Experiment 2: Hardness Test

AIM
1. To develop a comprehensive understanding of hardness as a material property and its relevance
in engineering applications.
2. To perform standard hardness tests and accurately interpret commonly used hardness scales and
values.
3. To understand the correlation between hardness measurements and other material properties
such as strength, ductility, and wear resistance.
4. To evaluate the advantages, limitations, and proper applications of different hardness testing
methods.

THEORY
Hardness is a critical mechanical property that defines a material’s resistance to localized plastic
deformation, typically measured through indentation. It plays a fundamental role in material
selection, quality assurance, and mechanical design, particularly in industries requiring components
that resist wear, abrasion, and deformation (Callister & Rethwisch, 2020).

The principle of hardness testing involves forcing a hard indenter of specified geometry (e.g., steel
ball, diamond cone, or diamond pyramid) into the surface of the test specimen under a predetermined
load. The size, depth, or shape of the indentation is then measured to derive a hardness number
according to specific scales. Different hardness testing methods have been developed to cater to
various material types and testing conditions, each offering distinct advantages.

Common Hardness Testing Methods:

Rockwell Hardness Test: This is one of the most widely used methods in industrial applications due
to its simplicity and rapid testing capability. It measures the depth of indentation under a major load,
following an initial minor preload to establish zero reference (ASTM E18). Different Rockwell
scales (e.g., A, B, C) use various combinations of loads and indenters based on material hardness.

Brinell Hardness Test (BHN): Suitable for materials with coarse structures or surface irregularities,
the Brinell method employs a steel or tungsten carbide ball and measures the diameter of the
indentation left under a heavy load (ASTM E10).

Vickers Hardness Test (VHN): Employing a diamond pyramid-shaped indenter, the Vickers test is
highly versatile and can be used for very small specimens or thin materials. It provides a continuous
scale and excellent reproducibility (ASTM E92).

Knoop Hardness Test: Designed for microhardness testing, the Knoop method uses a rhombohedral-
shaped diamond indenter and is ideal for very thin materials or coatings.

Each method is chosen based on factors such as material type, test sample geometry, desired
accuracy, and whether the test needs to be micro- or macro-scale.
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN HARDNESS AND OTHER MECHANICAL PROPERTIES

Hardness often correlates with other critical mechanical properties, particularly tensile strength. For
metals, empirical relationships, such as those linking Brinell hardness numbers (BHN) to ultimate
tensile strength (UTS), provide valuable estimations without needing full-scale tensile tests (Dieter,
1986). Additionally, harder materials usually display enhanced wear resistance but may exhibit
reduced ductility, influencing the material’s toughness and fracture behavior.

Processes like work hardening (strain hardening) and thermal treatments (e.g., quenching and
tempering) significantly alter hardness by modifying the microstructure — refining grain size,
forming martensitic phases, or increasing dislocation density.

ROCKWELL HARDNESS TEST

The Rockwell hardness test, standardized under ASTM E18 and ISO 6508, evaluates the hardness of
metals and polymers by measuring their resistance to permanent indentation. It involves applying a
minor load (10 kgf) followed by a major load (60, 100, or 150 kgf). The depth of the resulting
indentation inversely indicates hardness.

The Rockwell hardness test is an empirical indentation hardness test. Rockwell hardness tests
provide useful information about metallic materials. This information may correlate to tensile
strength, wear resistance, ductility, and other physical characteristics of metallic materials, and may
be useful in quality control and selection of materials.

Different indenters are used: a steel ball for softer materials and a diamond cone (Brale) for harder
ones, with the right Rockwell scale (e.g., HRB, HRC) essential for accuracy. Proper specimen
preparation is important to reduce variability.

The test is valued for its speed and non-destructive nature, making it suitable for production
environments. However, the results can be affected by factors like surface finish and thickness, and
hardness values between different scales require conversion for comparison.

In summary, the Rockwell hardness test is crucial for quality control and materials research, with
adherence to standards ensuring reliability across various industries.

