B LO O D [B sc ]

Blood is a type of connective tissue which is red in

colour due to the presence of hemoglobin.
It helps to transport nutrients, gases, waste
metabolites, hormones, enzymes etc.
Total blood volume is 5 litres.
pH of blood is 7.4
Viscosity of blood is 3,5 to 5,2 times more viscous
than clear water.
Specific gravity of blood is 1.050 to 1.060.
 RED BLOOD CORPUSCLE/ ERYTHROCYTE
RBC is biconcave disc shaped and anucleated.
Diameter 7.4 µ. Volume 90 µm₃. A single RBC has 280
million hemoglobin molecules in it.
FUNCTIONS OF RBC/ HEMOGLOBIN
1. Gives red color to blood.
2. Globin of Hemoglobin helps in acid – base
balance.
3. Hemoglobin helps in the transport of oxygen as
oxyhemoglobin and carbon dioxide as
carbaminohemoglobin.
4. Break down pigments of hemoglobin like
Urobilinogen, give yellow color to urine and
Stercobilinogen, give brown color to feces.
5. RBCs help in blood group determination.
6. Helps to maintain viscosity of blood.

VARIATIONS IN RBC COUNT

ANEMIA
Is a clinical condition in which RBC count <4.5 million
cells / cubic millimeter of blood and Hemoglobin
content of blood < 12 gm % .
 CLASSIFICATION OF ANEMIAS
1. MORPHOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION
2. ETIOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION

MORPHOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION

1. NORMOCYTIC NORMOCHROMIC
2. MACROCYTIC NORMOCHROMIC
3. MACROCYTIC HYPOCHROMIC
4. MICROCYTIC NORMOCHROMIC
5. MICROCYTIC HYPOCHROMIC

ETIOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION

1. HEMORRHAGIC ANEMIA
2. HEMOLYTIC ANEMIA
3. NUTRITIONAL DEFICIENCY ANEMIAs
4. APLASTIC ANEMIA

1.HEMORRHAGIC ANEMIA
Is due to excess loss of blood from the body as in
accidents, chronic piles etc.
There are two types
1. ACUTE HEMORRHAGIC ANEMIA
2. CHRONIC HEMORRHAGIC ANEMIA

2.HEMOLYTIC ANEMIA

Is due to lysis of RBCs as in

a. Incompatible blood transfusion
b. Malaria
c. Sickle cell anemia
d. Thalassemia
e. Drugs, heavy metals
f. Spherocytosis etc.
3. NUTRITIONAL DEFICIENCY ANEMIA
A.PERNICIOUS ANEMIA
Is due to deficiency of vitamin B₁₂. Vitamin
B₁₂ is essential for the maturation of RBC. It is
absorbed as a complex with intrinsic factor.
Deficiency of Intrinsic factor occur as in
autoimmune disorder, can lead to lack of
absorption of the vitamin. RBCs are of
macrocytic normochromic type.
B.MEGALOBLASTIC ANEMIA
Is due to deficiency of FOLIC ACID. Folic acid
is essential for the formation of adenine
nucleotide of DNA. Deficiency of Folic acid
leads to lack of maturation of RBC. RBCs are
of macrocytic hypochromic type.
 C.IRON DEFICIENCY ANEMIA
Is due to deficiency of minerals like iron,
copper, cobalt, nickel. RBC s are microcytic
normochromic [ as in copper deficiency] and
microcytic hypochromic type [ as in iron
deficiency anemia.]
D.PROTEIN DEFICIENCY ANEMIA
Is due to deficiency of proteins in diet. Protein
is essential for the formation of globin of
hemoglobin. Its deficiency leads to defective
hemoglobin.
4. APLASTIC ANEMIA
Is due to defect in the bone marrow or bone
marrow depression. RBCs formed are less in
number but are of normocytic normochromic
type.

POLYCYTHEMIA
Is a clinical condition in which RBC count is >7
million cells / cubic millimeter of blood.
There are two types
1. PRIMARY POLYTHEMIA.
2. SECONDARY POLYCYTHEMIA.
1. PRIMARY POLYTHEMIA/ POLYCYTHEMIA
VERA
 Due to unknown cause there is uncontrolled
proliferation of stem cells present in red bone
marrow. There is increase in RBC, WBC &
PLATELETS
2. SECONDARY POLYCYTHEMIA
Due to sustained hypoxia there is increase in
erythropoietin level of blood and RBC count
become high. [ >7 million cells / cubic
millimeter of blood.]
CAUSES
a. Congenital heart disease
b. Chronic lung disorder
c. Carbon monoxide poisoning etc.

