Ecology

❑Ecology
➢It is the branch of biology that deals with the
inter-relationship between organism and their
environment.
➢The scientific study of interactions between living
organisms and their environment, including
relationships between organisms, as well as with
non-living components like air, water, and soil.
➢The word ‘Ecology’ was first proposed by
zoologist H. Reiter in 1868.
➢It is derived from the Greek words: “Oikos”
meaning house or place to live, and “logos”
meaning study.
❑Branch of Ecology
I. Autecology: It is the study of individual species
in relation to their environment.
➢It looks at how a single organism or species
interacts with environmental factors like climate,
soil, and other abiotic components.
➢For example, studying the life cycle, behavior,
and adaptations of a particular bird species.
II. Synecology: It deals with the study of groups of
organisms (communities) and their relationships
with each other and the environment.
➢It emphasizes interactions within ecosystems,
such as predator-prey dynamics, competition, and
symbiotic relationships.
➢An example would be analyzing the biodiversity
and interdependence of species within a rainforest.
❑Ecological Factors:
➢Ecological factors are environmental components
that influence the survival, behavior, and
reproduction of organisms.
➢They are broadly categorized into abiotic and
biotic factors.
I. Abiotic Factors:
➢It includes non-living components:
1. Climatic factors:
a. Light: Plays an important role in plants
(photosynthesis, chlorophyll formation, stomatal
movement, photoperiodism, growth, reproduction,
pigmentation, etc.) and animals ( growth,
coloration, migration, reproduction, etc.)
b. Temperature: It influences metabolism, growth
and development, coloration, and distribution of
organisms.
c. Atmospheric humidity
d. Wind
e. Precipitation (Rain, dew, snow)
f. Fire
2. Edaphic (Soil) Factors:
a. Soil particle and soil texture
b. Soil moisture and soil water
c. Soil pH
d. Soil temperature
e. Soil nutrient
f. Soil air
g. Soil Organisms
3. Topographic / Physiographic Factors:
a. Altitude (Height of a place)
b. Steepness of slope
c. Direction of slope
II. Biotic Factors:
➢ It includes living components:
1. Producers: They include autotrophic plants.
2. Consumers: They feed on producers or other
organisms. They may be herbivores, carnivores,
or omnivores.
3. Decomposers: They include bacteria, fungi, etc.
❑Ecology
➢Ecology
❑Food Chain:
➢A food chain is a linear sequence that shows how
energy and nutrients flow through an ecosystem,
from one organism to another.
➢It begins with producers (plants) that convert
sunlight into energy, followed by consumers
(animals) that feed on these plants and other
animals, and finally ends with decomposers (like
fungi and bacteria) that break down organic matter.
➢There are three main types of food chains, which
describe different ways energy flows through
ecosystems:
1. Grazing Food Chain:
➢Starts with plants (producers) that use sunlight to
produce energy.
➢Energy flows to herbivores (primary consumers)
and then to carnivores (secondary or tertiary
consumers)
➢Example: Grass → Grasshopper → Frog →
Snake → Eagle.
2. Detritus Food Chain:
➢Begins with dead organic matter (detritus) and
decomposers like fungi and bacteria.
➢Energy is transferred to organisms feeding on
decomposed matter.
➢Example: Dead leaves → Earthworms → Birds.
3. Parasitic Food Chain:
➢Involves parasites feeding on larger organisms
(hosts).
➢Energy flows from the host to the parasites,
sometimes continuing to smaller parasites.
➢Example: Grass → Sheep (host) → Parasites
(liver fluke).
❑Food Web:
➢A food web is a complex network of
interconnected food chains within an ecosystem,
showing how energy flows through multiple paths
as organisms consume and are consumed by
others.
➢Unlike a single food chain, a food web represents
the broader relationships and dependencies among
species.
❑Ecological Pyramids:
➢An ecological pyramid is a graphical
representation of different trophic levels in terms
of energy, biomass, or numbers of an ecosystem.
➢It is divided into trophic levels, starting with
producers at the base and moving up to primary,
secondary, and tertiary consumers.
➢There are three main types:
 I. Pyramid of number:
➢Represents the number of organisms at each
trophic level.
➢It may be upright (many producers, fewer top
predators) or inverted (few producers supporting a
large number of consumers), or spindle-shaped
(few producers and final consumers but many
secondary consumers).
❑Pyramid of energy:
➢Represents the flow of energy at each trophic
level, showing how energy decreases as it moves
up the food chain (due to energy loss as heat,
respiration, etc.).
➢Typically, the energy decreases as you go higher
in the pyramid, so it is always upright.
❑Pyramid of biomass:
➢Shows the total biomass of living organisms at
each trophic level.
➢It may be upright (terrestrial ecosystem) or
inverted (aquatic ecosystem).
❑Ecosystem:
➢A system consisting of all the living organisms
(plants, animals, microbes) and non-living
components (climate, soil, water) in a specific
area, interacting with each other as a functional
unit.
➢The term ‘ecosystem’ was introduced by Tansley.
➢ An ecosystem is a self-regulatory and self-
sustaining structural and functional unit of the
biosphere consisting of living beings and the
physical environment, both interacting and
exchanging materials between them.
 Ecosyste
m

