1.

1 Construction Material and Testing EXPERIMENTATION AND TESTING

IMPORTANCE OF CONSTRUCTION Experimental – this is when the result is uncertain

MATERIALS TESTING that new insight are to be gained

The structure of a building is not only focused on Testing - this is more defined procedure which are
floors, walls, and foundation. It is more than that. the limits and results are clear
Buildings depend on series of support materials,
including layers of soil and cement, to maintain the
stability of the structure in a long-term basis.
DESTRUCTIVE AND NON-DESTRUCTIVE
Testing of Construction Materials is a crucial
TESTING
process for builders because they can detect
probable problems before they can actually start Destructive Testing – materials are being tested up
constructing the project using those materials. Also, to its breaking point or until the material fails. It is
testing of these materials will determine if it said that this testing procedure is much easier to
complies with the requirements, like safety and conduct because it results to more information
environmental regulations, of the place where it will regarding the material properties.
be built.
Non-Destructive Testing – this is the exact
Material testing pertains to the evaluation of opposite of destructive testing. It is commonly used
materials (any kind of building materials) that when the materials to be tested are still in service.
affects or impacts the on-going project. Another
importance of this process is that it can help avoid
back jobs or expensive renovations to correct the
errors and alleviate risks to other people or property. PRECISION VS. ACCURACY

Precision tells how close the measurements are to

each other. For example, if you measure a certain
COMMERCIAL TESTING, SCIENTIFIC object repeatedly and the numbers you have
TESTING, AND MATERIALS RESEARCH obtained are very close or almost the same to each
other, then it can be considered as precise.
 COMMERCIALTESTING
-materials are already existing. The type of test has Accuracy tells how close the measurement is to its
already been specified. The objective of this is to true value. For example, your actual height is 5’0”.
determine if these materials comply with the When you used a tape measure to know your height
given technical specifications and will fall within and the value you get is also 5’0”, then you can
the required parameters. consider this as accurate.

 SCIENTIFIC TESTING
-materials are tested to obtain their vital and
beneficial properties and determine how it can be SPECIFICATION, STANDARD
advantageous in building a certain structure. SPECIFICATION AND STANDARDIZING
AGENCIES
 MATERIAL RESEARCH Specification is a precise statement of a set of
-from the word itself, researches are being conducted requirements, to be satisfied by a material, product,
for existing equipment to have better system or service. It is desirable that the
understanding of its usage. For new materials, requirements, together with their limits, should be
properties are being analyzed. Also, quality expressed numerically in appropriate units.
standards and procedures are being developed.
A standard specification for a material is the result
of agreement between those concerned in a
particular field and involves acceptance for use by
participating agencies.  Plastic Limit Testing Equipment
- This equipment determines the water
Standardizing Agencies and Relevant Standards content at which soil changes from a plastic
to a semi-solid state.
Turkish Standards Institute (TSE) - Turkish
Standards (TS)

American Society for Testing and Materials  Shrinkage Limit Testing Equipment
- This equipment is used to indicate how much
(ASTM) - ASTM Specifications
moisture will be lost before the sample
undergoes significant volume change.
International Standards Organization (ISO) -
ISO Standards

European Committee for Standardization (CEN) 1.2 Construction: A Dynamic Industry

- European Norms (EN)
CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY

Each construction requires planning, financing and

FAMILIARIZATION OF SOME observance of regulatory constraints. Every construction
CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS AND involves skilled workers, architects, engineers, a vast
TESTING array of materials and equipment to execute a carefully
conceived plan. The people involve in construction need
 Linear Traverse Machine to maintain membership in professional organizations,
- When mixing concrete, air voids commonly attend conferences and read professional journals to
occur. This equipment facilitates the become aware of new technical developments and their
counting of voids in concrete. proper application.

