UNIT 4: Concise and Detailed Reviewer on Cells and Tissues

1. Cells
- The basic structural and functional unit of all living organisms.
- Two major types: Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic

2. Prokaryotic Cells
- Definition: Cells that do not have a true nucleus or membrane-bound
organelles.
- Examples: Bacteria and Archaea.
- Features:
- DNA is located in the nucleoid region.
- Small and simple structure.
- Reproduce via binary fission.

Structure | Function of a Bacterial Cell

 Cell Wall | Provides shape, support, and protection; made of
peptidoglycan.
 Plasma (Cell) Membrane | Controls the movement of substances in and
out of the cell.
 Cytoplasm | Gel-like substance where cell processes occur; holds
ribosomes and enzymes.
 Nucleoid | Region where the circular DNA (genetic material) is located
(not enclosed).
 Plasmid | Small circular DNA molecules; may carry antibiotic resistance
genes.
 Ribosomes (70S) | Site of protein synthesis (smaller than eukaryotic
ribosomes).
 Capsule (Slime Layer) | Sticky outer layer for protection and adhesion
to surfaces; found in some bacteria.
 Flagella (if present) | Tail-like structure for movement (motility).
 Pili/Fimbriae | Hair-like projections for attachment to surfaces or other
cells.
 Inclusion Bodies | Storage sites for nutrients or compounds like
glycogen, lipids, or phosphate.

3. Eukaryotic Cells
- Definition: Cells with a true nucleus enclosed by a membrane and
membrane-bound organelles.
- Examples: Animal cells, Plant cells, Fungi, Protists.
- Features:
- Complex structure.
- DNA is enclosed within the nucleus.
- Organelles include mitochondria, Golgi apparatus, ER, etc.

Organelle/Structure | Function
  Plasma Membrane | Controls what enters and exits the cell; provides
protection and structure.
 Cytoplasm | Jelly-like fluid that holds and cushions organelles.
 Nucleus | Contains DNA; controls cell activities (the "control center").
 Nucleolus | Produces ribosomes.
 Nuclear Envelope | Double membrane that protects the nucleus and
regulates material exchange.
 Ribosomes | Sites of protein synthesis.
 Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) | Rough ER: Has ribosomes; makes
proteins. Smooth ER: Makes lipids and detoxifies.
 Golgi Apparatus | Modifies, sorts, and packages proteins and lipids for
storage or transport.
 Mitochondria | Produces energy (ATP) through cellular respiration
("powerhouse").
 Lysosomes | Break down waste, damaged organelles, and foreign
invaders ("clean-up crew").
 Centrioles | Help in cell division by forming spindle fibers.
 Cytoskeleton | Maintains cell shape and helps with movement (made of
microtubules/microfilaments).
 Vesicles | Transport materials within the cell.
 Peroxisomes | Break down fatty acids and detoxify harmful substances.
Great question! Here's a clear explanation of the **significance of active and
passive transport to the cell**, suitable for lecture notes or a reviewer:

Significance of Active and Passive Transport to the Cell

Cells need to move materials in and out to maintain homeostasis or balance,

get nutrients, and eliminate waste. This is where membrane transport
mechanisms, active and passive transport, come in.

4. Passive Transport. The movement of substances without using energy

(ATP) from high to low concentration.

Significance:
- Maintains equilibrium of substances like oxygen, carbon dioxide, and water.
- Allows nutrient and gas exchange across cell membranes.
- Enables osmoregulation, preventing cells from bursting or shrinking.

Examples:
- Oxygen diffuses into cells for respiration.
- Water moving in/out via osmosis.
- Glucose enters cells through facilitated diffusion.

5. Active Transport. The movement of substances using energy (ATP),

often from low to high concentration.
Significance:
- Maintains internal environment different from surroundings (homeostasis).
- Allows uptake of essential nutrients even in low concentrations outside.
- Removes toxic waste or excess ions against the concentration gradient.
- Supports nerve impulses and muscle function (e.g., sodium-potassium
pump).