ERYTHROCYTE SEDIMENTATION RATE

Is the rate at which RBCs settle down when
anticoagulated blood is kept in a vertical position
undisturbed for one hour.
METHODS OF DETERMINATION
1. Westergren’s method
2.Wintrobe’ s method

NORMAL VALUES
IN FEMALES--- 5 TO 8 mm/hour.
IN MAILE—2 to 4 mm/hour.

SIGNIFICANCE OF ESR
1. Cannot be used for diagnosis but can be used
along with other test results.
2. Can be used for prognosis.
3. Help to differentiate benign and malignant tumors.
4. Help to identify hidden disease like cancer.
5. Help to find the severity of an infection.

FACTORS AFFECTING ESR VALUE

1.ROLEAUX FORMATION-
It is the ability of RBCs to align side by side,
when blood is taken out from blood vessel. More
the Rouleaux formation more is the ESR value.
3. PLASMA PROTEINS-
Fibrinogen and Globulin increase ESR.
Albumin decrease ESR value.
4. PLASMA LIPIDS—
Lecithin decrease ESR value and cholesterol
in crease ESR value.
5. VISCOSITY OF BLOOD—
Increase in viscosity decrease ESR.
6. RBC COUNT---
 Increase in RBC count decrease ESR
7. SHAPE OF RBC—
Change in shape of RBC decrease ESR value.

VARIATIONS IN ESR VALUE

INCREASE IN ESR VALUE-
1.Acute and chronic infections
2. Renal diseases
3. Iron deficiency anemia.
4. Malignancy

PACKED CELL VOLUME/ HEMATOCRIT VALUE

Is the proportion of blood sample occupied by formed
elements
DEFENITION
It is the percentage of RBC, WBC and PLATELETS in
the whole blood.
METHOD OF DETERMINATION
1.Wintrobe’s method.
DETERMINATION OF PCV
A known volume of anticoagulated blood is
centrifuged at 3000 rpm for half an hour.
The blood separates into three layers.
1.An upper layer of clear plasma [ 55mm thick]
2. A greyish white thin layer of platelets and
leukocytes called buffy coat.
3. A bottom layer of red blood cells packed together
45 cm in length.
NORMAL VALUES
IN FEMALES _ 42 – 44%
IN MALES_ 45 – 48%
VARIATIONS IN PCV VALUE
1.INCREASE
a. polycythemia
b. Hemoconcentration
2. DECREASE
a. Anemia
b. Hemodilution

OSMOTIC FRAGILITY
Is the ease with which RBCs lyse and release
hemoglobin, when kept in hypotonic solution.0.9%
NaCl solution is isotonic to plasma. When RBCs are
kept in hypotonic solution RBCs bulge, lyse and
release hemoglobin into solution. Fragility starts at
0.45% Na cl solution and completed at 0.35%Nacl
solution.

ERYTHROPOIESIS
Is the process by which mature RBCs are formed from
immature stem cells present in red bone marrow.
UPHSC
[UNCOMMITED PLURIPOTENT HEMOPOIETIC STEM
CELLS]
CPHSC
[ COMMITED PLURIPOTENT HEMOPOIETIC STEM
CELLS]

LYMPHOBLAST BFU[BLAST FORMING

UNIT]

LYMPHOCYTE CFU[COLONY FORMING

UNIT]
 CFU-E CFU-GM
[COLONY FORMING UNIT [COLONY FORMING
UNIT
ERYTHROCYTE ] GRANULOCYTE
MONOCYTE]
CFU-Me
[COLONY FORMING
MEGAKARYOCYTE]

PROERYTHROBLAST

EARLY NORMOBLAST

INTERMEDIATE NORMOBLAST

LATE NORMOBLAST

RETICULOCYTE

MATURE RBC
 DURATION OF VARIOUS PHASES OF
ERYTHROPOIESIS
BFU-E to ERYTHROBLAST--- 12 to 15 days
PROERYTHROBLAST to MATURE RBC--- 7 days.