 Building Construction
 Compression Machine
- This equipment is used to test the behavior It involves the erection of a building on a piece of
of a concrete sample while compressive property.
loads are being applied on it. Some of the
results obtained are its compressive strength, o Residential Buildings
yield strength, ultimate strength, elastic o Commercial Buildings
limit, etc. o Civil Buildings
o Educational Buildings
 Slump Test Equipment o Religious Buildings
- This equipment is used to measure the o Agricultural Buildings
consistency of the concrete before it sets.
 Heavy or Infrastructure Construction
The workability of the concrete can also be
determined through this test. An improperly It means for a larger infrastructure projects. This is
mixed batch can be known with this usually financed by government agencies, other
procedure. institutions, or incorporated into master plans to serve
the public good.
 Sieve Shaker
- This equipment is used to analyze the o Highways
particles of sample aggregates as it is sifted o Bridges
according to its sizes. o Canals
o Dams
o Subways
 Liquid Limit Testing Equipment
o Tunnels
- This equipment determines the water
o Utility Piping System
content at which soil changes from a liquid
o Water Control Construction
to a plastic state.
 o Communication networks o Design intent is a statement that defines the
 Industrial Construction anticipated aesthetics, functional, and performance
characteristic of the finish building or project.
It refers to the building of large scale manufacturing,
processing and chemical plants or utility generation o It identifies potential problems/ pitfalls, code and
installations. planning requirements, community concerns,
functions/ usage, lifestyle trends and image building

o The result of pre-design work will be a written

PRE-CONSTRUCTION ACTIVITIES program. A program is a written document that explain
design intensions, control, and standards for a project,
o Owners, both private and public, plan buildings, and including detailed space requirements and the types of
other construction projects to accommodate desired equipment and the systems to be used.
functional and spatial requirements.
o This phase is complete when the owner and architect
o Planning, designing, and completing construction of a agree that the scope of work, anticipated construction
large building project is a complicated undertaking. cost and time schedule are well defined.
o A vast array of planning decisions must be made at the o During the design development, initial design ideas are
onset of any construction project. further elaborated into detailed drawing of the building
indicating exact sizes and relationships between
o Owners most often procure the services on building elements
architect/engineering/contracting firm to help in the
development of project definition, feasibility, referred o Architects use a system of orthographic drawing of a
to as the pre- design phase. building or structure to simplify the graphic
understanding of complex forms.
o The design of a building involves the utilization of
space and all the factors that go with it. o The floor plan is representation of building viewed
from above after a horizontal plane has been cut
o This includes physical requirements, psychological through it and the portion removed.
requirements that reflects the attitudes and behavior of
those using the space, and the need for those in the o A building section gives a view of a building after a
building to carry out the activities expected to occur in vertical plane has been cut through it and the front
the building. portion is removed.
o In some cases, the project team may be required to o An elevation drawing shows the exterior façade of a
create a scope of work that involves new sidewalk, building, delineating geometries and the materials of
curbs and gutters, or street lightning. construction.

o Because of multitude of systems under consideration

at this stage, the architect will normally hire the
PRE-DESIGN AND DESIGN DEVELOPMENT services of the other design consultant in the
development of the system.
o Once the architect has been identified, the pre-design
portion of the work can begin. o Structural, mechanical, electrical, plumbing, and civil
engineering, fire protection consultant, interior and
o In this phase, other design consultant and the owner
landscape designers and cost estimating consultants
mutually determine the goals and objectives of the
are common on most projects of large scale.
project.
o Depending on the type of building being designed,
o Design sketches and feasibility studies are develop as
other specialty consultants, such as traffic and parking
a series of alternatives for approval by the owner.
professionals, lighting designers, or acoustical
o Early design efforts focus on establishing what is
specialists, may be brought in to work with the team.
known as the design intent. o If a contractor for the project has been selected it is
advisable to include the in the development of
 solutions for constructability and other technical • Divisions 2 to 19 – deals mainly with the materials in
aspects of the construction. construction for buildings. It is the Facility Construction
Subgroup.

• Divisions 20 to 29 – cover mechanical, electrical,

plumbing, fire protection, and communication
equipment. These are the Facility Services Subgroup.
CONSTRUCTION DOCUMENTS (CD)
• Divisions 30 to 39 – concerned with earthworks,
Once all the basic decisions have been approved by the transportation, and marine construction topics. These are
owner, the architect and all consultants will commence
with the final phase the construction document. This CD • While Division 40-49, the final sub group deals, with
consist of two interdependent components: larger industrial process. It is the Process Equipment
Subgroup
 Construction Drawings
- Sometimes referred to as working drawings,
shows the dimensional relationships between all
aspects of the building: their form, sizes, and PROJECT DELIVERY PROCESS
quantities.
- These drawings, usually computer generated, Governs the condition under which construction project
with dimensions, indicating the physical will be completed and defines the relationship between
relationship between components – their the owner, architect, or firm and contractor
location, range, the materials used, and their
colors and texture.
- The drawing are the basis on which the
contractor generates cost estimates and are used CONSTRUCTION CONTRACTORS
to guide the actual construction of the building
 GENERAL CONTRACTORS
on the site.
- Assume the responsibility for the construction of an
entire project at a specific cost and by specific date.
 Construction Specifications
- Responsible for the developing project schedules
- The construction documents include a written
and sequencing and coordinating the work of all
manual called specification.
subcontractors
- Specification describe in writing more detailed
- Determines the actual methods and techniques of
information on the exact types of materials to be
construction as well as implementing safety
used and the ways in which construction
precautions on the building site
processes are conducted.
- Signs contract with subcontractors
- These are written using master format.

