CHAPTER 2:

SAMPLE SIZE
DETERMINATION
Objectives:
• At the end of the chapter the students should
be able to solve sampling size based on the
different formulas.
A. Sample Size
Sample Size
• Sample size is the number of observations
in a sample (Evans et al., 2000).
• It is commonly denoted while is for
population size.
• It is important to estimate the size of the
sample because the standard error depends
on the sample size.
Sampling Techniques Methods of Collecting Data Methods of Organizing Data Methods of Presenting Data
Sample Size
• Standard error of sampling distribution of sample
means,

• Standard error of sampling distribution of sample

proportions,

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Sample Size
• Sample size is an estimation of the number
of subjects required to detect an association
of a given effect size and variability, at a
specified likelihood of making Type I (false-
positive) and Type II (false negative) errors
(Rao, 2012).

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Sample Size
• Miaoulis and Michener (1976) argued that for
research sample size calculation three critical
components need to consider for the
appropriateness they are required:
1. Level of precision
2. Level of confidence or risk
3. Degree of variability in attributes to be
measured.
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Level of Statistical Precision/Sampling Error
• The statistical precision is defined as the
closeness between the calculated value and
relevant population value (Cohen, 1988).
• It is normally estimated by standard error in
two ways: descriptively and inferentially
(Thompson, 2006).

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Level of Statistical Precision/Sampling Error
• Descriptively: Precision can be estimate using
standard error that is the difference between
sample estimate and population parameters.

where = standard error of the mean, = standard

deviation, and = sample size.

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Level of Statistical Precision/Sampling Error
• Inferentially: Standard error is commonly
used in estimating the significance difference
between or among parameter estimates.

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Level of Statistical Precision/Sampling Error

where = mean of the treatment group, = mean of control

group, = standard deviation of treatment group, = standard
deviation of control group, = sample size of treatment
group, = sample size of control group, and = t test
statistics.

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Confidence / Risk Level
• Confidence / risk level is the degree to
which an assumption or number is likely to
be true.
• It is a statistical measure of the number of
times out of 100 that results can be expected
to be within a specified range.

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Confidence / Risk Level

Sampling Techniques Methods of Collecting Data Methods of Organizing Data Methods of Presenting Data
Degree of Variability
• The degree of variability is the distribution
of attributes in the population.
• For more heterogeneous population larger
sample size is required for given precision
level, at the same time for homogenous
population small sample size is sufficient to
meet given precision level.
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 B. METHODS OF
DETERMINING SAMPLE SIZE
METHODS OF DETERMINING SAMPLE SIZE
• Cochran (1963), Gupta and Kapoor (1970) and
Israel et al. (1992) proposed four methods to
determine the sample size for the research:
1. Census method small population
2. Replicate a sample size of similar studies
3. Sample size from the published tables
4. Applying formulas to calculate a sample size
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CENSUS METHOD
• In census method consider the entire
population as the sample: this method is
suitable only when population size is very
small otherwise cost associated with this
method is more.
• This method is very suitable for medical
because of its accurate preciseness.
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REPLICATE A SAMPLE SIZE
• If the researcher doing research in same field
or domain and literature are available,
replicate the sample size of similar studies.
• The disadvantage of this method is the same
error will carry forward from the previous
research what we consider for sample size
determination.
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SAMPLE SIZE FROM THE PUBLISH TABLES
• This method is determined to sample size
based on the published tables which provide
the sample size for predefined criteria.

Sampling Techniques Methods of Collecting Data Methods of Organizing Data Methods of Presenting Data
SAMPLE SIZE FROM THE PUBLISH TABLES

Sampling Techniques Methods of Collecting Data Methods of Organizing Data Methods of Presenting Data
SAMPLE SIZE FROM THE PUBLISH TABLES

Sampling Techniques Methods of Collecting Data Methods of Organizing Data Methods of Presenting Data
APPLYING FORMULAS
• Using formulas for a different combination of
levels of precision, confidence and variability
researcher can determine the sample size.
• In this method, the researcher can customize
the sample size based on the precision and
type of the research.