Natural Artificial
ecosystem ecosystem

Aquatic
Terrestrial Man-
Freshwater engineered
Forest Marine ecosystem
Grassland Cropland
Desert Manmade pond
 ❑Functional and structural aspects of the
ecosystem
➢According to functional aspects, the ecosystem is
divided into autotrophic and heterotrophic
components.
➢According to structural aspects, the ecosystem is
divided into abiotic and biotic components.
➢ Autotrophs: These are organisms that can
produce their own food.

➢Heterotrophs: These are organisms that cannot

make their own food and rely on consuming other
organisms for energy and nutrients.
 ❑Pond ecosystem:
➢A pond ecosystem is a freshwater aquatic system
where living organisms interact with each other
and their surrounding environment.
➢It is a self-sustaining unit consisting of both
abiotic components (such as water, light, and
nutrients) and biotic components (like plants,
animals, and microorganisms).
❑Structural aspect of pond ecosystem
I. Abiotic Components:-
• Water: Serves as the medium for all life forms and
chemical processes.
• Light: Essential for photosynthesis by aquatic plants.
• Temperature: Influences the metabolic rates of
organisms.
• Nutrients: Includes dissolved oxygen, carbon dioxide,
and minerals necessary for growth.
• Substrate: The pond bed (mud, sand, or organic
matter) provides support for certain organisms.
 II. Biotic Components:-
• Producers: Autotrophs like algae,
phytoplankton, and aquatic plants that generate
energy through photosynthesis. Examples: Pistia,
Azolla, Spirogyra, Hydrilla, etc.

• Consumers: Heterotrophs, including:

- Primary Consumers: Herbivores like small
fishes and insects.
- Secondary Consumers: Carnivores like larger
fish and amphibians.
- Tertiary Consumers: Top predators like birds or
mammals visiting the pond.

• Decomposers: Bacteria and fungi that break

down dead organic matter into nutrients,
recycling them into the ecosystem.
❑Functional aspects of pond ecosystem:
1. Food Chain
It is of 2 types:
▪ Predatory food chain

Phytoplankton Zooplanktons Small fishes

Large fishes and
fish-eating birds
▪ Detritus food chain

Detritus Large fishes and

(Decomposed Detritivores Small fishes
organic matter) fish-eating birds
2. Food web
3. Ecological pyramid
 ❑Grassland ecosystem:
➢A grassland ecosystem is an open environment
dominated by grasses and herbs, with few
scattered shrubs or trees.
❑Structural aspect of Grassland ecosystem
I. Abiotic Components:-
➢Climate: Grasslands are usually characterized by
moderate rainfall (enough to support grasses but
not forests) and variable temperatures.
➢Soil: Fertile soil, often rich in organic matter,
which supports the growth of grasses.
➢Water: Seasonal water availability, often with
rivers or streams running through the grassland.
➢Sunlight: Abundant sunlight for photosynthesis.
➢Nutrients: Includes N, P, K, and minerals necessary
for growth.
 II. Biotic Components:-
• Producers: Autotrophs like Grasses, herbs,
shrubs, and sometimes trees that dominate and
provide energy through photosynthesis.

