Unit 4:

Imperfect
Competition

1
Monopoly

2
 5 Characteristics of a Monopoly
1. Single Seller
• One Firm controls the vast majority of a
market
• The Firm IS the Industry
2. Unique good with no close substitutes
3. “Price Maker”
The firm can manipulate the price by changing
the quantity it produces (ie. shifting the supply
curve to the left).
Ex: California electric companies
3
 5 Characteristics of a Monopoly
4. High Barriers to Entry
• New firms CANNOT enter market
• No immediate competitors
• Firm can make profit in the long-run
5. Some “Nonprice” Competition
• Despite having no close competitors,
monopolies still advertise their products
in an effort to increase demand.
4
 Four Origins of Monopolies
1. Geography is the Barrier to Entry
Ex: Nowhere gas stations, De Beers Diamonds,
Sacramento Kings, Rivercats Dinger Dogs…
-Location or control of resources limits competition
and leads to one supplier.
2. The Government is the Barrier to Entry
Ex: Water Company, Firefighters, The Army,
Pharmaceutical drugs, rubix cubes…
-Government allows monopoly for public benefits or
to stimulate innovation.
-The government issues patents to protect inventors
and forbids others from using their invention.
(They last 20 years)
5
 Four Origins of Monopolies
3. Technology or Common Use is the Barrier to Entry
Ex: Microsoft, Intel, Frisbee, Band-Aide…
-Patents and widespread availability of certain products
lead to only one major firm controlling a market.

4. Mass Production and Low Costs are Barriers to Entry

Ex: Electric Companies (PG&E)
• If there were three competing electric companies
they would have higher costs.
• Having only one electric company keeps prices low
-Economies of scale make it impractical to have
smaller firms.
Natural Monopoly- It is NATURAL for only one firm to
produce because they can produce at the lowest cost. 6
Good news…
1.Only one graph because the
firm IS the industry.
2.The cost curves are the same
3.The MR= MC rule still applies
4.Shut down rule still applies

7
 The Main Difference
• Monopolies (and all Imperfectly
competitive firms) have downward
sloping demand curve.
• Which means, to sell more a firm must
lower its price.
• This changes MR…
THE MARGINAL REVENUE
DOESN’T EQUAL THE PRICE!
8
Why is MR less than P Qd TR MR
Demand? $11 0 0 -

9
Why is MR less than P Qd TR MR
Demand? $11 0 0 -
$10 1 10 10
$10

10
Why is MR less than P Qd TR MR
Demand? $11 0 0 -
$10 1 10 10
$10
$9 2 18 8
$9 $9

11
Why is MR less than P Qd TR MR
Demand? $11 0 0 -
$10 1 10 10
$10
$9 2 18 8
$9 $9 $8 3 24 6
$8 $8 $8

12
Why is MR less than P Qd TR MR
Demand? $11 0 0 -
$10 1 10 10
$10
$9 2 18 8
$9 $9 $8 3 24 6
$7 4 28 4
$8 $8 $8
$7 $7 $7 $7

13
Why is MR less than P Qd TR MR
Demand? $11 0 0 -
$10 1 10 10
$10
$9 2 18 8
$9 $9 $8 3 24 6
$7 4 28 4
$8 $8 $8
$6 5 30 2
$7 $7 $7 $7
$6 $6 $6 $6 $6

14
Why is MR less than P Qd TR MR
Demand? $11 0 0 -
$10 1 10 10
$10
$9 2 18 8
$9 $9 $8 3 24 6
$7 4 28 4
$8 $8 $8
$6 5 30 2
$7 $7 $7 $7 $5 6 30 0
$6 $6 $6 $6 $6
$5 $5 $5 $5 $5 $5

15
Why is MR less than P Qd TR MR
Demand? $11 0 0 -
$10 1 10 10
$10
$9 2 18 8
$9 $9 $8 3 24 6
$7 4 28 4
$8 $8 $8
$6 5 30 2
$7 $7 $7 $7 $5 6 30 0
$6 $6 $6 $6 $6 $4 7 28 -2