Two common Rockwell scales are widely used depending on the material being tested. The B Scale
(HRB) is used for softer metals, such as copper alloys and aluminum, employing a 1.5875 mm
diameter steel ball under a 100 kgf total load. The C Scale (HRC), intended for harder metals like
hardened steels and titanium alloys, utilizes a diamond cone (Brale) indenter under a 150 kgf load.
Selecting the correct scale is critical for obtaining accurate results. The testing procedure starts with a
10-kgf preload to seat the indenter properly and reduce surface effects. Following this, the main load
is applied, and after a short dwell time, the depth of penetration is measured to determine the
hardness.

VIKERS HARDNESS TEST

The Vickers Hardness Test (VHT) is a highly precise microindentation method employed to evaluate
the mechanical properties of a wide variety of materials, including thin sections, coatings, and small
parts. Originally developed by Robert L. Smith and George E. Sandland at Vickers Ltd. in 1921,
the method remains a benchmark in material testing and is standardized internationally under ISO
6507-1:2018 and ASTM E92-17.
The Vickers test is an indentation test in which a Vickers square-based pyramidal diamond indenter
having specified face angle of 136° between opposite faces is forced under specified conditions into
the surface of the test material, and after removal of the test force, the lengths of the two diagonals of
the projected area of the indentation are measured (with the aid of an optical microscope) and the
mean diagonal length is calculated to derive the Vickers hardness number. The Vickers hardness
number is determined by applying the following formula:

Where:

HV = Vickers Hardness
F = Applied force (in kilogram-force, kgf)
d = Average length of the two diagonals of the indentation (in millimeters)

The applied test forces typically range from 1 gf to 100 kgf. When testing thin materials, surface
coatings, or microstructures, low loads (commonly 10 gf to 1 kgf) are used, and the method is
referred to as microhardness testing. Higher loads are applied when macrohardness evaluations are
required.

Vickers testing is particularly valued for its ability to produce a small, well-defined indentation,
which makes it ideal for microstructural analysis, quality control, and research applications.
Furthermore, because the hardness number is independent of the applied test load (provided the test
is properly performed), Vickers results allow direct comparison across a wide range of material types
and conditions.
APPARATUS
Rockwell Hardness Testing Machine:
 A RAMS Rockwell Hardness Tester, calibrated to ASTM E18-89a and BS 4175:1989 standards,
ensures accurate and consistent hardness measurements.

Indenters/Penetrators:
 Diamond Conical Indenter: For harder materials, typically used with the Rockwell C and
superficial N scales.
 Steel Spherical Indenter (1.5875 mm / 1/16 inch): For softer materials, used in standard and
superficial T scales.
Load Capacities:
 The machine can test with 15N, 30N, and 45N loads for superficial Rockwell scales. The 1/16
inch steel ball indenter is used for the 15T, 30T, and 45T tests, suitable for thin or brittle
materials where minimal penetration is required.

Note: The "T" scale refers to superficial Rockwell testing, designed for applications where minimal
penetration is necessary to prevent damage to thin or delicate specimens.

- The steel ball and diamond indenter, as stipulated by ASTM standards.

Vickers Hardness Testing Machine

 The testing machine must support the specimen, control the indenter’s movement under a
selected test force, and include a light optical microscope for selecting the test location and
measuring the indentation. It should apply a smooth, controlled static load ranging from 1 gf to
100 kgf, depending on whether macro- or micro hardness testing is performed, and maintain the
force for a standardized dwell time (typically 10–15 seconds). After unloading, the machine
must enable accurate measurement of the indentation, with force application controlled
mechanically, by dead-weight, or electronically.

Indenter/Penetrator:
 Diamond pyramid, 136° angle, tip radius ≤ 0.2 µm ISO 6507-1, and ASTM E92 compliant.
 Shape: Four-sided pyramid with a 136° angle between opposite faces.
-Diamond pyramid indenter, as stipulated by ASTM standards.

Optical Microscope
 A high-precision optical microscope equipped with a micrometer eyepiece or a digital imaging
system is used to measure the two diagonals of the indentation.
 Accuracy in measurement is critical because small errors in diagonal length measurements lead
to large errors in calculated hardness values.
 Modern machines often include automatic indentation measurement and digital data recording to
minimize operator error.

