 Digital to Digital Conversion

There are various methods for converting digital signals to digital format:
 Line coding is a crucial process in which binary data is transformed into digital signals, enabling
smooth transmission over a communication channel. It guarantees a seamless coordination
between the sender and receiver.
 Block coding involves the grouping of a set of bits and encoding them into a specific code. This
method improves the integrity of the data and allows for the detection and correction of errors.
 Scrambling is a valuable technique that helps to enhance the efficiency of data transmission by
randomising the data. By doing so, it minimises the chances of having long sequences of
identical bits and optimises the use of the communication channel.

Let's discuss the data and signal elements:

The smallest unit of data representation is a bit. The value can be either 0 or 1, serving as the
foundation for digital information processing and storage.
In digital communication, a signal element refers to the smallest unit of a digital signal. It
represents a particular voltage level or phase change and is utilised to transmit data over a
communication channel.
 Data Rate versus Signal Rate
Understanding data and signal rates is essential for optimising efficiency and speed in digital
communication.

The data rate, which is measured in bits per second (bps), represents the quantity of data elements that
are transmitted within a one-second interval. Understanding digital information interchange requires a
grasp of the fundamental building blocks: bits represented by 0s and 1s. A higher data rate enables
faster communication and data transfer by transmitting a larger amount of data in a shorter period of
time.

The signal rate, measured in baud, refers to the quantity of signal elements that are transmitted within a
single second. Signal elements consist of pulses, phases, and modulated signals. Signal rate is primarily
concerned with the physical alterations in the signal that transmit the data, rather than the actual
content being transmitted. The signal rate is also known as the pulse or modulation rate.

 Line Coding
Line coding converts digital data into digital signals, a key digital communication procedure.
Computer memory stores text, numbers, graphics, music, and video as sequences of bits (0s and
1s). Digital information is built from these bits.
Line coding ensures efficient and reliable data transfer over communication lines.
Line coding schemes:
Following are the 5-line coding schemes:

 Unipolar
 Polar
 Bipolar
  Multilevel
 Multitransition
 Unipolar
Unipolar Scheme:
Unipolar line coding involves placing all digital signal levels on one side of
the time axis, above or below. In binary, 1s are represented by a positive or
non-zero voltage level, while 0s are zero. Avoiding signal time axis crossing
simplifies signal detection and synchronisation.
For unipolar line coding:
The positive voltage (+V) is represented by binary 1.
Binary 0 is zero voltage.
Simple unipolar line coding is easy to implement and decode. Even with
several zeros in the data, the constant positive signal reduces signal power
efficiency and transmits power consistently.

Unipolar line coding is employed in short-distance communication systems

since it is easy to build and decode and power efficiency is less important.

In Unipolar NRZ, a binary 1 has a constant voltage level throughout the bit
period, while a binary 0 has no voltage. Unipolar NRZ retains voltage signal
polarity for all binary values, unlike other NRZ methods. However, it only
uses positive voltage for binary 1 and zero voltage for binary 0.

 Polar
1-Polar-NRZ Line Coding:

Binary 1 has a constant voltage level, positive or negative, during the bit period.The voltage level of
0 in binary is opposite (negative or positive) throughout the bit period.

In Polar NRZ, the voltage level for a binary 1 remains constant during the bit period, while the
voltage level for a binary 0 remains constant but reversed. The signal is not reset to zero each bit
period in this technique. Instead, it keeps the voltage constant throughout each bit.
2- The Polar RZ Line Coding Scheme:

In binary, 1 is represented by a positive voltage level in the first half of the bit period and zero value
in the second half.

The binary number 0 is represented by a negative voltage level for half the bit period and zero for
the other half.

Polar RZ signals always revert to zero voltage (or baseline) midway through each bit period,
independent of bit value. This improves synchronisation and reduces issues caused by long
sequences of identical bits, a common concern in non-return-to-zero methods.

Polar NRZ and Polar RZ were separate polar line coding methods. In Polar NRZ, the voltage level
remains constant during the bit period, whether it's 1 or 0. However, Polar RZ voltage returns to
zero halfway through each bit cycle. Consider communication requirements like bandwidth
efficiency and synchronisation while choosing between these systems

3- Polar Biphase,

also known as Manchester encoding, is a line coding scheme commonly employed in digital
communication. Within this scheme, every bit period is split into two equal intervals. In each bit
period, the polarity of the voltage signal switches back and forth, allowing for regular transitions
that help the sender and receiver stay in sync.