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APPLYING FORMULAS
• The following are some common formulas used in
research:
1. Estimating the mean or average
2. Estimating proportion (Infinite population)
3. Yamane (Simplified form of Proportions for finite
population)
4. Infinite Population Correction
5. Finite Population Correction
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ESTIMATING THE MEAN OR AVERAGE
• The sample size required to estimate population
mean, , to with a level of confidence with
specified margin of error given by

where is the z-score corresponding to level of

confidence, and is the level of precision.

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ESTIMATING THE MEAN OR AVERAGE
• Reminders: When is unknown, it is common
practice to conduct a preliminary survey to
determine and use it as an estimate of .
• Or use results from previous studies to
obtain an estimate of .

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ESTIMATING THE MEAN OR AVERAGE
• When using this approach, the size of the
sample should be at least 30.
• The formula for the sample standard
deviation, , is

Sampling Techniques Methods of Collecting Data Methods of Organizing Data Methods of Presenting Data
ESTIMATING THE MEAN OR AVERAGE
• Example:
• A health care professional wishes to estimate
the birth weights of infants. How large a
sample must be obtained if she desires to be
90% confident that the true mean is within 2
ounces of the sample mean? Assuming that
the population standard deviation is 8 ounces.
Sampling Techniques Methods of Collecting Data Methods of Organizing Data Methods of Presenting Data
ESTIMATING THE MEAN OR AVERAGE
• Solution:
• Given: (90% confidence level), , and
• Formula:
• Solution:

Sampling Techniques Methods of Collecting Data Methods of Organizing Data Methods of Presenting Data
ESTIMATING THE MEAN OR AVERAGE
• Answer: The sample must be obtained is 44
infants.

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ESTIMATING PROPORTION (INFINITE POPULATION)
• The sample size required to obtain a confidence interval
for with specified margin of error, , is given by

where is the z-score corresponding to level of confidence,

and is the level of precision, is the population proportion,
and is .

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ESTIMATING PROPORTION (INFINITE POPULATION)
• Example:
• A federal report indicated that 27% of children
ages 2 to 5 years had a good diet – an increase
over previous years. How large a sample is
needed to estimate the true proportion of children
with good diets within 2% with 95% confidence?
(Source: Federal Interagency Forum on Child and
Family Statistics, Washington Observer-Reporter.)
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ESTIMATING PROPORTION (INFINITE POPULATION)
• Solution: Given: (95% confidence level), , ,
and
• Formula:
• Solution:

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ESTIMATING PROPORTION (INFINITE POPULATION)
• Answer: The sample size of children with
good diet is 1,893.

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YAMANE’S FORMULA
• The Yamane’s formula (simplified form of
proportions for finite population) is used to
calculate the sample size given the population
size and error.

where: is the total population, and is the level of

precision
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YAMANE’S FORMULA
• Example:
• A researcher plans to conduct a survey about
food preference of BS Nursing students. If
the population of students is 500 find the
sample size if the error is 5%.

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YAMANE’S FORMULA
• Solution:
• Given: and
• Formula:
• Solution:
• Answer: The researcher needs to get 222 BS
Nursing students for his study.
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INFINITE POPULATION CORRECTION
• The conservative formula using the strong
law of large number:

where: confidence level is and the level of

precision is .
Sampling Techniques Methods of Collecting Data Methods of Organizing Data Methods of Presenting Data
FINITE POPULATION CORRECTION
• If the population is small then the sample
size can be reduced slightly

where: is Cochran’s sample size

recommendation and is the population size.

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C. POWER ANALYSIS
POWER ANALYSIS
• Recent developments suggest that
researchers should determine sample size
through power analysis (Hair et al., 2018;
Hair et al., 2017; Hair et al., 2019; Kline,
2016; Ringle et al., 2018; Uttley, 2019).

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POWER ANALYSIS
• Power analysis determines the minimum
sample size by taking into account the part of
a model with the largest number of predictors
(Hair et al., 2014; Roldán & Sánchez-Franco,
2012).