Master Format - It provides a standard for writing

specifications using a system of descriptive titles and
 SUPERINTENDENT
numbers to organize construction activities, products,
- General contractor’s on-site representative
and requirements into a standard order. The numbers and
responsible for continuous field supervision,
titles in master format are divided in to fifty groupings
coordination, and completion of work
called division.
- Makes sure that the work proceeds according to the
project schedule and that the activities of the various
subcontractors working on the site will not interfere
Divisions: with one another

• Division 0- Procurement and contracting requirements

• Division 1- describes the general requirements of the  SUBCONTRACTORS

contract, outlining administrative methods for a - Who perform the required work within their
construction project, such as project management technical areas, such as all the electrical, plumbing,
procedures and construction facilities and controls. roofing, bricklaying, carpentry or concrete
- Work independently on site, bringing their own
employees, supervisors, and tools for the job
  SPECIALTY CONTRACTORS
- Do the work required in a limited area, like
elevator or communication equipment CONSTRUCTION METHOD
installation for instance
A subcontractor is an individual who is hired by a
contractor to provide the contractor with goods or
services necessary to complete the tasks specified in an
existing agreement. A subcontractor will be hired by a
contractor after the contractor has been hired by a
SELECTING THE CONTRACTORS company.

HOW IS BIDDING DONE?

Reason for Subcontractors:
Contractors are to bid on a competitive basis with the
contract often being awarded to the contractor that General Contractors don’t always have enough resources
submits the most reasonable bid. and workforce to complete a project, that’s why they
seek subcontractors to have them provided for it.
o COMPETITIVE BIDDING - for publicly
financed projects construction contractors; qualified List of agreement
construction contractors
o INVITATIONAL BIDDING - for privately funded - Scope of Work
projects; preselected contractors - Safety Requirement
o NEGOTIATED CONTRACT - An owner may - Due Date (Duration)
decide on a contractor with whom they have - Worker Insurance
worked on previous projects without seeking other - Property Insurance
bids - Additional Payment
- Disclosure Agreement

PROJECT DELIVERY METHODS AND TYPES OF Construction scheduling

CONSTRUCTION CONTRACTS
- The construction schedule assigns progressive dates to
PROJECT DELIVERY METHODS all project activities and phases.
- Project scheduling is used to match resources of
A project delivery method determines how a equipment, material and labor with project construction
construction project will be completed, delegates the phases over time.
responsibilities, rewards, and risk between participants, - Poor scheduling can result in considerable waste as
and regulates the relationship between the owner and the workers and equipment wait for needed sources or the
contractor. completion of preceding tasks by other trades.

3 COMMON TYPE OF CONTRACT - The most widely used scheduling techniques is the
“Critical Path Method (CPM)”
CONSTRUCTION MANAGEMENT - The owner
may hire a construction manager to provide input during Critical Path Method is one of the most used
the design phase and oversight and administration of scheduling techniques in the construction industry
bidding and construction phase. due to its simplicity and powerful resource that it
can be. The Critical Path Method is a useful tool
DESIGN-BID-BUILD - It is the traditional method of that can lead you to achieve your project results
project delivery that moves sequentially from conception and help you delivering the project on time. The
of a project through its construction. Generally it has the Critical Path Method schedule shall include all
lowest construction cost. work specified in the Contract Documents,
including all expected activities of subcontractors,
DESIGN-BUILD - In this contracting method, the vendors, suppliers and all other parties associated
owner contracts with a single party that completes all with construction of the project.
portions of the work from design through construction.
This contract tends to produce shorter overall project Permitting
schedules.
- The building permit is a certificate issued by the local steel work, concrete reinforcing or pre-cast concrete
authority having jurisdiction authorizing the construction components.
of a project after a thorough review of construction
documents to ensure compliance with local building, SUBMITTALS - These are drawings, schedules,
safety, and fire codes. performance data, and brochures that give
manufacturer’s information on the characteristics of a
material and allow the architect to verify that the product
under consideration will satisfy the requirements listed
in the specification.