When considering Polar Biphase:

Binary 1 is indicated by a change from a positive voltage level to a negative voltage level (or vice
versa) during the bit period. This transition is commonly known as a 'Manchester transition' or
'Manchester violation.'

In binary, a 0 is represented when there is no transition within the bit period, which can happen at
the beginning or end of the period.
Polar Biphase encoding possesses the convenient feature of being self-clocking. This means that the
receiver is able to extract the clock signal directly from the received data stream, thanks to the
guaranteed transition in the middle of each bit period. This property is highly advantageous in
preventing synchronisation errors, making it a popular choice for Ethernet LANs and other digital
communication systems that require precise clock recovery.

 AMI/Pseudoternary Bipolar Schemes:

AMI uses zero voltage for binary 0 and positive and negative voltage for binary 1. AMI's 1s alternate
polarity is unique. Code for "1101" is "+0-+". AMI is used in T1 and E1 lines for data transmission
and synchronisation.

Digital communication systems encode data using pseudoternary line coding. Balanced line codes
ensure equal positive and negative voltage levels. Telecoms and networks utilise this coding strategy
to send binary data over a channel. It reduces errors and ensures data transmission and is
dependable and efficient.

Binary 1 has a continuous zero voltage in pseudoternary, while binary 0 alternates between positive
and negative. AMI has alternating polarities, but Pseudoternary has no voltage change for binary 1s.
This encoding method is used in older telecommunication systems to maintain a balanced
distribution of positive and negative voltage levels for long-distance transmission.

Communication applications often use bipolar systems like AMI and Pseudoternary. These systems
encode binary data with positive, negative, and zero voltage.

 Block Coding
Block coding converts one amount of bits into more. Often used in digital signal encoding.
In mB/nB encoding,'m' represents the number of bits in the original data block and 'n'
represents the encoded block, which is usually larger.
Reason for Block Coding:
Block coding adds signal redundancy, improving signal reliability. Redundancy adds data.
Additional components aid receiver synchronisation, error identification, and correction.

Synchronisation requires transmitter and receiver alignment at the start and end of each
data block. This minimises errors and streamlines data flow. Synchronisation is needed to
decode the signal and recover the data.
Benefits of Block Coding:
Block coding includes redundancy to improve data transmission reliability. Redundancy
detects and fixes transmission problems to maintain data integrity.

Efficient Synchronisation: Redundant bits help sender-receiver synchronisation. Accurate

signal decoding requires correct synchronisation.
 Using block coding 4B/5B with NRZ-I line coding

In digital communication systems, the utilisation of 4B/5B block coding alongside NRZ-I line
coding is a widely employed technique. This approach is particularly prevalent in high-speed
 networks and interfaces like Gigabit Ethernet and Fibre Channel. Now, let's analyse the
meaning behind this combination:
In 4B/5B block coding, groups of 4 bits are assigned to distinct 5-bit code words. There are
additional benefits to using this encoding method compared to regular NRZ encoding. It
helps maintain a balance between 1s and 0s and also offers error detection capabilities. This
scheme enables a wider variety of patterns compared to simple NRZ encoding, which
enhances the reliability of data transmission.
NRZ-I Line Coding: NRZ-I, also known as Non-Return-to-Zero Inverted, is a line coding
technique that utilises transitions to represent binary 1s and the absence of transitions to
represent binary 0s. NRZ-I operates in a self-clocking manner, eliminating the need for an
external clock signal to ensure synchronisation. On the contrary, it utilises the transitions
within the data itself to ensure synchronisation between the sender and receiver.

Block coding converts one amount of bits into more. Often used in digital signal encoding.
In mB/nB encoding,'m' represents the number of bits in the original data block and 'n'
represents the encoded block, which is usually larger.
8B/10B block encoding is a technique used in data transmission to ensure reliable and
efficient communication.
8B/10B is a block encoding scheme commonly utilised in high-speed digital communication
to optimise data transmission and maintain synchronisation and error detection. In this
scheme, 8 bits of data are assigned to distinct 10-bit code words. This mapping ensures a
balanced distribution of 1s and 0s, which facilitates synchronisation and enhances error-
detection capabilities.
 Scrambling
Scrambling is a technique used in data communication to improve the reliability of data transmission
and to ensure that the data can be accurately recovered at the receiving end.