$5 $5 $5 $5 $5 $5
$4 $4 $4 $4 $4 $4 $4
16
Why is MR less than P Qd TR MR
Demand? $11 0 - -
$10 1 10 10
$10
$9 2 18 8
$9 $9 $8 3 24 6
$7 4 28 4
$8 $8 $8
$6 5 30 2
$7 $7 $7 $7 $5 6 30 0
$6 $6 $6 $6 $6 $4 7 28 -2

$5 $5 $5 $5 $5 $5
$4 $4 $4 $4 $4 $4 $4
17
Why is MR less than P Qd TR MR
Demand? $11 0 - -
$10 1 10 10
$10
$9 2 18 8
$9 $9 $8 3 24 6
$8 $8 MR
$8 IS LESS THAN $7 4 28 4
$6 5 30 2
$7 $7 $7 $7 PRICE $5 6 30 0
$6 $6 $6 $6 $6 $4 7 28 -2

$5 $5 $5 $5 $5 $5
$4 $4 $4 $4 $4 $4 $4
18
 Calculating
Marginal Revenue

19
To sell more a firm must lower its price. What
happens to Marginal Revenue?
Price Quantity Total Marginal
Demanded Revenue Revenue
$6 0
$5 1
$4 2
$3 3
$2 4
$1 5

Does the Marginal Revenue equal the price?

20
To sell more a firm must lower its price. What
happens to Marginal Revenue?
Price Quantity Total Marginal
Demanded Revenue Revenue
$6 0 0
$5 1 5
$4 2 8
$3 3 9
$2 4 8
$1 5 5

Does the Marginal Revenue equal the price?

21
 To sell more a firm must lower its price. What
happens to Marginal Revenue?
Price Quantity Total Marginal
Demanded Revenue Revenue
$6 0 0 -
$5 MR1 DOESN’T
5 5
$4
EQUAL PRICE
2 8 3
$3 3 9 1
$2 4 8 -1
$1 5 5 -3

Draw Demand and Marginal Revenue Curves

22
Plot the Demand, Marginal Revenue, and
Total Revenue Curves
P
$15

10

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Q
TR
$64

40

20

Q 23
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Demand and Marginal Revenue Curves
What happens to TR when MR hits zero?
P
$15

10

5
D
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Q
TR
$64 MR
40
Total Revenue is
at it’s peak when
20 MR hits zero
TR
Q 24
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
 Elastic vs. Inelastic
Range of Demand Curve

25
 Elastic and Inelastic Range
P Elastic Inelastic
Total Revenue Test $15
If price falls and TR
increases then 10

demand is elastic.
5
D
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Q
TR A monopoly
$64 MR will only
Total Revenue Test
If price falls and 40 produce in
TR falls then the elastic
demand is inelastic.
20 range
TR
Q 26
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Maximizing
Profit

27
What output should this monopoly produce?
MR = MC
How much is the TR, TC and Profit or Loss?
P
$9 MC
ATC
8
7 Profit =$6
6
5 D
4
3
2 MR
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Q 28
 Conclusion: A monopolist produces where
MR=MC, buts charges the price consumers are
willing to pay identified by the demand curve.
P
$9 MC
ATC
8
7
6
5 D
4
3
2 MR
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Q 29
 What if costs are higher?
How much is the TR, TC, and Profit or Loss?
MC
P ATC
$10
9 AVC
8
7
D
6
5 TR= $90
4 TC= $100
MR
3 Loss=$10
6 7 8 9 10 Q 30
 TR= $70
Identify and Calculate: TC= $56
Profit/Loss= $14
Profit/Loss per Unit= $2
P MC

$10 ATC
9
8
D
7
6
5 MR
4
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Q 31
Are Monopolies
Efficient?
32
Monopolies vs. Perfect Competition
P S = MC

CS
In perfect competition,
Ppc CS and PS are
PS maximized.

