BASIC SCIENCE JSS 2 THIRD TERM NOTE

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SCHEME OF WORK FOR THIRD TERM

1. Concept of Light
2. Measurement of Mass, Density, pressure and weight
3. Workdone and power
4. Machines
5. Ecology
6. Interaction of plants and animals
7. Nutrients cycling in nature
8. Adaptation
9. Population Growth
10. Conservation of natural resources
11. Pollution
12. Reproduction
13. Pollination

ECOLOGY
The term ecology can be defined as the study of plants and animals in relation to
their environment. The functional unit of ecology is called ecosystem.
Scientist that carryout the study of ecology are called ecologists.
Ecology is divided into two main branches; these are
(a) Autecology
(b)Synecology
Autocology
This is the study of the relationship of an individual organism and its relationship
with its environment e.g. a study of a population of rats and their environment.
Synecology
This is the study of the interrelationship between groups of organisms living
together in an area e.g. different organism in a stream and their environment.
Ecological Concepts
[1] Habitat:
This is defined as the natural dwelling place of an organism or where an organism
can be found when it is looked for.
There are two major types of Habitat. These are:
(a) Aquatic habitat
(b)Terrestrial habitat
Aquatic habitat
This is a habitat in water. It is divided into the following:
(a) Fresh water habitat: This is an aquatic habitat that is salt free (contains no
salt) e.g stream, rivers, ponds, lakes etc
(b)Marine habitat: This is an aquatic habitat that has high salt content. E.g.
Oceans and seas.
(c) Blackish or estuarine habitat: This is an aquatic habitat that is formed by the
meeting of fresh water and salt water. It is always muddy. E.g. lagoon, Bay,
Delta, Estuaries etc
Terrestrial habitat
This is a habitat on land. Examples of terrestrial habitat are swamps, forest, grass
land, march and deserts. It grouped into the following:
(a) Arboreal habitat: This is the habitat on trees (or tree trunks) and those in air.
E.g where bars, birds and monkeys live.
(b)On the ground habitat: are habitats on surface where Man, Goats, Dogs, Cats
live
 (c) Underground habitat: This is habitat inside the soil or below the ground.
Earthworms, termites and some worms live in this habitat.
[2] Population
This is defined as the total number of organisms of the same species living in a
particular area or habitat at any given time e.g. the total number of tadpoles in a
pool of water, fowls in a poultry pen.
Population Density
Population density is defined as the average number of organism per unit area of a
habitat. It is expressed mathematically as
Population density = Population ¿ ¿ Area ¿
An instrument used to measure population density is called a Quadrat
3. Community: This is a group of organisms of different species which living
together in an area or habitat. Organisms in a community depend directly or
indirectly on each other for survival. For example a fish pond may have populations
of algae, small floating plants, insects, protozoa, tadpoles, and fish.
4. Ecological niche: this is the functional role of an organism in a community, as
well as the position occupied by the organism in a particular habitat.
5. Ecosystem: this is defined as a self-supporting unit which comprises all living
and non-living components that interact with each other and are interdependent.
E.g. Fresh water bodies, forests and streams. It is the functional unit of ecology.
6. Biosphere: This is the part of the earth crust where life exists. It is made up of
several ecosystems. The biosphere consists of the following:
(a) Atmosphere: This is the part of the biosphere that is made up of gases
Nitrogen, Carbon (iv) oxide ete. like Oxygen.
(b) Hydrosphere: Is the part of the biosphere occupied by water e.g. oceans and
seas.
(c) Lithosphere: This is the part of the biosphere occupied by land.
7. Environment: This is the sum total of all the biotic and abiotic factors affecting
living organisms in their surroundings.
It can also be defined as all the external factors that affect organisms in their
surroundings. The environment of an organism can be further grouped into:
a Physical environment: Which includes light, moisture, wind, water, the
atmosphere, temperature, rainfall, humidity etc.
b. Biological environment: This consists of other plants and animals and other
organisms of the same kind.
COMPONENTS OF ECOSYSTEM
An ecosystem is composed of the living component or biotic component and Non-
living component or abiotic component.
1. Biotic Component:
This is the living part of the ecosystem. It is composed of all the organisms in the
ecosystem.
The biotic component consists of:
(a) Producers: These are known as autotrophs. They are green plants which make
use of sunlight and other inorganic materials to make their own food. E.g. Mango
tree, Cashew tree etc.
There are two types of producers
(i) Aquatic producers: eg: phytoplankton, diatom, seed weeds, water lily and
spirogyra,
(ii) Terrestrial producer. They are green plants on land. Eg. orange tree, guava tree
maize plant grasses etc.
(b) Consumers: These are animals that depend directly or indirectly on food made
by the producers. They cannot manufacture their own food, e.g. of Consumers are
Man, Lion Goats, Cows, Grasshopper etc.
Hence, they are called heterotrophs. They are subdivided into:
a. Primary Consumers
b. Secondary Consumers
c. Tertiary Consumers
(c) Decomposers: They are known as saprophytes. They obtain their energy by
feeding on dead plants and animals, thereby breaking down the organic substance
in them and releasing compounds and nutrients to the soil; hence, increasing the
soil fertility.
Examples of decomposers are fungi, bacteria, protozoa.
2. Abiotic Components:
This is the non-living part of an ecosystem. It includes:
i) Abiotic conditions: these are factors that affect organisms. E.g rainfall,
temperature, pressure, humidity and others.
ii) Abiotic resources: these are resources that organisms need for their survival.
They include gases like Oxygen, Nitrogen, Carbon (iv) oxide, and mineral salts like
calcium, potassium etc
INTERACTION OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS
 Interaction in ecological studies means the interdependence existing between
plants and animals, within plants groups or animals groups, and to a larger extent,
between organisms and their environment.
Interaction between plants and animals also can be demonstrated or seen in
food chains and food web, which has to do with their feeding relationship.