Examples:
- Uptake of glucose in the intestines.
- Reabsorption of ions in kidney cells.
- Endocytosis and exocytosis

Both active and passive transport are vital for cell survival, allowing the cell
to:
- Receive nutrients
- Maintain proper ion balance
- Remove waste
- Communicate with the environment

Without these processes, cells would fail to function properly and die.

6. Mitosis. A type of cell division that results in two genetically identical

daughter cells, used for growth and repair.
- Stages
- Prophase: Chromosomes condense, spindle fibers form, nuclear envelope
dissolves.
- Metaphase: Chromosomes align at the cell's equator.
- Anaphase: Sister chromatids are pulled apart to opposite poles.
- Telophase: Nuclear envelope reforms, chromosomes de-condense.
- Cytokinesis: Division of the cytoplasm.

7. Meiosis. A type of cell division that reduces the chromosome number by

half, producing four genetically diverse haploid cells (gametes).
- Phases:
- Meiosis I: Homologous chromosomes separate.
- Meiosis II Sister chromatids separate.
- Importance: Genetic diversity through crossing-over and independent
assortment

8. Protein Synthesis
A. Transcription. The process of copying DNA into mRNA. It occurs in the
nucleus.
- Steps:
- RNA polymerase binds to DNA and synthesizes mRNA.
- mRNA carries the genetic code to the ribosome.
B. Translation
- Definition: The process where ribosomes read mRNA to build proteins.
- Occurs in the cytoplasm at the ribosome.
- Steps:
- mRNA is read in codons (three-base sequences).
- tRNA brings amino acids that match each codon.
- Amino acids are linked into a polypeptide chain.

9. Protoplasmic Organization.The simplest level of organization found in

unicellular organisms.
- Example: Amoeba.
- Functions: All life functions are carried out by a single cell (digestion,
respiration, reproduction, etc.).

10. Cellular Organization. Cells are the basic unit of life, and in
multicellular organisms, they group into tissues.
- Hierarchy:
- Cell → Tissue → Organ → Organ system → Organ

Four Types of Animal Tissues: Functions and Locations

1. Epithelial Tissue

Function:
- Covers body surfaces and lines internal organs and cavities.
- Protection, absorption, secretion, and filtration.

Locations:
- Skin (epidermis)
- Lining of the mouth and digestive tract
- Glands (e.g., sweat glands, salivary glands)
- Blood vessels and heart lining (endothelium)

Types:
- Simple squamous – gas exchange (lungs)
- Simple cuboidal – secretion (glands)
- Simple columnar – absorption (intestines)
- Stratified squamous– protection (skin, mouth)

2. Connective Tissue

Function:
- Supports, binds, and protects other tissues and organs.
- Stores energy, transports substances.
Locations:
- Under the skin (loose connective tissue)
- Tendons and ligaments (dense connective tissue)
- Bones and cartilage (supportive)
- Blood (fluid connective tissue)

Types:
- Loose (areolar, adipose)
- Dense (tendons, ligaments)
- Cartilage, bone
- Blood

3. Muscle Tissue

Function:
- Responsible for movement (voluntary or involuntary)
- Generates heat and maintains posture

Locations:
- Skeletal muscles (attached to bones)
- Heart (cardiac muscle)
- Walls of internal organs (smooth muscle)

Types:
- Skeletal – voluntary movement (biceps, triceps)
- Cardiac – heart contractions
- Smooth – movement in the digestive tract, blood vessels

4. Nervous Tissue

Function:
- Transmits electrical impulses
- Controls and coordinates body activities
- Responds to stimuli

Locations:
- Brain and spinal cord (central nervous system)
- Nerves (peripheral nervous system)
- Sensory organs

Components:
- Neurons – transmit signals
- Neuroglia– support and nourish neurons