STAGE DIAGRAM FEATURES

1. Diameter-17-20µ
2. Large nucleus with few
PROERYTHROBLAST nucleoli
3. Also known as
Megaloblast
1. Diameter- 15 -17µ
EARLY 2. Nucleoli disappear
NORMOBLAST
3. Also known as
Basophilic erythroblast
INTERMEDIATE 1. Diameter -12-15µ
NORMOBLAST 2. Nucleus become
cart-wheel like.
3. Hemoglobin appear
4. Also known as
Polychromic
erythroblast
1. Diameter -10-12µ
2. Nucleus become
LATE NORMOBLAST ink-spot like
3. Nucleus disintegrate
and finally ejected out
of the cell.
4. Also known as
Orthochromic
erythroblast
1. Diameter-8-10µ
2. RNA disintegrates to
RETICULOCYTE form a reticulum.
3. Cell organelles dis
integrate.
 1. Diameter-7.4 µ
2. Biconcave disc like
MATURE RBC
3. One RBC contain 280
million Hemoglobin
molecules.

FACTORS AFFECTING ERYTHROPOIESIS

A. HORMONAL FACTORS
B. NUTRITIONAL FACTORS
C.OTHER FACTORS
A. HORMONAL FACTORS
a. STIMULATING HORMONES
1. ERYTHROPOIETIN-
It is a hormone released from kidney
[85%]and Liver [15%]. Chief stimulus for
Erythropoietin release is hypoxia. This
hormone helps in the
division and maturation of RBC from stem
cells in red bone marrow.
4. ANDROGENS-
Increase erythropoietin release and increase RBC
count.
4. THYROXINE-
Increase metabolism and cause hypoxia and increase
in Erythropoietin and thus increase in RBC count.
5. GROWTH HORMONE-
Increase erythropoietin and increase RBC count.
6. ACTH and ADRENOCORTICAL STEROIDS—
Increase Erythropoietin and increase in RBC count.
6. VASOPRESSIN, and NOREPINEPHRINE—
Renal artery constriction and increase
erythropoietin and RBC count.
b. INHIBITING HORMONE
1. ESTROGEN-
It inhibits the synthesis of erythropoietin and decrease
RBC count.
B. NUTRITIONAL FACTORS
1. VITAMIN B₁₂__Is essential for the maturation of RBC.
It is absorbed as a complex with Intrinsic factor.
Deficiency of Intrinsic factor leads to lack of
absorption of Vitamin B₁₂and this occur in condition
like Autoimmunity, Achlorhydria etc.
2. FOLIC ACID-
Is essential for the formation of adenine nucleotide.
Deficiency of Folic acid leads to defect in DNA and
this can cause megaloblastic anemia
3 IRON—
Is essential for the formation of Heme of Hemoglobin.
Deficiency of iron leads to Iron deficiency anemia.
7. PROTEIN-
Help in the formation of Globin of Hemoglobin.
Its deficiency leads to defective hemoglobin and
protein deficiency anemia.
4. MINERALS-
Copper, Cobalt, Nickel and Manganese help in
absorption of iron and formation of heme.
Deficiency of these minerals leads to iron
deficiency anemia.
5. VITAMINS-
VITAMINB₆, VITAMIN C and VITANIM E
VITAMIN B₆- Help in the formation of porphyrin
ring of hemoglobin.
VITAMIN C- Helps to convert ferric iron to ferrous
iron.
VITAMIN E- Prevent oxidative stress of RBC
7. LIPIDS AND LIPOPROTEINS- Help to maintain
the integrity of cell membrane and stroma.
C. OTHER FACTORS-
1. INTERLEUKINS
3. COLONY STIMULATING FACTORS.

WHITE BLOOD CORPUSCLE/

LEUKOCYTE

CLASSIFICATION, MORPHOLOGY, FUNCTIONS AND

VARIATIONS OF WBCs
CLASSIFICATION
WBC’s

GRANULOCYTES
AGRANULOCYTES

NEUTROPHIL EOSINOPHIL BASOPHIL

MONOCYTE
LYMPHOCYTE
 MORPHOLOGY

TYPE OF WBC DIAGRAM FEATURES

1.Diameter10-14µ
2.Nucleus is multi
NEUTROPHIL 3.Cytoplasm is lila
Color with fine
granules.

1.Diameter12-15µ
2.Nucleus is bilob
EOSINOPHIL 3.Cytoplasm is
orange-red with la
dense granules.