 B8ZS and HDB3 are methods of scrambling data to make sure it's sent in a way that prevents
synchronization and data integrity issues, especially over long-distance communication lines
  Biphase schemes, such as Manchester encoding, are often used for LAN (Local Area Network)
communication due to their advantages in terms of synchronization and low error rates.
 Biphase schemes suitable for LAN but not for Long Distance
 Block Coding + NRZ-I solves synch issue but has DC component.
 Bipolar AMI has a narrow bandwidth (no DC Component) but synch issue (long series of 0s)
 The system needs to insert the required pulses based on the defined scrambling rules.

AMI is used with scrambling.

 In AMI encoding, a 0-bit is represented alternately by a positive voltage (mark) and a negative
voltage (space), while a 1-bit is represented by no voltage change (zero).
 This alternate marking of 0s ensures that there are frequent voltage transitions, which is
important for clock recovery and synchronization.

 Types of Scrambling Techniques

Two common scrambling techniques are B8ZS and HDB3

 Bipolar with 8-Zero Substitution (B8ZS): B8ZS is a specific method of scrambling. When you
have a long string of consecutive zeros in your data, B8ZS replaces these with a special code
to keep the data balanced and maintain timing. This substitution helps ensure that there are
enough transitions in the data to keep everything synchronized during transmission.
 High-density bipolar 3-zero (HDB3): also focuses on keeping the data balanced and ensuring
that there are enough transitions. When there are four consecutive zeros in the data, HDB3
replaces them with a unique pattern to maintain the balance of ones and zeros in the data,
which is crucial for reliable communication over long distances. Different situations in HDB3
scrambling technique.

In HDB3 four consecutive zero-level voltages are replaced with a sequence of 000V or B00V.
 If the number of nonzero pulses after the last substitution is odd, the substitution
pattern will be 000V, which makes the total number of nonzero pulses even.
 If the number of nonzero pulses after the last substitution is even, the substitution
pattern will be B00V, which makes the total number of nonzero pulses even.
 The V in the sequence denotes violation; this is a nonzero voltage that breaks an
AMI rule of encoding.
 The B in the sequence denotes bipolar, which means a nonzero level voltage in
accordance with the AMI rule.
 Analog-to-Digital Conversion
Analog-to-digital Conversion

Analog Data to Digital Data: Analog data to digital data conversion involves sampling the analog
signal, quantizing the sampled values into discrete levels, encoding these values into binary form,
 and then using digital systems to process, store, or transmit the digital representation of the original
analog information.

Process of Digitization: The process of digitization involves converting analog information into
digital data, making it easier to store, process, and transmit.

Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)

Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) is a widely used method for digitally representing analog signals, such
as audio or video, in a format that can be easily processed and transmitted by digital systems.

Delta Modulation (DM)

Delta Modulation (DM) is a simple method used to digitally encode analog signals, typically for voice
or low-quality audio transmission.

Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)

Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) is a widely used method for digitally representing analog signals, such
as audio or video, in a format that can be easily processed and transmitted by digital systems.

 Sampling: The first step in PCM is to take samples of the analog signal at regular intervals
 Quantization: Each of the sampled values is then quantized, which means assigning a numerical
value to represent the amplitude of the sample.
 Encoding: The quantized values are encoded into a digital format, typically using binary code (0s
and 1s).
 Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)- 1

1-Ideal Sampling : Often referred to as Nyquist sampling, is a theoretical concept in signal

processing.According to the Nyquist-Shannon theorem, to accurately represent an analog signal in
digital form, you should sample it at a rate that is at least twice the signal's highest frequency (the
Nyquist rate).
2-Natural Sampling: Also known as impulse or instantaneous sampling, is a practical approach to
capturing analog signals.

In natural sampling, the analog signal is sampled at specific points in time when an impulse or a brief
sampling pulse occurs.

3- Flat-Top Sampling: Flat-top sampling is a modification of natural sampling that helps reduce the
effects of quantization noise in analog-to-digital conversion.

In flat-top sampling, the sampling pulse has a finite duration (flat top) rather than being instantaneous.

Nyquist Sampling Rate

Nyquist's theorem states that to accurately capture an analog signal, the sampling rate should be at
least twice the signal's maximum frequency (Nyquist rate).