FOOD CHAIN
A food chain is a linear or straight feeding relationship through which energy
in food is transferred from producers to consumers through series of tropic levels.
Each step in a food chain is called a trophic level.
Let see some examples of food chains in aquatic and terrestrial habitats.
FOOD CHAINS IN A TERRESTRIAL HABITAT
1. Grass →Grasshopper → Lizard → Snake →Hawk
Trophic Trophic Trophic Trophic Trophic
Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Level 4 Level 5
2. Humus → Earthworm → Chicken → Man
3. Green plant → Field mice → Snake → Eagle
FOOD CHAINS IN AQUATIC HABITAT
1. Diatom → Tadpole → Tilapia → Shark
Producer Primary Secondary Tertiary
Consumer Consumer Consumer
2. Phytoplankton → Mosquito larva →Fish → Dolphin
ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS
Ecological pyramids are diagrammatical representation of food chains with
producers occupying the base and the consumers occupying the apex. There are
three types of ecological pyramids, these are:
a. Pyramid of numbers
b. Pyramid of energy
c. Pyramid of Biomass
a. Pyramid of numbers: this is a diagram that shows the reduction in the number of
organisms along a food chain from the producer to tertiary consumer.

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b. Pyramid of energy: this is diagram that shows the reduction in the energy
transferred along a food chain from producers to the tertiary consumer.

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NUTRIENTS CYCLING IN NATURE

Nutrients are life essential substances Nutrient cycle is a general term used to
describe the path followed by a nutrient as it moves through the biological and
physical environment or through the living and non-living environments. Major
nutrients that are necessary for maintaining life include Carbon, Nitrogen,
Phosphorus, Oxygen and Water.
Essential nutrient cycles include:
a. Carbon cycle
b. Nitrogen cycle
c. Oxygen cycle
d. Water cycle.
CARBON CYCLE
Carbon is an essential element in the life of organisms.
The carbon cycle begins when plants extract carbon from the atmosphere (in
the form of Carbon (iv) oxide), to manufacture their food during the process of
photosynthesis. Some of these carbon is combined to form carbohydrates, proteins
and fats which are stored in plant tissues. Carbon is subsequently passed on to
animals when they feed on plants, and when animals feed on each other.
During aerobic respiration, plants and animals, give off carbon dioxide as a
by. product; which is returned to the atmosphere. Other processes through which
carbon dioxide is added or returned to the atmosphere, include:
a. Decomposition: When plants and animals die and decay.
b. Burning or combustion: When fossil fuels, (e.g. Natural gas, Crude oil and
Coal) and other organic matter like wood, are burned in air.
c. Volcanic eruption: When volcanoes explode.
d. Weathering of rocks: When rocks are broken into pieces.
IMPORTANCE OF CARBON IN NATURE
1. Carbon is used by plants in the form of CO, needed for photosynthesis.
2. Carbon occurs in diamond, graphite and in other organic substance which are
important to man.
3. Carbon plays a role in the regulation of the temperature on the earth's surface.
When the heat radiated from the earth's surface gets to the atmosphere, it is
absorbed by Carbon dioxide and is radiated back to the earth, therefore warming
the earth. This situation or condition is called “Green house effect."

WATER CYCLE
The continuous circulation of water between the atmosphere and the earth
surface is known as the water cycle.
Water from the atmosphere falls to the earth surface in the form of rain,
snow, or hail; which are collectively known as precipitation.

PROCESS OF WATER CYCLE

The water cycle consists of four stages, these are storage, evaporation,
precipitation and runoff.
Water may be stored temporarily in the ground, in oceans, lakes, rivers, and
in ice caps and glaciers. It evaporates from the earth's surface, condenses in clouds
and falls back to the earth as precipitation (rainfall or snow), and eventually, either
runs into the seas or evaporates back into the atmosphere
Plants absorb water from the ground to make food and release water in form
of vapour into the atmosphere during transpiration.
Also, during respiration, sweating and urination in animals, water to the
atmosphere. It is should also be noted that the heating of the earth's surface and
the water bodies by the sun, causes the evaporation of water to the atmosphere.

