3.

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

• Deals with the reaction of materials to external stresses and involves a relationship
between stress and strain.
• Metals may deform when they are subjected to external stresses.
• Deformation can be classified as:
- Elastic Deformation
is a temporary deformation or the material deforms elastically which means
it will regain its original shape when the force is removed.
Plastic deformation
is permanent deformation or the material will not regain its original shape
when the applied force is removed.
• Includes: Hardness, Strength, Fatigue, Torsion and Creep

3.1 HARDNESS AND ITS TEST

3.1.1 HARDNESS
• May be defined as the ability of a material to resist permanent indentation or
deformation or abrasion when a load is subject to it.
• Is quantified using scales that directly or indirectly indicate the contact pressure
involved in deforming the test surface.
• Is determined experimentally using hardness testers
3.1.2 HARDNESS TEST
• Is carried out for vast range of materials including: metals, polymers, elastomers,
thin films, semiconductors, and ceramics.
• Is the simplest and the least expensive method of mechanically characterizing a
material since it does not require an elaborate specimen preparation equipment,
and is relatively quick.
• Requires well-polished sample with parallel opposite surfaces.
• Uses indenter with known geometry including:
- Spherical indenter (Brinell test)
- Pyramidal shape indenter (Vickers and Knoop tests)
- Conical Indenter (Rockwell test).
• May be classified based on the:
- Type of measurement into:
Area indentation (Brinell, Vickers, Knoop)
Depth indentation (Rockwell, Nanoindentation).
- Magnitude of indentation load into:
Macrohardness (1 to 120 kgf for vicker, 15 to 150 kgf for Rockwell,
3000 kgf for brinell )
Microhardness (Vickers and Knoop) use smaller loads ranging from
1 gf to 1 kgf,
Nanohardness (nanoindentation test with a load of 0.1mN, with
depth measurements in the 20 nm range)
 - Nature of the test into:
Indentation hardness test or static (Brinell, Vickers, Rockwell,
knop)
Is of major engineering interest for metals.
Dynamic (scleroscope)
Scratch hardness test
Is of primary interest to mineralogists
Is measured according to the Mohs’ scale using 10
standard minerals arranged in the order of their ability lo be scratched . The
softest mineral in this scale is talc (scratch hardness 1), while diamond has a
hardness of 10
3.1.2.1 Brinell Hardness test
• Is carried out using a hardened steel ball indenter of known diameter for metals
For steel, P/D2 = 30
For soft metals, P/D2 = 5
Where, D is diameter of the steel ball.
For steel, when D = 10mm, then P= 3000 kgf
For soft metals, when D=10 mm, P = 500 kgf
• Requires a low-power microscope for accurately measuring diameter of the indentation
Duration of indentation is 30 s.
• Uses Brinell hardness number (BHN) or HB as a scale.
• Is computed by dividing the load to the curved surface area of
indentation
𝐃
𝐀= (𝑫 − ( 𝐃𝟐 − 𝐝𝟐 ) )
𝟐

where, D - diameter of Steel ball, mm

d - mean diameter of impression, mm
𝐝𝟏 + 𝐝𝟐
𝐝= where
𝟐
P - Test load, kgf
𝟐𝐏 𝐏
= t - depth of the impression, mm
𝐃 𝐃−( 𝐃 − 𝐝 ) 𝐃𝐭
𝟐 𝟐
It is noticed that the units of the BHN or HB
are MPa.
• Is equipped with microscope having micrometre scales or other measuring device
for measuring diameter of indentation.
• Uses flat, polished samples with parallel opposite surfaces.
• Minimum of three impression need to be taken for a sample so that the its Brinell
hardness will become the mean hardness values of the three impressions
𝐇𝐁𝟏 + 𝐇𝐁𝟐 + 𝐇𝐁𝟑
𝐇𝐁 =
𝟑