Nyquist à fs = 2fh

Sampling Period (Ts):

The analog signal is sampled every Ts s, where Ts is the sample interval or period.

Sampling rate or sampling frequency:

The inverse of the sampling interval is called the sampling rate or sampling frequency and denoted by fs,
where fs = 1/Ts.

Sampling sine wave at three sampling rates:

1- fs = 4f (2 times the Nyquist rate)

Oversampling involves taking more samples of a signal than the minimum required by the Nyquist-
Shannon theorem.

By oversampling, you collect more data points per unit of time, which can improve the accuracy and
reliability of the captured information.

2- fs = 2f (Nyquist rate)

Nyquist's theorem states that to accurately capture an analog signal, the sampling rate should be at
least twice the signal's maximum frequency (Nyquist rate).

3- fs = f (one-half the Nyquist rate)

Under sampling, on the other hand, involves sampling a signal at a rate lower than the Nyquist rate.

Under sampling intentionally captures fewer data points to reduce data volume or handle multiple
signals within a limited bandwidth.

 Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)-2

Quantization & encoding of a sampled signal.
Sampling à Series of pulses with amplitude values between min and max signal amplitude
Infinite set with non-integral values not suitable for encoding
We quantize the sampling output into certain levels based on range of amplitudes and how
much accuracy is needed.
Quantization: After sampling, each of the sampled values is then quantized, which means
assigning a numerical value to represent the amplitude of the sample.
Quantization & encoding of a sampled signal.

 After each sample is quantized and the number of bits per sample is
decided, each sample can be changed to an nb-bit code word. In the
above Figure, A quantization code of 2 is encoded as 010; 5 is
encoded as 101 and so on.
 The number of bits for each sample is determined from the number
of quantization levels.
 If the number of quantization levels is L, the number of bits is nb =
log2 L.
 In the above example L is 8 and nb is therefore 3.
 Bit rate = sampling rate x number of bits per sample = fs x nb
Example:
The human voice normally contains frequencies from 0 to 4000 Hz. So
the sampling rate and bit rate are calculated as follows
  Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)-3
Original Signal Recovery- PCM Decoder

 The recovery of the original signal requires the PCM decoder.

 The decoder first uses circuitry to convert the code words into a pulse that holds the
amplitude until the next pulse.
 After the staircase signal is completed, it is passed through a low-pass filter to
smooth the staircase signal into an analog signal.
 The filter has the same cutoff frequency as the original signal at the sender.
 If the signal has been sampled at (or greater than) the Nyquist sampling rate and if
there are enough quantization levels, the original signal will be recreated.
 The maximum and minimum values of the original signal can be achieved by using
amplification.
  Analog to Digital Conversion
Delta Modulation (DM)

 PCM is a very complex technique.

 Delta modulation is a simpler technique.
 PCM finds the value of the signal amplitude for each sample; DM finds the change from
the previous sample.
 No code words in delta modulation; bits are sent one after another.

Modulator:

The modulator is used at the sender site to create a stream of bits from an analog signal.

Delta δ:

 The process records the small positive or negative changes, called delta δ.
 If the delta is positive, the process records a 1
 If it is negative, the process records a 0.

Staircase:

 The process also needs a base against which the analog signal is compared.
 The modulator builds a second signal that resembles a staircase.
 Finding the change is then reduced to comparing the input signal with the gradually
made staircase signal.

The process of delta modulation

 The modulator, at each sampling interval, compares the value of the analog signal with
the last value of the staircase signal. If the amplitude of the analog signal is larger, the
next bit in the digital data is 1; otherwise, it is 0.
 The output of the comparator, however, also makes the staircase itself. If the next bit is
1, the staircase maker moves the last point of the staircase signal δ up; if the next bit is
0, it moves it δ down.
 Note that we need a delay unit to hold the staircase function for a period between two
comparisons.
  Delta Modulation (DM)
Delta Modulation (DM)

• Delta modulation is a simpler technique.

• DM finds the change from the previous sample.

• No code words in delta modulation; bits are sent one after another.

Delta Modulation Components

 The modulator, at each sampling interval, compares the value of the analog signal with the last
value of the staircase signal.
 If the amplitude of the analog signal is larger, the next bit in the digital data is 1; otherwise, it is
0.
 The output of the comparator, however, also makes the staircase itself.
 If the next bit is 1, the staircase maker moves the last point of the staircase signal δ up.
 If the next bit is 0, it moves it δ down.
 We need a delay unit to hold the staircase function for a period between two comparisons.