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IMPORTANCE OF WATER TO LIVING ORGANISMS

1. Life arose or started in water.
2. Some organisms live in water.
3 Water is essential for growth of organisms.
4. Water in blood serves as a transport medium for excretory waste, digested food,
cells. hormones etc.
5. Water is used for photosynthesis and germination of seeds in plants
 NITROGEN CYCLE
Nitrogen cycle is the process by which nitrogen is added into the soil from the
atmosphere, and the release of Nitrogen from the soil back to the atmosphere
Plants cannot make use of atmospheric nitrogen, but can only make use of
nitrogen in the form of nitrates (tri Oxo nitrate).
There are three major processes by which nitrogen is removed from the
atmosphere These are
(i) Electrical discharge through thunderstorm.
(ii) Nitrogen fixation
(iii) Decomposition of plants and animals
ELECTRICAL DISCHARGE THROUGH THUNDERSTORM
During lightening or thunderstorms, atmospheric nitrogen combines with
oxygen to form nitrogen (II) oxide. The nitrogen (II) oxide combines with more
oxygen to form Nitrogen (IV) oxide. The nitrogen (IV) oxide so formed combines
with rain water to form nitric acid or nitrous acid and falls as acid rain.
The acid rain combines with minerals in the soil to form nitrates which is
absorbed by plants and used for the synthesis or production of protein.
NITROGEN FIXATION
Nitrogen fixation occurs in two ways:
a. Symbiotic nitrogen fixation
b. Non-Symbiotic nitrogen fixation
SYMBIOTIC NITROGEN FIXATION
Symbiotic nitrogen fixation is done by some bacteria called RHIZOBIUM,
which are found living in the root nodules of leguminous plants. These bacteria are
capable of fixing atmospheric nitrogen as nitrates in the root nodules of legumes.
The leguminous plants in turn offer protection and provide carbohydrate for the
bacteria. This type of relationship where the two organisms (Rhizobium and
Leguminous plant) benefit from each other is called Symbiosis.
NON-SYMBIOTIC NITROGEN FIXATION
Non-symbiotic nitrogen fixation is done by some bacteria and other
organisms in the soil. These bacteria are capable of fixing atmospheric nitrogen into
the soil for plants to make use of without getting any benefit. These bacteria
include Azotobacter and Clostridium, and a blue-green algae called Nostoc.
DECOMPOSITION OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS.
These entails obtaining nitrogen from decaying organisms, through the action of
some bacteria on dead plants and animals. The processes involved are 1
1. Ammonification or Putrefaction: This is a process by which dead decaying
plants and animals are being converted into ammonium compounds and added to
the soil This is done by some bacteria called putrefying bacteria.
2. Nitrification: This is the process by which ammonium compounds in the soil arc
converted to nitrites and nitrates by nitrifying bacteria. The conversion of the
ammonium compounds to nitrites is done by some bacteria called Nitrosomonas.
The second stage in nitrification involves the conversion of the nitrites to nitrates.
This is done by another bacteria known as Nitrobacter. These two bacteria
(Nitrosomonas and Nitrobacter) are called Nitrifying bacteria
Nitrogen can also be added to the soil by the application of fertilizer, e.g. NPK.
The only process which can return nitrogen back to the atmosphere is called
Denitrification
DENITRIFICATION
This is the process by which nitrates in the soil are converted into gaseous
nitrogen and sent back to the atmosphere. This is done by some bacteria called
Denitrifying bacteria.
LEAVE 15 LINES FOR DIAGRAM
ADAPTATION AND BALANCE IN NATURE
Adaptation is defined as a change in the structure or characteristic features of
living organisms which enables them to cope or survive in a particular area or
habitat. Characteristic features of living organisms that enables them to survive in a
particular habitat are called adaptive features.
We shall consider some adaptive features of some plants and animals, in this topic.
1. TILAPIA FISH:
It lives in an aquatic habitat.
Adaptive Features
i. Presence of gills for gaseous exchange.
ii. Presence of fins for locomotion (swimming) in water.
iii. They have streamline body for easy movement in water.
iv. They have lateral line to detect any vibration in water.
v. Counter shading for escape from predators
2. THE TOAD/FROG.
They live on land and in water.
Adaptive Features
I. Webbed digits for swimming-in water.
II. Streamline body for body easy movement in water
III. Well developed fore-limbs for landing on land.
IV. Long muscular hind limbs for hopping and jumping.
V. Presence of gills, lungs, moist skin and mouth lining for gaseous exchange in
water and land.