• Consumers: Heterotrophs, including:

- Primary Consumers: Herbivores like deer,
antelope, rabbits, and insects that feed on grasses.
- Secondary Consumers: Carnivores like foxes
and birds of prey that eat herbivores.

- Tertiary Consumers: Top predators like lions or

cheetahs that prey on secondary consumers.

• Decomposers: Fungi, bacteria, and earthworms

that break down organic matter, recycling
nutrients back into the soil.
❑Functional aspects of grassland ecosystem:
1. Food Chain
It is of 2 types:
▪ Grazing food chain

Grass snake Hawks

Plants frogs
hoppers s

Plants Rabbits fox lions

▪ Detritus food chain

Detritus Detritivores Secondary

Primary
(Decomposed (Earthworm,
carnivores carnivores
organic matter) Beetles)
2. Food web
3. Ecological pyramid
❑Biological interaction:
➢Biological interactions are the effects organisms
in a community have on one another.
➢An organism’s interactions with its environment
are fundamental to the survival of that organism
and the functioning of the ecosystem as a whole.
➢It may be an interspecific or intraspecific
interaction and a positive or negative interaction.
I. Interspecific interactions :
➢Interspecific interactions are relationships
between individuals of different species within an
ecosystem.
➢Positive: Mutualism, commensalism
➢Negative: predation, parasitism, competition,
Amensalism, antibiosis
a. Mutualism / Symbiosis (+,+):
➢When two species live together in close
association and they both benefit from each other,
the relationship is called mutualism.
➢Both species benefit from the interaction.
➢Example: Lichen (algae+ Fungi), Pollinators like
bees help flowers reproduce while getting nectar
as food.
b. Commensalism (+,0):
➢It is an association of two species where one
organism is benefited, and the other is neither
harmed nor gets any benefit.
➢One species benefits while the other remains
unaffected.
➢Example: Remoras hitching a ride on sharks and
feeding on leftovers without harming the sharks,
Birds building nests on trees—the birds get shelter,
and the trees are unharmed.
c. Parasitism (+,-):
➢One species (the parasite) benefits while the other
(the host) is harmed.
➢ Example: Ticks/ mosquitoes feeding on a host's
blood.
d. Predation (+,-):
➢ One species (the predator) hunts and kills another
(the prey).
➢Example: A hawk hunting a rabbit.
e. Competition:
➢ Two species compete for the same resources,
potentially reducing survival for one or both.
➢ Example: Grass and shrubs competing for
sunlight and nutrients.
f. Amensalism (0, -):
➢One species is harmed, while the other remains
unaffected.
➢Example: A large tree shading smaller plants,
limiting their growth.
g. Antibiosis (0, -):
➢It is a type of (amensalism) biological interaction
where one organism produces substances that are
harmful to another organism.
➢For example, certain bacteria or fungi produce
antibiotics that inhibit the growth or kill other
microorganisms.
II. Intraspecific interaction:
➢Intraspecific interaction refers to the interactions
occurring between individuals of the same species
within an ecosystem.
a. Competition:
➢Individuals compete for limited resources such as
food, water, territory, or mates.
➢Example: Male deer competing for mates during
the breeding season.
b. Cooperation:
➢Members of the same species work together for
mutual benefit, often seen in social species.
➢ Example: Bees in a hive collaborating to gather
food and protect the colony.
c. Aggression:
➢Hostile behavior may occur between individuals,
often linked to territorial disputes or dominance.
➢ Example: Fighting among wolves for leadership
in a pack.
d. Altruism:
➢An individual may sacrifice its own benefit for
the welfare of others in the species.
➢Example: Meerkats standing guard to alert their
group about predators.
e. Parental Care:
➢Parents interact with offspring to nurture and
protect them until they are self-sufficient.
➢ Example: Birds feeding their chicks in the nest.
❑ Productivity of an ecosystem:
➢The productivity of an ecosystem refers to the rate
at which energy is produced and transferred within
that ecosystem.
➢It is essentially a measure of how efficiently
organisms convert energy into biomass, which
supports other life forms in the ecosystem.
➢Productivity is usually divided into three
categories:
1. Primary Productivity
➢This focuses on energy capture and biomass
creation by autotrophs (producers):
- Gross Primary Productivity (GPP):- The total
amount of energy captured by producers through
processes like photosynthesis.
- Net Primary Productivity (NPP):- The energy
remaining after producers use some for their own
respiration (GPP-Respiration).
❖ Order of Primary Productivity:
➢ Coral reef> tropical rainforest> cropland>
oceans> Desert
2. Secondary Productivity
➢This involves energy transfer and biomass
production by heterotrophs (consumers):
➢ Energy from producers is consumed and
converted into new biomass by herbivores and
carnivores.
3. Tertiary Productivity
➢This refers to energy at higher trophic levels, like
top carnivores and decomposers, though the
energy available decreases significantly with each
level due to energy loss in the form of heat.
❑Succession:
➢Succession is a series of changes in community
structure and species composition in due course of
time.
➢Succession in an ecosystem refers to the natural
process by which the structure and composition of
a biological community change over time.
➢It is a gradual and continuous process that does
not stop unless a stable community is formed.
➢This final stable community is called a climax
community.
➢The sequence of vegetation type or communities
formed during the process of succession is called a
sere.
➢Primarily, there are 2 types of seres: hydrosere
(series of aquatic communities) and xerosehe
(series of communities on land).
❑Types of succession:
I. Primary Succession
➢This occurs in areas where there is no initial soil
or life—essentially a blank slate, like bare rock,
sand dunes, or areas exposed by volcanic
eruptions.
➢Organisms such as lichens, mosses, and bacteria
colonize first. They break down rocks into smaller
particles, creating the foundation for soil
formation.
➢ Over time, grasses, shrubs, and trees establish
themselves, progressively creating a more
complex ecosystem.
➢Example: The formation of a new ecosystem on a
volcanic island after lava solidifies into rock.
II. Secondary Succession
➢This occurs in areas where an ecosystem
previously existed but has been disturbed or
destroyed—such as after a wildfire, flood, or
human activities like farming.
➢Soil is already present, making the recovery
process faster than in primary succession.
➢ Fast-growing plants (like grasses) colonize first,
followed by shrubs, and then mature trees,
eventually leading to a stable climax community.
➢Example: Regrowth of a forest after logging or a
natural disaster.
❑Causes of succession:
1. Biotic Causes:
➢These involve living organisms and their
interactions within the ecosystem:-
• Competition: Species compete for resources like
light, water, and nutrients. When one species
outcompetes another, it may lead to changes in
the community structure.
• Predation and Herbivory: Predators and
herbivores can eliminate certain species, creating
opportunities for new ones to establish.
• Invasion of New Species: Migrating or invasive
species can alter the existing balance of an
ecosystem, setting off a chain reaction in
community changes.
• Human Activities: Farming, deforestation, and
urbanization often destroy ecosystems, triggering
secondary succession in the affected areas.
2. Abiotic Causes:
➢ These include non-living environmental factors:-
• Climate Change: Changes in temperature,
rainfall, or seasonal patterns can alter the
suitability of habitats for existing species, paving
the way for new communities.
• Natural Disasters: Events like volcanic
eruptions, wildfires, landslides, or floods can
destroy habitats, leading to succession as new life
colonizes the area.