1. Diameter 8-10
2. Nucleus is `S’
shaped with p
BASOPHIL colour.
3. Cytoplasm co
large coarse
purplish black
granules.
 1. Diameter 15-2
2. Nucleus is kid
shaped.
MONOCYTE
3. Cytoplasm is
muddy blue /s
grey in colour

1. Diameter
Small
lymphocyte-6
LYMPHOCYTE
Large
lymphocyte-1
Cytoplasm is
rim in small
lymphocyte a
abundant in la
lymphocyte.
 FUNCTIONS OF LEUKOCYTES
FUNCTIONS OF NEUTROPHILS __
Neutrophils reach the site of infection by Chemotaxis,
Margination, Diapedesis and by Amoeboid movement
Then the neutrophil phagocytose the bacteria.
Granules of neutrophil discharge the contents into
the phagocytic vacuole and this is known as
degranulation. Granules also contain, elastases.,
Metalloproteinases and proteases, these along with
O₂₋, H₂O₂, HOCL etc. form a killing zone around
activated neutrophil which kills the invading organism.
FUNCTIONS OF MONOCYTE__ Are the largest WBC.
Can engulf 100 bacteria at a time similar to Neutrophil.
They form the second line of defense against
invading organisms.
FUNCTIONS OF EOSINOPHILS__
Help in defense against parasites.
Can engulf antigen- antibody complexes
Can prevent allergies. Eosinophils are attracted to the
site of infection and degrade the mast cells.
Eosinophils can decrease the manifestations of
allergic reactions.
FUNCTIONS OF BASOPHILS__
Helps in healing process after inflammation and are
also involved in hypersensitive allergic reactions.
FUNCTIONS OF LYMPHOCYTES__
T- Lymphocytes are involved in cell mediated
immunity
B-Lymphocytes are involved in cell mediated immunity
VARIATIONS IN WBC COUNT__
LEUKOCYTOSIS-
Increase in WBC count above normal [ >11,000 cells/
cubic millimeter of blood.]
Increase in WBC count can be due to increase in ant
one type of WBC and in conditions like NEUTROPHILIA,
EISNOPHILIA, BASOPHILIA, MONOCYTOSIS
And LYMPHOCYTOSIS.
NEUTROPHILIA__
Increase in Neutrophil count [> 10,000 cells / cubic
millimeter of blood.]
CAUSES
1. Acute pyogenic bacterial infections like tonsillitis.
2. Diabetes mellitus
3. Myocardial infarction
4. Rheumatic fever etc.
EOSINOPHILIA
Increase in Eosinophil count [>500 cells / cubic
millimeter of blood.
CAUSES
1.Allergic infections
2. Worm infestations
3. Skin infections like eczema.
BASOPHILIA
Increase in Basophil count [>100 cells/ cubic
millimeter of blood]
CAUSES
1.Viral infections like chicken pox, Measles.

2. Hypersensitivity
MONOCYTOSIS
Increase in Monocyte count [>800 cells / cubic
millimeter of blood]
CAUSES
Protozoal infections like malaria, filariasis etc.

LYMPHOCYTOSIS
Increase in lymphocyte count [> 4000 cells / cubic
millimeter of blood.]
CAUSES
Chronic infections like Tuberculosis, Syphilis etc.
LEUCOPENIA
Decrease in WBC count [ < 4000 cells/ cubic
millimeter of blood].
CAUSES
1. Aplastic anemia.
2. Infections like typhoid fever
 3. Hormones like ACTH etc.

PLATELETS/ THROMBOCYTES

Are the smallest formed element in blood. They are

small, colorless, refractile, a nucleated, granular cells
In circulation.
Diameter_ 2-4 µm
Count__ 2-4 lakhs / cubic millimeter of blood.
Life span__ 8- 10 days.

STRUCTURE OF PLATELET
Cell membrane of platelet is invaginated into
canalicular system. It consists of outer glycocalyx
layer and inner lipoprotein layer. Phospholipids of
platelet
Known as platelet activating factor [PF₄] helps in
intrinsic mechanism of coagulation. Cytoplasm of
platelet contain microtubules, microfilaments, and
endoplasmic reticulum. Microfilaments and
Endoplasmic reticulum stores calcium.
Microfilaments are made up of a protein called
Thrombosthenin, which help to maintain shape and
also help in movement of platelet.
Granules in platelets are of three types.
1. Alpha granules
2. Dense granules
3. Glycogen granules.