3.1.2.2 Vickers hardness test

• Is an indentation hardness test that uses a square-base diamond pyramid indenter
with an apex angle of 136°.
• Is also called as diamond-pyramid hardness test (DPHT).
• Has received fairly wide acceptance for research work.
• Uses a scale VHN, or VPH or DPH or HV, which is the ratio of load to surface area
of the indentation.
• Is made at test forces of 1 - 120 kgf.
• Measures wide range hardness values, i.e. from very soft metals with a DPH of 5 to
extremely hard materials with a DPH of 1,500.
The vickers testing machine can be equipped with measuring optical
microscope mounted on it to locate and measure the diagonals of impression in the
specimen.
• Is computed using the relationship: 𝟐
𝐏 𝒅
𝐇𝐕 = 𝐀= 
𝐀 𝟐𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐
 d1 + d2
d=
2

2Psin

P 2 1.8544P
HV = = =
A d2 d2

Where
P - applied load, kg
d - mean diagonal of impression, mm
 - included face angle of diamond = 136°

Minimum of three impression need to be

taken for a sample so that the its
hardness will become the mean hardness
values of the impressions

HV1 + HV2 + HV3

HV =
3
3.1.2.3 Rockwell Hardness Test
• Is classified as
- Rockwell superficial hardness test.
Uses preliminary test force of 3 kgf and total test forces of 15 kgf , 30 kgf,
and 45 kgf
- Rockwell hardness test
Has wide acceptance in industries due to its speed.
Utilizes the depth of indentation, under constant load, as a measure of
hardness.
Uses a minor load of 10 kg and major loads of 60, 100, 150 kg and scales
HRC, HRB and HRA respectively depending on the shape of indenter.
C-scale corresponds to 150 kg major load and diamond cone indenter
B-scale corresponds to 100 kg major load and 1/16-in-diameter steel
ball indenter
A-scale corresponds to 60 kg major load and diamond indenter
Provides useful information about tensile strength, wear resistance, ductility,
and other physical characteristics of metallic materials.
Is equipped with a dial gage to measure depth of penetration of indenter. The
dial contains 100 divisions, each division representing a penetration (0.002 mm. The
dial is reversed to read the hardness value. high hardness, which corresponds to a small
penetration.
Requires impeccably clean and polished sample for the test.
3.1.2.4 Scleroscope Hardness Tests:
• Utilize the principle of loss of potential energy as a result of impact.
• Measures the mechanical energy absorbed by the material when the indenters strikes the
surface.
The energy absorbed gives an indication of resistance to penetration, which matches
out definition of hardness.
• Uses a dropping a diamond tipped hammer contained in a glass tube with graduated scale
• Can be easily carried to large surfaces of work piece which cannot easily be placed on the
testing tables.
• Can be used for measuring hardness of monolithic materials or large parts of steel, large,
rolls, casting and gears.
The hardness number depends on the height to which the hammer rebounds after the
dropping hammer hit the test sample.
The higher the distance of bounce, is the less the absorbed energy or is the higher the
hardness of metal.
Exercise 1
1. A steel sample was indented by brinell method using a standard load and 5 mm of steel ball
indenter, the average diameter of impression (indentation) was found to be 2.2 mm. What will be
the Brinell hardness value of the steel specimen?

Solution
The applied force, P for steel sample is determined from the relation ship

P/D2 = 30

P = 30D2 = 30(52) = 750 kg

Area of impression is determined by the formula:
𝐃
𝐀= (𝑫 − ( 𝐃𝟐 − 𝐝𝟐 ) )
𝟐

3.14 𝑋 5 3.14 𝑋 5
A= (5- (52 -2.22 ) = (0.51) = 4 mm2
2 2
Brinell hardness = P/A
750/4 = 187.5 Kg/mm2 = 187.5 HB
Exercise 2.
A steel sample was indented by Vickers method using a standard load and 10 kg of
load, the average diagonal of impression (indentation) was found to be 0.3 mm. What
will be the vickers hardness value of the steel specimen?
Solution
Area of diamond square pyramid indentation is determined by the given formula:

𝒅𝟐 𝟎.𝟑𝟐 𝟎.𝟎𝟗 𝟎.𝟎𝟗

𝐀=  = 𝟏𝟑𝟔 = 𝟏𝟑𝟔 = 𝟏.𝟖𝟓𝟒 = 0.048 mm
2
𝟐𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐
𝟐𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐
𝟐

𝑷 𝟏𝟎 𝒌𝒈𝒇
Vickers Hardness = = = 208 HV
𝑨 𝟎.𝟎𝟒𝟖 mm2
3.2 Strength of Materials
Strength
• Is defined as the ability of a material to resist deformation (tension and compression) or
failure under applied loads or stresses.
• Is determined by subjecting a standard specimen to an external tensile or compressive load
Strength of ductile materials is tested by tensile test
Strength of brittle materials is tested by compression test

3.2.1 Tensile Test:

• Determines the resistance of a material to axial tensile load applied
• Measures the plastic behaviour of a material.
• Considers a specimen of standard dimensions and profiles
Specimen can have:
round cross sectional area
plate(sheet) form
• Is accomplished by gripping opposite ends of a test item and extending it within the load frame of a test
machine.

Plate specimen
Round shape specimen
3.2.2 Stress and Strain Diagram
P
Stress () = A
L1 −Lo L
Strain (e) = = , Strain is a unitless measurement
Lo Lo

• Is classified as:
- Engineering stress-strain Diagram
Are the stress-strain values of material calculated without accounting for the fine details of
plastic deformation.
Considers only original cross sectional area.
P
Eng = ,
AO
Li −Lo
e=
Lo
Eng: Is engineering stress
e: Is engineering strain
Ao: Original cross-sectional area
Uses units:
kgf/mm2
Pa (Pascal or N/m2)
PSI (pounds per square inch)
- True stress-strain Diagram
Are the actual stress and strain experienced by a material while taking into account its
 P
True = Ai
Ai : Is the instantaneous cross-sectional area
: true strain
L
 = ln 𝑒 + 1 = lnL
o

1) No load
2) 2-3 Uniform elongation
4) Necking
5) Fracture
6) Total elongation Stress strain diagram of ductile (non-ferrous) metals
 3.2.3 Stress-Strain curve of low carbon steel

Load-elongation diagram of low carbon steel Stress-Strain diagram of low carbon steel

Critical points of the stress strain diagrams

i. Elastic Limit (A):-
- Is a stress on the stress-strain curve where elastic deformation ends and
plastic deformation begins
Straight line OA is region of Elastic Deformation and here, force or
stress is proportional to elongation or strain respectively.
- Is a region in which Hook’s law works, i.e
Stress 
E = strain = = constant
e

Where, E is Modulus of elasticity

E) is determined in elastic region (AB)
ii. Proportional Limit (B):-
- Comes following elastic limit (A) and is a point at which the straight line OA will start to
curve
Hook’s law doesn’t work in this region
iii. Yield Point (D):-
- Is the stress at which plastic deformation starts and here an increase in strain happens
without an increase in stress.
- From D to E, the metal undergoes plastic deformation with no increase in load (yielding).
- is determined for most ductile metals by offsetting the stress-strain curve by 0.2% along the
horizontal (strain) axis
Curve E to F is a region where both elastic and plastic deformation occurs.
iv. Ultimate tensile strength (F):-
- Is the highest stress on the stress-strain curve at which the test specimen begins to “neck.” -
Curve F to G extension occurs under reduced load conditions (necking)
v. Fracture stress (G):-
- Is the breaking point where the test specimen parts or fractures.
vi. Young's Modulus of elasticity:-
- Is the slope of the stress-strain curve in the range of linear proportionality.
- Is measure of rigidity or stiffness of a metal; the stress/strain ratio is constant in this region.
3.2.4 Ductility
Is defined the amount of deformation the material undertake before fracture during tension
test.
Is measured using either of these two methods :
i. Percentage of elongation after fracture (%)
Lf −Lo L
(%) = x 100% = x 100%
Lo Lo
Lo :- Initial length of the tensile specimen
Lf :- Final length of the tensile specimen
Lf is measured by carefully fitting the fractured specimen together and
measuring the length.
ii. Percentage of reduction in area after fracture
A −A A
= 0A f x 100% = A x 100%
o o
Final L is determined by carefully fitting the fractured specimen together and measuring the
length.
Ao :- Initial cross sectional area of the tensile specimen
Af :- Final cross sectional area of the tensile specimen (after fracture)
Af is calculated by carefully fitting the fractured specimen together and
measuring the tip diameter.
3.3 Compression Test:
• Is not used for ductile materials as their failure by compression is not clearly detectable.
• Is largely used for brittle materials
• Increases the cross sectional area and doesn’t create necking
Brittle materials, like cast iron have higher compression resistance but poorer resistance to
tensile loading.