Q
Qpc 33
Monopolies vs. Perfect Competition
P S = MC

At MR=MC,
Pm A monopolist will
produce less and
Ppc
charge a higher price

D
MR
Q
Qm Qpc 34
Monopolies vs. Perfect Competition
Where is CS S = MC
P and PS for a
monopoly?
CS
Pm Total surplus falls.
Now there is
PS DEADWEIGHT
LOSS

Monopolies underproduce and over D

charge, decreasing CS and
MR
increasing PS.
Q
Qm 35
Are Monopolies Productively Efficient?
Does Price = Min ATC? No. They are not
producing at the lowest
cost (min ATC)
P
$9 MC
ATC
8
7
6
5 D
4
3
2 MR
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Q 36
Are Monopolies Allocatively Efficiency?
Does Price = MC? No. Price is greater.
The monopoly is under
producing.
P
$9 MC
ATC
8
7
6
5
Monopolies are NOT efficient!
4
D

3
2 MR
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Q 37
Monopolies are inefficient because
they…
1. Charge a higher price
2. Don’t produce enough
• Not allocatively efficiency
3. Produce at higher costs
• Not productively efficiency
4. Have little incentive to innovate
Why?
Because there is little external pressure to
be efficient 38
 Natural Monopoly
One firm can produce the socially optimal quantity
at the lowest cost due to economies scale.
P
It is better to have only
one firm because ATC is
falling at socially
optimal quantity
MC
ATC

MR D
Qsocially optimal Q 39
Lump Sum vs. Per Unit
Taxes and Subsidies
ACDC Econ Video

40
2007 FRQ #1
Regulating
Monopolies
42
 Why Regulate?
Why would the government regulate a
monopoly?
1. To keep prices low
2. To make monopolies efficient

How do they regulate?

•Use Price controls: Price Ceilings
•Why don’t taxes work?
•Taxes reduce supply and that’s the problem 43
 Where should the government
place the price ceiling?
1.Socially Optimal Price
P = MC (Allocative Efficiency)

OR
2. Fair-Return Price (Break–Even)
P = ATC (Normal Profit)
44
 Regulating Monopolies
Where does the firm produce if it is
P
unregulated?
MC

Pm ATC

D
MR

Qm Q 45
 Regulating Monopolies
PriceOptimal
Socially Ceiling at Socially Optimal
= Allocative Efficiency
P
MC

Pm ATC
Pso

D
MR

Qm Qso Q 46
 Regulating Monopolies
Price Ceiling
Fair Return meansatnoFair Returnprofit
economic
P
MC

Pm ATC
Pso
Pfr
D
MR

Qm Qso Qfr Q 47
 Regulating Monopolies
Unregulated
Socially
P
Optimal MC
Fair
Return
Pm ATC
Pso
Pfr
D
MR

Qm Qso Qfr Q 48
 Regulating a Natural Monopoly
What happens if the government sets a price ceiling
to get the socially optimal quantity?
P
The firm would make a
loss and would require a
subsidy
MC

Pso
ATC

MR D
Qsocially optimal Q 49
 Price
Discrimination
50
 Price Discrimination
Definition:
Practice of selling the same products
to different buyers at different prices

Examples:
•Airline Tickets (vacation vs. business)
•Movie Theaters (child vs. adult)
•All Coupons (spenders vs. savers)
•GBHS football games (students vs.
parents) 51
 PRICE DISCRIMINATION
•Price discrimination seeks to charge each
consumer what they are willing to pay in an
effort to increase profits.
•Those with inelastic demand are charged
more than those with elastic
Requires the following conditions:
1. Must have monopoly power
2. Must be able to segregate the market
3. Consumers must NOT be able to resell
product 52
 P Qd TR MR
$11 0 0 -

53
 Results of Price P Qd TR MR
Discrimination $11 0 0 -
$10 1 10 10
$10

54
 Results of Price P Qd TR MR
Discrimination $11 0 0 -
$10 1 10 10
$10
$9 2 19 9
$10 $9

55
 Results of Price P Qd TR MR
Discrimination $11 0 0 -
$10 1 10 10
$10
$9 2 19 9
$10 $9 $8 3 27 8
$10 $9 $8

56
 Results of Price P Qd TR MR
Discrimination $11 0 0 -
$10 1 10 10
$10
$9 2 19 9
$10 $9 $8 3 27 8
$7 4 34 7
$10 $9 $8
$10 $9 $8 $7