Alpha granules contain factors like

1. Vwf- Help in adhesion of platelet to exposed
collagen.
2. THROMBOSPONDIN_ Help in fixation of platelet
to exposed collagen.
3. PAF- Help in activation of platelet and platelet
aggregation.
4. PDGF_ Help in repair of damaged endothelium.

VARIATIONS IN PLATELET COUNT

THROMBOCYTOSIS __
Increase in platelet count [> 4 lakhs cells / cubic
millimeter of blood]
CAUSES
1. Trauma and hemorrhage
2. Polycythemia vera
3. Splenectomy.
THROMBOCYTOPENIA__
Decrease in platelet count [< 1.5 lakhs/ cubic
millimeter of blood]
CAUSES
1. Purpura
2. Aplastic anemia
3. Aspirin
4. Dengue fever.
FUNCTIONS OF PLATELETS
1. Role in Hemostasis. Platelets help in
three steps like
a. Vasoconstriction
b. Formation of a temporary platelet plug.
c. Formation of a permanent clot
2. Role of vWF – Help in adherence of
platelet to exposed collagen.
3. Role of Thrombospondin - Help in
fixation of platelet to exposed collagen.
4. Role of PAF – Help in activation of
platelets
5. Role of PDGF _ Help in repair of damaged
blood vessel and wound healing.
6. Role in phagocytosis_ Platelets can
engulf carbon particles, virus etc.
7. Role in storage function_ Platelets store
hormones like serotonin, histamine etc.
8. Role in clot retraction__ Thrombosthenin
present in platelet philopodia attached
to fibrin threads contract and thus help in
clot retraction . It occurs 30-60 minutes
after clot formation.
BLEEDING TIME, CLOTTING TIME AND
PROTHROMBIN TIME

BLEEDING TIME --- It is the time interval

between injury and arrest of bleeding
from a minor injury.
Normal bleeding time is 1 – 4 minutes.
It is due to the first step of hemostasis.
Bleeding time is prolonged in purpura
due to decrease in platelet count.

CLOTTING TIME— It is the time interval

between injury and formation of a
permanent clot.
Normal clotting time is 3- 8 minutes.
It is due to the third step of hemostasis
ie formation of a permanent clot. Clotting
time is prolonged in hemophilia, which is
due to deficiency of clotting factors like
VIII, IX or XI.
PROTHROMBIN TIME—It detects the
integrity of stage II of clotting process ie
conversion of prothrombin to thrombin.
Normal prothrombin time is 10-12
seconds. Prolongation of prothrombin
time occur due to deficiency of clotting
factors like II, V, VII & X

HEMOSTASIS

Is the process by which arrest of bleeding

from an injury occur and it include three
steps like
1. Vasoconstriction
2. Formation of temporary platelet plug
3. Formation of permanent clot.

1. VASOCONSTRICTION_
If the injury is minor, serotonin
released from platelets help in
constriction of injured blood vessel
and thus prevents further bleeding.
2. FORMATION OF A TEMPORARY
PLATELET PLUG__
 When platelets come in contact with
injured blood vessel there is release
of factors like v WF,
Thrombospondin PAF, ADP, Calcium,
Thromboxane A2 etc. help in
adhesion, fixation, activation,
aggregation and agglutination of
platelets and a temporary platelet
plug is formed which cover the
injured site.
3. FORMATION OF PERMANENT CLOT_
Thirteen clotting factors present in
blood help in clotting mechanism.

The factors are

NUMBERS NAMES
I FIBRINOGEN

II PROTHROMBIN

III TISSUE THROMBOPLASTIN

Iv CALCIUM

v LABILE FACTOR
VI UNKNOWN
vII STABLE FACTOR
vIII ANTIHEMOPHILIC FACTOR
I× CHRISTMAS FACTOR
× STUART PROWER FACTOR
×I PTA
×II GLASS FACTOR
×III FIBRIN STABILISING
FACTOR
 There are two types of mechanisms,
intrinsic and extrinsic.