3. LIZARD
The lizard lives on land.
Adaptive Features
i. Presence of dry over lapping scales to prevent drying up or desiccation.
ii. Short fore limbs and hind limbs for fast movement on land.
iii. The digits of the lizard end in claws and are used for grasping and climbing
walls and trees.
iv. Lungs for gaseous exchange on land.
v. Detachable tail for escape from predators.
4. BIRDS
Birds are arboreal animals living in a terrestrial habitat.
Adaptive Features
i. Possession of different kinds of beaks, to suit their mode of feeding.
ii. Streamline body for easy flight and movement in air.
iii. Light skeleton with hollow bones to make room for lightness to ease flight.
iv. Feathers for insulation of body keeping the temperature warm.
v. Presence of scales on the legs for protection.
vi. Presence of oil glands which helps to keep the feathers water proof,
preventing wetness of the feathers.

ADAPTATION IN PLANTS
Based on the adaptability of plants to the availability of water, plants can be
grouped into:
a Hydrophytes
b. Mesophytes
c. Xerophytes
Hydrophytes:
These are plants that live in water. E.g. Water lily and water hyacinth.
Adaptive Features of Water Lily
i. Waxy cuticle on the leaf to prevent wetting of leaves.
ii. Poor root system for absorption of water
iii. Long flexible stem to withstand the water current
Mesophytes:
These are land plants that live in places that are not too wet or too dry. Examples
are Mango tree, Orange tree, Cashew tree, etc.
Adaptive Features of Mango Tree
1. Presence of buttress root for anchorage To fly firmly in position.
2. Large leaves for easy transpiration and photosynthesis.
Xerophytes:
are plants adapted to live in extremely dry habitats like deserts. Examples are:
Cactus and Acacia.
Adaptive Features of Cactus Plant
i. The leaves are reduced to spines in order to reduce the rate of transpiration.
ii. The presence of succulent stem for storage of water.
iii. Their stems are fleshy and green and are used for photosynthesis.

BALANCE IN NATURE
The balance in nature is brought about by a balance of both materials or
nutrients and energy flow. This balance is brought about by the activities of plants.
Hence, green plants are the key to balance in nature.
Large diversity of plants live in the terrestrial communities.
In Nigeria, we have two terrestrial communities. They are:
a. Tropical rainforest
b. Tropical savanna
CHARACTERISTICS OF TROPICAL RAINFOREST
Forests are plant communities with variety of trees. The characteristic of the
tropical rainforest include:
i. The vegetation is mainly of very tall woody trees.
ii. The trees are arranged in layers and they form canopy
iii. The trees have buttress roots for anchorage and support.
iv. The leaves are broad and evergreen, and are used for photosynthesis
v. There is high rainfall, high relative humidity and low temperature.
 Examples of plants found in the tropical rainforest are Obeche, Iroko,
Mahogany, Palm tree, African walnut etc.
States in Nigeria where the tropical rainforest can be found include
Anambara, Abia, Delta, Imo, Lagos, Oyo Cross River and Edo.
CHARACTERISTICS OF TROPICAL SAVANNA
Savanna is a tropical grassland. The characteristics of tropical savanna include
i. High temperature, low rainfall, and low relative humidity.
ii. Plants are mainly grasses that grow tall during raining season and die during the
dry season.
iii. The trees have corky barks for fire resistance and also to reduce the rate of
transpiration
iv. There are few shrubs and short trees.
V The trees have well developed extensive tap root system for absorption of water
deep inside the soil.
vi. The leaves of trees are reduced so as to reduce the rate of transpiration.
Examples of plants found in the tropical savanna include: Cactus, Baobab,
Acacia, Date plant, euphorbia plant etc. States in Nigeria where the tropical
rainforest can be found include Borno, Kano, kaduna, Jigawa, Adamawa, Yobe,
Kwara and Sokoto.

POPULATION GROWTH
Population growth can be defined as the increase in the number of a
particular organism in a particular time interval. The population of organisms will
always increase with time, this increase is because the organisms occupy a habitat
where there are sufficient means of survival. In this situation, organisms grow,
reproduce and increase in number, leading to population growth in that particular
habitat at that particular time.
FACTORS AFFECTING POPULATION GROWTH
The factors affecting population growth include
1. Availability of food and space. When there is enough food and space in an area
or habitat there will be an increase in population growth of organisms. But when
food is not enough or limited, there will be a decrease in the population growth
2. Birth rate or Natality: This is the rate at which organisms reproduce. If the birth
rate decreases, the population growth will also decrease, on the other hand, if the
bình rate is high, population growth will be high.
3. Death rate or Mortality: This is rate at which organisms die. High death rate will
bring about a decrease in population growth, while low death rate will bring about
an increase in population growth
4. Emigration: This is the movement of organisms from one place of living to
another Emigration leads to a decrease in population growth of the arca in concern.
5. Immigration: This is the movement of organisms into a place from another place.
When the rate of immigration is high, there will be an increase in the population of
that place where organisms moved into.
6. Natural Disaster: Natural disasters like Earthquakes, Tornadoes, Hurricanes,
Typhoons, Volcanic eruption, flooding, drought, Tsunami etc. when they occur,
bring about a decrease in the population growth of an area.
7. Diseases: An outbreak of disease that spreads rapidly (also known as an
epidemic).. affecting many individuals in a place may result to the death of
organism, and will bring about a decrease in the population growth of a place.
8. Improved Health Care: Technological advancement and advancement in the field
of medicine have been able to reduce the number of deaths caused by diseases,
thereby bringing about increase in population growth.
9. Prey and Predator Relationship: A predator is an organism that feeds upon
another organism called a prey. While the prey is the organism that is fed upon.
Usually, a predator is bigger or stronger than a prey. An increase in the number of
predators will bring about a decrease in the population growth of the prey.

CONSERVATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES

Natural resources are those resources that exist naturally from which man derives
benefits. They include:
i. Forest/Plants
ii. Wild life/Animals
iii. Water
iv. Air
v. Soil/Land
vi. Mineral deposits, eg. Copper, Tin, Lime-Stone, Gold, Diamond, Columbite
vii. Fossil fuels, eg. Coal, Petroleum, Natural Gas etc.
Natural resources are grouped into two; these are:
 a. Renewable resources: These are resources that are inexhaustible may be
replaced over time by natural process. E.g. Animal populations, natural
vegetation, solar energy. Air, water etc.
b. Non-renewable resources: These are resources that can be exhausted and
cannot be replaced with time. E.g. Mineral deposits, fossil fuels.
Natural resources: if they are to serve the needs of man for a very long time have
to be conserved or preserved.
Conservation of Natural resources is defined as the wise use of natural resources to
ensure its continuous use by man. Natural resources are conserved for their
biological, economic and recreational values, as well as their beauty and
importance to local cultures. Wild life conservation which we shall focus upon can
be defined as the act of protecting wild life from human activities that may lead to
their extinction.
Wild life play very important role in nature, because they help to maintain the
balance in nature.
Ways of conserving Wild life
1. By preventing the destruction of forests especially by bush burning.
2. By educating the public on the importance of wildlife conservation.
3. By placing a ban on the hunting of certain species of wildlife, especially the
endangered species (that is, the ones going into extinction).
4. By the provision of game reserves: Game reserves are large areas of land where
large number of wildlife live in their natural habitat and are protected from human
activities such as hunting and bush-burning. Examples of game reserves in Nigeria
are;
(1) Yankari game reserve in Bauchi
(2) Borgu game reserve in Kogi
(3) Sambisa game reserve in Borno
(4) Boshi Game Reserve - Cross River
(5) Folgore Game Reserve - Kano
(6) Karimbela Game Reserve-Taraba
(7) Okwangwo Game Reserves-Cross River
(8) Upper Ogun Game Reserve - Oyo