• Soil Formation or Erosion: The formation or
loss of soil can significantly impact what species
can thrive in a given area.
• Nutrient Availability: Changes in nutrient
levels, often caused by weathering of rocks,
floods, or human intervention, can influence
which species dominate over time.
❑General process of Succession:
➢ The process of plant succession occurs in the
following steps:
1. Nudation: Formation of a bare place without
any life on it. It is formed by landslides, erosion,
deposition, or other reasons.
2. Invasion: The establishment of species in bare
areas is an invasion. It occurs by following steps:
Migration, establishment (reproduction),
aggregation(reproduction).
3. Coaction and competition: Competition
develops among species for food and space, and
those which cannot compete may be replaced.
4. Reaction: Environmental modification in light,
temperature, etc. results reaction from which one
community is replaced by another.
5. Stabilization or climax: From going above
process, the lastly a final stable community is
developed.
❑Bio-geo-chemical cycles:
➢The cyclic movement or circulation of biogenetic
nutrients of the biosphere in between the abiotic
and biotic components is called biogeochemical
cycle.
➢It is also called nutrient cycling.
❑Carbon cycles:
➢The cyclic movement or circulation of carbon in
the biosphere between the abiotic and biotic
components is called the carbon cycle.
➢ The carbon cycle is the process where carbon
compounds are interchanged among the biosphere,
geosphere, pedosphere, hydrosphere, and
atmosphere of the earth.
➢ The following are the major steps involved in the
process of the carbon cycle:
• Carbon present in the atmosphere is absorbed by
plants for photosynthesis.
• These plants are then consumed by animals and
carbon gets bioaccumulated into their bodies.
• These animals and plants eventually die, and
upon decomposing, carbon is released back into
the atmosphere.
• Some of the carbon that is not released back into
the atmosphere eventually becomes fossil fuels.
• These fossil fuels are then used for man-made
activities, which pump more carbon back into the
atmosphere.
• Carbon also returns to the environment through
respiration (animals and plants release CO₂ back
into the air).
• Oceans absorb large amounts of carbon from the
atmosphere. Marine organisms use this carbon to
form shells and skeletons, which can eventually
become sedimentary rock.
• Carbon present in the rocks is released to the
atmosphere by activities like volcanic eruption.
➢In this way, carbon circulates from the
environment to organisms and from organisms to
the environment back again, which continues as a
carbon cycle.
❑Nitrogen cycles:
➢The cyclic movement or circulation of nitrogen in
the biosphere between the abiotic and biotic
components is called the nitrogen cycle.
➢ The nitrogen cycle is the process where nitrogen
compounds are interchanged among the biosphere,
geosphere, pedosphere, hydrosphere, and
atmosphere of the earth.
➢The following are the major steps involved in the
process of the carbon cycle:
• Nitrogen Fixation: This process converts
atmospheric nitrogen (N₂) into ammonia (NH₃) or
related compounds that plants can use. Nitrogen
fixation can occur:
a. Biologically: Specialized bacteria (like
Rhizobium in legume root nodules or free-living
bacteria such as Azotobacter) convert N₂ into
ammonia.
b. Abiotic Processes: Lightning or industrial
processes like the Haber-Bosch method can fix
nitrogen.
• Nitrification: In the soil, ammonia is further
converted into nitrites (NO₂⁻) and then nitrates
(NO₃⁻) by nitrifying bacteria (e.g., Nitrosomonas
and Nitrobacter). Nitrates are more easily
absorbed by plants.
• Assimilation: Plants use nitrates to grow, and
animals get nitrogen by eating plants or other
animals.
• Ammonification: When plants, animals, or
microbes die, their bodies decompose. The
organic nitrogen in their tissues is converted back
into ammonia (NH₃) by decomposers like fungi