INTRINSIC MECHANISM EXTRINSIC

MECHANISM
×II injured blood vessel ×IIа III IIIа
HMW
Kininogen v vа
×I ×Iа VII vIIа
аааа
Ca₂⁺
I× I×а
vIII vIIIа
ca v vа
× PF4 ×а

PROTHROMBINASE
Prothrombin
Thrombin
 Fibrinogen
Fibrin
CLOT
[ stabilized by Factor ×III
CLOT RETRACTION-
30-60 minutes after the formation of a clot, it retracts
and serum oozes out from the clot. Platelets have filo
podia that extends along the fibrin threads. Protofibrils
of the fibrin thread get entangled within the filo podia.
When platelets shrink filo podia contracts and fibrin
get internalized within the contracted platelet.
ANTICOAGULANTS
Are substances which prevent coagulation of blood.
There are three types
1. LABORATORY USED-
Remove calcium from blood and prevent
coagulation of blood.
a. Sodium citrate
b. Double oxalate
c. EDTA [Ethylene Diamine Tetra Acetic acid]
2. CLINICAL ANTICOAGULANTS-
a. HEPARIN-
It is a polysaccharide which is also present in
the granules of mast cells and basophils. It is
 given in Myocardial infarction. Pulmonary
embolism, in heart- lung machine, in
hemodialysis etc.
3. VITAMIN K Antagonist-
This is an oral anticoagulant or coumarin
anticoagulants like warfarin and Dicumarol. It is
used to treat atrial fibrillation, pulmonary
embolism etc.
4. ASPIRIN-
It inhibits the formation of Thromboxane A₂ and
Prevents platelet activation and is used in
thromboembolism.

BIOLOGICAL ANTICOAGULANTS
1. HIRUDIN
2. Snake venom etc.

IMMUNITY
Is the ability of the body to resist different types of
bacteria, virus, fungi etc. which enter the body.
There are two types
1. INNATE/ NATURAL IMMUNITY
2. ACQUIRED/ ADAPTIVE IMMUNITY

1.INNATE IMMUNITY
 Is the type of immunity present by birth. There are
four types like
1.Anatomic barrier
2. Physiologic barrier
3.phagocytic barrier
4.Inflammatory barrier

1. Anatomic barrier
Skin and mucous membrane form anatomic
barrier.
2.physiologic barrier
Temperature, Hcl of stomach; saliva, tear etc.
Form the anatomic barrier.
3.Phagocytic barrier-
Monocytes, neutrophils, tissue macrophages
etc can kill and digest microorganisms.
4 Inflammatory barrier- C-reactive proteins
released from infected cells can destruct the
microorganisms.

ACQUIRED IMMUNITY/ADAPTIVE
IMMUNITY
 1. NATURALLY ACQUIRED
A.ACTIVE IMMUNITY[TROUGH INFECTIONS]
1. CELLULAR IMMUNITY
2. HUMORAL IMMUNITY
B.PASSIVE IMMUNITY [TRANSFER OF ANTIBODIES
FROM MOTHER]
1. IMMUNOGLOBULIN G THROUGH
PLACENTA
2. IMMUNOGLOBULIN A THROUGH BREAST
FEEDING
2. ARTIFICIALLY ACQUIRED
A. ACTIVE--- VACCINATION [ANTIGENS IN VACCINE
ARE IMMUNOGENIC BUT NOT PATHOGENIC]
B. PASSIVE---BY INJECTION OF ANTIBODIES eg, IV
INJECTION OF ANTI D ANTIBODIES IN Rh NEGATIVE
MOTHER]

CELL MEDIATED IMMUNITY

Is the immunity against virus, fungi, bacteria etc.
with the help of T- lymphocytes
T- Lymphocytes are of three types
1. Helper T-lymphocytes
2. Cytotoxic T- Lymphocytes/ Killer T- Lymphocytes
3. Memory T-Lymphocytes.
There are different types of Antigen Presenting
Cells [APCs] like Dendritic cells of lymph nodes,
Langerhans dendritic cells of skin, Kupffer cells of
liver, Microglial cells of brain etc. APCs engulf the
foreign microbes and digest them into peptides.
Vesicles containing peptides then fuse with the
MHC [ Major Histocompatibility Complex] and
these complexes are inserted into the cell
membrane.
Processed antigens stimulates Helper T-
Lymphocytes. They secret interleukins which help
to activate Cytotoxic T-Lymphocytes and Memory
T- Lymphocytes.

Cytotoxic T- Lymphocytes secrets Perforins

which
Can create pores on the cell membrane of APC s
Through which ECF enters and cause lysis of
APCs
 Lymph toxins released from T- Lymphocytes
destroy the target cell.
Memory T-Lymphocytes help to give immediate
response during secondary immune response.