Tensile and compressive Stress-

Tensile and compressive Stress-strain strain curve for concrete
curve for grey cast iron
3.4 FATIGUE OF METALS
• Fatigue failure:
- Is defined as the tendency of a material to fracture by means of progressive brittle
cracking under repeated alternating or cyclic stresses
- Occurs:
under conditions of repetitive or fluctuating stress below the loads that would result in
yielding of the material
usually in rotating components of automobiles, aircraft, compressors, pumps, turbines,
etc
with no gross deformation or it results in a brittle-appearing fracture or is particularly
insidious because it occurs without any obvious warning and are called catastrophic failure.
at a point of stress concentration such as a sharp corner or notch or at a metallurgical
stress concentration like an inclusion.
- Has fracture surface which is usually normal to the direction of the principal tensile
stress.
The fracture surface shows:
a smooth region, due to the rubbing action as the crack propagated through the
section
a rough region, where the member has failed in a ductile manner when the cross
section was no longer able to carry the load
 - Is caused by large number of cycles of the applied stress (amplitude and frequency)
- Is indicated by a series of rings, or “beach marks,” progressing inward from the point of
initiation of the failure
- May depend on
Stress concentration
corrosion
temperature
load
metallurgical structure
residual stresses
STRESS CYCLES
Fatigue Testing Machine
• Are divided into:
i. Completely reversed stress, m = 0
are sinusoidal form and the maximum and
minimum stresses are equal
 ii. Repeated stress :
Are stresses whose maximum and minimum values of stresses are not equal
May consist maximum and minimum stresses of:
* Opposite signs that is one in tension (+ve) and the other in compression (-ve)
* Similar signs (both in compression)
* Similar signs (both in tension)
* tension-zero

tension-zero tension-tension

tension-compression
Irregular or random stress
- encounters in a part such as an aircraft wing which is subjected to
periodic unpredictable overloads due to gusts.
- Any fluctuating stress cycle may contain the given components
Mean stress m
Alternating stress, a
Range of stress r which is the algebraic difference between the maximum and
minimum stress in a cycle.

The two ratios used in presenting fatigue data are Stress ratio and Amplitude Stress ratio

Amplitude ratio
The S-N curve (Stress-Number of cycles to failure curve)
The S-N curve of ferrous metals :
- Shows a decrease in number of cycle to failure with an increase in stress
- Becomes horizontal at a certain stress called endurance limit or fatigue limit.
- Is usually determined with about 8 to 12 specimens.
The S-N curves of non-ferrous metals:
- Slops gradually downward with increasing number of cycles.
- Do not have a true fatigue limit because the S-N curve never becomes horizontal,
hence fatigue properties are characterized by giving arbitrary number of cycles, for example
107 cycles.

Endurance limit or Fatigue limit is a stress limit

below which the material can endure an infinite
number of cycles without failure.
Typical fatigue curves for ferrous and nonferrous metals
Procedure for determining S-N curve
- Test the first specimen at a high stress (about two-thirds the static tensile strength of the
material ) where failure is expected in a fairly short number of cycles
- Decrease the test stress for each succeeding specimen until one or two specimens do not fail
in the specified numbers of cycles, which is usually at least 107 cycles.