“MUST” on permitting CONSTRUCTION MOCK-UP - Is a full-size model

of a proposed construction system built to judge the
- The construction must secure a variety regulatory appearance of an assembly, examine its construction
permit prior to any work commencing on site. details, and test for performance under actual size
conditions.
- The building permit be posted in a clear visible
location until the end of project is completed.

- Most commercial projects will require a general OTHER IMPORTANT DOCUMENTS IN

building permit as well as electrical, plumbing, HVAC,
CONSTRUCTION
and other permits.
- Inspector employed with the jurisdiction will conduct Construction Observation
inspection of the work throughout the progress of
construction to ensure that the installed work adheres to - An onsite visit by the design architect or
all applicable codes and standards. engineer to determine if the construction
Pre- construction planning and temporary facilities
materials and installations are in accordance
with the documents and specifications,
- Once a building permit has been secured and the which includes review of testing reports.
contract between the contractor and owner is signed, the
actual on-site construction can begin Contractor Requests for Information (RFI)
- Requirements for temporary facilities are outlined in
division 01 of the contract document. - The request for information (RFI) is used by
- Field offices are often housed in mobile trailers that are the contractor to obtain clarification on specific
fully furnished and provided with modern components and assemblies that are not fully
communication equipment. detailed or understood through comprehensive
- Temporary utilities must be brought to the site to review of the drawings and specifications.
provide the power and sanitation required by worker and
equipment. - These requests often occur in the building
- Many municipalities have instituted construction and phase, as the contractor examines the documents
demolition recycling ordinances requiring construction
in detail for the first time.
sites to recycle a percentage of waste that is generated.
Materials such as wood, aluminum, steel, bricks, and - A contractor could ask for instance for more
tile, and packaging material can easily be recycled in
information on the details of an interior finish
today’s expanding recycled materials market.
- A pre-construction conference, attended by the owner, application.
architect, general contractor or construction manager,
Modifications to the Construction Contract
and invited subcontractors is held to communicate the
ongoing management procedures of the project. - Every construction project encounters
conditions that require a change to be made to
the original contrast documents.
SHOP DRAWINGS, SUBMITTALS, AND MOCK-
UPS - Changes may be required for a number of
reasons, including newly discovered conditions,
SHOP DRAWINGS - Gives precise directives for the design omissions or errors, or changes in the
fabrication of certain components, such as structural scope of the work.
Construction Change Directive (CCD) quality of workmanship meets the specified
standards.
It is a written order prepared by the architect and
signed by the owner directing a change in the work 4. CERTIFICATION
and stating a proposed basis for adjustments in the
The contractor will apply to the local jurisdiction
contract time, cost or both.
for a certificate of occupancy. The certificate issued
by the local building department indicating that the
building is compliant with locally adopted building
Change Order
codes and is in proper condition to be occupied.
It is a written directive to the contractor issued after
the execution of an argument that authorizes an
addition, deletion, revision to the project along with CONSTRUCTION SAFETY
the related adjustments in contract budget and time.
Throughout any construction projects, a thorough
accident prevention and safety training program
PROJECT CLOSE OUT must be implemented and maintained. The
construction industry has one of the most hazardous
The practice of project close-out finalizes all project
work environments in the country so the U.S.
activities completed across all phases of the project
congress passed the Occupational Safety and Health
to formally close the project and transfer the
Administration (OSHA) for construction to give
completed or cancelled project as appropriate.
extensive guidelines for construction means,
methods, and material handling. Here in the
Philippines we have Occupational Safety and
PURPOSE OF PROJECT CLOSE OUT
Health Standard (OSHS) which cover every
- Assess the project conceivable aspect of construction safety, from
personal protective equipment and lifesaving
- Ensure completion equipment, tool and equipment safety, fire
- Derive any lesson learned and practices to be protection and prevention, materials storage, use
applied in future and disposal, to the signs, signals and barricades
projects that are required on site.

1. CONSULTATION
When the contractor determines that the work is
nearing completion, the architect or construction
manager is asked to return to the site and conduct an
inspection of substantial completion.
2. ASSESSMENT
Listing the remaining items to be installed or
repaired and to collate and submit all product and
equipment warranties.
3. INSPECTION
Before a final certificate of completion can be
issued, the inspecting authority must substantiate
that all work is installed and complete, and the
 2. Specific Weight – also known as the unit weight;
this is the weight per unit volume of material.
3. Porosity – also known as void fraction; measure
of the void (hollow space) in a material.