PROCEDURE

1. I began by selecting the appropriate combination of rear weights and the correct penetrator
suitable for the desired hardness test.
2. I positioned the crank fully forward, bringing it as close to myself as possible.
3. I carefully placed my test specimen onto the anvil, ensuring it was properly centered.
4. I then slowly rotated the wheel spokes clockwise, raising the anvil and the specimen towards the
penetrator tip. Upon initial contact, I continued to raise the specimen until the small pointer aligned
approximately with the black dot and the large pointer entered the designated colored sector,
confirming that the minor load had been applied.
5. With the large pointer positioned nearly vertical, I adjusted the knurled collar to align the "SET"
mark with the large pointer on the dial.
6. Next, I depressed the trip lever, initiating the application of the major load, causing the crank to
automatically move away from me.
7. Once the crank came to a complete stop, I gently pulled it back toward myself to return it to its
original position.
8. I then recorded my hardness reading by observing the large pointer on the appropriate dial scale,
using the black scale for tests involving a diamond penetrator.
9. Finally, I lowered the anvil to release the minor load and repeated the procedure for each of my
remaining test specimens.
RESULTS

VIKERS VIKERS VIKERS AVERAGE

SAMPLE
READING 1 READING 2 READING 3 READING

CONTROL 162.5 160.9 167.2 163.5

10% 210.6 216.9 209.8 212.4

20% 218.9 208.3 219.0 215.4

30% 214.7 211.0 236.1 233.9

40% 243.9 222.3 229.9 232.3

50% 222.3 252.6 227.4 234.1

DISSCUSSION
Testing showed that increasing alloy content led to higher Vicat hardness, Rockwell C (HRC),
Brinell hardness (BHN), and predicted tensile strength. For steels, Brinell testing accurately
predicted tensile strength in compliance with ASTM E10 standards. However, for brass, variability
in composition reduced prediction accuracy.

The Brinell and Rockwell B (HRB) tests were appropriate for steels, aligning with ISO 6506 and
ISO 6508 standards, while softer materials like brass would benefit from Vickers (HV) or Rockwell
E (HRE) testing for greater sensitivity. Brinell testing required specified dwell times to ensure proper
penetration, forming indentations that, while flattened, remained within accepted standards.

Proper specimen preparation, including surface polishing and maintaining minimum thickness, was
critical for accurate results and avoided errors such as edge bulging. Hardness tests, though essential
for estimating properties like strength and wear resistance, must be supplemented by other tests when
evaluating properties such as ductility and impact resistance

.
PRECAUTIONS

1. I did not subject the test specimen to any heating or cold working to avoid altering the hardness
value.
2. I ensured that the thickness of the test piece or the layer under test was at least 8 times the
permanent increase of depth of the indenter.
3. I calibrated the machine occasionally using standard test blocks.
4. I waited for 2 to 8 seconds after applying the major load to allow the needle to come to rest.
CONCLUSION
In conclusion, the Rockwell hardness test produced reliable and consistent results, meeting
international standards such as ASTM E18. Key factors contributing to the accuracy of the
measurements included thorough surface preparation to ensure uniform contact, verification of
minimum specimen thickness to prevent distortion, and regular calibration of the testing equipment
to maintain precision. Additionally, observing the proper dwell time after applying the load allowed
for complete material deformation before readings were taken. These measures collectively
minimized experimental errors and preserved the validity and reproducibility of the hardness values
obtained across different materials.

REFERENCES
ASTM Standards:
 A 370 Test Methods and Definitions for Mechanical Testing of Steel Products
 ASTM E18
 ASTM E92-17, Standard Test Methods for Vickers Hardness and Knoop Hardness of Metallic
Materials, ASTM International.
 ASTM E384-17, Standard Test Method for Microindentation Hardness of Materials.
 ASTM E 92 - 82, Standard Test Method for Vickers Hardness of Metallic Materials.
 ISO 6507-1:2018, Metallic materials — Vickers hardness test — Part 1: Test method.

OTHERS
 Dieter, G. E., Mechanical Metallurgy, 3rd Edition, McGraw-Hill Education.
 Tabor, D., The Hardness of Metals, Oxford University Press.