57
 Results of Price P Qd TR MR
Discrimination $11 0 0 -
$10 1 10 10
$10
$9 2 19 $9
$10 $9 $8 3 27 $8
$7 4 34 $7
$10 $9 $8
$6 5 40 $6
$10 $9 $8 $7 $5 6 45 $5
$10 $9 $8 $7 $6 $4 7 49 $4

$10 $9 $8 $7 $6 $5
$10 $9 $8 $7 $6 $5 $4
58
 P Qd TR MR
$11 0 0 -
$10 1 10 10
$10
$9 2 19 $9
$10 $9 $8 3 27 $8
WHEN PRICE
$7 4 34 $7
$10 $9 $8
DISCIMINATING,
$6 5 40 $6
$10 $9 $8 $7 MR = D$5 6 45 $5
$10 $9 $8 $7 $6 $4 7 49 $4

$10 $9 $8 $7 $6 $5
$10 $9 $8 $7 $6 $5 $4
59
 Regular Monopoly vs.
Price Discriminating Monopoly
P
MC

Pm
ATC

MR
Qm Q 60
A perfectly discriminating monopoly can charge
each person differently so the
Marginal Revenue = Demand
P
MC

ATC

MR
Q 61
A perfectly discriminating can charge each person
differently so the Marginal Revenue = Demand
Identify the Price, Profit, CS, and DWL
P
MC

ATC

D =MR

Qnm Q 62
A perfectly discriminating can charge each person
differently so the Marginal Revenue = Demand
Identify the Price, Profit, CS, and DWL
P
MC

ATC

D =MR
Price Discrimination results in several
prices, more profit, no CS, and a higher
socially optimal
Q
quantity Q
nm 63
Monopolistic
Competition

64
 Perfect Monopolistic Pure
Competition Competition Oligopoly Monopoly

Characteristics of Monopolistic
Competition:
• Relatively Large Number of Sellers
• Differentiated Products
• Some control over price
• Easy Entry and Exit (Low Barriers)
• A lot of non-price competition
(Advertising) 65
 “Monopoly” + ”Competition”
Monopolistic Qualities
• Control over price of own good due
to differentiated product
• D greater than MR
• Plenty of Advertising
• Not efficient
Perfect Competition Qualities
• Large number of smaller firms
• Relatively easy entry and exit
• Zero Economic Profit in Long-Run
since firms can enter
66
 Differentiated Products
• Goods are NOT identical.
• Firms seek to capture a piece of the
market by making unique goods.
• Since these products have substitutes,
firms use NON-PRICE Competition.
Examples of NON-PRICE Competition
• Brand Names and Packaging
• Product Attributes
• Service
• Location
• Advertising (Two Goals)
1. Increase Demand
2. Make demand more INELASTIC 67
Drawing Monopolistic
Competition

68
 Monopolistic Competition is made up of
prices makers so MR is less than Demand
In the short-run, it is the same graph as a
monopoly making profit
P
MC
ATC
P1

D
In the long-run, new firms will enter,
driving down the DEMAND MRfor firms
already in Qthe market.Q
1
69
Firms enter so demand falls until there is no
economic profit

P
MC
ATC
P1

MR
Q1 Q 70
Firms enter so demand falls until there is no
economic profit
Price and quantity falls and TR=TC
P
MC
ATC

PLR

MR
QLR Q 71
 LONG-RUN EQUILIBRIUM
Quantity where MR =MC up to Price = ATC
P
MC
ATC