HUMORAL IMMUNITY
Is the immunity against all bacteria [except TUBERCLE
BACILLUS] with the help of antibodies or
Immunoglobulins.
When antigens bind to receptors present on the
surface of B-cell membrane. Interleukins released
from Helper T- Lymphocytes cause division of B
lymphocytes into two types
1. Plasma cells
2. Memory B Lymphocytes.
Plasma cells secrete Antibodies/
Immunoglobulins and memory B Lymphocytes
help to give immediate response during
secondary immune response.

TYPES AND FUNCTONS OF IMMUNOGLOBULINS

1. IgG
 ● Form 75 % of antibodies present in blood,
lymph and intestine.
● It is the only antibody which cross the
placenta and give immunity to growing
fetus.
● In secondary immune response it is present
in excess.
2. IgA-
● Form 15% of total antibodies.
● Present in tear, sweat, saliva, colostrum
and other gastrointestinal secretions.
● Provide protection on mucous membrane.
3. IgM
● Form 5-10 % of total antibodies.
● Is the only antibody produced before birth.
● Are blood group antibodies.
4.Ig E
● Form <0.1% of total antibodies.
● Provide protection against parasites.
● Is involved in allergic reactions by
releasing histamine from basophil and
mast cells.
5 Ig D-
 ● Form <1% of total
● Help in the activation of
B-Lymphocytes.
FUNCTIONS OF IMMUNOGLOBULINS
1. Help to inactivate antigen by neutralization,
agglutination, precipitation or by lysis.

PLASMA PROTEINS
Plasma proteins are ALBUMIN, GLOBULIN
& FIBRINOGEN and other proteins.
FUNCTONS OF PLASMA PROTEINS

1.ROLE IN BLOOD CLOTTING

Fibrinogen helps in blood clotting
2.ROLE IN ACID BASE BALANCE-
Plasma proteins have NH₂ and -COOH groups and
thus help to neutralize acid and basic substances and
maintain Ph of blood as 7.4.
3.ROLE IN IMMUNITY-
Immunoglobulins help in Humoral immunity.
4.ROLE IN MAINTAINING COLLOIDAL OSMOTIC
PRESSURE-
Albumin and Globulin help to maintain the Colloidal
osmotic pressure of blood as 25-30 mmHg.
5.ROLE IN TRANSPORT-
Trans cobalamin transports vitamin B12,
Ceruloplasmin transports copper, haptoglobin
transport free hemoglobin, albumin transports bilirubin.
Hormone binding proteins are thyroxine binding
globulin [TBG], Transcortin [ CORTISOL BINDING
GLOBULIN] binding cortisol etc.
6.ROLE IN MAINTAINING VISCOSITY-
Fibrinogen and Globulin help to maintain normal
viscosity of blood. [3.5-5.2 times]
7.ROLE IN MAINTAINING ESR-
Fibrinogen and globulin stimulate Roleaux formation
and maintain ESR value.
8.ROLE AS RESERVE PROTEINS-
Plasma proteins can release energy at the time of
starvation.

LYMPH
Is a type of tissue fluid. It is clear, transparent and
composition almost similar to blood but differs from
blood

LYMPH BLOOD
Flows through lymphatic Flow through blood
channels vessels

Protein content 2-3 gm%. Protein content is 6-8

gm%.
Clots slowly Clots easily

WBC count 1000-2000 WBC count 4000-11000

cells/ cubic millimeter of cells per cubic meter of
blood. blood.

Fat content is more [as Fat content is less

chylomicrons
Lymph is present in all systems except CNS, Bones,
Cartilage, Cornea etc. Lymphatic capillaries are lined
by a single layer of endothelial cells
Which are arranged in an overlapping manner.
Interstitial fluid diffuses into capillaries and when the
pressure in the capillaries become high, adjacent cells
overlap and close the pores and prevent back flow of
lymph.
Lymphatic capillaries

Small Lymphatic vessels

Large lymphatic vessels

Thoracic duct [left]and right

Lymphatic duct

Left and right subclavian vein

FUNCTIONS OF LYMPH
1. Help to maintain volume and composition of
tissue fluid constant.

2. Supply nutrients and water to those areas

where blood cannot reach.
3. Help to absorb long chain fatty acids as
chylomicrons.
4. Lymphocytes are finally processed and
released from lymph nodes.
5. Lymph nodes help in the release of Antibodies.