Uses and Importance of Wildlife

(1) Wildlife is a source of foreign exchange for many countries, because they serve
as a form of tourist attraction.
(2) Wildlife is used for educational and scientific research.
(3) They serve as food for man, in the form of meat, which is a source of protein.
(4) They serve as sources of raw materials for industries. E.g. Bag making and Shoe
making industries use the skin of wildlife like Tigers, Leopards, and Snakes for
making their products.
(5) They are used for aesthetic purposes because of their beauty.
POLLUTION
Pollution can be defined as the release of toxic substances or energy into the
environment, through human activities, in amounts that are harmful to the health
and well- being of man and other organisms.
Any material or energy or substance that causes pollution is known as a
pollutant. Pollutants can be dispersed in air, water, land or soil.
Pollutants are grouped into three (3). These are:
a. Biodegradable pollutants
b. Non-biodegradable pollutants
C. Poisons
Biodegradable Pollutants
These are pollutants that can be broken down into simple harmless forms by
the activities of Bacteria and Fungi. Biodegradable pollutants can also react with
other chemicals in the environment and become harmless. E.g. pesticides,
detergents, sewage, animal faeces, and the remains of dead plants and animals.
Non-Biodegradable Pollutants
These are pollutants that cannot be broken down into simple harmless
substances. They remain in the environment. E.g. plastics, cans, glass, metal
scraps, broken bottles, rubber tyre, nylon bags etc.
Poisons
These are heavy metals and their salts released in small quantities in the
environment and tend to accumulate in the body of living organisms until they
eventually reach a toxic level that can cause harm to the organisms. E.g. Lead,
Mercury, and insecticides like DDy
TYPES OF POLLUTION
There are four types of pollution. These are:
I. Air pollution
 II. Water pollution
III. Land pollution
IV. Noise pollution
AIR POLLUTION
Air can be polluted by solids and gaseous pollutants.
Solid pollutants are dust, soot lead, smoke, pollen grains, radioactive
materials, spores of bacteria and fungi, cement dust, zinc etc. Gaseous pollutants
include Carbon (iv) oxide, Carbon monoxide, Nitrogen (iv) oxide, Sulphur (iv) oxide
and Hydrocarbons. Both solid and gaseous air pollutants have effect on the
ecosystem.
Effects of solid air pollutants
1. Lead: When in vapour state, can be inhaled by human beings. This causes
serious health problems like anaemia, stomach ache, kidney failure and mental
retardation in children. It is also very poisonous to plants.
Air pollution caused by lead can be controlled by using lead free gasoline.
2. Radioactive Materials: Radioactive pollutants prevent cell division and also cause
gene mutation. Gene mutation is a sudden change in the genetic makeup of
organism, as a result of factors, such as exposure to radioactive rays.
3. Dust Particles: It irritates the respiratory organs thereby causing cough and cold.
It also affects plants during the dry season, as it covers the surface of the leaves,
thereby reducing the rate of photosynthesis in the plants which will reduce crop
yield.
4. Smoke and Soot: Smoke and soot darken ceilings and paints of buildings, it also
reduces visibility and irritates the respiratory tract and eye.
Effects of gaseous air pollutants
1. Carbon monoxide (CO): Carbon monoxide is generated from the incomplete
burning of fuel. E.g. from motor vehicle exhaust fumes. It is poisonous to man and
other animals because it combines haemoglobin to from carboxy-haemoglobin. This
leads to low Oxygen in the blood; as a result, headache, dizziness, and tiredness
occurs. In higher concentrations, carbon monoxide can cause brain damage,
leading to unconsciousness and even death.
2. Carbon di oxide (CO₂): Carbon dioxide is also produced by burning of fossil fuels.
Although some of the gas is taken up by the vegetation (plants) through
photosynthesis, the amount of the gas in the atmosphere keeps on rising, due to
increasing burning of fossil fuels and deforestation.
 Carbon dioxide in high concentration in the atmosphere may give rise to
green-house effect, which in turn could lead to global warming and the melting of
the polar ice caps, resulting in a rise in the sea level, hence resulting to flooding.
3. Nitrogen (iv) Oxide and Nitrogen (ii) Oxide: When these are released, they can
cause:
a. Acid rain which affects vegetation & buildings
b. Irritation to the respiratory system, and can damage the air passage ways and
lungs.
C suffocation when combined with haemoglobin.
4. Sulphur (iv) Oxide (SO₂): When it dissolves in rainwater, it also forms acid rain.
Other effects of sulphur (iv) oxide include:
a. It irritates the respiratory passages, thereby cause respiratory problems.
b. It damages the vegetation.
C. It irritates the skin.
5. Burning of Hydrocarbons and Natural gas: this also contributes to air pollution,
because natural gas contains many air pollutants, such as Carbon monoxide,
Nitrogen (iv) oxide, Carbon dioxide, Nitrogen (II) oxide etc.

Ways of controlling air pollution

Air pollution can be reduced in the following ways:
1. By proper maintenance of machines, motor vehicles, furnaces
2. Using petrol that does not contain lead or petrol that has low lead level.
3. By sitting industries away from residential areas.
4. Tall factory chimney should be built.
5. By passing wastes through filters and absorbers.

WATER POLLUTION
Water is said to be polluted when it contain germs that makes it unfit for drinking
and other purposes.
The main cause of water pollution is the dumping of waste into bodies of water like
streams, rivers and lakes
Water pollutants can be grouped into
1. Refuse and sewage
2. Industrial wastes, such as dye from textile industries, detergents, hot water
discharged into water bodies, and heavy metals eg. mercury and lead.
 3. Agricultural wastes, such as pesticides, insecticides, fungicides and fertilizers.
4. Crude and refined oil spillage from oil wells and tankers.
Effects of sewage and refuse
1 Untreated sewage carries germs that cause disease like cholera, typhoid,
dysentery etc
2. It causes the growth of bacteria which leads to reduction in the amount of
dissolved oxygen in water, and this will lead to death of aquatic organisms.
3. It causes the rapid growth of algae in water. This is known as eutrophication; and
this makes the water less suitable for fishing and drinking.
4. Sewage in water makes water unfit for drinking and recreational purposes.
Effects of industrial wastes
1 Dyes and heavy metals like mercury and lead when released into water are
poisonous to organisms. They can affect more organisms along the food chain when
they accumulate in fishes.
2. Hot water from industries when discharged into water bodies, increases the
temperature of the water, and also reduces the oxygen content of the water. This
can lead to the death of aquatic animals.
3. Detergent from manufacturing industries, when it forms foams on the surface of
the water, reduces the light penetration of the water; this affects aquatic plants
that need light in order to carry out photosynthesis. Detergents can also cause
eutrophication.
Effects of agricultural wastes
Fertilizers, pesticides, insecticides and fungicides that are applied to
farmlands, when they are washed off by running water get into water bodies and
cause pollution to the water bodies.
Effects of these agricultural wastes include:
a. The water becomes unfit for drinking
b. It stimulates the rapid growth of algae. (Eutrophication)
c. It can lead to the death of other organisms. For instance, some pesticides kill
other organisms that they are not used for.
d. Some can accumulate in the body of organisms and cause harm to them. E.g.
DDT.