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POWER ANALYSIS
• It requires information related to power, effect
size, and significance level to calculate the
minimum required sample size (Hair et al.,
2018).

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POWER
• Power (1-β error probability) is a “statistic’s
ability to correctly reject the null hypothesis
when it is false” (Burns & Burns, 2008, p. 244).
• A value of 80 percent or more represents an
adequate level of power in social science
research (Cohen, 1988; Hair et al., 2017;
Uttley, 2019).
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EFFECT SIZE
• Effect size measures the magnitude of the effect
that individual independent variables actually
have on the dependent variable (Murphy &
Myors, 2004; Sullivan & Feinn, 2012).
• To estimate sample size, it is necessary to know
the extent of the effect in order to achieve
statistical power of 80 percent or greater.
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EFFECT SIZE
• As a general guideline, Cohen (1988) suggested
that the values of 0.02, 0.15, and 0.35 be
interpreted as small, medium, and large effects
respectively.

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LEVEL OF SIGNIFICANCE
• The level of significance (α) relates to the
probability of rejecting the null hypothesis.
• In social and behavioral science research,
significance is generally accepted at 0.05 (5%)
(Hair et al., 2010).
• In medical research, significance is generally
accept at 0.01 (1%) (B. Wormuth, 2022)
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D. G*POWER CALCULATOR
G*POWER CALCULATOR
• The G*Power software is easy to use for
calculating sample size and power for various
statistical methods (F, t, χ2, Z, and exact tests).
• It also provides effect size calculators and
graphics options.

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G*POWER CALCULATOR
• Sample size and power calculations using
G*Power are generally performed in the
following order.
1. First, establish the research goals and
hypotheses.

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G*POWER CALCULATOR
2. Second, choose appropriate statistical tests
• G*Power software provides statistical
methods in these 2 ways.
a. Distribution-based approach
• Investigators can select the distribution-
based approach (exact, F, t, χ2, and z
tests) using the “test family” drop-down
menu.
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G*POWER CALCULATOR
b. Design-based approach
• Investigators can select the design-based
approach using the “statistical test” drop-down
menu.
• This can also be carried out by selecting the
variable (correlation and regression, means,
proportions, variance, and generic) and the study
design for which statistical tests are performed
from the test menu located at the top of the
screen and sub-menu.
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G*POWER CALCULATOR
3. Third, choose 1 of 5 possible power
analysis methods

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G*POWER CALCULATOR
• An a priori analysis is a sample size
calculation performed before conducting the
study and before the design and planning
stage of the study; thus, it is used to
calculate the sample size N, which is
necessary to determine the effect size,
desired α level, and power level (1-β).

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G*POWER CALCULATOR
• According to Uttley (2019, p. 158) “It is good
practice to carry out an a priori power analysis
to determine the sample size required to be
confident in revealing an effect if there is one
truly present”.
• Likewise, we believe that researchers need to
know the minimum sample size early on to
make informed decisions and avoid post-data
collection problems.
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G*POWER CALCULATOR
• In contrast, a post-hoc analysis is typically
conducted after the completion of the study.
As the sample size, , is given, the power level
() is calculated using the given N, the effect
size, and the desired α level.
• Post-hoc power analysis is a less ideal type
of sample size and power calculation than a
priori analysis as it only controls α, and not β.
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G*POWER CALCULATOR
4. Fourth, input the required variables for
analysis and select the “calculate” button

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G*POWER CALCULATOR
• In contrast, a post-hoc analysis is typically
conducted after the completion of the study. As the
sample size, , is given, the power level () is
calculated using the given N, the effect size, and
the desired α level.