Delta De modulation Components

The demodulator takes the digital data and, using the staircase maker and the delay unit, creates
the analog signal.

The created analog signal, however, needs to pass through a low-pass filter for smoothing.

Adaptive DM

A better performance can be achieved if the value of δ is not fixed.

In adaptive delta modulation, the value of δ changes according to the amplitude of the analog
signal.

 Transmission Modes
Wiring: when we are considering the wiring is the data stream.

Data Stream: Do we send 1 bit at a time; or do we group bits into larger groups and, if so, how?

Transmission Modes: Parallel or Serial Transmission

In parallel mode, multiple bits are sent with each clock tick.

In serial mode, 1 bit is sent with each clock tick.

Parallel Transmission

 Binary data (1s ad 0s) organized in groups of ‘n’ bits.

 We send ‘n’ bits at a time instead of just one.
 ‘n’ wires required to send ‘n’ bits at one time.

Parallel Transmission

 Computers produce and consume data in groups of bits. By grouping, we can send data
n bits at a time instead of 1. This is called parallel transmission.
 In parallel transmission, we use n wires to send n bits at one time. That way each bit has
its own wire, and all n bits of one group can be transmitted with each clock tick from
one device to another.
 In the above figure, we can see that how parallel transmission works for n = 8.
  Typically, the eight wires are bundled in a cable with a connector at each end.

Advantage:

Speed: Parallel transmission can increase the transfer speed by a factor of n over serial transmission.

Disadvantage:

Cost: Parallel transmission requires n communication lines (wires in the example) just to transmit the
data stream. It is expensive so parallel transmission is usually limited to short distances.

 Serial Transmission -1

In serial transmission one bit follows another, so we need only one communication channel rather than
n to transmit data between two communicating devices. It also reduces the cost of transmission over
parallel by roughly a factor of n.

Since communication within devices is parallel, conversion devices are needed at the interface between
the sender and the line that is performing parallel-to-serial conversion and between the line and the
receiver which is conducting serial-to-parallel conversion.

Serial transmission occurs in one of three ways: asynchronous, synchronous, and isochronous.

Asynchronous Transmission

In asynchronous transmission, we send 1 start bit (0) at the beginning and 1 or more stop bits (1s) at the
end of each byte.
Asynchronous transmission is so named because the timing of a signal is unimportant. Information is
received and translated by agreed upon patterns. If those patterns are followed, the receiving device can
retrieve the information without regard to the rhythm in which it is sent.

Start Bit: An extra bit is added to the beginning of each byte to alert the receiver to the arrival of a new
group. This bit, usually a 0, is called the start bit.

Stop Bit: To let the receiver know that the byte is finished, 1 or more additional bits are appended to the
end of the byte. These bits, usually 1s, are called stop bits.

By this method, each byte is increased in size to at least 10 bits, of which 8 bits is information and 2 bits
or more are signals to the receiver.

Idle channel: In addition, the transmission of each byte may then be followed by a gap of varying
duration. This gap can be represented either by an idle channel or by a stream of additional stop bits.

 Serial Transmission -2
synchronous Transmission

In synchronous transmission, we send bits one after another without start or stop bits or gaps.
  In the above figure it is showing divisions between bytes, in reality, those divisions do not exist.
 The sender puts its data onto the line as one long string.
 When a sender wants to transmit data in separate bursts, they need to insert a specific
sequence of 0s and 1s, signifying idle periods, in between these segments.
 The receiver counts the bits as they arrive and groups them into 8-bit units.
 In the absence of these idle intervals, as well as start and stop bits, there is no inherent
mechanism to assist the receiving device in adjusting its bit synchronization during the data
transmission process.
 As a result, precise timing becomes essential, as the accuracy of the received information relies
entirely on the receiving device's ability to maintain an accurate bit count as the data is
received.

Isochronous Transmission

 Used to send data in a predictable and timely manner.

 Data is sent at a fixed and constant rate, maintaining a precise timing schedule.
 This method is commonly used for real-time applications, such as audio and video streaming,
where it's crucial to deliver data at a consistent pace to ensure smooth playback or
communication.