and bacteria in the soil.
• Denitrification: Certain bacteria (e.g.,
Pseudomonas and Clostridium) perform
denitrification, converting nitrates (NO₃⁻) and
nitrites (NO₂⁻) back into nitrogen gas (N₂) or
nitrous oxide (N₂O). This process releases
nitrogen back into the atmosphere, completing
the cycle.
• Nitrogen in Oceans: Similar processes occur in
aquatic environments, where nitrogen is cycled
among atmospheric nitrogen, dissolved nitrogen
compounds, and marine organisms.
Cyanobacteria play a significant role in nitrogen
fixation in oceans.
➢ Simplified process:
• Fixation: Nitrogen gas (N₂) from the atmosphere
is converted into forms like ammonia (NH₃) by
bacteria or lightning so plants can use it.
• Nitrification: Bacteria change ammonia into
nitrites (NO₂⁻) and nitrates (NO₃⁻) that plants
absorb.
• Assimilation: Plants use nitrates to grow, and
animals get nitrogen by eating plants or other
animals.
• Ammonification: Decomposers break down
dead organisms, converting organic nitrogen into
ammonia.
• Denitrification: Bacteria turn nitrates back into
nitrogen gas, releasing it into the air.
➢ In this way, carbon circulates from the
environment to organisms and from organisms to
the environment back again, which continues as a
carbon cycle.
❑Ecological adaptation:
➢An adaptation is any developmental, behavioral,
physiological, or anatomical change in an
organism that give that organism a better chance to
survive and reproduce.
➢All living beings need to adapt to their
environment to survive.
❑Plant adaptation in the desert(Xerophytes)
➢ They have reduced leaf surface area to lower
transpiration rates.
➢The leaves have thick waxy skins, which helps to
reduce water evaporation.
➢The growth is slow as the plants do not have to
make much food.
➢They store water in their green stems or thick
leaves.
➢They have deep taproot systems or shallow wide
spread root system to quickly absorb surface
water.
➢Example: different types of Cactus, Joshua tree,
etc.
❑Plant adaptation in the water(Hydrophytes)
➢Floating Leaves: They have broad, flat leaves
that float on the surface to capture sunlight for
photosynthesis.
➢Air Spaces: Many aquatic plants have air-filled
tissues (aerenchyma) in their stems and leaves,
helping them float and exchange gases.
➢Flexible Stems: They have flexible stems to
withstand water currents.
➢Reduced Roots: They have weak or absent roots
since they absorb nutrients directly from the water.
➢Thin Leaves: Submerged plants often have thin,
ribbon-like leaves to maximize light absorption
and reduce resistance to water currents.
➢Examples: water lily, lotus, duckweed, etc.
❑Ecological Imbalance
➢Ecological imbalances occur when natural or
human-caused disturbances disrupt the balance of
ecosystems.
➢These imbalances can lead to significant
consequences for biodiversity, climate, and the
health of the environment.
➢Major ecological imbalance includes:
❑Greenhouse effect:
➢The greenhouse effect is a natural process where
certain gases in Earth's atmosphere trap heat,
keeping the planet warm enough to support life.
➢However, human activities have intensified this
effect, leading to global warming.
 ❑Causes:
➢Burning Fossil Fuels: Releases carbon dioxide
(CO₂) and other greenhouse gases.
➢Deforestation: Reduces the number of trees that
absorb CO₂.
➢Industrial Activities: Emit large amounts of
greenhouse gases like O3, CFCs, etc.
➢Agriculture: Livestock and farming release
methane (CH₄) and nitrous oxide (N₂O).
 ❑Consequences:
➢Global Warming: Rising temperatures disrupt
ecosystems and weather patterns.
➢Melting Ice Caps: This leads to rising sea levels
and loss of habitats.
➢Extreme Weather: Increased frequency of
storms, droughts, and floods.
➢Biodiversity Loss: Species struggle to adapt to
changing climates.
 ❑Control Measures:
➢Afforestation: Planting trees to absorb CO₂.
➢Renewable Energy: Using solar, wind, and
hydroelectric power instead of fossil fuels.
➢Energy Efficiency: Reducing energy
consumption in homes and industries.