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D. G*POWER CALCULATOR
FOR SURVEY RESEARCH
G*POWER CALCULATOR FOR SURVEY RESEARCH
• Memon, et al. (2020), showed a detailed process
of conducting power analysis using G*Power using
three model:
1. Simple model (Figure 1)
2. Mediation model (Figure 2)
3. Moderation model (Figure 3)

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G*POWER CALCULATOR FOR SURVEY RESEARCH
• Download the free G*power program using the
link: https://g-power.apponic.com/
• Step 1: When the Programme is open, the first
step is to choose the “F tests” analysis from the
test family options.
• Step 2: Then, select “Linear multiple regression:
fixed model, R2 deviation from zero” from the list of
statistical tests
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G*POWER CALCULATOR FOR SURVEY RESEARCH
• Step 3: The type of power analysis must be set at “A-
priori: Compute required sample size – given α, power
and effect size”
• Step 4: Next, specify the effect size at 0.15 (medium
effect), α at 0.05, and power at 0.80 in the input
parameters
• Note: This is the most common recommended
setting for social and business science research
(Hair et al., 2017).
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G*POWER CALCULATOR FOR SURVEY RESEARCH
• Step 5: Then, enter the number of
predictors, which simply depends on the
hypothesized model of one’s study.
• The number of predictors refers to the
maximum arrows that point to a
dependent variable in the model.

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G*POWER CALCULATOR FOR SURVEY RESEARCH
• For the simple model (see Figure 1), we have
three predictors, so we enter “3” in the input
parameter.
• Step 6: Then, click on Calculate.
• G*Power estimates that the minimum sample
size required for the simple model is 77 (see
Figure 4).
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G*POWER CALCULATOR FOR SURVEY RESEARCH
• For a mediation model (see Figure 2), we can observe
that there are three arrows pointing to “knowledge
sharing” and four to “student satisfaction”.

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G*POWER CALCULATOR FOR SURVEY RESEARCH
• Following the rule of the maximum arrows pointing to
one variable in the model, we enter “4” as the number
of predictors in the input parameters.
• G*Power shows that the minimum sample size required
for the mediation model is 85 (see Figure 5).

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G*POWER CALCULATOR FOR SURVEY RESEARCH
• For a moderation model (see Figure 3), the power for
a moderating model is estimated based on its statistical
model, which not only adds the moderator as an
independent variable but also specifies the interaction
terms (independent variable*moderator) of all
hypothesized moderating relationships.

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G*POWER CALCULATOR FOR SURVEY RESEARCH
• The moderation model (see Figure 3) is converted
into a statistical model (see Figure 6) for better reader
understanding.
• Now, we see that seven arrows point to “knowledge
sharing”.

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G*POWER CALCULATOR FOR SURVEY RESEARCH
• Therefore, we enter “7” as the input for the number of
predictors.
• G*Power shows that the minimum sample size required
for the moderation model is 103 (see Figure 7).

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E. G*POWER CALCULATOR FOR
EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
G*POWER CALCULATOR FOR EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
• The following steps in calculating of sample size using
G*power software for experimental study according to
B. Wormuth (2022, November 29) are as follows:
• Step 1: Once you have opened the program, click on
the Test family drop down menu and select the type of
statistic you are interested in.
• For a paired samples t-test, we will select the t-
test option.
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G*POWER CALCULATOR FOR EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
•
If you are interested in an ANOVA or Regression
then you would select the F test option.
• Step 2: Once you have determined the test family, you can
click on the statistical test drop down menu and select the
appropriate test for your analysis.
• In this case, we would choose the Means: Difference
between two dependent means (matched pairs). Again,
this is because we are running a paired samples t-test
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G*POWER CALCULATOR FOR EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
• Step 3: Once you have selected your test, you will now be
able to input the effect size, power, and alpha levels.
• Here, we decided to go with a medium effect size of 0.5.
• Step 4: Next to input the alpha level.
• For this, unless previous research has given you a reason
to lower the value, it is a safe bet to always stay at alpha
= 0.01.

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REFERENCE
• Memon, M. A., Ting, H., Cheah, J., Thurasamy, R.,
Chuah, F., & Cham, T. H. (2020). Sample size for
survey research: Review and recommendations.
Journal of Applied Structural Equation Modeling,
4(2), i–xx. https://doi.org/10.47263/jasem.4(2)01
• Israel, G. D. (2016). Sampling the evidence of
extension program impact. EDIS, 2016(1), 9.
https://doi.org/10.32473/edis-pd005-2015
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