has been his pocket.
(d) Someone has picked his pocket.

7. Darjeeling grows tea.

(a) Tea grows in Darjeeling.
(b) Tea is grown in Darjeeling.
(c) Let the tea be grown in Darjeeling.
(d) Tea is being grown in Darjeeling.

8. I know him.
(a) He is known by me.
(b) He was known to me.
(c) He has been known by me.
(d) He is known to me.

9. Please help me.

(a) You were requested to help me.
(b) You are being requested to help me.
(c) You are requested to help me.
(d) You have been requested to help me.
10. One should keep one's promise.
(a) One's promise should be kept by us.
(b) One's promise has to be kept.
(c) A promise should be keeping.
(d) A promise should be kept.

11. Who taught her such things?

(a) Who was she taught such things by?
(b) She was taught such thingss by who?
(c) By whom she was taught such things?
(d) By whom was she taught such things?

12. I remember my sister taking me to the museum.

(a) I remember taken to the museum by my sister.
(b) I remember myself being taken to the museum by my sister.
(c) I remember I was taken to the museum by my sister.
(d) I remember being taken to the museum by my sister.

13. You will have finished this work by tomorrow.

(a) This work will have been finish by tomorrow.
(b) This work will be finished by tomorrow.
(c) This work will finished tomorrow.
(d) This work will have been finished by tomorrow.

14. We hope that we shall win the match.

(a) The match is hoped to be won.
(b) Match winning is our hope.
(c) It is hoped that the match will be won by us.
(d) Winning the match is hoped by us.

15. The teacher punished the boys who had not done their homework.
(a) The boys who had not done their homework had been punished by their
teacher.
(b) The boys were punished by their teacher who had not done their homework.
(c) The boys who had not done their homework were punished by the teacher.
(d) The boys who had not done their homework were being punished by the
teacher.