➢Reducing Emissions: Implementing policies to
limit greenhouse gas emissions.
❑Ozone (O3) Layer Depletion:
➢Ozone layer depletion refers to the thinning of the
ozone layer in Earth's stratosphere, which protects
us from harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation.
 ❑Causes:
➢Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs): Found in
refrigerants, aerosol sprays, and solvents, CFCs
release chlorine atoms that destroy ozone
molecules.
➢Halons: Used in fire extinguishers, these release
bromine, which is even more destructive to the
ozone.
 ❑Causes:
➢Other Ozone-Depleting Substances (ODS):
Includes carbon tetrachloride, methyl bromide, and
hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs).
➢Natural Causes: Volcanic eruptions and
stratospheric winds contribute minimally to ozone
depletion.
 ❑Consequences:
➢Increased UV Radiation: Leads to skin cancer,
cataracts, and weakened immune systems in
humans.
➢Environmental Damage: Harms aquatic
ecosystems, especially plankton, and affects crop
yields.
➢Climate Impact: Alters atmospheric
temperatures and weather patterns.
 ❑Control Measures:
➢Montreal Protocol: An international agreement
to phase out the production and use of ODS.
➢Alternative Technologies: Using ozone-friendly
refrigerants and fire extinguishers.
➢Awareness Campaigns: Educating people about
the importance of protecting the ozone layer.
➢Reducing Emissions: Limiting industrial
activities that release harmful substances.
❑Acid Rain:
➢Acid rain refers to precipitation (rain, snow, fog,
or dust) that contains higher levels of acidic
components, such as sulfuric and nitric acids.
➢It forms when pollutants like sulfur dioxide (SO₂)
and nitrogen oxides (NOₓ) are released into the
atmosphere, often from burning fossil fuels, and
react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals.
 ❑Causes:
➢Burning Fossil Fuels: Power plants, factories,
and vehicles emit SO₂ and NOx.
➢Industries, automobiles, power plants
➢Natural Sources: Volcanic eruptions and
lightning also contribute to SO₂ and NOₓ
emissions.
 ❑Consequences:
➢Environmental Damage: Acid rain harms
forests, soils, and aquatic ecosystems by altering
pH levels and leaching nutrients.
➢Infrastructure Damage: It corrodes buildings,
statues, and bridges, especially those made of
limestone or marble.
➢Health Effects: Acid rain indirectly affects
human health by contaminating water and food
sources.
 ❑Control Measures:
➢Reducing Emissions: Using cleaner energy
sources and technologies to limit SO₂ and NOₓ
emissions.
➢Regulations: Policies like the Clean Air Act and
international agreements help control pollutants.
➢Public Awareness: Educating people about the
causes and effects of acid rain to encourage
sustainable practices.
❑Biological invasion:
➢Biological invasion refers to the introduction and
spread of non-native species into ecosystems
where they are not naturally found.
➢These species, often called invasive species, can
disrupt local biodiversity, ecosystems, and even
human activities.
 ❑Causes:
➢Human Activities: Global trade, transportation,
and travel unintentionally or intentionally
introduce species to new areas.
➢Environmental Changes: Climate change and
habitat destruction can create conditions favorable
for invasive species.
➢Natural Events: Rare occurrences like tsunamis
or storms can transport species across regions.
 ❑Consequences:
➢Biodiversity Loss: Invasive species can
outcompete native species, leading to extinction.
➢Ecosystem Disruption: They can alter food
chains, nutrient cycles, and habitat structures.
➢Economic Impact: Damage to agriculture,
fisheries, and infrastructure can result in financial
losses.
 ❑Control Measures:
➢Prevention: Strict regulations on trade and
transport to limit the spread of invasive species.
➢Monitoring: Early detection and rapid response
to new invasions.
➢Eradication: Physical removal, chemical
treatments, or biological control methods to
manage invasive populations.