PLR

MR
QLR Q 72
 Why does DEMAND shift?
When short-run profits are made…
– New firms enter.
– New firms mean more close substitutes and
less market share for each existing firm.
– Demand for each firm falls.
When short-run losses are made…
– Firms exit.
– Result is less substitutes and more market
shares for remaining firms.
– Demand for each firm rises.
73
 What happens when there is a loss?
In the short-run, the graph is the same as a
monopoly making a loss
ATC
P
MC

P1

In the long-run, firms will leave, D

driving
up the DEMAND for firms already in the
market. MR
Q1 Q 74
Firms leave so demand increases until there
is no economic profit

ATC
P
MC

P1

MR
Q1 Q 75
Firms leave so demand increases until there
is no economic profit
Price and quantity increase and TR=TC
ATC
P
MC
PLR

MR
QLR Q 76
Are Monopolistically
Competitive Firms
Efficient?

77
 LONG-RUN EQUILIBRIUM
Not Allocatively Efficient because P  MC
Not Productively Efficient because not producing
at Minimum ATC
P
MC ATC
PLR

MR
QLR QSocially Optimal Q 78
 LONG-RUN EQUILIBRIUM
This firm also has EXCESS CAPACITY
P
MC ATC
PLR

MR
QLR QSocially Optimal Q 79
 Excess Capacity
• Given current resources, the firm
can produce at the lowest costs
(minimum ATC) but they decide not
to.
• The gap between the minimum ATC
output and the profit maximizing
output.
• Not the amount underproduced
80
 LONG-RUN EQUILIBRIUM
The firm can produce at a lower cost but it
holds back production to maximize profit
P
MC ATC
PLR

Excess D
Capacity
MR
QLR QProd Efficient Q 81
 Practice Question
Assume there is a monopolistically
competitive firm in long-run equilibrium. If
this firm were to realize productive
efficiency, it would:
A) have more economic profit.
B) have a loss.
C) also achieve allocative efficiency.
D) be under producing.
E) be in long-run equilibrium.
82
 Advantages of
MONOPOLISTIC COMPETITION
• Large number of firms and product
variation meets society’s needs.
• Nonprice Competition (product
differentiation and advertising) may
result in sustained profits for some
firms.
Ex: Nike might continue to make above
normal profit because they are a well-
known brand.
83
Oligopoly
 FOUR MARKET MODELS
Perfect Monopolistic Pure
Competition Competition Oligopoly Monopoly

Characteristics of Oligopolies:
• A Few Large Producers (Less than 10)
• Identical or Differentiated Products
• High Barriers to Entry
• Control Over Price (Price Maker)
• Mutual Interdependence
•Firms use Strategic Pricing
Examples: OPEC, Cereal Companies,
Car Producers
 HOW DO OLIGOPOLIES OCCUR?
Oligopolies occur when only a few large
firms start to control an industry.
High barriers to entry keep others from
entering.
Types of Barriers to Entry
1. Economies of Scale
•Ex: The car industry is difficult to enter
because only large firms can make cars
at the lowest cost
2. High Start-up Costs
3. Ownership of Raw Materials
 Game Theory
The study of how people behave in
strategic situations

An understanding of game theory helps

firms in an oligopoly maximize profit.
 Game theory helps predict human
behavior
THE ICE CREAM MAN SIMULATION
1. You are an ice cream salesman at the beach
2. You have identical prices as another salesman.
3. Beachgoers will purchase from the closest
salesman
4. People are evenly distributed along the beach.
5. Each morning the two firms pick locations on
the beach

Where is the best

location?
 Why learn about game theory?
•Oligopolies are interdependent since
they compete with only a few other
firms.
• Their pricing and output decisions
must be strategic so as to avoid
economic losses.
•Game theory helps us analyze their
strategies.
SIMULATION!
 Game Theory Matrix
You and your partner are competing firms. You
have one of two choices: Price High or Price Low.
Without talking, write down your choice
Firm 2
High Low

High Both High = Low = $30

$20 Each High = 0
Firm 1
High = 0 Both Low=
Low
Low = $30 $10 each
 Game Theory Matrix
Notice that you have an incentive to collude but
also an incentive to cheat on your agreement
Firm 2
High Low

High Both High = Low = $30

$20 Each High = 0
Firm 1
High = 0 Both Low=
Low
Low = $30 $10 each
 Dominant Strategy
The Dominant Strategy is the best move to make
regardless of what your opponent does
What is each firm’s dominant strategy?
Firm 2 No Dominant
High Low Strategy

High $100, $50 $50, $90

Firm 1
Low $80, $40 $20, $10
Video: Split or Steal
What is each player’s dominant strategy?