2.1 General Properties of Materials B. Physical Properties

FACTORS IN CHOOSING THE PROPER 1. Moisture – this is the content of water contained
MATERIAL FOR A STRUCTURE in a material.
The figure below shows the five primary areas that 2. Thermal Conductivity – this pertains to the
must be evaluated in selection appropriate ability of material to carry out heat.
materials.
3. Thermal Expansion – this pertains to the
expansion or contraction of the material as the
temperature changes.
4. Viscosity – it is the resistance of a fluid which is
being deformed by either shear or tensile stress.

C. Mechanical Properties
 A measure of a material’s ability to resist a
variety of mechanical forces.
 Resistance to applied loads (stress) initially
and over time.

1. Strength, Rigidity and Durability (Property

of Material) 1. Strength – this pertains to the behavior of a
2. Environmental Requirements material, specifically solid objects, which
experiences stresses or strains.
3. Economy and others
2. Stress-Strain Relation – if no external force is
being applied to an object or material, this can be
SOME FUNDAMENTAL PROPERTIES OF considered as an equilibrium position as all its
MATERIALS (BUILDING) components are in place. Otherwise, this material
will exert an effort to go back to its equilibrium or
A. Structural Characteristics initial position. Technically, this is how you can
understand the meaning of Stress. It can be
1. Density – mass of a unit volume of a material; it
calculated by dividing the external force applied by
can be obtained by dividing the total mass by its
the cross-sectional area of the material. While the
total volume.
material is experiencing Stress, it undergoes
deformation. This is where we can correlate Strain
to Stress. Strain is the measurement that shows the
change in length of the material divided by its
original length.
 9. Permeability - the rate the water flows through a
material. Unit: Perm typically referred to as the
perm rating; ex. a vapor retarder is defined as a
material having a perm rating of 1.0 or less.
10. Hardness - this is a measure of the ability of a
material to resist indentation or surface scratching.
It is the result of several properties of a material,
such as elasticity, ductility, brittleness and
toughness.
11. Impact Strength - this is the ability of a material
to resist a very rapidly applied load, such as the
strike of a hammer. It is an indication of the
toughness of a material. A material with high
impact strength will absorb the energy of impact
2.1 Yield Strength – it is the maximum stress limit
without fracturing. It is affected by strength and
of a material wherein it cannot return to its original
ductility.
shape.
12. Fatigue Strength - this is the resistance if a
2.2 Ultimate Strength – this is the maximum stress
material to a cyclic load, one that varies in direction
that the material can take before breaking; also
and/or magnitude. This is illustrated by bending a
known as tensile strength.
wire back and forth until it breaks. Most materials
3. Elastic Behavior – this is the ability of the are lower in fatigue strength than they are in tensile
material to deform when external force is applied strength. Failures due to fatigue stress occur slowly,
and to return to its original state when the stress is and most materials that fail due to fatigue offer
eliminated. some useful life before failure. This is an important
factor to consider when the useful life of a product
4. Modulus of Elasticity - this is a proportional
is established.
constant between stress and strain. It is defines
stiffness and rigidity of a material, governs
deflections and influences buckling behavior.
D. Other Properties
Thermal Properties
 are those that are related to the material’s
response to heat. When a material is
5. Ductility – this is the ability of the material to subjected to a change in temperature it may
experience large amount of deformations without expand, contract, conduct or reflect heat.
breaking before failure.
 Insulators, Conductors, Thermal
6. Tensile Stress - this is created when forces pull Conductivity (k), Thermal Conductance (c),
on a member and tend to increase its length. Composite Thermal Performance, Change of
State, Heat Capacity
7. Compressive Stress - this is a push (compress) on
a member and tend to shorten it. Acoustic Properties
8. Shear Stress - produce forces that work in  is that branch of physics that deals with the
opposite directions parallel with the plane of the generation, transmission and control of
force, causing adjacent parts of a material to slide sound waves. It considers the ability of a
past one another. material to either absorb or reflect sound
waves within a room. The acoustical
 properties of interior finish materials
directly affect occupants by influencing the
quality of speech, music, and other audio
sounds projected in a space. Acoustical
materials that perform well as sound
absorbers include soft materials such as
fabrics, rigid but soft materials, and rigid but
hard materials that have the exposed surf ace
perforated with holes or slots of varying
sizes and placement,

Chemical Properties
 Potential reaction with environment
3. Classification according to Size
 its tendency to undergo a chemical change
or reaction due its composition and  Fine Aggregates – these are aggregates that
interaction with the environment. A pass a 4.75 mm sieve.
chemical change can alter the original
composition of material and thereby affect  Course Aggregates – these are aggregates
its properties. that are retained on a 4.75 mm sieve.