Effects of Crude oil spillage:

The major causes of oil spillage include
i) Explosion of oil wells.
ii) Leakage of oil from pipelines and storage tankers
ⅲ) Careless discharging of waste oil products from the refineries into the immediate
environment.
The effects of oil spillage include:
a. It covers the surface of water and hinders oxygen penetration into the water,
which could lead to the death of aquatic organisms due to suffocation.
b. It is toxic to plants and animals.
C. It renders the water unfit for drinking.
d. It soaks the feathers of aquatic birds, making them unable to fly.

How to control of oil spillage

1. Oil polluted water surfaces can be dispersed with detergents. But this is likely to
cause more damage to life than the oil itself.
2. Powdered chalk can be used to control spillage; this will make the oil to sink into
the bottom of the water.
3. Effort should be made to prevent the release of oil in the first place.

REPRODUCTION
Reproduction can be defined as the process by which matured living
organisms produce young ones (or offspring) of their kind in order to ensure the
continuity of the organisms or the species.
There are two types of reproduction
1. Sexual reproduction
2. Asexual reproduction
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
This is the type of reproduction that involves the fusion of male and female
gametes from two matured organisms of the same species to form a zygote that is
genetically different from the parents.

ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
This is the type of reproduction in which a single matured organism divides into two
or more to produce offspring that look exactly like the parent. It does not involve
two organisms, hence there is no fusion of gametes
Types of asexual reproduction
1. Binary fission seen in Amoeba and Bacteria
2. Spore formation: seen in Fungi like Bread mold, Rhizopus, Mucor, Mushroom etc
3.Budding seen in Hydra and Yeast.
4. Fragmentation seen in Spirogyra and Lichen.
5.Vegetative propagation seen most Green plants

VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION IN PLANTS

This is the production of a new plant using any portion of an old one other
than the seed. The part of an old plant or parent plant used to produce a new plant
is called a vegetative part. Vegetative parts of plant are the stem, root and leaves.
There are two types of vegetative propagation. These are
a. Natural Vegetative Propagation
b. Artificial Vegetative Propagation
Natural Vegetative Propagation
This involves the use of natural vegetative parts of plants to reproduce and get new
plants without applying any form of human intelligence.
Forms of natural vegetative propagation are:
1. Use of underground stem: this involves the use of underground stems like
a. Rhizomes: used to propagate In Ginger and Cana lily and Ferns.
b. Bulb: used to propagate Onion and Garlic.
C. Sucker: used to propagate Banana, Plantain & Pineapple, and Raspberries.
d. Corms: used to propagate Cocoyam, Caladium, and Gladiolus.
e. Runners: used to propagate Grasses and Sweet Potato
2. Bulbis: used to propagate Begonia Bryophyllum.

Artificial vegetative propagation

This involves the use of intelligence by man to grow new plants from cut portion of
the vegetative part of an older parent plant. Examples include:
i) Cutting
ii) Layering
iii) Marcotting
iv) Grafting: There are two types:
a. Stem grafting
b. Bud grafting
1) Cutting: This when parts of a plant are cut into portions and planted to produce a
new plant. The cut portions are called cuttings. Cutting may come from stems or
leaves, depending on the type of plant being propagated. Examples of plants
propagated by stem cuttings are Cassava, Hibiscus, Sugar cane, Cocoa and Sweet
potato.

ii) Layering: In this, a shoot or branch of a plant growing near to the ground is bent
over so that one or two of the nodes touch the ground and covered with soil. Pegs
are used to hold the shoot. After some days, it grows adventitious roots and a new
plant is formed where it had contact with the soil. Examples of plants propagated
by layering method are Tomato, Coffee, and Cocoa etc.

iii) Marcotting: In Marcotting, roots grow from the part of a branch from which a ring
tissue has been removed. This then grows into a new plant. E.g. in Garden shrubs,
mango, and lemon.
a. Stem Grafting: Here, the scion (stem) of a plant is cut from a good quality plant
and inserted into the stock of another plant of the same species and then tied
together. This will produce a new plant of better quality. E.g. in Grape, Orange,
Tangerine.
b. Bud Grafting: Here, the bud of a plant of better quality is cut and tied to a hole
made on the stem of another plant of the same species but of inferior quality. E.g.
in rubber, orange lemon etc

REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM IN FLOWERING PLANTS

The reproductive organ or reproductive structure of a flowering plant is the
flower. The flower contains male and female sex organs, which enable it to carryout
sexual reproduction.
Based on the flowers, plants can be grouped into
(a) Monoecious plants: These are plants that bear the male and female flower on
the same plant. E.g. Maize, Mango, Allamanda plant, Hibiscus plant etc.
(b)Dioecious plants: These are plants that bear male and female flower on
separate plant. E.g. Pawpaw, Spinach, Juniper etc.
Types of flowers based on sex
There two types of flowers based on sex.
a. Unisexual This is a flower that has only the male part (or stamen) or only the
female part (or pistil) of a flower on it e.g. Maize and Pawpaw flowers.
b. Bisexual flower/Hermaphrodite: this is a flower that has both male and female
parts (stamen and pistil) on it. E.g. Pride of Barbados & Hibiscus flowers.
THE STRUCTURE OF A FLOWER
A flower is a cluster of modified leaves which is borne on a shortened stem
called the flower stalk or pedicel. A flower is made up of the following floral parts.
1. Sepals: a collection of sepals is known as Calyx.
2. Petals: a collection of petals is known as Corolla.
3. Stamen or Androecium
4 Pistil or Carpel.
5. The Flower stalk or Pedicel
6. The Receptacle or Thalamus.
The Stamen and Carpel (Androecium and Gynoecium) are called the essential
parts of the flower. This is because they are involved in sexual reproduction.
On the other hand, the Sepals and Petals (Calyx and Corolla), Receptacle and
Pedicel are the non-essential parts of the flower. This is because they are not
involved in sexual reproduction.
1. Sepal/Calyx: is the outer whorl of the flower. It is small and green in colour. Its
function is to protect the flower at the bud stage.
2. Petal/Corolla: This is the second floral whorl inside the sepals. It is the most
conspicuous (noticeable) part of the flower. Petals are brightly coloured and
scented. Its function is to attract insect pollinators, so as to bring about pollination
3. Stamen: This is the male reproductive organ of a flower. a collection of stamens
is called Androecium. It consists of the following parts:
(a) Filament: It is a slender stalk that carries the anther.
(b) Anther: is the swollen end of the stamen which contains pollen grains (which
bears the male gametes in plants).
4. Pistil or Carpel: It is the female reproductive organ of a flower. A collection of
Carpels is called Gynoecium. It consists of the following:
(i) Ovary: It contains the Ovule, which contains the ovule or egg (the female gamete
of plant). After fertilization, the ovary develops into a fruit, while the ovules develop
into seeds.
ii) The style: This is a slender stalk that connects the ovary to the stigma.
ⅲ)Stigma: This is the receptive surface that receives the pollen grains during
pollination.
5. Flower stalk or pedicel: This is the short stem that attaches the flower to the
stem.
6. Receptacle or thalamus: This is the part that carries and holds the other floral
parts of flower together.

LEAVE 15 LINES FOR DIAGRAM

POLLINATION
Pollination can be defined as the transfer of pollen grains from the mature anther of
a flower to the mature stigma of the same flower or another flower of the same
species.
There are two types of pollination. These are:
a. Self-pollination: This is the transfer of pollen grains from a mature anther to
the mature stigma of the same flower or another flower on the same plant.
b. Cross pollination: This is the transfer of pollen grains from the mature anther
of a flower to the mature stigma of a flower of another plant of the same
species or closely related species
AGENTS OF POLLINATION
The agents of pollination are:
i) Insects. E.g. Butterfly, Moth, Bee etc.
ii) Wind
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN INSECT POLLINATED AND WIND POLLINATED
FLOWERS
S/ INSECT POLLINATED FLOWERS WIND POLLINATED FLOWERS
NO
1. They have brightly coloured They have dull coloured petals
petals
2. They have nectar They do not have nectar
3. They have sticky pollen grains Their pollen grains are not sticky
4. They have sticky stigma Their stigma is not sticky
5. They are scented They are not scented

THE SEED
A seed is defined as a ripened, fertilized and developed ovule. Generally, a seed has
the following
(i) A seed coat or Testa
(ii) A scar or hilum
(iii) An opening or tiny bole called Micropyle
(iv) An Embryo which consists of
a. A Plumule (the embryonic shoot)
b. A Radicle (the embryonic root)
c. One or two Cotyledons (seed leaves), where food is stored

GERMINATION OF SEED
Germination can be defined as the process by which an embryo of a seed
develops into a seeding or a young plant. There are two types of germination:
1. Epigeal germination. This is the type of germination in which the cotyledons or
seed leaves are carried above the soil surface. Epigeal germination is associated
with dicotyledonous plants, eg. Cowpea, Groundnut, Melon, Mango, Beans etc.
2. Hypogeal germination: This is the type of germination in which the cotyledons
remain inside or below the soil surface. It is associated with monocotyledonous
plants, e.g. Maize, Oil palm, Guinea corn, Millet, Wheat etc.
CONDITIONS NECESSARY FOR GERMINATION
The conditions which are necessary for the germination of the seed include:
a. Air or oxygen
b. Warmth or suitable temperature
c. Water
d. Viable seed