Firm 2
Split Steal

Split Half, Half None, All

Firm 1
Steal All, None None, None
 What did we learn?
1. Oligopolies must use strategic
pricing (they have to worry about
the other guy)
2. Oligopolies have a tendency to
collude to gain profit.
(Collusion is the act of cooperating with
rivals in order to “rig” a situation)
3. Collusion results in the incentive to
cheat.
4. Firms make informed decisions
based on their dominant strategies
 2007 FRQ #3
Payoff matrix for two competing bus companies
 2009 FRQB #3
Payoff matrix for two competing bus companies
Oligopoly
Graphs
Because firms are interdependent
There are 3 types of Oligopolies
1. Price Leadership (no graph)
2. Colluding Oligopoly
3. Non Colluding Oligopoly
 #1. Price
Leadership
 Example: Small Town Gas Stations
To maximize profit what will they do?

OPEC does this with OIL

 PRICE LEADERSHIP MODEL
•Collusion is ILLEGAL.
•Firms CANNOT set prices.
•Price leadership is a strategy used by
firms to coordinate prices without
outright collusion
General Process:
1. “Dominant firm” initiates a price change
2. Other firms follow the leader
 PRICE LEADERSHIP MODEL
Breakdowns in Price Leadership
• Temporary Price Wars may occur if
other firms don’t follow price
increases of dominant firm.
• Each firm tries to undercut each
other.
Example: Employee Pricing for Ford
#2. Colluding
Oligopolies
 Cartel = Colluding Oligopoly
A cartel is a group of producers that
create an agreement to fix prices high.
1. Cartels set price and output at an
agreed-upon level
2. Firms require identical or highly
similar demand and costs
3. Cartel must have a way to punish
cheaters
4. Together they act as a monopoly
Firms in a colluding oligopoly act as a
monopoly and share the profit
P
MC
ATC

MR
Q
 #3. Non-
Colluding
Oligopolies
 Kinked Demand Curve Model
The kinked demand curve model shows how
noncollusive firms are interdependent
If firms are NOT colluding they are likely to
react to competitors’ pricing in two ways:
1. Match price-If one firm cuts its prices, then
the other firms follow suit causing inelastic
demand 跟降价
2. Ignore change-If one firm raises prices,
others maintain the same price causing
elastic demand 不跟加价
If this firm increases its price, other firms will
ignore it and keep prices the same
As the only firm with high prices, Qd for this firm
P will decrease a lot

P1
Pe

D
Q1 Qe Q
 If this firm decreases its price, other firms
will match it and lower their prices
Since all firms have lower prices, Qd for this firm
P will increase only a little

P1
Pe
P2

D
Q1 Qe Q2 Q
 Where is Marginal Revenue?
MR has a vertical gap at the kink. The result is that
MC can move and Qe won’t change. Price is sticky.
P

MC
Pe

MR D
Q Q
Market Structures
Venn Diagram
 Perfect Competition Monopolistic Competition

No Similarities

Oligopoly Monopoly
Name the market structure(s) that is associated
with each concept
1. Price Maker (Demand > MR)
2. Collusion/Cartels
3. Identical Products
4. Price Taker (Demand = MR)
5. Excess Capacity
6. Low Barriers to Entry
7. Game Theory
8. Differentiated Products
9. Long-run Profits
10.Efficiency
11.Normal Profit
12.Dead Weight Loss
13.High Barriers to Entry
14.Firm = Industry
15. MR=MC Rule
 Perfect Competition Monopolistic Competition

No Similarities

Oligopoly Monopoly