MANUFACTURING PROCESS OF
AGGREGATES
2.2 Construction Aggregates

For Normal Aggregates

AGGREGATES
Step 1: Supply
CLASSIFICATION OF AGGREGATES
The following are the three major sources of
1. Classification according to Source: aggregates:
 Natural Aggregates a. Unconsolidated (loose) rock – materials which
 Crushed Rock Aggregates were formed from clay, silt, sand, and gravel left by
 Artificial Aggregates flowing streams like river.
 Recycled Aggregates – these are aggregates
from construction or demolition waste. b. Solid Rock – materials like limestone or volcanic
rock
c. Recycled Materials – materials from actual
2. Classification according to Unit Weight construction (e.g. demolition works)
Since aggregates vary, its density and unit weights
also have discrepancies. The table below shows the
different classifications of aggregates: Step 2: Extraction
In this step, certain selections or choices are being GRADATION OF AGGREGATES
made like for color or hardness as it can make a
huge difference in the appearance of the aggregates. Gradation is the process undergone by a material
that has series of sequential degrees. One important
characteristic of an aggregate is the distribution of
Step 3: Crushing, Grinding, Screening its size particle. For example, large aggregates are
beneficial in Portland cement as it requires less
Once extraction is done, materials are transferred to binder. Hence, more economical. However, it is
the processing site for scalping. This is the process tougher and more difficult to work into place.
of shaping the stones to various sizes.
1. Sieving Method

2. For Lightweight Aggregates

2. Fineness Modulus

In order for you to produce lightweight aggregates, This is used to determine the degree of uniformity
raw materials are lengthened to about two times the of the aggregate gradation.
original volume of it. Having said that, material will
be less dense. Hence, the lighter concrete material.

The production of lightweight aggregate:

 Mining or quarrying the raw material.
 The material is crushed with cone crushers, jaw
crushers, hammer mills, or pug mills and is
screened for size. Oversized material is returned
to the crushers, and the material that passes
through the screens is transferred to the storage.
 From the storage, the material is fed to a rotary
kiln, which is fired with coal, coke, natural gas,
or fuel oil, to temperatures of about 1200°C.
 As the material is heated, it liquefies and
carbonaceous compounds in the material form
gas bubbles, which expand the material; in the
process, volatile organic compounds (VOC) are
released. From the kiln, the expanded product
(clinker) is transferred by conveyor into the
clinker cooler where it is cooled by air, forming
a porous material.
 After cooling, the lightweight aggregate is PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
screened for size, crushed if necessary,
stockpiled (storage), and shipped. 1.1 Bulk Unit Weight and Voids

Bulk Unit Weight pertains to the weight of

aggregate required to fill a specific amount of
volume. This is essential for the balanced
 mixture of Portland Cement concrete. This is The Absorption Capacity is the maximum amount
determined as: that water aggregate can absorb. It can be
determined as follows:

The Surface Moisture is the amount of water on

the surface of the aggregate particle. It can be
1.2 Specific Gravity determined as follows:

Specific Gravity is the weight of the material

divided by the weight of an equal volume of
water.
The Moisture Content can be calculated as:
1.3 Particle Shape and Surface Texture

The appearance of an aggregate like shape and

texture determines how well it will contain into
a dense formation and determines the movement
of it in the mixture. Where:
Wssd – weight of saturated surface dry aggregate
1.4 Absorption and Surface Moisture
Wo.dry – weight of oven dry aggregate
When used in concrete:
Wmoist – weight of moist aggregate
It is said that the amount of water absorbed by the
aggregates is important in the design of Portland 2. CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
Cement Concrete. Although it is not specified, it
2.1 Chemical Composition
still must be evaluated to know the right amount
of water to be mixed into the concrete. Aggregates are required to be tested first to check
if there is a presence of any substance that can
When used in asphalt:
react with alkali because it can cause excessive
The more absorption the aggregates get, the greater expansion, cracking, and weakening of concrete
amount of asphalt binder will be required. mix.
Hence, mixture will be less economical.

USES OF AGGREGATES

There are many ways aggregates can be used

especially in construction. For example, in roads
and railways, aggregates resist the overall load
present, also helps to distribute the loads to the
ground and drain the water off the surface.
When it comes to concrete mixture, aggregates
help in strengthening it. They can also be used
in water filtration and sewage treatment
processes.